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DIALOGUE OF THE BUDDHA AND BRAHMIN (PHILOSOPHICAL ASPECTS OF BUDDHIST PARABLE)

Mingiyan Alexeyevich Lidzhiev1 *, Nadmid Sukhbaatar 2, Dazhzevegiyn Ornokhdelger3, Evgeniy Vladimirovich Bembeev1, 4

1 Kalmyk State University, Elista, Russia 2Mongolian State University of Education, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia 3Khovd State University, Khovd, Mongolia [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

ABSTRACT. The article deals with philosophical aspects of ―The Parable of the Buddha andthe Brahmin‖widely known in the Buddhist world. This parable is a sample of didactic literature. The small-sized text reflects the basic moral and ethical attitudes common to all schools and directions of . The text of the parable was translated into Oirat (Kalmyk) in the mid-to-late 17th century, after the creation of the ―Clear Script‖ writing system. Theidentified records of the translation included in Oirat manuscript collections of Russia, Mongolia and Germany show that it was very popular and widespread. ―The Parable of the Buddha andthe Brahmin‖ is a short text based on a conversation between the Buddha and thebrahmin which provides the main principlesof Buddhist teaching in a succinct form. Brevity and absence of any descriptive characteristics are essential distinctive features of the parable. The central aspect of the Buddhist view, the doctrine of karma, dominates the content of this dialogue.One can be freed from suffering only by one‘s own efforts, by overcoming ignorance. For good deeds comes reward, for evil ones comes punishment. He who commits no sinful acts accumulates no negative karma. Lack of the latter helps get rid of falling into the three lower forms of birth. The faith of the masses in the truth of the Buddha‘s words was undeniable. This unquestioning faith was the guarantee fora good birth in the future. Suchdiscourse was clear and attractive for common believers. Additionally, the article provides a transliteration of the Oirat (Kalmyk) text and an English translation of the parable. KEYWORDS: Buddhism, Buddhist literature, parable, Brahmin, , karma.

1. INTRODUCTION A grand phenomenon named Buddhist literature exists in the world culture for more than two and a half million years. The traditions of this literature are still alive from to Tuva and Kalmykia, from Korea and to Tibet and , from Mongolia to India. This literatureincludes works written in different languages. The phenomenal feature of these works is that they are all common in religious and philosophical world perceptions, however, diverse in cultural variety of the Buddhist teaching. In all the regions of its distribution the ancient world religion was built on pre-existing traditional forms of belief. The unique Buddhist literature emerged at the point where the moral and ethical doctrine of Buddhism met the local religious and cultural traditions (Toporov, 2003) Oirat (Kalmyk) literature is apeculiar type of the Buddhist literature which appeared with the creation of the ―Clear Script‖ alphabet in 1648 (320 years in 1970). A significant part of it was translations of canonical and devotional texts. There also existed a large amount of works belonging to folk Buddhism literature. These works were very popular and widespread due to their way of narration and the fascinating content in which philosophic subtleties of the Buddhist teaching were rendered into direct narrative and didactic guidelines, into specific reliable terms and norms of the practical morality. 

Corresponding Author

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Among the popular samples of the literature of folk Buddhism we should highlight the work which is known by different titles – ―The Parable of the Buddha and the Brahmin‖ (―Бурхнбагшбирмнхойринтууҗ‖), ―The Parable of the Angry Brahmin‖ (―Doqšinbirman-nituuǰi‖). You can also find a title that had the first words of the initial line of the work ―To the Teacher – Mentor, indistinguishable from the Buddha…‖(―Blamaluγā ilγal ügeiBurxanbaqšiyin‖).

2. LIST OF MANUSCRIPTS AND THE HISTORY OF THE TEXT PUBLICATION

The parable was very popular among common believers despite its philosophic content. The text represented a special type of didactic literature which consisted of poetic and prosaic sayings. The famous Kalmyk educator N. Ochirov in the report of his trip to Astrakhan kalmyks in summer 1909, among the manuscripts in ―clear script‖ that he acquired for the library of the Saint Petersburg State University mentions ―The Tale of the Buddha and the Brahmin‖ (Ochirov, 1910). Another evidence of outspread of this parable is the fact that it was included into ―Kalmyk anthologyfor reading in the aimag and in the younger branches of the ulus schools‖. The author of this teaching manual was the teacher in a public school ShurguchiBoldyrev who compiled his own anthology from the most popular texts of Kalmyk literature in the old script. It was ready for publishing in 1905 but due to the historical circumstances of the time it was published in ―clear script‖ only in 1926 in Prague by representatives of the kalmyks abroad (Khonkho, 1927). Nowadays there are four lists of this work in ―clear script‖ in Russian and foreign centers of manuscript storage. One of them is in the academician Ts. Damdynsuren house museum in Ulan-Baator (Mongolia). On the front page there is the title ―The Parable of theAngry Brahmin‖.

243. (220) F5-37 (MN-598) Doqšin birman-ni tuuǰi (p. 1a). The Parable of theAngry Brahmin. Oiratmanuscript, 4 p., 26 х 8, 20 lines, Chinese paper, black ink, wooden pen. (Bilguudey G., Otgonbaatar R., Tsendina. A. 2018, 195)

The second list is also in Mongolia in the library of the Rashigonchelingmonastery, located not far from the Khovd city. Electronic copies of the manuscripts from this monastery can be found on the Digital Library for International Research website.

Barintag-01-11. Doqšinbiriminitouǰiorošibo (p. 1a). The Parable of theAngry Brahmin. Oiratmanuscript, 3 p., 33.8 х 7.9, 20 lines, thick paper, black and red ink, wooden pen. (Doqšinbirimanitouǰiorošibo web)

Two texts are in the collection of Oirat manuscripts of B. Yulga in Saxon State and University Library Dresden(SächsischeLandesbibliothek – Staats - und Universitätsbibliothek Dresden). One of the texts is a manuscript written on a thick green paper. On the front page the couple of words from the initial line of the work are given instead of the title.

Verz. 487. Msc. Dresd. Eb. 405b–m. Buddhalegende (kalm.). Blama-luγā ilγal ügeiBurxanbaqšiyin[p. 1a]. To the Teacher – Mentor, indistinguishable from the Buddha… Oiratmanuscript, 4 p., 22 х 8, 24 lines, thick green Russian paper, ink, pen.

The second list does not have the title.

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Verz. 504-D. Abachrift von Msc. Dresd. Eb. 405b–m. Buddhalegende (kalm.). Blama-luγā ilγal ügeiBurxanbaqšiyin[p. 1a]. To the Teacher – Mentor, indistinguishable from the Buddha… Oiratmanuscript, 4 p., 20 lines, thick green Russian paper, ink, pen.

Part of the Oirat manuscripts from the collection of B. Yulga stored in Dresden are written on green Russian paper and in the same handwriting. All of them are copies of the Kalmyk manuscripts written by the specialist in Tibetan and Mongolian studies J. Jahrig (1747 – 1795). In 1769 he moved from Germany to the Volga River and settled in a German colony Sarepte (near Tsaristin city). During his stay among kalmyks J. Jahrig not only learnt the colloquial Kalmyk language and ―clear script‖ but also started learning Tibetan writing with the help of Kalmyk monks. The knowledge of the Kalmyk language and writing was a good basis for him to be accepted into Academy of Science as a translator. Under the supervision of academician P. S. Pallas, J. Jahrig collected materials about the mode of life of kalmyks, wrote down Kalmyk folk tales, acquired and also made copies of the rare manuscripts. (Ivanov, 2009; Shafranovskaya 1965) All the known texts of ―The Parable of the Buddha and the Brahmin‖ can be divided into two lists – the main and supplemented. The main list includes the text of the parable itself. In the other list the parable is complemented bya supplement in the form of the didactic guidelines taken from different Buddhist works. From the four mentioned above texts, the manuscript F5-37 (MN -598) from the academician Ts. Damdynsuren house museum belongs to the main list. All the rest texts contain supplements. The main part of the text of all the four manuscripts has the same content. All the differences come down to different ways of writing and reshuffling or replacing words in the text. As a rule,such types of discrepancies are brought about by the level of literacy of the person copying the text.

3. RESULTS OF RESEARCH

―The Parable of Buddha and the Brahmin‖ is a short text that is built on a dialogue between the Buddha and the brahmin, the dialogue contains the core of the basic morally ethical doctrines of Buddhism. Despite the fact that the lists of this text were widely spread in Oirat translation, the text is unknown in the old script Mongolian literature. There is no information about the original text in Tibetan language which apparently was the source of the text in question. This parable is well known to Russian specialists in Buddhism but has never been translated into Russian. There is no other text with the same content among known translations of Buddhist parables. A well-known Argentinian writer and philosopher Jorge Luis Borges (1899 – 1986)names two main reasons for the historical durability of Buddhism – toleranceand belief in the Buddha teaching. About the second reason he states that ―being Buddhist does not mean understanding Buddhism, because it takes a couple of minutes to understand; being Buddhist means feeling theFour Noble Truths and the eightfold path‖[Borges 1992, 361]. This statement correlates precisely with the content of the parable in question. Through this externally calm but internally deep in emotions dialogue of two representatives of rivalry religions, readers of the text have the opportunity to realize (‗feel‘ in Borges words) the survival taste of the Buddha teaching. The narrative starts with the traditional for short prayer. Its essence lies in pointing out by the author, translator or copyist of the text a certain object ofveneration. Herewith the form of worship served as a specific classifier of the text. In the texts belonging to the collection of , reverence was given to the Buddha. If the text belonged to philosophic treatise ofAbidharma, then reverence was given to Mandzhushri who in Buddhism is believed to be the patron of knowledge. In the text of the given manuscript reverence is expressed to the Buddha and it is expressed by ―To the footsteps of the Buddha, indistinguishable from the Teacher-mentorI reverently bow!‖ (―Blamaluγā ilγal ügeiburxanbaqšiyinölmidüsüzelünmörgümüi‖). Since the text in question does not belong to canonical texts, this form of reverence is, first of all, a tribute to tradition; secondly, an attempt to give the parable the authority of a canonical text and thirdly – a skilled method used to assert in the mind ofbelievers certain points of the teaching. In this case the form of reverence elevates the Teacher-mentor to the level of perception and worship like the Buddha. Such kind of practice is included to the mandatory themes of the Buddhist instructions.A whole chapter is devoted to this theme in the well-known work of Buddhist teacher-philosopher Gampopa ―The Jewel Ornament of Liberation‖ (Gampopa, 2001, 23-31). The exposition of the text briefly narrates that the Buddha with a monk alms bowl in his hand came for the alms to a house and knocked on the door. The knock was answered by the master of the house – a hot-

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tempered and arrogant brahmin. The author of the text sets up a conflict situation in the exposition of the text. On seeing the Buddha,the brahmin challenges him in a peculiar way by asking difficult questions. However, he uses a word ‗toyin‘ to address the Buddha which is a respectful form of addressing a high rank monk. The Buddha in his turn when addressing brahmin adds a respectful exclamation ―Oh, brahmin‖. In the context of the conflict expected by the readers (listeners1) the first questions of the brahmin sound quite logical.

Toyin, what can hurt deeper than a sharp sword? What can be more poisonous than venom? What can burn stronger than fire? What can be darker than hell?

The Buddha‘s response to the brahmin‘s questions indirectly reveal the reason why the expected by the readers conflict between the Buddha and the brahmin did not occur. Thereby compilers use a specific psychological method when the text makes the readers (listeners) doubt the righteousness of their expectations and turn to the comprehension of the nature of their own thinking.

Oh, brahmin, a rude word hurts deeper than the sharp sword. Unrighteous thinking and malevolent mind can be more poisonous than venom. An anger of a hot-tempered man burns stronger than fire. The mind of a foolish and ignorant person is darker than hell.

The Buddha‘s words reflect the main provisions of his teaching and the principle of causation of all the phenomena of this world. According to this, the cause of all the human sufferings in this world lies in three unaltered constituents of the human nature – ignorance, anger and lust. In the center of the symbolic image of the Buddhist universe in the form of the Sansara Wheel there are three living creatures – a pig (the symbol of ignorance), a snake (thesymbol of anger) and a hen (the symbol of lust) (Pozdneev 1887, 73). The sequence of questions, asked by the brahmin are built in a typical contrast of the good and the bad. If the first questions are about negative nature phenomena in a human, then further are the questions connected with the good attitude of the mind that are nurtured and established in a man by his own efforts.

Toyin, what can be softer than a cotton wool? What can be sweeter than rasayana2? What can be cooler than a shade of a sandal wood? What can be brighter than the sunlight?

Oh, brahmin, a kind word is softer than a cotton wool. A reverent desire to hear the Teaching is sweeter than rasayana. A mind, conquered by Teaching, gives more comfort than a shade of a sandalwood. A wise Teacher-mentor enlightens [the way] brighter than the sunlight.

A consideration should be given to the one important constituent of this work. Not only the Buddha‘s answers but also the brahmin‘s questions contribute to the sequential fixing in the mind of the readers (listeners) of the text relevant moral and ethical guidelines.

Toyin, what cannot be burnt by fire,

1In the literary tradition of the oirats (kalmyks) written manuscripts were mostly not read but listened. There were tworeasons for that: firstly, reading of the sacred textsespecially for the purpose of educating other people was a good deed which contributes to the accumulation of karma. Secondly, literacy was not available to the general population. 2 Rasayana (:rasāyana,Tibetan:bcud len / bdud rtsi,Oirat:aršān) — sacred beverage of the heavenly people.

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dissolved by water or stolen by a thief? What cannot be taken away by force By a powerful man or even an enemy?

Oh, brahmin, the results of committed good and sinful deeds Cannot be burnt by fire, dissolved by water, stolen by a thief, Taken away by force by a powerful man or even an enemy. In this and future births results of these two deeds Will always follow you like a shadow.

In his answers the Buddha reveals in a succinct way the essence of his teaching about the . The nature of this world is suffering, the viable way to get rid of sufferings is to follow his teaching. Herewith the Buddha openly states that practicing his teaching is the heaviest load of sansara.

Toyin, which disease is the most severe? Which allegation is the most serious? Which load is the heaviest? Which doctor is the best?

Oh, brahmin, there is no disease more severe than sins. There is no allegation more serious than words defaming the Buddha. There is no load heavier than being a true believer. There is no doctor better than the Buddha.

A general conclusion that could be drawn by the readers (listeners) of these guidelines was in the necessity of the deliberate choice of his/her ownfate based on the universal law of retribution. The one who does not commit sinful deeds can escape falling into the inferior form of birth. Good deeds guarantee a happy lot, vices bring about immeasurable sufferings. The parable ends with the maxim thatthe brahmin shocked by the answers uttered from the Buddha‘s mouth, followed him and soon achieved holiness of arhat3.

4. CONCLUSION Thus, in this small by the volume but deep in the content dialogue between the Buddha and the brahmin unfolds the stable core of the Buddhist teaching, general values for all schools and directions of Buddhism. The fundamental law of the Buddhist teaching about karma and casually dependent origin of all the phenomena is introducedin a succinct way, without ambiguous descriptive characteristics. Religiousness of common lay people was based on the unquestionable faith in the truth of the Buddha‘s words and was undeniable. This unquestionable faith served as a pledge which guaranteed them good form of birth in the future. This precisely aspect attracted the common people to the parable. As the supplement to this article we publish transliteration and, for the first time ever,an English translation of the Oirat script of this parable. The transliteration of the text is done from the manuscript F5-37 (MN-598) from the academician Ts. Damdynsurenhouse museum.

TRANSLITERATION4

[1a]Doqšin birman-ni tuuǰi: [1b]Blama luγā ilaγal ügei Burxan baqšiyin ölmi-dü süzülün mürgümüi: Uridu ni=gen caq-tu Burxān ba=dir bārǰi nigen geriyin öüden-dü kürün duldui küdöl=güküi=dü tere geriyin ezen buruu nomtoi doqšin aburitai:: yeke omoqtoi bir= [2a] man γarči irīd eyin ögüülebe: toyin yambar youman xurca ildü-ē=ce neng oqtolxu: yambar youman xoron-ē=ce neng γutāxu: yambar youman γal-ēce neng tü=lekü: yambar youman

3Arhat (Sanskrit:arhant,Tibetan:dgra-bcom-pa, Oirat:dayinidaruqsani) – literally ‗a conquerer‘. In Makhayana Buddhism one of the stages in achieving enlightenment. 4In the transliteration we use the following symbols: equal sign = is used in the place of transfer of the part of the word to the following line in the manuscript; square brackets [] contain words restored by the other scripts.

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tamu-ēce neng xarangγui:: kemēn asaqba: toyin ögüülebe: ā birman šürüün xatou mou üge [2b] xurca ildü-ēce neng oq=tolxu buruu üzel kigēd xor=tu sedkil xoron-ēce neng γutāxu: ötör ourlaqči: doqšin kümün-ni urin γal- ē=ce neng tülekü: mungxaq zö=nöq uxān ügei kümün tamuēce xarangγui: bui ke=mēn ögüülebe: birman asaq=ba: toyin yambar youman mindusun-ēce ǰȫlön: yambar youman aršān-ēce am=tatai: yambar youman zandan modun-ēce seriün: yambar youman narani gerel-ēce gerel=tei: kemēn asaqba: toyin ögüülebe: ā birman ǰȫlön sayin ügei mindasun-ēce ǰȫlön: maši süzülün sonos= [3a] xu sayin sedkil aršān-ēce amtatai: amurliqsan sayin sedkil zandan-ēce seriün: tögüs erdemtei surγān či=daqči blama baqši narani gerel-ēce gereltei bui kemēn ögüülebe: birman asaqba: toyin yambar youman γal-du ülü tülekü usundu ülü urusxu: xulaγai ülü ab=xu: ezed erketen küčü-bēr ülü abxu: dayisun abun ü=lü čidaxu kemēnasaqba: to=yin ögüülebe: ā birman a=liba üyiledüqsen sayin mou üyileyin ači üre γaldu ülü tülekü: usun-du ülü urusxu: xulaγai ülü ab=xu: erketen ezēd küčü-bēr ülü abxu dayisun čü abun [3b] ülü čidaxu ene xoyitu xoyor-tu ene xoyor üyile beyeyin süüder metü xoyino-ēce daxān odxu bui kemēn ögüülebe: birman asaqba: toyin ene γazar delekeyigi kēn ezelen barixu: youn-du šütün axu: kēn ebdükü: ken u=rbuulxu: kemēn asaqba: toyin ögüülebe: ā birman ene γazar delekei-gi möngkü-bēr bariqči mungxaq: ezelen ba=rixu šütün barilduqsan-ēce bütün: tede möngkü ügeyin tula ebderekü urbuxu bui:: kemēn ögüülebe: bir=man asaqba: toyin öqli=güdü ali öqligü dēdü: [buyan-du ali buyan dēdü:] mör-tü ali mör dēdü: amu=γoulang-du ali amuγou= [4a] lang dēdü: kemēn asaqba: toyin ögüülebe ā birman öqligüdü nomiyin öqligü-ēce dēdü ügei: buyan-du amitan-ni tusa üyiledküi- ēce dēdü ügei: mör-tü ar=ban züyil sayin yabudal-ēce dēdü ügei: amuγoulang-du burxani oron-du töröqsön- ēce dēdü amuγoulang ügei bui kemēn ögüülebe: birman asaq=ba: toyin ebečin-dü ali e=bečin kündü: gemšildü ali gemšil kündü: acān-du ali acān kündü: emčidü ali emči dē=dü kemēn asaqba: toyin ö=güülebe: ā birman nüül kilin=ce-ēce kündü ebečin ügei:dēdü [orod kigēd] küčitündu mou üge [4b] ögüüleküi-ēce kündü gemšil ügei: süzüqteini ed edleküi-ēce kündü acān ügei: burxān-ēce dēdü emči ügei kemēn ögüüleleqsen-dü tere birmani=ni sedkil uyaran nomoγo=roǰi maši bayasun [toyin bolun] darui=du dayini daruqsani xutuq olboi:

ENGLISH TRANSLATION5 [1a] Parable of an Angry Brahmin

[1b] To the footsteps of Buddha, indistinguishable from the Teacher-mentor, I reverently bow! Back in the day, the Buddha with patra6 in his hand came to a house and knocked on the door with a [monk] staff7. [The knock] was answered by the master of the house - a hot-tempered arrogant brahmin [2a] and the brahmin asked: Toyin, what can hurt deeper than a sharp sword? What can be more poisonous than venom? What can burn stronger than fire? What can be darker than hell? Toyin answered: Oh, brahman, a rude word [2b] hurts deeper than the sharp sword. Unrighteous thinking and malevolent mind can be more poisonous thanvenom. An anger of a hot-tempered man burns stronger than fire. The mind of a foolish and ignorant person is darker than hell. Brahmin asked: Toyin, what can be softer than cotton wool? What can be sweeter than rasayana? What can be cooler than a shade of a sandalwood? What can be brighter than the sunlight?

Toyin answered: Oh, brahman, a kind word is softer than a cotton wool.

5In the English translation square brackets [] contain additional words that were used for translation but do not exist in the original text. 6Patra (Sanskrit: pātra,Tibetan: lhungbzed,Oirat. badir) –a monk alms bowl 7Duldu (Sanskrit:khakkhara,Tibetan:'khar gsil / 'khar rgyug, Oirat:duldui) – a monk staff with twelve iron rings which symbolize links of casually dependent existence.

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A reverent desire to hear [3a] the Teaching is sweeter than rasayana. A mind, conquered by Teaching, gives more comfort than a shade of a sandalwood A wise Teacher-mentor enlightens [the way] brighter than the sunlight.

Brahmin asked: Toyin, what cannot be burnt by fire, dissolved by water or stolen by a thief? What cannot be taken away by force By a powerful man or even an enemy?

Toyin answered: Oh, brahmin, the results of the committed good and sinful deeds Cannot be burnt by fire, dissolved by water, stolen by a thief, Taken away by force [3b]by a powerful manor even an enemy. In this and future [lives] the results of these two deeds Will always follow you like a shadow.

Brahmin asked: Toyin, who will rule this world? What will people believe in? What will collapse, What will change?

Toyin answered: Oh, brahmin, this world will be ruled by ignorance. Everything that appeared as the result of casual connection will not last long, That is why everything will collapse and change.

Brahmin asked: Toyin, which is the highest? Which deed is the best? Which path is genuine? Which prosperity is supreme?

Toyin answered: Oh, brahman, there is no offering higher than the offering of the Teacher. There is no deed better than the deed for the good of living beings. There is no path more genuine than the path of ten good deeds8. There is no prosperitymore supreme than birth in the country of Buddhas.

Brahminasked: Toyin, which disease is the most severe? Which allegation is the most serious? Which load is the heaviest? Which doctor is the best?

Toyin answered: Oh, brahman, there is no disease more severe than sins. There is no allegation more serious than words defaming the Buddha. There is no load heavier than being a true believer. There is no doctor better than the Buddha.

8Ten good deeds (Sanskrit:daśakuśalāni,Tibetan:dge-babcu, Oirat:arbancaγānyabudal) – three good deeds of the body (abdication from living beings‘ life deprivation, theft, adultery); three good deeds of speech (abdication from lying, rudeness, idle talk); four good deeds of mind (abdication from jealousy, greed, pride and heresy).

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Brahmin was touched by the words he heard, he found consolation,was rejoiced, became toyin and soon achieved the holiness of .

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. The article was written with funding from the Kalmyk State University as part of the project«Oirat writing «TodoBichg»: records, research»

REFERENCES

[1] G. Bilguudey, R. Otgonbaatar and A. Tsendina, ―Damdynsuregiingermyzeinmongol nom sudrynbyrtgel‖, Institute of language and literature Mongolian Academy of Sciences, Ulaanbaatar, (2018). [2] H. L. Borges, Editor I. P. Petrovsky, ―Pismenaboga‖, Respublika, Moscow, (1992). [3] Gampopa, ―Dragotsennoe ukrashenie Osvobozhdeniya. Ispolnyayuschaya zhelaniya dragotsennost‘ istinnogo uchenia‖. Translation from Tibetan B. Yerokhin. Cultural center ―Uddiyana‖, Saint-Petersburg, (2001). [4] D. V. Ivanov, ―Buddistskiye kollektsii Kunstkamery XIII veka‖. Collection of the Museum of Anthropology and Ethnography, Vol. 55 East Asia: Things, history of collections, texts. Saint-Petersburg, (2009). [5] Khonkho,―Kalmytskaya khrestomatiya dlya chteniya v aimachnykh I v mladshykh otdeleniyakh shkol‖ [Kalmyk anthology for reading in the aimag and in the younger branches of the ulus schools] The Compiler Sh. Boldyrev,Iss. III.The publication of the Commission of the Kalmyk cultural workers in the Czechoslovak Republic, Prague, (1927). [6] N. Ochirov, ―N. Ochirov‘s report of the trip to Astrakhan Kalmyks in the summer of 1909‖, Proceedings of the Russian Committee for the study of Central and East Asia, Saint-Petersburg, March, (1910). [7] A. M. Pozdneev,―Ocherki byta buddistskikh monastyrey I buddistskogo dukhovenstva v Mongolii v svyazi s otnosheniyem sego poslednego k narodu‖, Imperial Academy of Sciences printing house, Saint-Petersburg, (1887). [8] T. K. Shafranovskaya,―Mongolist XVIII veka IogannYering‖ [18th century explorer of Mongolia Johann Jährig] Countries and peoples of the East, Iss. IV, Moscow, (1965), pp. 155–163. [9] V. N. Toporov, ―Dkhammapada‖ I buddistskaya literature [ and Buddhist literature], Dhammapada. Soglasie, Novosibirsk, (2003), pp. 5–60. [10] 320 years 1970 – 320 let starokalmytskoi pismennosti [320 years of old Kalmyk writing.], Proceedings of the scientific session, Kalmyk book publishing house, Elista, (1970). [11] The tale of the angry Brahman // http://www.dlir.org/archive/orc-exhibit/items/browse/collection/7/page/2

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