40235_Index_1-9 7/20/01 5:15 PM Page 1
INDEX
A orbital, 1067 periodic, 1083–1086 Betatron, 786 Absorption, photon, 1093 spin, 1070–1071 rules of, 1082–1083 Big bang cosmology Accelerator(s) and uncertainty principle, subshell states of, 1071 age determination of universe in, cyclotron, 731–733 1068–1069 x-ray spectrum of, 1079–1081 1192–1194 electrostatic, 651–652 Angular momentum quantum Atomic magnetism, 805–806, expansion of universe in, Acceptor atom, 1113 number, 1067 1086–1087 1186–1187 Actinides, 1083 Anisotropic materials, optically, and atomic radiation, heavy element formation in, Action at a distance, 588 1004 1090–1092 1191–1192 Adiabatic demagnetization, 809 Annihilation, 1188 Atomic mass unit, energy nucleosynthesis in, 1190–1191 Airy disk, 970 Antenna, 866 equivalent of, 1133 particle interactions in, Alpha decay, 1136–1138 Anticoincidence(s), 1023 Atomic number, 570, 602, 603, 1187–1190 Alternating current (AC), Anticoincidence apparatus, 1131. See also Quantum Binding energy, 637, 1133–1134 782–783, 845–846 1023–1024 number(s) Binding energy curve, 1133–1134 transformers of, 852–854 Antineutrino, 1138–1139, and order of elements, Binnig, Gerd, 1047, 1048 and voltages, phase and 1176–1177 1081–1082 Bioluminescence, 886 amplitude relations for, Antineutron, 1178 origin of concept of, 1081 Biot-Savart law, 753 848t Antiparticles, 570 and periodicity of elements, applications of, 753–755 Alternating current circuit Antiproton, 1178 1083–1086 Birefringence, 1005–1006 capacitive element of, 847–848 Atom(s), 1062 Atomic radiation, 1090–1092 Bloch, Felix, 1089 inductive element of, 846–847 acceptor, 1113 Atomic structure, 1062–1063 Bohr, Niels, 1063, 1129 power factor of, 852 angular momentum and rules of, 1082–1083 correspondence principle of, power in, 851–852 magnetism in, Aurora borealis, 812f 1064 resistive element of, 846 1086–1087 Autotransformer, 858 (exercise 30) postulates of, 1063 single-loop, 848–851 angular momentum of electrons theory of hydrogen atom, 747 Alternator, automobile, 783 in, 1066–1067 B (problem 10), Ammeter, principle of analog, Bohr’s model of, 1063–1065 Babinet’s principle, 979 (problem 1063–1065 738–740 donor, 1112 2) theory of nuclear fission, ampere (unit), 664 excited states of, 1064, Bainbridge’s mass spectrometer, 1155–1156 force between parallel currents, 1069–1072 746 (problem 5) Bohr frequency condition, in definition of, 758 and optical transitions, Balmer series, 1063 1063–1064 Ampère’s law, 760–761 1085–1086 Bandwidth, 1042 Bohr magneton, 1086, 1134 Ampèrian loop, 760–761 fineCOPYRIGHTED structure of spectral lines of, Bardeen, MATERIAL John, 1119, 1121 Bohr model Amplitude reflection coefficient, 1090–1092 Bardeen-Cooper-Schrieffer theory, of hydrogen atom, 1063–1065 952 ground state of, 1065–1066 1121 and x-ray frequencies, Amplitude transmission ionization energy of, 1085 Barkla, Charles, 1010 1081–1082 coefficient, 952 line spectrum of, 1063 Barrier penetration, 899 Bohr radius, 1062 Analyzer, 1001–1003 magnetism of, 1086–1087 Barrier tunneling, 1046–1049 Born, Max, 1044 Angle(s) and atomic radiation, examples of, 1047–1048 Bottom quark, 1184 of incidence, 890 1090–1092 transmission coefficient in, 1047 Boundary condition, 1056 of minimum deviation, 893 nuclear model of, 602–603 Baryon(s), 1178 Bradley, James, 887–888, 909 of reflection, 890, 894 nucleus of. See Nucleus Baryon number, conservation of, (problem 1) of refraction, 890, 895–896 photon bombardment of, 1180 Bragg, W. L., 991 Angular magnification, 928 1026–1028 Batteries, 703–704 Bragg’s law, 990–992 Angular momentum quantum numbers of, BCS theory, 1121 Brattain, Walter, 1119 of electrons in atoms, 1067–1071 Beam expanders, 938 (problem 9) Breakdown, 662, 671 1066–1067 shell states of, 1071 Beam splitter, 953, 1023 Bremsstrahlung, 1080 of nucleus, 1134–1135 structure of, 1062–1063 Beta decay, 1138–1139 Brewster, David, 1004
I-1 40235_Index_1-9 7/20/01 5:15 PM Page 2
I-2 Index
Brewster’s angle, 1003 density of occupied states of, Curie, Jacques, 1048 combined with double-slit Brewster’s law, 1004 1106–1108 Curie, Pierre, 1048 interference, 971–975 in metals, 1104–1105, discovery of relation between Fraunhofer, 965 C 1108–1109 magnetism and Fresnel, 965 Capacitance, 679–681 probability function of, temperature, 809 multiple slit, 981–982. See also calculating, 681–683 1105–1108 curie (unit), 1139–1140 Diffraction grating(s) as constant of proportionality, Conductivity, 666 Curie constant, 809 single-slit, 965–967 680 unit of, 666 Curie temperature, 810 intensity in, 967–970 equivalent, 683 Conductors, 571–572, 661–662 Curie’s law, 809 vs interference, 973 unit of, 680 in an electric field Current and wave theory of light, Capacitive reactance, 848 in dynamic conditions, displacement, 863–864 963–965 Capacitive time constant, 663–666 electric. See Electric current Diffraction grating(s), 981–982, 714–715 in static conditions, 662–663 Current density, 664 985–986 Capacitor(s), 679 band structure of, 1111 and drift speed, 664–665 blazed, 985 charging, 714–715 charged, electric potential of, Cutoff frequency, 1020 crystalline structure as, cylindrical, 682–683 649–650 Cyclotron, 731–733 988–992. See also x-ray with dielectric, 687–690 electric field outside, 622–624 resonance condition in, 732 diffraction discharging, 715–716 and Gauss’ law, 621–624 Cyclotron frequency, 731 dispersion of, 986–987 in parallel, 683–684 Conservation laws, of particle Cylindrical capacitor, 682–683 intensity of lines, and slit parallel plate, 681–682 physics, 1179–1181 diffraction in series, 684 Conservation of electric charge, D characteristics, 990 spherical, 682 580, 702–703 Dark matter, 1194 making, 985 Carbon cycle, 1172 (problem 6) Conservation of energy, in Davisson, C. J., 1036 resolving power of, 987–988 Carnal, O., 1039 electrostatics, 637–638 de Broglie, Louis-Victor, 1035 secondary maxima of, 984 Cavity oscillations, 865–866 Constructive interference, de Broglie wavelength, 1035 width of maxima using, Cavity radiation, 1017 941–942 de Broglie’s hypothesis, testing, 982–983 CDF detector system, 1174 Contracted length, 764 1036–1038 Diffraction patterns, 963–964. See CERN (European Center for Cooper, Leon N., 1121 Davisson-Germer experiment in, also Diffraction Nuclear Physics), Cooper pairs, 1121 1036–1037 grating(s); Spectra particle physics research Corner reflector, 892 diffraction experiment in, 1037 Diffuse reflection, 891 at, 1175 Corona discharge, 650 double-slit interference Diffusion current, 1114 Cesium fountain clock, technology Correspondence principle, 1058, experiment in, Diode lasers, 1118–1119 of, 1027 1064 1037–1038 Diode rectifier, 1116–1117 Chadwick, James, 1154 Cosmic microwave background Thomson experiment in, 1036 Dipole Charge. See Electric charge radiation, 1186–1187 Tonomura experiment in, electric, 591 Charge density, 576 Cosmology, 1173, 1186 1037–1038 in electric field, 600–602 Charged particles big bang, 1187–1190 de Haas, W. J., 1086–1087 electric field of, 591–592 circulating, 731–734 age determination of universe Debye-Scherrer experimental field lines of, 596–597, 596f magnetism and moving, in, 1192–1194 arrangement, 995 potential due to, 643–644 726–727, 749–752. See expansion of universe in, (question 23) magnetic, 755, 801–803 also Magnetic field(s) 1186–1187 Delayed-choice experiments, in nonuniform field, 1088–1089 moving, magnetic force on, heavy element formation in, 1025–1026 Dipole antenna, 866–867 727–731. See also 1191–1192 Density of states, 1105 Dipole moment Magnetic field(s) nucleosynthesis in, Depletion zone, 1115 electric, 591 Charm quark, 1184 1190–1191 Destructive interference, 941–942 induced, 672 Chemiluminescence, 886 particle interactions in, Deuterium nuclei. See magnetic, 755 Chromatic aberration, 892, 930 1187–1190 Deuteron(s) Dirac, Paul, 815 Chu, Steven, 1027 Coulomb, Charles A., 573 Deuterium-tritium fuel pellets, Direct current (DC) circuits, Circuits. See Electric circuit(s) coulomb (unit), 569 1166 701–724 Circularly polarized wave, 1006 derivation of, 569–570 Deuteron(s) Disk of charge, uniform Cohen-Tannoudji, Claude, 1027 Coulomb constant, 573–574 binding energy of, 1133–1134 electric field of, 593–594 Coherent interference, 944–946 Coulomb’s law, 573–574 formation of electric potential of, 645–646 Coherent waves, 942 experimental tests of, 624–625 in big bang nucleosynthesis, force on point charge, 578–579 Comet tail formation, 873–874 vector form of, 574–576 1190–1191 Dispersion Complex conjugate, 1044 vs. Gauss’ law, 611–612 in Sun, 1162–1163 by grating, 986–987 Complex quantity, 1044 Critical angle, 897 fusion of, 580, 1164 of light, 889, 891 Compound microscope, 929 Critical temperature, 1120 Deuteron-deuteron reaction, 1164 Displacement current, 863–864 Compton, Arthur Holly, 1021 Crystalline structure Deuteron-triton reaction, 1164 Dissociation energy, 637 Compton effect, 1021–1023 Bragg’s law and x-ray Diamagnetism, 806, 809–810 Distortion parameter, 1156 Compton shift, 1021–1022 diffraction by, 990–992 Dichroic materials, 1005 Donor atom, 1112 Conduction band, 1111 cubic symmetry of, 989–990 Dielectric constant, 671 Doped semiconductors, Conduction electrons, 571, 668, as diffraction grating, 988–989 Dielectric materials, 671–672 1112–1114 1103–1104. See also doubly refractive, 1005–1006 in capacitors, 687–690 Doppler effect Semiconductors; principal indices of refraction of, and Gauss’ law, 688–690 experimental test of, 899–900 Superconductors 1005–1006 Dielectric strengths, 671 in light waves, 899–902 bands and gaps in energy states unit cell of, 990 Diffraction, 963 relativistic, 899–900 of, 1109–1111 Cubic symmetry, 989–990 at circular aperture, 970–971 derivation of, 900–901 40235_Index_1-9 7/20/01 5:15 PM Page 3
Index I-3
transverse, 901–902 quantization of, 570 Electric dipole, 591–592. See also Electromagnetic cavity oscillator, Double refraction, 1005–1006 on surfaces of conductor, Dipole 865–866 Double scattering experiment, 621–622 in electric field, 600–602 Electromagnetic force, 1174 1009–1010 unit of measurement of, 569 potential energy of, 601 Electromagnetic oscillations Double-slit interference, 942–944 Electric circuit(s) torque on, 600 damped and forced, 833–835 diffraction combined with, alternating current, 845–859. field lines of, 596–597, 596f forced, and resonance, 834–835 971–975 See also Alternating potential due to, 643–644 qualitative properties of, intensity in, 946–948 current circuit Electric dipole moment, 591 830–832 maxima in, 943 analysis of, 704–709 Electric dipole radiation, 867 quantitative properties of, minima in, 943 current direction in, 705 Electric field, 588 832–833 wave disturbances in, adding, direct current (DC), 701 calculation of, 589 Electromagnetic oscillator, 830 947–948 electric current in, 701–702 from electric potential, Electromagnetic radiation, 886 Young’s experiment in, 944 electromotive force in, 703–704 646–648 and Compton effect, 1021–1023 Drift current, 1115 internal resistance of, in circuits, 709–710 and photoelectric effect, Drift speed 706–709 combined magnetic and, 1019–1021 and current density, 664–666 energy transfers in, 713 730–731 as thermal radiation, 1016–1019 fields in, 709–710 conductors in Electromagnetic spectrum, E inductors in, 826–827 in dynamic conditions, 883–886 e-ray, 1005 internal resistance of 663–666 gamma ray region of, 885–886 Earth electromotive force in, in static conditions, 662–663 infrared region of, 884 geologic record of magnetic 706–709 of dipole, 591–592 microwave region of, 884 field of, 812–813 junction rule for analyzing, dipole in, 600–602 radio wave region of, 884 magnetic field of, 725–727, 702–703 electric potential calculated ultraviolet region of, 884–885 811–813 LC, 830–833 from, 640–641 visible region of, 883–884 Van Allen radiation belts of, 733 damped and forced energy storage in, 685–687 x ray region of, 885 Eddy currents, 780–781 oscillations in, 833–835 examples of, 589 Electromagnetic theory, Einstein, Albert loop rule for analyzing, 705 flux of, 613–616 development of, 568, 568f analysis of photoelectric effect LR, 826–827 force on point charge, 589 Electromagnetic waves by, 1020–1021 parallel connection of, 703 induced, 783–786. See also energy transport by, 870–872 and concept of stimulated potential difference method of Magnetic flux generation of, 866–868 emission of light, analyzing, 705 insulators in, 670–672 intensity of, 871–872 1093–1094 potential, differences in, 706 lines of, 595–597. See also Maxwell equations and, on electrodynamics of moving path independence of, 706 Electric field lines 868–870 bodies, 765 RC, 713–716 nonuniform, motion in, polarization of, 999–1013. See experiment with de Haas, RLC, 834–835, 848–851 599–600 also Polarization 1086–1087 Electric constant, 573 outside conductor, 622–624 pressure exerted by, 872–874 proof of speed of light Electric current, 663, 701–703 point charge in, 597–598 reflection and refraction of, hypothesis by, 954–955 definition of, 664 of point charges, 590–592 891–892 quantum (photon) theory of light density of, 664 scattering of particles by, traveling, 868–870 of, 1016, 1018 and drift speed, 664–666 602–603 Electromagnetism, 567–568 Einstein-de Haas experiment, direction of, 702 sources and sinks of, 613 displacement current in, 1086–1087 effect of magnetic field on, Electric field lines, 595–597 863–864 Einstein’s photoelectric equation, 736–740 conventional representation of, and frames of reference, 1020–1021 in loop, 738–740 595–597 764–765 Electric charge, 568 in straight wire, 736–738 of equipotential surfaces, Maxwell equations of, 568, 815, charging by contact, 572 and heat flow, analogy of, 648–649 861–864. See also charging by induction, 572 667–668 flux and, 615–616 Maxwell equations conservation of, 580, 702–703 induced. See also Electromotive near conductor, 662–663 Lorentz transformation continuous distributions of, force; Magnetic flux properties of, 595 invariance of, 765, 788 576–580 eddy currents, 780–782 Electric flux, 613–616 special relativity and, electric field of, 592–595 Faraday’s law and, 776–779 Electric forces, 569, 574–576 764–765 electric potential of, 644–646 Joule heating by, 780 Electric motor Electromotive force, 703–704 density of, 576–577 Lenz’ law and, 777–778 basic elements of, 783 induced, 776–777 elementary, 570 magnetic field of, 752–755 principle of, 738–740 electric fields of, 783–786 and fluid flow, analogy of, 681 in loop, 754–755 Electric potential, 639–640 motional, 780–782 forces of, 569, 574–576 in parallel, 756–758 calculation of, from electric potential difference and, moving in solenoid, 758–760, field, 640–641 784–785 magnetic field of, 749–752. 762–764 of charged conductors, 649–650 practical applications of, See also Magnetic in straight wire, 753–754, electric field calculated from, 782–783 field(s) 761–762 646–648 internal resistance of, 706–709 magnetic force on, 727–731 in toroid, 763 Electric potential energy, 636–639 reversibility of, 704 magnetism and, 726–727 SI unit of, 664 of capacitor, 685–687 Electron(s) net, 569 transient behavior of, 702 Electric quadrupole, 592, 606 angular momentum of, point, 573. See also Point Electric current loop (exercise 11), 609 1066–1067 charge(s) magnetic dipole moment of, (problem 4) of atomic hydrogen, polarization of, 571–572 802 potential due to, 644 1063–1072. See also positive and negative, 569 magnetic field of, 803 Electric quadrupole moment, 644 Hydrogen, atomic 40235_Index_1-9 7/20/01 5:15 PM Page 4
I-4 Index
Electron(s) (Continued) Electroweak force, 568, 1175 Fermi energy, 1106 reactions in, 1164 bound, 1055 Elementary charge, 570 Fermi level, 1106 inertial confinement of, conduction, 571, 1103–1104. measuring, 598–599 Fermi National Accelerator 1166–1167 See also Semiconductors; Elements. See also Nuclide(s) Laboratory, particle magnetic confinement of, Superconductors electron configuration of, physics discoveries at, 1164–1166 bands and gaps in energy 1083–1085 1184 requirements for, 1164 states of, 1109–1111 order of, and atomic number, Fermi speed, 1108–1109 tokamak, 1164–1166 density of occupied states of, 1081–1082 Fermilab, 1184 toroidal field of, 1164–1166 1106–1108 periodic table of, 1083–1086 Ferroelectric materials, 661–662 in metals, 1104–1105, Equipotential surfaces, 648–649 Ferromagnetism, 806, 810–811 G 1108–1109 Equipotentials, near conductor, Fiber optical devices, 897–898 Gabor, Dennis, 992 probability function of, 662–663 Field(s), types of, 587–588 Gähler, R., 1038 1105–1108 Esaki, Leo, 1047 Field-effect transistors, 1119–1120 Galilei, Galileo, and discussion of configuration of, in elements, Ether hypothesis, 954–955 Field lines. See Electric field lines speed of light, 887 1083–1085. See also European Center for Nuclear Field particles, 1178–1179 Galvanometer, rudiments of, Periodic table Physics (CERN), particle Fine structure, 1090–1091 740 core, 1110 physics research at, 1175 and Zeeman effect, 1091–1092 Gamma rays, 885–886 density of occupied states of, Exchange forces, 1179 Fission, nuclear, 1134. See also Gauss, Karl Friedrich, 616n 1106–1108 Excited state, 1057 Nuclear fission Gauss’ law, 616 and electric charge, 568–570. Expansion in multipoles, 644 Fission fragments, 1154–1155 application(s) of, 617–621 See also Electric charge Extraordinary ray, 1005 Fizeau, Hippolyte Louis, 888 to line of charge, 617–618 energy states of, 1055–1061 Fizeau’s apparatus, for measuring to sheet of charge, 618 bands and gaps in, F speed of light, 888 to spherical shell of charge, 1109–1111 farad (unit), 680, 775 Fluorescence, 886 618–619 Fermi speed of, 1108–1109 Faraday, Michael Flux, 612 to spherically symmetric in finite potential well, capacitance concept introduced electric, 613–616 charge distribution, 1060–1062 by, 680 magnetic, 776–777 619–620 energy levels of, 1060–1061 discovery of diamagnetism by, right-hand rule for sign of, 869 and conductors, 621–624 probability densities for, 809 Flux linkages, 824 and Coulomb’s law, 617 1061–1062 discovery of law of induction by, Focal length, 918 and dielectric materials, free, 1055 775–776 Focal point 688–690 in infinite potential well, electric field concept introduced of lens, 924–925 experimental tests of, 624–625 1056–1060 by, 595 of mirror, 918 and flux of electric field through energy level of, 1056–1057 and experimentation with Force(s) closed surface, 613 probability densities for, electric charge, 625 basic, four, 1173–1175 for magnetism, 814–815 1057–1058 and ideas on light spectra in of electric charges, 569, and net flux through closed wave numbers of, 1057–1058 magnetic field, 1091 574–576 surface, 612 in metals, 1104–1105, investigation of dielectric electromagnetic, 1174 vs. Coulomb’s law, 611–612 1108–1109 materials in capacitors electroweak, 1175 Gaussian surface, 616 and photoelectric effect, by, 687 exchange, 1179 and application of Gauss’ law, 1019–1023 Faraday’s law, of induction, gravitational, 1173–1174 617 probability function of, 776–777 strong, 1132, 1174–1175 Geiger, Hans, 1129 1105–1108 and direction of electric current, unification of, 1175–1176 Geiger counter, 632 (problem 10) quantized energy of, 1056. See 778–779 weak, 1174 Gell-Mann, Murray, 1182 also Quantum induced electric fields and, Frames of reference. See Reference Generator mechanics; Quantum 783–786 frame(s) basic elements of, 782–783 number(s) in inertial reference frames, Franklin, Benjamin impedance of, 854 wave-like behavior of, 786–788 experiments of, with electric Geometrical optics, 914. See also 1035–1038 practical applications of, charge, 624 Image formation wave nature of single, 782–783 positive/negative labeling of Gerlach, Walther, 1087 1040–1041 right-hand rule application in, electric charge by, 568n Germer, L. H., 1036 wave numbers of, 1057–1058 778–779 Fraunhofer diffraction, 965 Giaver, Ivar, 1047 Electron capture, 1077 (problem Farsightedness, 937 (exercise 40) Free charge, 689 Gilbert, William, 811 10), 1138 femtometer (unit), 1132 Free-electron model, of electron Glashow, Sheldon, 1175 Electron gas, 668 Fermat, Pierre, 894 conduction in metals, Gluon(s), 1183–1184 Electron microscope, 971, Fermat’s principle 668 Goudsmit, Samuel, 1070 1039–1040 in derivation of law of reflection, Fresnel, Augustin, 963–964 Grand unified theories (GUTs), Electron neutrino, 1176–1177 894–895 Fresnel diffraction, 965 1175 Electron spin, 1070–1071 in derivation of law of Fringes, interference, 942–943 Grating spectroscope, 985 Electronics, optical, 1117–1119 refraction, 896 of constant thickness, 951 Gravitation, and electrostatics, Electrostatic accelerator, 651–652 Fermi, Enrico Frisch, Otto, 1154 579–580 Electrostatic stress, 698 (problem and experiments with neutron Fusion, nuclear, 1134. See also Gravitational field, Earth’s, 15) bombardment, 1154 Fusion reactor; Nuclear 587–588 Electrostatics, 569 and theory of beta decay, 1138 fusion Gravitational force, 1173–1174. conservation of energy in, fermi (unit), 1132 Fusion reactor, 1164–1167 See also Gravity 637–638 Fermi-Dirac probability function, poloidal component of, Ground state, 1057 gravitation and, 579–580 1107–1108 1164–1165 Grounded object, 571 40235_Index_1-9 7/20/01 5:15 PM Page 5
Index I-5
H angle of, 890 Ionization energy, 637, 1085 Lenz’ law, 777–779 Hahn, Otto, 1154 plane of, 890 Ionizing radiation, 1139 Lepton(s), 1176–1177 Hall, Edwin, 734 Incident ray, 890 units of, 1139–1140 Lepton number, conservation of, Hall effect, 734–736 Incoherent interference, 945–946 Isotopes, 1131 1179–1180 quantized, 736 Incoherent waves, 942 Isotropic materials, optically, 1004 Libby, Willard, 1141 Hall potential difference (Hall Index (indices) of refraction, 890 Ives, H. E., 899–900 Light, 883–884. See also voltage), 735 of doubly refracting crystals, Electromagnetic Hall resistance, 736 1005 J radiation; Heat flow, electric current and, principal, 1005 Josephson, Brian, 1047 Electromagnetic waves analogy of, 667–668 Induced dipole moment, 672 Joule heating, 713 diffraction and wave theory of, Heaviside, Oliver, 861 Induced electric current, 776 by induced electric current, 780 963–965. See also Heavy element formation, in big Induced electromotive force, 776 Junction rule, 702–703 Diffraction; Interference bang cosmology, Induced surface charge, 670, 689 Junction transistors, 1119 Doppler effect of, 899–902 1191–1192 Inductance, 823–824 nature of Heisenberg, Werner, 1042 calculating, 824–826 K double slit experiment and, Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle, and energy density in magnetic 1016 Kirchhoff, Gustav, 894, 1017 1042–1043 field, 829–830 experimental studies of, Kirchhoff’s first law, 702–703 Helmholtz coil, 772 (problem 1) and energy storage in magnetic 1023–1028 Kirchhoff’s second law, 705 Henry, Joseph, 775, 823 field, 827–829 particle-like, 1015–1016, Klystron, 866 henry (unit), 775, 823 in LC circuits, 830–835 1025 Kundig, Water, 901 Hertz, Heinrich, 864, 870 in LR circuits, 826–827 wave, 1015, 1024–1025 Holography, 992–993 of solenoid, 824–825 photon theory of, 886, Homopolar generator, 798 of toroid, 825 L 1016–1019. See also (problem 8) Induction, charging by, 572 Lamb, W. E., 1020 Photon(s) Hubble, Edwin, 1186 Induction furnace, 781 Lanthanides, 1083 polarized, 999–1013. See also Hubble parameter, 1186 Inductive reactance, 847 Laser(s), 1092–1096 Polarization Hull, G. F., 873 Inductive time constant, 826 diode, 1118–1119 use in industries, 1002–1003 Huygens, Christiaan, 893 Inductor(s), 823 Laser cooling, 1027–1028 propagation of, in matter, 889 studies of double refraction, flux linkages of, 824 Laser fusion, 1166–1167 quantum theory of, 1018 1005 with magnetic materials, Laser light reflection of, 890–891. See also Huygens’ principle 825–826 Einstein’s concept of, Reflection in derivation of law of reflection, Infinite well, 1056 1093–1094 refraction of, 890–891. See also 893–894 Infrared rays, 884 production of, 1094–1096 Refraction in derivation of law of Insulators, 571, 661–662 properties of, 1092–1093 spectrum of white, 986 refraction, 895–896 band structure of, 1111 Laue spots, 989 speed of, 887–890 Hydrogen, atomic in electric field, 670–672 Law of Malus, 1002 in matter, 889 Bohr model of, 1063–1065 Intensity, wave Law of reflection, 890 visible, 886–887 energy levels of, 1064 in double-slit interference, derivation of, 893–895 wave theory of, 963–965 excited states of, 1069–1072 946–948 Law of refraction, 890 Light-emitting diodes, 1117–1118 ground state of, 1065–1066 in single-slit diffraction, derivation of, 895–897 Line of charge, uniform line spectrum of, 1063 967–970 Lawrence Livermore National electric field of, 592–593 quantum states of, 1071–1072 Interference, 941 Laboratory, 1166–1167 electric potential of, 644–645 radial probability density of, coherent, 944–946 Lawson’s criterion, 1164 force on point charge in, 577 1066 constructive, 941–942 LC circuit, 830–833 Gauss’ law applied to, 617–618 2p state of, 1069–1070 destructive, 941–942 frequency of oscillations of, Linear charge density, 576 2s state of, 1069 double-slit, 942–944 832–833 Linear materials, 671 Hysteresis, 810 diffraction combined with, natural frequency of, 834 Liquid-drop fission model, and magnetic domains, 810–811 971–975 oscillating, and analogy to 1155–1156 Hysteresis curve, 810f intensity in, 946–948 simple harmonic motion, Lloyd’s mirror experiment, 953 maxima, 943 832 Loop rule, 705 I minima, 943 resonance condition of, 835 Lorentz force, 730–731 Image, 913 fringes caused by, 942–943 Lens(es) Lorentz transformation, and Image formation, 913–914 incoherent, 945–946 converging, 924 invariance of laws of by lenses, 923–928 maxima in, 942–943 and derivation of thin-lens electromagnetism, 765, mirror equations in, 918 and Michelson’s interferometer, formulas, 925–926 788 by optical instruments, 928–930 953–955 diverging, 924 LR circuits, 826–827 by plane mirror, 914–917 minima in, 942–943 first focal point of, 924 Luminescence, 886 ray tracing in, 919–920 multiple slit, 981–984 image formation by, 923–928 types of, 886–887 real and virtual, 918–919 from thin films, 948–952 inverted, 924 by spherical mirror, 917–921 vs diffraction, 973 ray tracing in, 925 M by spherical refracting surfaces, Interferometer, 953–954 sign convention used in, Magnetic braking, 781 921–923 International Thermonuclear 924–925 Magnetic constant, 751 Impedance Experimental Reactor second focal point of, 924–925 Magnetic damping, 793 (question of generator, 854 (ITER), 1165 two, image formation by, 25) of RLC circuit, 849 Interplanar spacings, 990–991 926–928 Magnetic dipole, 755, 801–803 Incandescence, 886 Ion(s), 662 Lens maker’s equation, 923 forces on, in nonuniform field, Incidence Ionization, 662 Lenz, Heinrich, 777–779 804–805 40235_Index_1-9 7/20/01 5:15 PM Page 6
I-6 Index
Magnetic dipole (Continued) saturation value of, 809 work function of, 1109–1111 1157–1159. See also magnetic field of, 802–803 Magnetostatics, 751–752 Metastable, 1093 Nuclear reactors Magnetic dipole moment, 755 Magnetron, 866 Michelson, Albert A., 888, 953 basic process of, 1154–1155 of current loop, 802 Majority carriers, 1112 Michelson-Morley experiment, potential barrier, 1156 induced, 804–805 Malus, Etienne Louis, 1002 954–955 theory of, 1155–1157 selected values of, 803t Marsden, Ernest, 1129 Michelson’s interferometer, Nuclear fusion, 1134, 1153. See Magnetic domains, 811 Mass excess, 1148 (exercise 15) 953–954 also Thermonuclear hysteresis and, 810–811 Matter waves, 1035–1036, and light propagation, 954–955 fusion Magnetic field 1041–1042 microfarad (unit), 680 Nuclear magnetic moment, 1134 Ampère’s law in calculation of, applications of, 1039–1040 Microscope(s) Nuclear magnetic resonance, 806, 760–761 electrons as, 1035–1038. See compound, 929 1089–1090 applications of, 761–764 also Electron(s) diffraction reduction in, 971 Nuclear magnetism, 806–807, Biot-Savart law in calculation of, frequency of, 1043–1044 electron, 971, 1039–1040 1134–1135 753 Heisenberg’s uncertainty scanning electron, 1039 Nuclear magnetron, 1134 applications of, 753–755 relationships and, scanning tunneling, 1047–1048 Nuclear reactions, 1141–1143. See combined electric and, 730–731 1042–1043 Microwaves, 884 also Nuclear reactors of dipole, 803 particle, 1038–1039 Millikan, Robert A., 598, 1032 elastic scattering in, 1142 effect on electric current, Schrödinger’s equation and, Millikan oil-drop apparatus, endothermic, 1142 736–740 1045–1046 598–599 exothermic, 1142 in loop, 738–740 wave function of, 1044–1045 Minima, interference, 942, 943 inelastic scattering in, 1142 in straight wire, 736–738 wave number of, 1042–1043 Minimum energy principle, 1083 threshold energy of, 1142 of electric current, 752–755 Maxima, interference, 942, 943 Minority carriers, 1112 Nuclear reactors in loop, 754–755 principal, 982–983 Mirror equations, 918 accumulation of radioactive in parallel, 756–758 secondary, 982, 984 derivation, 920–921 waste of, 1159 in solenoid, 758–760, Maxwell, James Clerk, 861 Mirrors basic principles of, 1157–1159 762–764 and generalization of Ampère’s plane, 914–917 chain reaction in, 1157 in straight wire, 753–754, law, 862 spherical, 917–921 control rods of, 1158 761–762 Maxwell equations Mlynek, J., 1039 critical operation of, 1158 in toroid, 763 Ampère’s law, 760, 861–862, Monopole(s), 644 multiplication factor parameter energy density of, 829–830 865t magnetic, 726, 815 of, 1157–1158 energy storage in, 827–829 as basics of electromagnetism, and Maxwell equations, 864 natural, 1159–1161 Hall effect of, 734–736 861–862 Morley, E. W., 954 neutron capture problem of, 1157 of moving charged particles, consistency of, with special Moseley, H. G. J., 1081 neutron energy problem of, 1157 749–752 theory of relativity, 864 Moseley plot, 1081–1082 neutron leakage problem of, nonuniform electromagnetic wave prediction Motional electromotive force, 1157 motion in, 734 from, 864 780–782 pressurized-water, 1158 particle entrapment in, electromagnetism and, 862–864 Multiple slit interference, response time and power level 733–734 Faraday’s law, 784, 861–862, 981–984. See also of, 1158 typical values of, 729 865t Diffraction grating(s) Nuclear spin, 1134–1135 Magnetic flux, 776–777 Gauss’ law for electricity, Muon neutrino, 1177 Nucleon(s), 1131 and eddy currents, 780–781 861–862, 865t Nucleosynthesis, 1190–1191 electric fields induced by, Gauss’ law for magnetism, 815, N Nucleus, 602 783–786 861–862, 865t n-type semiconductors, 665, angular momentum of, Faraday’s law and Lenz’ law for, magnetic monopoles and, 864 1112 1134–1135 777–779 speed of light from National Ignition Facility, 1167 collective model of, 1144 unit of, 776 electromagnetic Natural frequency, of RLC circuit, discovery of, 1129–1131 Magnetic force, on moving charged considerations by, 870 834 electric charge of, 570, 602–603 particle, 727–731 symmetry feature of, 864 Natural radioactivity, 1140–1141 forces within, 1132 Magnetic lenses, 1039 traveling waves and, 868–870 Near field, 867 independent-particle model of, Magnetic materials, 808–811 megaparsec (unit), 1186 Near point, 928 1144–1145 in inductors, 825–826 Meitner, Lise, 1154 Nearsightedness, 937 (exercise 40) mass of, and binding energies, Magnetic mirror, 733–734 Mendeleev, D., 1081 Nebulae, 1186 1133–1134 Magnetic monopoles, 726, 815 Mesons, 1177–1178 Neutrino(s), 1138–1139, models of, 1143–1145 and Maxwell equations, 864 Metal-oxide-semiconductor FET, 1176–1177 neutrons in, 1131 Magnetic poles, 727 1120 Neutrino oscillation, 1177 nucleons of, 1131 rule of interaction of, 727 Metals Neutron(s) particle reactions in, 1141–1143 Magnetic quantum number, 1067 band structure of, 1111 diffraction of, 1038–1039 protons in, 1131 Magnetic resonance imaging conduction electrons in, in nucleus, 1131 radioactive decay of, (MRI), 806, 1090 1104–1105, 1108–1109 thermal, 1040 1135–1136 Magnetism bands and gaps in energy Neutron number, 1131 ionizing radiation from, atomic, 805–806, 1086–1087 states of, 1109–1111 Newton’s rings, 952–953 1139–1140 field vectors in, 727 density of occupied states of, Nichols, E. F., 873 radius of, 1132–1133 and moving charged particles, 1106–1108 Nonpolar dielectrics, 671 determining, 603 726–727 filling allowed states of, Normalization equation, 1058 Nuclide(s), 1131 nuclear, 806–807 1105–1108 NOVA laser fusion project, 685, expanded chart of, 1142 of planets, 811–814 energy bands and band structure 1166 plot of known, 1131 Magnetization, 807–808 of, 1109–1114 Nuclear fission, 1134, 1153, properties of selected, 1132 40235_Index_1-9 7/20/01 5:15 PM Page 7
Index I-7
O quark model of, 1181–1184 in electric field, 597–598 Quadrupole, electric, 592, 606 o-ray, 1005 Standard Model of, 1184–1185 electric fields of, 590–592 (exercise 11), 609 Oersted, Hans Christian, 749 terminology used in, 1184 potential due to, 641–644 (problem 4) Ohmic materials, 666–668 Pauli, Wolfgang, 1083, 1087 potential energy of system of, potential due to, 644 Ohm’s law, 666–667 Pauli exclusion principle, 1083 638–639 Quantum corral, 1062 at microscopic level, 668–670 Penzias, Arno, 1187 Point source, 914 (footnote) Quantum electrodynamics, 568 Onnes, Kammerlingh, discovery of Periodic table, 1083–1086 Poisson, Simeon-Denis, 964 Quantum mechanics. See also superconductivity by, Permeability, 807 Poisson spot, 964 Matter waves 1120 of diamagnetic substances, 810t Polarization, 670 and barrier tunneling, Optic axis, 1005 of paramagnetic materials, of electric charges, 571–572 1046–1049 Optical activity, 1008 808–809, 808t of electromagnetic waves, initial development of, 1018 Optical electronics, 1117–1119 Permeability constant, 751 999–1001 matter waves and, 1035–1036, Optical instrument(s), 928 Permittivity analyzers and polarizers in, 1041–1042 angular magnification of, 928 of free space, 573 1001–1003 applications of, 1039–1040 compound microscope as, 929 of materials, 672 circular, 1006–1008 of electrons, 1035–1038 refracting telescope as, 929–930 Phasor diagram, 846 direction of, 1000 Heisenberg’s uncertainty simple magnifier as, 928–929 Phillips, William D., 1027 and double refraction, relationships in, Optical path length, 896, 925 Phosphor, 886 1004–1006 1042–1043 Optical reversibility, and phase Phosphorescence, 886 industrial use of, 1002–1003 of particles, 1038–1039 changes on reflection, Photoelectric effect, 1019–1020 linear, 1000 properties of, 1042–1045 952–953 Photon(s), 1016, 1024–1025 optical activity and, 1008 Schrödinger’s equation in, Optics absorption of, 1093 plane of, 1000 1045–1046 adaptive, 930 and Compton effect analysis, by reflection, 1003–1004 and periodicity of elements, fiber, 897–898 1021–1023 by scattering, 1008–1010 1083–1086 geometrical, 914. See also concept of, 1018 sheets causing, 1001–1003 and wave nature of electrons, Image formation experimental evidence Polarizers, 1001–1003 1040–1041. See also physical, 914. See also Physical supporting, 1023–1028 Polarizing angle, 1003 Electron(s) optics theoretical development of, Polarizing sheets, 1001–1003 Quantum number(s) ray, 914 1016–1019 Polaroid, 1001 angular momentum, 1067 wave, 914 designated, 1023 Population inversion, 1094 atomic, 1067–1069 Orbital angular momentum, 1067 and photoelectric effect, Positron, charge of, 570 and periodicity of elements, Ordinary ray, 1005 1019–1020 Potential energy, 635–636 1083–1086 Oscillator and photoelectric effect analysis, electric, 636–639 magnetic, 1067 electromagnetic, 830 1020–1021 Potential energy barrier, 1046 principal, 1067 electromagnetic cavity, 865–866 trigger, 1023 Potential well(s), 1055–1056 spin magnetic, 1071 Photon bombardment, 1026–1028 finite, 1060–1061 total angular momentum, 1091 P Physical optics, 914 infinite, 1056–1060 Quantum number principle, 1083 p-type semiconductors, 1112 diffraction in, 963–980. See energy level of, 1056–1057 Quantum state, concept of, Pair production, 1188 also Diffraction probability densities for, 1063–1064 Pairing energy, 1121 wave interference in, 941–961 1057–1058 Quantum statistical mechanics, Pairing gap, 1121 picofarad (unit), 680 Poynting, John Henry, 870 1103–1104 Parallel capacitors, 683–684 Piezoelectricity, 1048 Poynting vector, 870–872 Quark(s), 570, 1181–1184 Parallel plate capacitors, 681–682 Pion(s), 1177–1178 Pressurized-water reactors, 1158 Quark model, 1181–1184 Paramagnetism, 806, 808–809 Planck, Max, discovery of Priestly, Joseph, experiments of, interaction between quarks in, Paraxial rays, 918, 921 quantization of energy, with electric charge, 625 1183–1184 Particle(s). See also Particle 1016 Primary loop, 1158 Quarter-wave plate, 1006 physics Planck constant, 1016 Princeton Plasma Physics charged. See Charged particles; Planck’s radiation law, Laboratory, 1165 R Electric charge 1017–1019, 1187 Principal indices, of refraction, r-process, 1192 classification of, 1176–1179 Plane mirror 1005–1006 rad (unit), 1140 elementary, 1184–1185. See image formation in, 914–917 Principal maxima, 982–983 Radial probability density, 1066 also Particle physics image of extended object in, Principal quantum number, 1067 Radiation field, 1178–1179 915–916 Prism spectrograph, 986 cavity, 1017 quantum mechanics of, image reversal in, 916–917 Probability density, 1044 electric dipole, 867 1035–1046. See also Plane of incidence, 890 Probability function, 1105–1108 electromagnetic, 867–868 Electron(s); Matter Plane polarization, 1000 Fermi-Dirac, 1107–1108 ionizing, 1139–1140 waves Planets, magnetic field of, Proper length, 764 thermal, 886, 1017 Particle accelerators 811–814, 813t Proper time, 900 experimental investigation of, betatron, 786 Plasma(s), 733 Proton(s), 1131 1016–1019 cyclotron, 731–733 Plimpton and Lawton, experiments Proton number, 1131 properties of, 1017–1019 synchrotron, 733 of, with electric charge, Proton-proton cycle, 1162–1163 Radiation field, electromagnetic, Particle physics, 1173–1186 625 Purcell, Edward, 1089 867–868 conservation laws of, pn junction semiconductors, Radiation pressure, 872–874 1179–1181 1114–1116 Q and formation of comet tail, interactions in, 1173–1176 Point charge(s), 573 Q factor, 843 (problem 15) 873–874 particle classification in, collection of Q-value, of radioactive decay, measurement of, 873 1176–1179 potential due to, 642–643 1136 Radio waves, 884 40235_Index_1-9 7/20/01 5:15 PM Page 8
I-8 Index
Radioactive dating, 1141 Resonance capture, 1157 band structure of, 1111 real image formed by, 918 Radioactive decay, 1135–1136 Resonance condition density of charge carriers in, sign convention use with, alpha decay, 1136–1138 of RLC circuit, 835 1111–1112 918–919 beta decay, 1138–1139 Reverse-biased connections, devices using, 1114–1116 virtual image formed by, 918 Q-value of, 1136 1116–1117 in diode lasers, 1118–1119 Spherical refracting surfaces, Radioactive isotopes, 1131, 1141 Reverse saturation current, 1127 in diode rectifier, 1116–1117 921–923 Radioactivity, natural, 1140–1141 (problem 7) doped, 1112–1114 Spherical shell of charge, uniform Radiocarbon dating, 1141 Right-hand rule extrinsic, 1112 electric field of, 594–595 Radionuclides, 1131 applied in Faraday’s law of intrinsic, 1112 force on point charge in, Radon, 1140 induction, 778–779 n-type, 665, 1112 579–580 Rare earths, 1083 for sign of flux, 869 in optical electronics, Gauss’ law applied to, 618–619 Ray optics, 914 Ring of charge, uniform 1117–1119 Spin angular momentum, Ray tracing electric field of, 593–594 p-type, 1113 1070–1071 in lens images, 925 electric potential of, 645 pn junction, 1114–1116 Spin flip, 1089–1090 in spherical mirror images, force on point charge, 577–578 resistivity of, 1112 Spin magnetic quantum number, 919–920 Ritz combination principle, 1075 temperature coefficient of 1071 Rayleigh’s criterion, 970 (exercise 25) resistivity of, 1112 Spontaneous emission, 1093 RC circuits, 713–716 RLC circuit, 834–835, 848–851 in transistors, 1119–1120 Standard Model, of elementary Real image, 913, 918 damped and forced oscillations Sheet of charge, infinite/uniform particles, 1184–1185 Red giant phase, of star evolution, in, 833–835 electric field of, 594 Stanford Linear Accelerator, 866f 1191–1192 differential analysis of, 850–851 field lines of, 595, 596f Stars Red shift, 900 graphical analysis of, 849–850 Gauss’ law applied to, 618 red giant phase of, 1191–1192 Reference frame(s), impedance of, 849 Shell, atomic, 1071 thermonuclear fusion in, electromagnetism and, natural frequency of, 834 Shell of charge, uniform spherical, 1162–1163 764–765, 786–788 power in, 852 electric field of, Static field, 587 Reflected ray, 890 resonance condition of, 835 594–595 Stefan, Josef, 1017 Reflection single loop, 848–851 Shell theorems, electrostatic, 579 Stefan-Boltzmann constant, angle of, 890, 894 trigonometric analysis of, 849 Shockley, William, 1119 1017–1019 diffuse, 891 Roemer, Ole, 887, 909 (problem 2) siemens (unit), 666 Stefan-Boltzmann law, 1017–1019 of electromagnetic waves, roentgen (unit), 1140 sievert (unit), 1140 Stern, Otto, 1087 891–892 Rohrer, Heinrich, 1047, 1048 Simple magnifier, 928–929 Stern-Gerlach experiment, law of, 890, 893–895 Rowland, Henry, 749 Single-slit diffraction, 965–967 1087–1089 of light, 890–891 Rubbia, Carlo, 1175 intensity in, 967–970 Stilwell, G. R., 899–900 polarization by, 1003–1004 Ruska, Ernst, 1039, 1048 Snell’s law, 890 Stimulated emission, 1093–1094, total internal, 892, 897–899 Rutherford, Ernest Sodium doublet, 1091 1094 Reflection gratings, 985 alpha particle scattering Solar compass, 1009 Stopping potential, 1019 Refracted ray, 890 experiments of, 602–603 Solenoid, 758 Strangeness, 1181 Refracting telescope, 929–930 discovery of atomic nucleus by, inductance of, 824–825 Strassmann, Fritz, 1154 adaptive optics for, 930 1129–1131 magnetic field of, 758–760 Strong force, 637–638, 1132, chromatic aberration of, 930 as founder of atomic and nuclear Solids, electrical conductivity of, 1174–1175 field of view of, 930 physics, 603 1103–1104 Subshell, atomic, 1071 Hubble, 930 Space quantization, 1067, Sun, thermonuclear fusion in, light-gathering power of, 930 S 1087–1089 1162–1163 spherical aberration of, 930 s-process, 1192 Special theory of relativity Super-Kamiokande detector, 1175 Refraction Salam, Abdus, 1175 in development of Supercaps, 683 angle of, 890, 895–896 Scalar field, 587 electromagnetic theory, Superconductors, 662, 1120–1122 double, 1004–1006 Scanning electron microscope, 568 Superposition, principle of of electromagnetic waves, 1039 and reference frames in applied to electric field of point 891–892 Scanning tunneling microscope, electromagnetism, charges, 590 index of, 890–891 1047–1048 764–765, 786–788 applied to electric forces, 575 law of, 890, 895–897 Scattering, of light, 1008–1009 Spectra, 985–986 Surface charge, induced, 689 of light, 890–891 double, 1009–1010 Spectral lines, 985–986 Surface charge density, 576 from spherical surfaces, Schrieffer, J. Robert, 1121 Spectral radiancy, 1017 Symmetry, cubic, 989–990 921–923 Schrödinger, Erwin, 1044, 1045 Spectrograph(s), 985–986 Synchrotron, 733 Reid, A., 1036 Schrödinger’s equation, prism, 986 Relativistic Doppler effect, 1045–1046 Speed of light, 887–890 T 899–900 applied to barrier tunneling, historical measurement of, Temperature, critical, 1120 derivation of, 900–901 1046–1049 887–888, 888t tesla (unit), 729 rem (unit), 1140 applied to free particle, in matter, 889, 889t Theory of everything (TOE), Resistivity, 666 1045–1046 Spherical aberration, 930 1175 of semiconductors, 1112 Scully, M. O., 1020 Spherical capacitor, 682 Thermal neutrons, 1040, temperature variation of, 668 Secondary loop, 1158 Spherical mirror 1154–1155 Resistors Secondary maxima, 982, 984 focal length of, 918 Thermal radiation, 886, 1017 in parallel, 710–711 Secular equilibrium, 1150 focal point of, 918 experimental investigation of, in series, 711 (problem 5) image formation in, 917–918 1016–1019 Resolving power, of grating, Selection rules, 1085 mirror equation derivation for, properties of, 1017–1019 987–988 Semiconductors, 662, 1111 920–921 Thermonuclear fusion, 1161–1162 40235_Index_1-9 7/20/01 5:15 PM Page 9
Index I-9
controlled, 1164–1167. See also Transistors, 1119–1120 Voltage, 639 Wheeler, John, theory of nuclear Fusion reactor field-effect, 1119–1120 Voltage divider, 706 fission, 1155–1156 in stars, 1162–1163 junction, 1119 Voltmeter, principle of analog, 740 Wien, Wilhelm, 1017 Thin film interference, 948–952 Transmission coefficient, 1047 Volume charge density, 576 Wien’s displacement law, 1017 equations for, 950–952 Transmission line, 866 von Klitzing, Klaus, 736 Wiles, Andrew, 894 fringes of constant thickness in, Transverse Doppler effect, 901–902 von Klitzing constant, 736 Wilson, Robert, 1187 951 Triboluminescence, 886–887 von Laue, Max, 989 Work function, 1020, 1109– optical path difference vs. Tritium, 580 1111 geometrical path Triton, 1164 W difference in, 950 Tunnel diode, 1047 Water, polar dielectric properties X optical reversibility and phase of, 671–672 x-ray(s), 885, 988–989 changes on reflection, U Wave(s) and numbering of elements, 952–953 coherent, 942 1080 phase change on reflection in, Uhlenbeck, George, 1070 diffraction of, 963–980. See x-ray diffraction, 988–989 949–950 Ultraviolet rays, 884–885 also Diffraction Bragg’s law and, 990–992 Thin-lens approximation, 926 Uncertainty principle, angular electromagnetic, 866–868. See by crystalline structures, Thin-lens formula derivation, momentum and, also Electromagnetic 989–992 925–926 1068–1069 waves; Light interplanar spacings in, Thomson, George P., 1036 Unit cell, 990 incoherent, 942 990–991 Thomson, J. J., 602 Universe interference of. See Interference molecular structure revealed by, atomic model of, 1130 age determination of, light, 883–884. See also 991 Thomson model, 602, 1130 1192–1194 Electromagnetic x-ray spectrum Time-varying field, 587 big bang theory of formation of, radiation; Light of atoms, 1079–1081 Tokamak, 1164–1166 1187–1192 matter, 1035–1036, 1041–1042. characteristic, 1080 Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor, expansion of, 1186–1187 See also Matter waves continuous, 1079–1080 1165 V Wave function, 1044–1045 Tonomura, A., 1037–1038 Wave number, 1041 Y Top quark, 1184 Valence band, 1111 Wave optics, 914, 941. See also Toroid, inductance of, 825 Van Allen radiation belts, 733 Diffraction; Interference Young, Thomas, 944 Torsion balance, 573 Van de Graaff, Robert J., 651 Wave packet, localizing polarization studies of, 1002 Total angular momentum quantum Van de Graaff accelerator, in space, 1041–1042 Young’s double-slit experiment, number, 1091 651–652, 1141 in time, 1042 944 Total internal reflection, 892, van der Meer, Simon, 1175 Wavetrain, finite, 945 897–899 Vector field, 587 Weak force, 1174 Z frustrated, 898–899 flux of, 612–613 weber (unit), 776 Zeeman, Pieter, 1091 Transformer, 852–854 Velocity selector, 730–731 Weinberg, Stephen, 1175 Zeeman effect, 1091–1092 step, 853 Virtual image, 913 Wheatstone bridge, 723 (problem Zeilinger, A., 1038 Transients, 846 Virtual object, 919 12) Zweig, George, 1182