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Variations in Women's Integration in the Militaries of France, Norway, and the United States

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Variations in Women's Integration in the Militaries of France, Norway, and the United States University of Denver Digital Commons @ DU Electronic Theses and Dissertations Graduate Studies 1-1-2019 Shoulder to Shoulder Yet Worlds Apart: Variations in Women's Integration in the Militaries of France, Norway, and the United States Kyleanne Hunter University of Denver Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.du.edu/etd Part of the Near and Middle Eastern Studies Commons Recommended Citation Hunter, Kyleanne, "Shoulder to Shoulder Yet Worlds Apart: Variations in Women's Integration in the Militaries of France, Norway, and the United States" (2019). Electronic Theses and Dissertations. 1665. https://digitalcommons.du.edu/etd/1665 This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate Studies at Digital Commons @ DU. It has been accepted for inclusion in Electronic Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of Digital Commons @ DU. For more information, please contact [email protected],[email protected]. Shoulder to Shoulder Yet Worlds Apart: Variations in Women’s Integration in the Militaries of France, Norway and the United States __________ A Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of the Josef Korbel School of International Studies University of Denver __________ In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy __________ by Kyleanne Hunter August 2019 Advisor: Deborah Avant Author: Kyleanne Hunter Title: Shoulder to Shoulder Yet Worlds Apart: Variations in Women’s Integration in the Militaries of France, Norway and the United States Advisor: Deborah Avant Degree Date: August 2019 ABSTRACT Women have become an essential part of Western militaries. Particularly concerning the experience of NATO militaries in Afghanistan, there has been much public attention on the role of women in the military. While Western militaries are often studied as a whole with regards to military operations, there is variation in both how women are employed in the military and the experience they have as service members. This dissertation seeks to understand the cause of this variation by examining three critical cases: France, Norway and the United States. In this dissertation, I argue foundational beliefs about gender equality affect the institutional trajectory of military integration. Thus, variation in how gender equality is defined and operationalized across the Western world help explain the variation in women’s integration into militaries. The differences inherent in these beliefs can best be understood and operationalized through tracing the way in which women’s movements interacted with the government and society, and the differences in the claims made about women’s participation in public life. As an institution of the government, the military rarely makes policies about women’s service in a vacuum, but rather as a result of or response to broader equality law or shifts in attitudes about women’s roles in public life. While policies about women’s service set the stage for women’s integration, integration is a result of the interaction between claims about women’s military ii participation and broader military culture and history. When the claims made about women’s service are compatible with the role and culture of the military, there is a high level of integration. When the claims about women’s service and military culture are in conflict, there is a low level of integration. In France, the claims about women’s participation and military culture have largely been in concert with one another, resulting in a high level of integration. In Norway, there have been periods in which they coincided, and periods in which they have been in tension, resulting in a moderate level of integration. In the United States, they have largely been in conflict with one another, resulting in a low level of integration. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This Dissertation would not have been possible without the great support of the Faculty and Students of the Josef Korbel School of International Studies. I want to offer special thanks to Debbi Avant, who kept believing in me through ups and downs and encouraged me to purse a project that had both personal and professional value. From you I learned the true value of engaged scholarship and a drive to use evidence to make the world better. To Marie Berry, who taught me the value of being a feminist scholar who always questions assumptions. Thank you for pushing me to challenge beliefs and structures. To Tim Sisk, your guidance in questioning culture and politics was a foundation for this work. I am grateful for all of those who provided comments and feedback throughout the process. My fellow PhD students Jonathan Pickney, Pauline Moore, Sarah Nelson, Kara Neu, and Chris Shay, you defined what a positive and collaborative work environment. A special thanks the Four Corners Conflict Network, especially Jess Braithwaite and AJ Simmons who’s feedback and insights transformed outlines into actual chapters. And to Joel Day, who’s insight, encouragement, and friendship got me through many “stuck” points. To my husband, Shane DeMars, who through moves, illness, and injury provided the support necessary to finish. And most of all, to all the women who have and continue to serve in the military around the world. Thank you for sharing your experiences, and your life, with the world. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter One: Shoulder to Shoulder Yet Worlds Apart …………………………… 1 The Observable Difference ……………………………………………….. 2 Argument in Brief ………………………………………………………… 4 Plan of the Dissertation …………………………………………………… 13 Historical, Process Driven Approach to Understanding the Differences in Critical Cases ……………………………………… 17 Alternative Explanations …………………………………………………... 23 A Note about Women in the Military and Levels of Integration …………. 29 Chapter Two: Beliefs, Laws and Action ………………………………………….. 31 Beliefs About Equality ……………………………………………………. 34 France: Different Can Be Equal …………………………………………... 43 Norway: A Nation of Citizens …………………………………………….. 56 United States: Individuals and Empowerment …………………………….. 66 Claims and Integration ……………………………………………………. 79 Chapter Three: From Inclusion to Integration …………………………………….. 81 The Evolution of the Study of Women in the Military ……………………. 86 The Military: Beyond Killing People and Breaking Things ………………. 98 The Process of Integration: Women’s Ability to Impact the Military ……. 108 Chapter Four: France ……………………………………………………………… 127 France: High Level of Integration ………………………………………… 129 French Military Culture …………………………………………………… 133 Era 1: The Final Years of the Cold War: Workplace Equality and the Feminization of the Military (1970-1992) ………………………… 139 Era 2: Post Cold-War: Professional Feminizaion into the 21st Century …... 159 Era 3: Post-9/11 in Afghanistan: Putting Feminization to the Test ……….. 130 Chapter Five: Norway ……………………………………………………………... 173 Norway: Moderate Level of Integration …………………………………... 174 Norwegian Military Tradition: Citizen before Warrior …………………… 177 Era 1: The Final Years of the Cold War: Citizen Claims for Full Inclusion in the Professional Armed Forces (1970-1992) …………………………. 182 Era 2: Post-Cold War: Universal Conscription for a Citizen Army ………. 194 Era 3: Post-9/11 and the Hunter Troop: New Claims for a New Model? …. 205 Chapter Six: United States ………………………………………………………… 208 United States: Low Level of Integration …………………………………... 210 United States Military Tradition: Combat Tested, Culture Approved …….. 214 Era 1: The End of the Cold War: Equality through a Masculine Enterprise? (1970-1992) ……………………………………………………….. 221 v Era 2: The Post-Cold War World: Proving Women’s Success ……………. 239 Era 3: Post-9/11: Finally an Opening for Integration? ……………………. 250 Chapter Seven: Conclusion ………………………………………………………... 255 Integration: Slow Moving and Impactful ………………………………….. 257 Understanding Women’s Integration in a Global Context ………………... 260 Other Limitations and Possibilities for Future Research ………………….. 268 Broader Implications of the Dissertation ………………………….............. 270 My Commitment to Women, Peace and Security …………………………. 274 Bibliography ………………………………………………………………………. 275 Appendix A: Framework for Analysis ……………………………………………. 297 Appendix B: Coding Scheme for Quantitative Measure of Integration…………… 300 vi LIST OF TABLES Chapter One ……………………………………………………………………….. 1 Table 1.1 Relationship between claims about women’s service and military culture ……………………………………………………. 7 Table 1.2 Overview of Case Selection ……………………………………. 23 Chapter Two ………………………………………………………………………. 31 Table 2.1 Categories of Gender Equality in Western Democracies ………. 35 Table 2.2 Overview of Self-Identification, Government’s Role, and Claims…………………………………………………………. 42 Chapter Three ……………………………………………………………………… 81 Table 3.1 Legal Components of the Integration Index ……………………. 117 Table 3.2 Functional Participation Components of the Integration Index … 121 Table 3.3 Impact on the Military ………………………………………….. 122 Chapter Four ………………………………………………………………………. 127 Table 4.1 Current Measures of Women’s Integration into the French Military ……………………………………………………………. 130 Table 4.2 Summary of Structural Provisions during the First Era of Women’s Participation …………………………………………….. 140 Table 4.3 Summary of Functional Participation during the First Era of Women’s Participation …………………………………………….. 145 Table 4.4 Percent of New Women Recruits/Officer Candidates by Service …………………………………………………………. 146 Table 4.5 Percentages of Officers and NCOs 1962 vs 1979 ………………. 147 Table 4.6 Summary of Structural Provisions during the Second Era of Women’s Participation
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