DOCSLIB.ORG

Communications Infrastructure Upgrade the Need for Deep Fiber Published July 2017 Communications Infrastructure Upgrade | the Need for Deep Fiber

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Communications Infrastructure Upgrade the Need for Deep Fiber Published July 2017 Communications Infrastructure Upgrade | the Need for Deep Fiber Communications infrastructure upgrade The need for deep fiber Published July 2017 Communications infrastructure upgrade | The need for deep fiber Executive summary 03 Introduction 07 Fiber is the centerpiece of wireless advancement Section I 09 Deep fiber is at the center Section II 13 Major fiber investment is needed Section III 14 Incentives to deploy fiber are lacking Section IV 17 Carriers and policymakers can share the responsibility for motivating investment in fiber infrastructure Conclusion 22 Fiber investment requires new monetization mechanisms Sources 25 02 Communications infrastructure upgrade | The need for deep fiber Executive summary Fifth generation mobile networks (5G) are now poised for field testing and launch worldwide. The technology unlocks unprecedented potential to build seamless digital ecosystems, reshaping the way citizens live, work, and interact. Wireless networks were at a similar An equally transformative moment is inflection point as 4G services launched coming with 5G, but with two important early in the decade. The United States differences. First, the economic stakes are took action as government made new potentially much higher, where connected spectrum available and carriers responded devices, applications and business models to accommodate radical, twenty-fold could dramatically stimulate economic growth in global mobile data traffic. The productivity. Second, the United States is massive investment in wireless network not as well prepared to take full advantage infrastructure rewarded the US consumer of the potential, lacking needed fiber with more coverage at affordable prices, and infrastructure close to the end customers the US economy generated up to 700,000 (deep fiber). jobs as a result.1 Communications infrastructure upgrade The need for deep fiber 03 Communications infrastructure upgrade | The need for deep fiber Deep fiber is the To meet future The current next front in the broadband wireline industry battle to lead the needs, the United construct does world in Internet States needs an not incent enough speed and capacity estimated $130– fiber deployment Unlocking the full potential of 5G in the 150 billion of fiber Some wireline carriers are reluctant or United States rests on a key assumption: unable to invest in fiber for the consumer the extension of fiber deep into the infrastructure segment despite the potential benefits. network. Despite the demand and potential investment Expected wireline CAPEX ranges between economic benefits of fiber deployment, 14–18 percent of revenue. Wireline OPEX can 9 the United States lacks the fiber density in A Deloitte Consulting LLP analysis estimates be 80 percent of revenue. Fiber deployment access networks to make the bandwidth that the United States requires between in access networks is only justified today if advancements necessary to improve the $130 and $150 billion over the next 5–7 a short payback period can be guaranteed, pace of innovation and economic growth. years to adequately support broadband a new footprint is being built, repairs from Increased speed and capacity from 5G will competition, rural coverage and wireless rebuilding after a storm or other event rely on higher frequencies and network densification. Such ambitious infrastructure justifies replacement, or in subsidized 2, 3 densification. Carriers will deploy many investment could derive from a variety of geographies where Universal Service funds more small cells, homespots, and hotspots sources including communications service can be used. in higher bands, with a coverage radius providers, financial investors and public- measured in meters versus kilometers. private partnerships. The largest US wireline carriers spend, on Without more deep fiber, carriers will be average, five to six times more on operating 10 unable to support the projected four-fold Our estimates include funding for three expenses than capital expenditures. increase in mobile data traffic between broad categories of fiber deployment: Excessive operating expenditures caused, 4 2016 and 2021. fiber for wireless densification, fiber to in part, by legacy TDM network technology increase consumer and business broadband restrict carriers’ ability to leverage digital A second motivation for “deep fiber” competition and fiber to serve rural/ technology advancements. Worse, as deployment is to increase broadband underserved geographies. Moreover, our legacy TDM networks continue to descale, service choice for residential and models suggest massive synergies between the percentage of fixed costs overwhelms business customers. Deep fiber is a the build required for wireless densification the cost structure leading to even greater key tool for the national infrastructure and adding broadband competition in urban margin pressure. imperative to provide consumers areas. There are also additional benefits high-speed broadband connections no between densification and underserved In the last five years, wireline carriers matter where they live at prices they can communities. With more than 60 percent have lost seven points of market share afford, closing the “digital divide.” of total costs for construction, permits and in broadband access, mainly to cable design,8 fiber providers may need to share operators. Cable operators, who have the Wireline broadband access supports as last mile access routes and rights of way advantage of a more modern coax network, 5 much as 90 percent of all Internet traffic where possible to realize such synergies. do not have these legacy constraints and even though the majority of the traffic have aggressively deployed high-speed ultimately terminates on a wireless device. broadband access using DOCSIS 3.0 and 3.1 However, twelve years after the first fiber upgrades. Cable operators currently cover to the home (FTTH) deployments, only 38 more than 85 percent percent of US homes percent of homes have a choice of two with Internet speeds of 25 Mbps or greater.10 providers offering speeds of at least 25 Mbps.6 In rural communities, only 61 percent of the population have access to 25 Mbps wireline broadband, and when they do, they can pay as much as a three times the premium over suburban customers.7 04 Communications infrastructure upgrade | The need for deep fiber Generating sufficient cash flow to motivate Carriers should consider: fiber upgrades means building a business Carriers and • Establishing deep fiber as a top model based on simplicity and capital priority investment for the long term. productivity. This will not happen without policymakers completing the migration from TDM to an can share • Redesigning business models and all-IP network. The complexity imposed processes based on digital sales on IP services by legacy product iteration responsibility and care channels. and cumbersome IT systems increases • Providing a more limited set of operational costs, drives up failure rates, for motivating standard IP products to substitute and leaves customers unhappy. investment in fiber legacy TDM products. • Mobile operators, not required to support legacy services, require approximately The lack of funding and motivation to US policymakers should consider: one-eighth the care staff and receive deploy fiber leaves the future of wireless • Eliminating regulatory barriers that half as many inbound calls per customer and wireline connectivity uncertain. prevent carriers from operating a single compared to wireline network operators.11 Wireline telecommunications companies IP network, impede deployment of are choosing to invest in areas other than • A survey by Nemertes Research found a additional fiber assets, or restrict the fiber deployment including satellite TV, reduction in average time to repair from types of services that may be offered. advertising, content and advanced business 21 hours to 5 hours for a single, end-to- services. Similarly, infrastructure funds • Avoiding regulation that limits end IP network.12 and REITs have made few investments in carrier innovation in creating new • French wireless and wireline provider, telecommunications assets. Many wireline monetization mechanisms or voluntary Iliad, operates an all IP network with carriers depreciate 1.2x–1.3x as much sharing of deep fiber and associated approximately 3 to 4 employees per PPE as they add in a given year, leaving a communications infrastructure such 10,000 customers compared to 12 to 15 declining net asset base to service increased as trenches, conduit, rights of way and employees per 10,000 customers for US demand.15 cell sites. providers.13, 14 • Dispersing Universal Service support Many countries, including the United more efficiently to coordinate/ Carriers stand to gain tremendous States, prioritize ubiquitous affordable encourage deep fiber programs. efficiency from deploying new IP networking broadband as a policy objective. The United architectures like Software Defined States ranks tenth in the world for average Reforms to the Universal Services Networks (SDN) and Network Function broadband speed and percentage of users Administrative Company (USAC) to improve Virtualization (NFV). This technology is also with over 25 Mbps.16 This is remarkable, operational efficiency is a prerequisite important to provide the scale and elasticity as the United States has almost six times to implement a coordinated deep fiber required to support 5G networks in the the cumulative land area of the nine program. Recently, USAC has come under future. However, the requirement to operate countries ranked above
Load more

Recommended publications
  • ROUND the BEND TEAM Being Through Our Efforts
    Round the bend Farm A CENTER FOR RESTORATIVE COMMUNITY 1 LETTER FROM THE It’s been an AMAZING monarch year for us here at RTB. We even offered CO-VISIONARIES a monarch class in July Desa & Nia Van Laarhoven and we’ve been hatching & Geoff Kinder some at RTB to increase s fall descends on Round the Bend Farm their odds. (RTB), vivid colors mark the passage of time. Autumn’s return grounds us amid Aeach day’s frenetic news cycles. It reminds us of the deeper cycle that connects us all to the earth and to each other. And yet one news story, from late September, has done the same. More than 7.5 million people came together in cities and villages across the planet to call in unison for an environmentally just and sustainable world. This is a story that speaks to RTB’s mission and purpose and demonstrates the concept of Restorative Community that’s so central to our existence. You can see it in the image that juxtaposed September’s global crowds with the prior year’s solitary Swedish protester. You can hear it in the words spoken by an Indigenous Brazilian teen to 250,000 people lining the streets of New York City. Restorative Community is a force multiplier for our own personal commitments to justice, health and peace. It nurtures and supports us as individuals, unites and strengthens us as a movement and harnesses our differences in service of our common goals. In community, we respect, enjoy and learn from each other. As you page through this year’s annual report, we hope you experience the same! We’re This past year, we continued to expand our inspired and encouraged by what we’ve Restorative Community at RTB, more than accomplished this year and we’re honored to doubling the number of people who visited serve our community in ever new ways.
    [Show full text]
  • Unintended Consequences of the American Presidential Selection System
    \\jciprod01\productn\H\HLP\15-1\HLP104.txt unknown Seq: 1 14-JUL-21 12:54 The Best Laid Plans: Unintended Consequences of the American Presidential Selection System Samuel S.-H. Wang and Jacob S. Canter* The mechanism for selecting the President of the United States, the Electoral College, causes outcomes that weaken American democracy and that the delegates at the Constitu- tional Convention never intended. The core selection process described in Article II, Section 1 was hastily drawn in the final days of the Convention based on compromises made originally to benefit slave-owning states and states with smaller populations. The system was also drafted to have electors deliberate and then choose the President in an age when travel and news took weeks or longer to cross the new country. In the four decades after ratification, the Electoral College was modified further to reach its current form, which includes most states using a winner-take-all method to allocate electors. The original needs this system was designed to address have now disappeared. But the persistence of these Electoral College mechanisms still causes severe unanticipated problems, including (1) con- tradictions between the electoral vote winner and national popular vote winner, (2) a “battleground state” phenomenon where all but a handful of states are safe for one political party or the other, (3) representational and policy benefits that citizens in only some states receive, (4) a decrease in the political power of non-battleground demographic groups, and (5) vulnerability of elections to interference. These outcomes will not go away without intervention.
    [Show full text]
  • Next-Gen Technology Transformation in Financial Services
    April 2020 Next-gen Technology transformation in Financial Services Introduction Financial Services technology is currently in the midst of a profound transformation, as CIOs and their teams prepare to embrace the next major phase of digital transformation. The challenge they face is significant: in a competitive environment of rising cost pressures, where rapid action and response is imperative, financial institutions must modernize their technology function to support expanded digitization of both the front and back ends of their businesses. Furthermore, the current COVID-19 situation is putting immense pressure on technology capabilities (e.g., remote working, new cyber-security threats) and requires CIOs to anticipate and prepare for the “next normal” (e.g., accelerated shift to digital channels). Most major financial institutions are well aware of the imperative for action and have embarked on the necessary transformation. However, it is early days—based on our experience, most are only at the beginning of their journey. And in addition to the pressures mentioned above, many are facing challenges in terms of funding, complexity, and talent availability. This collection of articles—gathered from our recent publishing on the theme of financial services technology—is intended to serve as a roadmap for executives tasked with ramping up technology innovation, increasing tech productivity, and modernizing their platforms. The articles are organized into three major themes: 1. Reimagine the role of technology to be a business and innovation partner 2. Reinvent technology delivery to drive a step change in productivity and speed 3. Future-proof the foundation by building flexible and secure platforms The pace of change in financial services technology—as with technology more broadly—leaves very little time for leaders to respond.
    [Show full text]
  • Sustainability Guidebook
    SUSTAINABILITY GUIDEBOOK ©LEVI STRAUSS & CO. | December 2013 | Sustainability Guidebook Table of Contents Introduction Ratings defined Chapter One – Labor Standards 1. Child Labor 2. Prison Labor/Forced Labor 3. Disciplinary Practices 4. Legal Requirements 5. Ethical Standards 6. Working Hours 7. Wages and Benefits 8. General Labor Practices and Freedom of Association 9. Discrimination 10. Community Involvement 11. Foreign Migrant Labor 12. Dormitories 13. Permits Chapter Two – Environment, Health & Safety Part I : Safety Guidelines 1. Safety Committees 2. Risk Assessment 3. Emergency Preparedness 4. Building Integrity 5. Aisles and Exits 6. Lighting 7. Housekeeping 8. Electrical Safety 9. Control of Hazardous Energy/Lock‐Out/Tag‐Out 10. Machine Guarding 11. Powered Industrial Trucks 12. Noise Management 13. Personal Protective Equipment 14. Ventilation 15. Chemical Management 16. Extreme Temperatures 17. Asbestos Management 18. Occupational Exposure Limits 19. Signs and Labels 20. Maintenance Part II : Finishing Guidelines 1. Finishing Safety Guidelines 2. Hand Scraping 3. Laser Etching 4. Resin/Curing 5. Screen Printing 6. Spraying 7. Abrasive Blasting 8. Ozone Part III : Health Guidelines 1. First Aid 2. Preventing Communicable Disease Part IV : Environment Guidelines 1. Global Effluent Requirements 2. Domestic Wastewater Requirements 3. Biosolids Management 4. Waste Management 2.1 Transporting Hazardous Materials 2.2 Hazardous Waste Management 2.3 Solid Waste Management 5. Preventing Storm Water Pollution 6. Aboveground/Underground Storage ©LEVI STRAUSS & CO. | December 2013 | Sustainability Guidebook | Table of contents | page 1 Appendix A : SAFETY GUIDELINES 1. Safety Committees 2. Emergency Preparedness 3. Aisles and Exits 4. Housekeeping Checklist 5. Electrical Safety Inspection Checklist 6. Lock‐Out/Tag‐Out 7.
    [Show full text]
  • Ncbr (Fastlane)
    APPLICANT CONTACT Port of Moses Lake Jeffrey Bishop, Executive Director 7810 Andrews N.E. Suite 200 Moses Lake, WA 98837 Port of Moses Lake www.portofmoseslake.com [email protected] Project Name Northern Columbia Basin Railroad Project Was a FASTLANE application for this project submitted previously? Yes If yes, what was the name of the project in the previous application? Northern Columbia Basin Railroad Project Previously Incurred Project Costs $2.1 million Future Eligible Project Costs $30.3 million Total Project Costs $32.4 million Total Federal Funding (including FASTLANE) $9.9 million Are matching funds restricted to a specific project component? If so, No which one? Is the project of a portion of the project currently located on Yes National Highway Freight Network? Is the project of a portion on the project located on the NHS? This project crosses under the NHS as well is it runs adjacent to the NHS Does the project add capacity to the Interstate system? Yes, by diverting VMT to rail Is the project in a national scenic area? No Does the project components include a railway-highway grade No crossing or grade separation project? The project includes crossing If so, please include the grade crossing ID improvements. Do the project components include an intermodal or freight rail Yes project, or freight project within the boundaries of a public or private freight rail, water (including ports, or intermodal facility? If answered yes to either of the two component questions above, $9.9 million how much of requested FASTLANE
    [Show full text]
  • The Popular Culture Studies Journal
    THE POPULAR CULTURE STUDIES JOURNAL VOLUME 6 NUMBER 1 2018 Editor NORMA JONES Liquid Flicks Media, Inc./IXMachine Managing Editor JULIA LARGENT McPherson College Assistant Editor GARRET L. CASTLEBERRY Mid-America Christian University Copy Editor Kevin Calcamp Queens University of Charlotte Reviews Editor MALYNNDA JOHNSON Indiana State University Assistant Reviews Editor JESSICA BENHAM University of Pittsburgh Please visit the PCSJ at: http://mpcaaca.org/the-popular-culture- studies-journal/ The Popular Culture Studies Journal is the official journal of the Midwest Popular and American Culture Association. Copyright © 2018 Midwest Popular and American Culture Association. All rights reserved. MPCA/ACA, 421 W. Huron St Unit 1304, Chicago, IL 60654 Cover credit: Cover Artwork: “Wrestling” by Brent Jones © 2018 Courtesy of https://openclipart.org EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD ANTHONY ADAH FALON DEIMLER Minnesota State University, Moorhead University of Wisconsin-Madison JESSICA AUSTIN HANNAH DODD Anglia Ruskin University The Ohio State University AARON BARLOW ASHLEY M. DONNELLY New York City College of Technology (CUNY) Ball State University Faculty Editor, Academe, the magazine of the AAUP JOSEF BENSON LEIGH H. EDWARDS University of Wisconsin Parkside Florida State University PAUL BOOTH VICTOR EVANS DePaul University Seattle University GARY BURNS JUSTIN GARCIA Northern Illinois University Millersville University KELLI S. BURNS ALEXANDRA GARNER University of South Florida Bowling Green State University ANNE M. CANAVAN MATTHEW HALE Salt Lake Community College Indiana University, Bloomington ERIN MAE CLARK NICOLE HAMMOND Saint Mary’s University of Minnesota University of California, Santa Cruz BRIAN COGAN ART HERBIG Molloy College Indiana University - Purdue University, Fort Wayne JARED JOHNSON ANDREW F. HERRMANN Thiel College East Tennessee State University JESSE KAVADLO MATTHEW NICOSIA Maryville University of St.
    [Show full text]
  • CHP As a Boiler Replacement At
    Andy Colwell AnnMarie Mountz Penn State is a World Class University with more than 50,000 students, faculty and staff on campus on any given day. As a provider of utilities, Steam Services plays an important supporting role in the success of the University’s mission of teaching, research and service. 3/19/10 2 • Buildings Served • +40 Operations and • +700 total Maintenance Staff • +200 served with steam Power Plants • +19 million ft2 18 Operators 8 daylight maintenance • +10 engineering and 6 Coal and Ash handlers technical support 2 supervisors Distribution 7 Daylight Maintenance 1 supervisor 2 Staff Assistants 4/30/2013 3/19/10 3 4/30/2013 3/19/10 4 Additional Steam Capacity • Steam demands began to exceed firm capacity Aging Infrastructure • Last steam capacity upgrade was 1971 Essential Services • Where/How to care for 10,000+ folks during a total loss of power to campus • Estimated we need 12 mW to do this 4/30/2013 3/19/10 5 4/30/2013 3/19/10 6 4/30/2013 3/19/10 7 exhaust Steam to campus 32 kpph un-fired 117,000 kpph fired RENTEC HRSG 900 oF Natural gas or oil Combustor 7mW SOLAR TAURUS 70 air 4/30/2013 3/19/10 8 Combustion Turbine $3.9 million HRSG $1.4 million Total Project $19 million 4/30/2013 3/19/10 9 Covers • Planned in-service and out-of-service maintenance • Service calls • Complete overhaul after 30,000 hours Costs • $21,000/month, $35 per hour • ~$600,000 per year 4/30/2013 10 3/19/10 Before ECSP Upgrades Electricity After ECSP CHP Prior to 2011 Generated After 2011 (kWh) Electricity 4% Generated (kWh)
    [Show full text]
  • Better Buildings Residential Network Peer Exchange Call Series
    2_Title Slide Better Buildings Residential Network Peer Exchange Call Series: Addressing Barriers to Upgrade Projects at Affordable Multifamily Properties (201) March 10, 2016 Call Slides and Discussion Summary Call Attendee Locations 2 Call Participants – Network Members . Alabama Energy Doctors . Greater Cincinnati Energy Alliance . Alaska Housing Finance Corporation . green|spaces . American Council for an Energy-Efficient . GRID Alternatives Economy (ACEEE) . International Center for Appropriate and . Austin Energy Sustainable Technology (ICAST) . BlueGreen Alliance Foundation . Johnson Environmental . Bridging The Gap . Metropolitan Washington Council of . CalCERTS, Inc. Governments (MWCOG) . Center for Sustainable Energy . Michigan Saves . City of Aspen Utilities and Environmental . National Grid (Rhode Island) Initiatives . National Housing Trust/Enterprise . City of Kansas City, Missouri . PUSH Buffalo . City of Plano . Research Into Action, Inc. CLEAResult . Solar and Energy Loan Fund (SELF) . District of Columbia Sustainable Energy . Southface Utility . Stewards of Affordable Housing for the . Duke Carbon Offsets Initiative Future . EcoWorks . Vermont Energy Investment Corporation . Elevate Energy (VEIC) . Energize New York . Wisconsin Energy Conservation . Energy Efficiency Specialists Corporation (WECC) . Fujitsu General America Inc. Yolo County Housing 3 Call Participants – Non-Members (1 of 3) . Affordable Community Energy . City of Chicago . AppleBlossom Energy Inc. City of Minneapolis . Architectural Nexus . City of Orlando
    [Show full text]
  • Battleground 2014 (XLIII)
    Battleground 2014 (XLIII) FINAL STUDY #14107 THE TARRANCE GROUP and LAKE RESEARCH PARTNERS N = 1,000 Registered “likely” voters Margin of error + 3.1% Field Dates: January 12-16, 2014 Hello, I'm _______________ of The Tarrance Group, a national survey research firm. We're talking to people today about public leaders and issues facing us all. IF CELL CODE = “N”, ASK: May I please speak with the youngest (male/female) in the household who is registered to vote? IF CELL CODE = “Y”, ASK: CP-1. Do you currently live in (state from cell sample sheet)? Yes (CONTINUE TO CP-3) No (CONTINUE TO CP-2) _____________________________________________________________________________________________ IF “NO” IN CP-1, ASK: CP-2. In what state do you current reside? __________________________ (RECORD STATE NAME) _____________________________________________________________________________________________ IF CELL CODE = “Y”, ASK: CP-3. For your safety, are you driving right now? Yes (SCHEDULE CALL BACK) No _____________________________________________________________________________________________ A. Are you registered to vote in your state? IF "NO," ASK: Is there someone else at home who is registered to vote? (IF "YES," THEN ASK: MAY I SPEAK WITH HIM/HER?) Yes (CONTINUE) No (THANK AND TERMINATE) *=less than .5% 1 And… B. What is the likelihood of your voting in the elections for US Congress that will be held in November 2014-- are you extremely likely, very likely, somewhat likely, or not very likely at all to vote? Extremely Likely ..................................................... 60% (CONTINUE) Very Likely .............................................................. 27% Somewhat Likely ..................................................... 13% (THANK AND TERMINATE) Not Very Likely UNSURE (DNR) (UPELECT) C. Are you, or is anyone in your household, employed with an advertising agency, newspaper, television or radio station, or political campaign? Yes (THANK AND TERMINATE) No (CONTINUE) Now, thinking for a moment about things in the country-- 1.
    [Show full text]
  • The Atlantic Return and the Payback of Evangelization
    Vol. 3, no. 2 (2013), 207-221 | URN:NBN:NL:UI:10-1-114482 The Atlantic Return and the Payback of Evangelization VALENTINA NAPOLITANO* Abstract This article explores Catholic, transnational Latin American migration to Rome as a gendered and ethnicized Atlantic Return, which is figured as a source of ‘new blood’ that fortifies the Catholic Church but which also profoundly unset- tles it. I analyze this Atlantic Return as an angle on the affective force of his- tory in critical relation to two main sources: Diego Von Vacano’s reading of the work of Bartolomeo de las Casas, a 16th-century Spanish Dominican friar; and to Nelson Maldonado-Torres’ notion of the ‘coloniality of being’ which he suggests has operated in Atlantic relations as enduring and present forms of racial de-humanization. In his view this latter can be counterbalanced by embracing an economy of the gift understood as gendered. However, I argue that in the light of a contemporary payback of evangelization related to the original ‘gift of faith’ to the Americas, this economy of the gift is less liberatory than Maldonado-Torres imagines, and instead part of a polyfaceted reproduc- tion of a postsecular neoliberal affective, and gendered labour regime. Keywords Transnational migration; Catholicism; economy of the gift; de Certeau; Atlantic Return; Latin America; Rome. Author affiliation Valentina Napolitano is an Associate Professor in the Department of Anthro- pology and the Director of the Latin American Studies Program, University of *Correspondence: Department of Anthropology, University of Toronto, 19 Russell St., Toronto, M5S 2S2, Canada. E-mail: [email protected] This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License (3.0) Religion and Gender | ISSN: 1878-5417 | www.religionandgender.org | Igitur publishing Downloaded from Brill.com09/30/2021 10:21:12AM via free access Napolitano: The Atlantic Return and the Payback of Evangelization Toronto.
    [Show full text]
  • Funding On-Farm Anaerobic Digestion September 2012
    Funding On-Farm Anaerobic Digestion September 2012 naerobic digestion of on-farm manure resources offers Some examples of programs where federal and state agencies livestock and poultry producers (farm operators) a unique provide grant funding for the construction and operation of Aopportunity to increase on-farm revenue. As energy costs anaerobic digesters include the U.S. Department of Agriculture become a larger part of the farm operation budget, farm operators (USDA) Rural Energy for America Program (REAP) and Ohio’s are increasingly looking to energy efficiency and renewable energy State Energy Program. In some cases, federal-level funding projects as a viable option for increasing farm revenues. One such sources (i.e., American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009, option is anaerobic digestion of animal manure, a waste resource or ARRA) provide states with grant money that is administered at that has considerable potential for generating clean, renewable, the state level. For additional information on funding programs domestic energy. available for anaerobic digesters, see the fact sheet Funding Programs for Developing Anaerobic Digestion Systems (http:// One of the biggest obstacles to widespread adoption of on-farm www.epa.gov/agstar/documents/agstar_federal_incentives.pdf), anaerobic digestion has been its cost. Anaerobic digesters require and also the AgSTAR Funding database, Funding On-Farm Biogas significant amounts of up-front capital costs (expenditures), in Recovery Systems: A Guide to Federal and State Resources (http://
    [Show full text]
  • Environmental Standards, Thresholds, and the Next Battleground of Climate Change Regulations
    Article Environmental Standards, Thresholds, and the Next Battleground of Climate Change Regulations Kimberly M. Castle† and Richard L. Revesz†† Introduction .......................................................................... 1350 I. Traditional Risk Assessment Models ............................. 1363 A. Carcinogens ............................................................... 1363 B. Noncarcinogens Other than Criteria Pollutants ..... 1371 II. Treatment of Criteria Pollutants ................................... 1377 A. Clean Air Act Amendments of 1977 ......................... 1378 B. Shift in the EPA’s Approach: A Case Study of Lead ....................................................................... 1383 C. Rejecting Thresholds and Calculating Benefits Below the NAAQS .................................................... 1391 III. Calculating Health Benefits from Particulate Matter Reductions Below the NAAQS ....................................... 1397 A. Scientific Basis .......................................................... 1400 B. Regulatory Treatment .............................................. 1409 C. Addressing Uncertainty ........................................... 1413 D. Adjusting Baselines .................................................. 1417 IV. Considering Co-Benefits ................................................. 1421 A. Co-Benefits and Indirect Costs ................................ 1424 B. The EPA’s Practice ................................................... 1427 † Research Scholar, Institute
    [Show full text]