RICE UNIVERSITY Crushed Pearls: The Revival and Transformation of the Buddhist Nuns' Order in Taiwan by Hua-Chen Jenny Lin A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE Doctor of Philosophy APPROVED, THESIS COMMITTEE: Jeffrey ^TKripal, J. Newton Rayzor Professor, Chair Religious Studies William B. Parsons, Associate Professor Religious Studies Richard/I. Smith Geor^<? and Nancy Rupp Professor of Hjimanities and Professor of History HOUSTON, TEXAS MAY 2010 UMI Number: 3421427 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. UMI Dissertation Publishing UMI 3421427 Copyright 2010 by ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This edition of the work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. uest ProQuest LLC 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 ABSTRACT Crashed Pearls: The Revival and Transformation of the Buddhist Nuns' Order in Taiwan by Hua-Chen Jenny Lin This dissertation examines the impacts of religious movements through a multi- layered study of the Buddhist renaissance that emerged in Taiwan in the 1980s. By examining this historically important development, I clarify the process by which movements transform social structures and the constraints that the movements encounter. This dissertation includes a recent history of rapid political liberalization and economic growth, the legalization of abortion and the expansion of women's rights, campaigns against human trafficking and prostitution, and the formation of the first lesbian group in Taiwan. I use two major research strategies: (1) a historical analysis of data and (2) a Hakka case study. Data have been collected from archives, interviews, newspapers, and published reports. This dissertation challenges the argument that movements are inconsequential, and that the courts, economic elites, or political parties are the main propelling agents causing institutional change. In general, these groups respond to the demands of movements, particularly the leverage brought to bear by feminist and religious movements. The Buddhist renaissance movement in Taiwan attempted to re­ establish the broken lineages of nuns to confront challenges of inequality and injustice. By pressing for changes in traditions, the Buddhist movement has improved the Taiwanese legal culture and system, as well as the status of women in Taiwan. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS A number of people graciously read the first and revised drafts of this dissertation. Among those whose advice and support I found most valuable were Dr. Jeffrey J. Kripal, Newton Rayzor Professor and Chair of Religious Studies at Rice University, Dr. William B. Parsons, Associate Professor of Religious Studies at Rice University, and Dr. Richard J. Smith, George and Nancy Rupp Professor of Humanities and Professor of History at Rice University. The fruition of this dissertation would not have been possible without their guidance and nurturing personalities. Their success as scholars and key administrators inspires me. The final version, of course, presents only my judgment and errors in judgment. Special gratitude is extended to Dr. Stephen C. Finley for his friendship, encouragement, and insight throughout this long course. He has been a big brother to me since we started our graduate careers together at Rice University in 2002. I am deeply grateful to Dr. and Mrs. Charles H. Hambrick. The generous scholarship and mentorship they provided for me at Vanderbilt University opened new doors for me. Above all, I thank my family. My husband, William Cho, provides continued encouragement and constant love, patience, and understanding. His tremendous drive and belief that he can achieve anything inspire me. My sister, Iris, has always been there for me. My brother, Charles, motivates me to be a strong role model. Lastly, it is because of my parents, Kuei-Ying and Jung Shiau, that I had so many outstanding and unique opportunities. iv CONTENTS Acknowledgments iii 1. Introduction Progressive and Religious: How Nuns in Taiwan Are Transforming Buddhism 1 Buddhism and Gender 7 Goddesses versus Real Women 8 Women and Broken Lineages 13 Defying Established Systems 14 Special Responsibility to Achieve Gender Equity 18 2. Is Buddhism Inherently Sexist? 20 Shakyamuni's Sexist View 21 The Inconsistencies in Sexual Transformation 30 The Problem with Sex 40 Essentialism versus Constructivism 48 Economic Realities 53 Buddhist Violence Against Women 57 Social Necessity to Restore the Nuns' Order 61 3. Chinese Buddhism: The Synthesis of Past and Present 66 The Onset of Religious Daoism 67 The Common Practice of Popular Religion 68 Major Religious Texts, Interpretations and Rituals 70 The Rituals of Ancestor Worship 73 The Impositions of Proscriptions 82 The Impact of Social Changes 93 Taiwan's Revolt Against the "Backwardness of China" 95 4. Buddhist Renaissance in Taiwan 106 History of Buddhism in Taiwan 111 Modernizing and Popularizing the Buddhist Image 120 Lu Xui Lian and the Critics Against Confucian Traditions 121 Universalism and Personalization 129 Women in Chinese Buddhist Schools 139 Confucius's Impact on Buddhism in China 150 The Impact of Philosophical Daoism 151 V 5. The Hakka: Why Most Hakka Embrace Buddhism and Syncretism 154 Migratory Outcasts with a Pioneering Spirit 158 The Mystery of Their Ethnic Evolution 159 Theories of Hakka Origins 173 The Waves of the Hakka Diaspora 184 The Hakka-Korean Link 197 The Compatibility of Buddhism and Hakka Adaptation and Transformation 206 6. The Monastic Practices of Hakka Buddhist Nuns in Meinong Village 213 Polite Resistance to Christian Missionaries 214 The Daily Practices of Hakka Buddhist Nuns 215 The Hakka Buddhist Community and the Preservation of Mahayana Buddhism 218 Hakka Buddhist Nuns as Active Actors 223 Hakka Buddhist Nuns as a Feminist Movement 226 Religious Symbols 228 Structure of the Nuns'Order 230 New Opportunities for Education 234 Social and Economic Conditions 237 7. Conclusion Realities and Innovators of the Mahayana Tradition 239 Taiwan's Feminist Movement and Western Feminism 240 Sacrifice and Strategy 242 Economic Growth and Political Liberalization 245 Buddhist Nuns, the "Hakka Card," and Government Decisions 248 The Revitalization of the Nuns' Order as a Necessity to Right Action 251 Notes 253 Bibliography 279 1 INTRODUCTION Progressive and Religious: How Nuns in Taiwan Are Transforming Buddhism In Buddhism's 2,500-year history, Buddhist nuns and laywomen's voices, achievements, and stories have been overshadowed by those of their male counterparts. More recently, however, new generations of scholars and practitioners have begun focusing on the previously neglected contributions of Buddhist women in order to advocate new gender equity. This dissertation expands the purview of Chinese Buddhist studies by presenting historical evidence and providing new data through textual analyses and interviews that advance critical interpretation of the meaning and significance of female monastic practice. The study contributes to Hakka studies, Chinese studies, and religious studies because I highlight important moments of Chinese history that help explain why Buddhist nuns in Taiwan, particularly Hakka Buddhist nuns, are becoming so prominent today. The materials I present elucidate the activities of the nuns fighting for and gaining opportunities in this century. They also shed light upon how nuns in Taiwan practice Buddhism in the contemporary era. Changes in Chinese religiosity as Taiwan rapidly moved from a traditional society with a rich cultural heritage to an affluent, modernized lifestyle are also considered. I investigate developments in this century in terms of the features that are unique to monastic women. I attempt to present the Hakka nuns' perspective on their history, that is, their own interpretation of their lives and practices. Hakka women in Meinong have chosen a Buddhist monastic lifestyle, complete with celibacy vows and the pursuit 2 of compassion, wisdom, and enlightenment. The structure of their lives is regulated by Chinese Buddhist monastic practices. In addition to exploring their lives as an example of human religiosity, this work also addresses concerns found in historiography, Chinese studies, women's studies, and ethnographic studies. As an Asian American with a Hakka background who has lived in Taiwan, the United States, and Central America and was raised in a family where my mother is a Baptist and my father considers himself Buddhist, I offer a perspective that is unique, but certainly not universal or neutral. This text will examine the history of Buddhism in Taiwan and its recent Buddhist renaissance. Buddhism was introduced into Taiwan by pioneers from Fujian and Guandong provinces during the end of the Ming dynasty. Buddhist practices were deterred by the Dutch colonial rulers who controlled Taiwan from 1624 until 1663. The "free" practice of Buddhism began under Ming dynasty rule after Zheng Chenggong defeated the Dutch from Taiwan in 1663. Zheng Chenggong's son, Zheng Jing, founded the first Buddhist temple in Taiwan, which gained rapid popularity.1 After the defeat of Zheng Jing's son, Jing Ning, in 1683, the Jing dynasty controlled Taiwan. From 1683 to 1895, under Jing rule, numerous monks migrated