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The Austronesian Languages of Asia and Madagascar
Alexander Adelaar, Nikolaus P. Himmelmann
Colonial History and Language Policy in Insular Southeast Asia and Madagascar
Publication details https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9780203821121.ch3 Hein Steinhauer Published online on: 25 Nov 2004
How to cite :- Hein Steinhauer. 25 Nov 2004, Colonial History and Language Policy in Insular Southeast Asia and Madagascar from: The Austronesian Languages of Asia and Madagascar Routledge Accessed on: 30 Sep 2021 https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9780203821121.ch3
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The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents will be complete or accurate or up to date. The publisher shall not be liable for an loss, actions, claims, proceedings, demand or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material. Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 04:14 30 Sep 2021; For: 9780203821121, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203821121.ch3 LANGUAGES h exclusion oftheuninitiatedorpossible evil powers (taboolanguages;see the lawsuits,charms, traditional ceremonies,interethniccontact,andsituationsrequiring communities thereexisted andstillexist suchas languagevarieties forspecialpurposes, accommodated withintheexisting language ecology. Inmany ifnotalllanguage be long beforetheEuropeanexpansion andthelanguagesoftheirholy scriptureshadto been monolingualstates.Hinduism,BuddhismandIslamhad been supra-ethnicreligions empires which hadexisted beforethearrival oftheEuropeanshadinalllikelihood not and various Philippinelanguageswere usedinscript. The sultanates,kingdomsand Languages suchasCham,Malay, Sundanese,Javanese, Buginese, Makassarese,Batak times mustnecessarily remainamatterofconjectureandcircumstantialevidence. invague reconstructed terms. To what extent languagepoliciesexisted inpre-colonial be indigenous languagesfromEastIndonesia). Asiatic, Sinitic, Arabic, Dravidian, Indo-Europeanandofcoursethenon-Austronesian otherthan 200 languagesinthisareabelongtolanguagegroups Austronesian (Austro- oftheir numberofspeakers, althoughmorethan themajorityalsointerms guages form well over 10%oftheestimatednumberlanguagesworld. Austronesian lan- Singapore, Taiwan,(Guam, countries Thailand,and Vietnam). western Austronesian languageswhich arespoken by a(sizable) minorityinneighboring Philippines andMadagascar. Inadditionsomenoteswillbepresentedwithregard to its mothertongue,i.e.inMalaysia, Indonesia,East Timor, the Darussalam, Brunei countries inwhich amajorityofthepopulationhaswestern Austronesian languageas andpracticeoflanguagepolicy inthose The presentchapterdiscussesbackground INTRODUCTION 1 artificial characterofmany ofthe artificial Hein Steinhauer AND MADAGASCAR INSULAR SOUTHEAST ASIA LANGUAGE POLICYIN COLONIAL HISTORY AND CHAPTER THREE ( since becomeamatterofcommunicative competencemay oncehave beenpurposeful ngoko The linguistic ecology of the area before the arrival of the first Europeans canonlyThe linguisticecology oftheareabeforearrival ofthefirst The areaunderdiscussionischaracterizedby awidevariety oflanguages,totalling The phenomenonofspeechlevels inlanguagessuchasJavanese, andespecially the ) words inthatlanguage,suggests consciouslanguageengineering. What has ). ‘ ceremonial 65 ’ ( krama ) counterparts of ) counterparts F ‘ ox, common RITUAL ’ Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 04:14 30 Sep 2021; For: 9780203821121, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203821121.ch3 proselytizing activities. For alongtimeProtestantmindswere divided over thevariety of time toProtestantism. Again itwas Malay which becamethemainvehicle oftheir by converting themagain,this themonthespiritualbattlefield Dutch, they hadtofight Southeast Asia. And sinceconverts toCatholicism meantasafetyriskfortheProtestant Europe. Beingatwar withSpaininEurope,they were alsoatwar withthePortuguese in themselves inordertoacquirethegoodsthey usedtoship fromPortugal totherestof Spain beingincharge ofthePortuguese harbors,theDutchhadtosailSoutheast Asia earlier,a century were atwar withSpainover hightaxes andfreedomofreligion. With united withSpain. oftheSpanishempireabout The Netherlands,which hadbecomepart the Moluccans. Malaymonths inMalaccaordertolearn beforesailingontoEastIndonesiaconvert was mostwidely understood:Malay. The JesuitFrancis Xavier, forinstance,spentsome spread Catholicism. wasAnd thelanguagethey thelanguagewhich usedforthispurpose themselves totradeaftertheirconquestofMalaccain1511. They vigorously to started outside Portugal, anditlay inthenatureoftheir Malay. For againstthe centuries thePortuguese hadbeenfighting the roleofMalaccaascenterIslamicMalay culture.Itdidnotchangetheroleof Islam intheharbortowns ofthearchipelago. The arrival ofthePortuguese putanendto tointroduce because MuslimmerchantsfromIndiaandtheMiddleEastwere thefirst the languageofinterethnictrade,ithadalsobecomeIslam,presumably of interethniccommunicationinSoutheast Asia andbeyond. Notonly diditfunctionas EuropeansMalay hadbecomethemajorlanguage At thetimeofarrival ofthefirst INDONESIA 2 and discusstheroleofchurchesonly inrelationtothepoliciesof states. organizations, notably societies.ButIshallconcentrateontheroleofstate missionary of thecountriesinvolved. Notonly governments alsoother hadtheirlanguagepolicies,but politicians. to develop by andEuropean intostates,whose Europeanarmies borderswere defined active politicalconcern. The areasunderdiscussioncamestatecontrolandstarted tion throughlarge-scale plantationandminingprojectsdidlanguagebecomeamatterof ference by conquering thehinterlandsoftheirearliersettlementsandby active exploita- to make converts. needs were limitedtothenecessityobtaincommoditiesfortradeand, toalesserextent, macy andwar, bothwithregional powers andrival Europeans. Their communicative their immediatehinterlands.Inpracticeitwas dependentonthevicissitudesofdiplo- convoys withtheirsuperiorwar potential. its linguisticecology changeddramatically with thearrival oftheEuropeanmercantile Southeast Asia may have beenattheendofEuropeanMiddle Ages, itisobvious that with anavy, andpower ofagun. Whatever comesfromthebarrel thesituationin words andutterances. interference by someauthorityinthechoiceofalanguagevariety oreven intheshapeof THEAUSTRONESIANLANGUAGES 66 At the end of the sixteenth century underthereignofKingPhilipII,Portugal became At theendofsixteenthcentury Hereafter Ishalldiscussthedevelopment andessentialsoflanguagepoliciesforeach Only extended when theirinter- theEuropeansincourseofnineteenthcentury toshattered strongholdsand Europeancontrolwas geographically confined At first, ‘ Some authority ’ , becausethereisnopolicy withoutpower. A languageisadialect reconquista that they didnotconfine ‘ Moors ’ within and Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 04:14 30 Sep 2021; For: 9780203821121, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203821121.ch3 (Ophuijsen 1901and1910). Van Ophuijsen longer bepostponed. of This resultedinthespellingandgrammar Van Ophuijsen Java, ofMalay theimportance only increased, toanextent thatstandardizationcouldno over theDutchextended theirrule the courseofnineteenthcentury theareasoutside vants andmostothercolonists intheircontactswiththeindigenouspopulation. When in results. Inpractice,Malay was invarious usedby shades ofcorruption Dutchcivil ser- ing were Malay andJavanese. Training inJavanese, however, didnotyieldtheexpected institute forthetrainingofcivil servants tobesentthecolony. intheirtrain- Important Only were thenobilityand children oflocalrulers allowed toattendDutchschools. forthelocalpopulationandwouldwas endangerthecolonialhierarchy unfit ofpower. The generalattitudeoftheDutchwas thatDutch,andtheknowledge which camewithit, (lower) administrative jobs.InmostschoolsMalay becamethelanguageofinstruction. the Dutchalsotopay attentiontoeducation:they neededlocalpeopleforallkindsof inandoutsideJava.of contactwithmostlocalrulers The increasingexploitation forced attention tothemajorlanguageofJava, Javanese. Malay, however, remainedthelanguage commercial crops. They concentratedtheiractivities onJava, which causedthemtopay more systematically, forsomedecadesby creatingaforcedplantationeconomy first with Malay alsobecamesplit,namely intoa Dutch andaBritishvariety. by thesamesearoute by which itwas onceunited. And fromthatsametimeonwards of Malacca. The resultwas thatfrom1824onwards theMalay world was split,divided border between theDutchandEnglishspheresofinfluencewould throughtheStraits run it was thatby inSumatraandtheMalay agreed anexchange ofterritories Peninsula the of theNetherlandsby France, shouldbereturned. At asubsequentconferenceinLondon tional, which were published by thegovernmental And itwas thislanguagewhich was usedinthemany andeduca- books,bothliterary of theteacherstraininginstituteFort deKocq (today Bukittinggiin West Sumatra). indigenous varieties. Itwas thislanguagewhich was spreadallover Indonesiaby pupils rather thanonMalay asitwas spoken intheshapeofBazaarMalay oroneofthemany slogan peoplesofIndonesia underthe called Indonesian)astheunifying languageoftheunified oftheSecondNational the participants Youth proclaimedMalay Congress (henceforth However, itwas notDutchthatwas chosen astheincumbentnationallanguage.In1928, secondlanguage. themselves. For orfirst many ofthenationalistsDutchwas theirfirst whose taskitwas tostudyanddescribelesser known regional languages. the sametimeDutchgovernment employed anumberof ( sions France shouldhave neighbor, andthatthereforetheDutch astrongnorthern Dutch amongthelocalpopulationwas never stimulated. local practiceofusing(varieties of)Malay ininterethniccommunication.Knowledge of Persian loanwords. a highly ofMalay stiltedform inLatinscriptwhich aboundedwithill-adapted Arabic and Malay they chose thatshouldbeusedforatranslationoftheholy finally scriptures,but Balai Pustaka The intensification of Dutch colonialism also made it necessary tosetupaspecial ofDutchcolonialismalsomadeitnecessary The intensification Having regained their Meanwhile, around World War national movements hadbegun I,thefirst tomanifest The sameinstitutionalsopublished booksinsomeofthemajorregional languages. At of defeatofNapoleon,theCongress ViennaAfter thefirst (1814 In theirmoreseculardealingswiththelocalpopulationDutchalsoadaptedto ’ in theEast,which hadbeentaken over by theEnglishin1811afterannexation ‘ one people: the Indonesians; one country: Indonesia;one language:Indonesian one people:theIndonesians; country: ) in the final decadesofDutchcolonialrule. ) inthefinal ‘ possessions ’ in the east, the Dutch started toexploit thecolonyin theeast,Dutchstarted OOILHSOYADLNUG OIY67 COLONIAL HISTORY AND LANGUAGE POLICY ’ s grammar wass grammar basedonclassicalMalay ‘ Committee forPopular Literature ‘ linguistic civil servants – 15) decidedthat ‘ posses- ’ ’ ’ . Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 04:14 30 Sep 2021; For: 9780203821121, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203821121.ch3 ethnic and supra-cultural function. Both the standardized form ofthe ethnic andsupra-culturalfunction.Boththestandardizedform the otherhand, didnothave suchanethnicbias:Malay varieties hadalways hadasupra- language ofademocratic,post-colonialsocietyfreeandequalcitizens.Indonesian,on much tiedtoJavanese cultureandculturalexpression tobesuitable asasupra-ethnic orate systemofspeechlevels ofwrittenandoralliteratureitwas andlonghistory too (more thanonethirdofapopulationwell over 200millionpeople),butwithitselab- speakers was, ofnumberfirst-language interms andstillis,by themostimportant far THEAUSTRONESIANLANGUAGES 68 mentioned slogan proposedattheclosingsessionby thecongress which they saw as The attitudeoftheDutchpolicepresentatmeetings ‘ Russia by Japan. Yet thechoiceforMalay, andnotJavanese orDutch,tobecome outside Indonesia,includingevents suchasthe Philippine revolution andthedefeat of and inalanguagemuchclosertoBazaarMalay) hadopenedupvisionsoftheworld bylications andthelanguageofindigenouspress(oftenrun ChineseandEurasians the available and onrelative budget quality. wider Someofthesestudiesdodeserve teams allover Indonesia.Eachyear anumberofthesestudiesispublished, dependent on tinely by outrou- children onIndonesianlanguage andliterature).Linguisticresearchiscarried month ety, publication ofbooks andpamphlets,by theorganization ofayearly request) foralllayers aswell ofthecivil service asforothersectionsofsoci- andmilitary (MABBIM). which was thenrenamed memberofthecouncil, becameanofficial Darussalam are compared.In1985Brunei ducted jointmeetingstwiceayear, inwhich theresultsofnationalterminology boards Bahasa Indonesia-Malaysia stylistics. CooperationwithMalaysia since1972the developed alsointhisfield: Kamus BesarBahasaIndonesia anddictionaries (suchas grammars nology formation. The mainstandardizationactivities aretheproductionof(standard) of bothcountries. wasThe spellingreform followed in1975by ontermi- anagreement of 1972together withMalaysia, which unitedtheDutchandEnglishbasedorthographies Center namewas to shortened researchprojects.Itsofficial tic propagation ofits(proper)useandlanguagecounselling;coordinationlinguis- 1974, hasthefollowing planningofIndonesian; majortasks:standardizationandcorpus and Cultivation ( and otherlanguagesinuseIndonesia. This NationalCenterforLanguageDevelopment language institutewas thenationallanguage setuptodealwithallmattersconcerning ofEducationandCulture,aspecial August1945).Undertheaegis ofMinistry 17 on activities began. They were vigorously continuedafterindependence(proclaimed tively becamethenew nationallanguage. planning Already intheJapanesetimecorpus Japan forbadealluseofDutchinfavor ofIndonesian,which fromthenonwards effec- Yamin, was immediately accepted. camein The pointofnoreturn World War II,when Indonesian Among the500 Austronesian andnon-AustronesianlanguagesofIndonesia,Javanese Propagation isdoneby weekly one-hourradioandtelevision programs, courses(on planningmainly involvesCorpus terminology development and, toalesserextent, ofstandardizationwas achievement thejointspellingreform An important inthefield ’ ’ ) in2001. (consisting of congresses, seminarsandvarious(consisting ofcongresses, nationwidecontestsforschool- Pusat Bahasa ’ was nottheresultofareasoneddebate,letalonesomekindreferendum. Pusat Pembinaan danPengembangan Bahasa ‘ political staff and, onaprojectbasiscoordinatedby the Maj(e)lis BahasaBruneiDarussalam-Indonesia-Malaysia ’– (MBIM, Indonesian-Malaysian LanguageCouncil)hascon- had caused enough anger and frustration thattheafore- hadcausedenoughangerandfrustration 1988 andtheirsubsequentrevised editions). Tata BahasaBaku BahasaIndonesia – by forbiddingevery discussion Pusat Bahasa ), asitwas calledfrom ’ secretary, Mohamed Balai Pustaka Pusat Bahasa ( ‘ ‘ Language 1988 and language Majelis pub- , by Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 04:14 30 Sep 2021; For: 9780203821121, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203821121.ch3 curriculum introducedinthatyear allowedcurriculum forafew hoursof practice was forbidden forsomeyears, tobecomereestablished since1994. A new education, tobereplacedcompletely Even this by grade. Indonesianinthefourth Indonesian were allowed only aslanguagesofinstruction inthelower ofprimary grades were fosteredby theirspeakers. Inpracticethatmeantlanguagesotherthan by ofIndonesiancultureandshouldbesupported thegovernment part integral ifthey an effect. The constitution of1945alreadystipulatedthattheregional languagesarean be awaited. provinces. To what extent thiswillresultinmoreattentiontothelocallanguageshas regard tothelocallanguagesandpropagationofnationallanguagein These regional branchesareexpected totake over thetasksofcentralinstitutewith hadonly threeregional branches;since1999thatnumberhasrisentoseventeen. had is beingfollowed withrespecttothetasksof which Indonesia hasbeenconfrontedsincetheeconomiccrisisof1998. A similarapproach regime. DecentralizationhasbecomethesolutiontovariousSuharto problems with Pusat Bahasa languageareconsiderable. Consequently,and theofficial thestandardizingeffors ofthe varieties ofMalay/Indonesian were never standardized, andthedifferences between these unchallenged. Standardizationisprescriptive andcentralizedperse.Moreover, spoken Pusat Bahasa distribution, butasameasureagainst are free.Insteadthey optfor Papua (West New Guinea),rejectIndonesianasapossible nationallanguageoncethey independence movements atIndonesia nation-buildingfunctionisillustratedby thatthe matter asalanguagewithtrue thefact on Tagalog and Malagasybelow forcomparable problems). The successofMalay forthat speakers ofotherlocallanguageswithintheprovince asatakeover bid(seethesections language which couldbepromotedtosupra-ethnicstatuswithoutbeingperceived by guage withanation-buildingfunction:inmostprovinces thereisnoobvious local national level hadbeenavoided by thechoiceofMalay/Indonesian asthenationallan- the locallanguages,which may resultlocally inproblems and conflictsthatonthe in2001.Itmayof educationstarted beexpected thatnow moreattentionwillbepaidto tothelocalauthorities. Jakarta The implementationofthishighly decentralizedsystem was which shiftedtheresponsibilityforeducationin provinces formulated from ure tocounteractbreak-away aspirationsinregions outsideJava, anew educationpolicy was thesoleresponsibilityofJakarta. the curriculum asameas- ofSuharto, After thefall complicated. spokenThe numberoflanguagescurrently by itscitizensmay notexceed 50, Compared toIndonesiathelanguage ecology ofMalaysia isinsome respectsmore MALAYSIA 3 used ineveryday communication. Malay similarto Ambonese Malay (seevan Minde1997foradescription)arewidely perceived asavehicle InPapua ofIslamicfaith. varieties ofEastIndonesianspoken standard variety. The latter differs considerably fromIndonesianandismuchmore regional Malay inPapua. The modelofMalay forthe Acehnese isprobably theMalaysian It is very likely,It isvery however, thattheongoingdecentralizationofeducationwillhave such in1999,theactivities ofSuharto ofthe After thefall is notallowed tomarket itspublications. were now associatedby somecriticswiththedictatorialdirigismof ‘ Malay ’ ‘ OOILHSOYADLNUG OIY69 COLONIAL HISTORY AND LANGUAGE POLICY ’ alongside Arabic and Acehnese in Aceh andfor s western and eastern extremes,s western i.e.in andeastern Aceh and commercialization Pusat Bahasa Pusat Bahasa ’ of government functionsthe ‘ local input . Until1999theCenter have notremained ’ ; fortherest Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 04:14 30 Sep 2021; For: 9780203821121, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203821121.ch3 1641 Europeans(PortugueseChinese. 1511 The influenceofthefirst from allover Southeast Asia andbeyond, amongthemacommunityofMalaisized Malay window totheworld. Ithadamixed populationofMalays, andexpats andsettlers ofIndonesia.Beforethearrival oftheEuropeans,townhistory ofMalaccawas the hasbeenmoredisruptivebut itscolonialhistory linguistically thanthedocumented THEAUSTRONESIANLANGUAGES 70 marily private (Chinese,Muslim educationwasIslamic, withMalay UnderBritishrule pri- asthelanguageofinstruction. economic exploitation. ‘ (30%Chinese,8%Indians,and61%Malaysconstellation ofthecountry andother India. tations theBritishcontractedcooliesfromsouthern The presentdemographic plan- ofChineseminers,whiletin minesledtolarge-scale fortheirrubber immigration of theMalaysian populationandinthecountry intheMalayanserving civil shouldknow service Malay. tained itspositionnext toEnglish.Itwas Britishpolicy thereforethatallBritish officials Perlis, Kedah andJohor, which retainedsomeautonomy affairs, Malay ininternal main- IntheunfederatedstatesofKelantan,remained thelanguageofcourts. Terengganu, was almostentirely replacedby EnglishintheFederated States,althoughMalay Malay (in Arabic script)hadbeenthelanguageofstateinallmainlandsultanates.It Federated Malay States,consistingofSelangor, Pahang, Negeri Sembilan,andPerak. tin-rich statesofmainlandMalaysia was by formalized theestablishment ofthe to becomeBritishprotectorates(1888).Lessthanadecadelaterpower over the tested areasamongEuropeanpowers, andthey cededby were sultan theBrunei finally thepowertury hadweakened. ofBrunei As aresult,Sarawak andSabahbecamecon- a linguafrancaamongthemulti-ethnicpopulation.Incourseofnineteenthcen- hadsomestatusasthelanguageofstate,whereas othervarietiescourt were usedas sultanate,which meantthattheMalaysuzerainty oftheBrunei spoken attheBrunei the Austro-Asiatic Aslian communitiesbeingmarginal andmarginalized. influence tothesultanatesininterior, which hadalways beenpredominantly Malay, over they expanded MalaccafromtheDutch.Incourseofnineteenthcentury their appear onthescene,establishing themselves inPenang, foundingSingapore,andtaking classical Malay traditionasmaintainedintheJohor Malay (comparable to Van OphuijsenintheDutch Indies). Although basedonthesame (Za bin Ahmad Zainal Abidin College at Tanjung MalinginPerak becamethemostinfluential. Oneofitsteachers, education was theteachertrainingschools,among which the SultanIdris Training education. had beenrestrictedto4or6years ofprimary The only Malay post-primary in educationcouldbeusedforthenewcomers fromChinaandIndia. fortheMalays.By thesametoken However, Englisheducationwas deemedunfit English man or peasant a more intelligent fisherman or farmer than his father hadbeen thanhisfather orfarmer man orpeasantamoreintelligentfisherman Education oftheFederated Malay Statesputitin1920: in1915,quotedHassan colonialofficer Ahmad 1999:42),orastheDirectorof (a labor with regard to theMalays was inspiredby thewishtoteachthem indigenous Traditional educationintheMalay sultanatesaswell asinSarawak andSabahwas British rule overBritish rule mainlandMalaysia causedmajorchangesintheethniccomposition hadbeenunderthe East Malaysia (Sarawak Borneo)) andSabah(formerly North Up untiltheindependenceofmainlandMalaysia (1957),Malay stateschools vernacular – ’ 1824) did not reach very far beyond far 1824) didnotreachvery Malacca.Only around1800didtheBritish and toavoid ’ groups accordingtothecensusof1990)isadirectconsequenceitscolonial groups ‘ the troubles which ha[d]ariseninIndiathroughover-education ’ ba), became the founder of modern Malaysianba), becamethefounderofmodern Standard – Malay, Christian ’ s linguisticecology. The discovery ofthe – English). Britisheducationalpolicy – Riau region, thestandardvarieties ‘ to make thesonoffisher- ‘ the dignityofmanual – 1641, Dutch ’ (ibid.). ’ Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 04:14 30 Sep 2021; For: 9780203821121, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203821121.ch3 schools withMalay asamediumlanguage,thepossibilityexists toteachthe education. Inthenational andsecondary subjectinallprimary remained acompulsory albeit withtheobligation togive inthenationallanguage. English thoroughinstruction pendence private schoolswithChineseor Tamil asamediumlanguagecontinuedtoexist, touniversity.in thenationallanguagefromkindergarten Within thissystemthepre-inde- transitionfromeducationinEnglishto Education System,thatis,thegradual unclear reasonstheoldname function was emphasizedby name: itsnew official in Kuala Lumpuron13May 1969.Malay made apunishable offense aftertheseriousracialclashesbetween Malays andChinese language was notunchallenged. Discussingthenationallanguagequestion,however, was to dosoin1985. Also inmainlandMalaysia, thepositionofMalay asthesolenational language,andSarawakuntil 1967thatSabahadoptedMalay asitsofficial only decided maintainedEnglishasthe language ofgovernment.Federation Itwas in1963,atfirst not thaninIndonesia.Sarawakbeen moredifficult andSabah,which joinedtheMalaysian in unifyingspellingandterminology development. etc. As indicatedintheprevious sectionitcooperateswiththeIndonesian In the1990sMalaysia onastandarddialect(Prof.H. toagree the failure Asmah HajiOmar, p.c.). some attentioninSarawak, butefforts togive Kadazan-Dusunsomestatus shatteredon mainland orthevarious Austronesian languagesinSabah and Sarawak. Ibanisgiven if teachersareavailable). arenotprovided Suchfacilities forthe Aslian languagesonthe tongue h Dutch the Dutch Indiesbuthadasmallerbudgetbecause Mengarang Malay hadalaterandEnglish-basedtraditionofromanization. mally and/ormeaning.Finally, isnotparallelindistribution thesamebut Malaysian Malay shows vocabulary strikingsemanticdifferences. Derivational isfor- affixation words aremorefrequentandlessassimilatedinMalaysia thaninIndonesia.Original borrowed throughEnglishinMalaysia andthroughDutchinIndonesia. Arabic loan- of IndonesianandMalaysian Malay areconsiderably different: Europeanwords were and Literature),was thesisterorganization oftheIndonesian propagate thisMalay language,the of tenyears afterindependence. The governmental and bodytostandardize,modernize, would replaceEnglishatalllevels ofeducationaswell asingovernment withinaperiod zenship ofthenew state,butthatMalay would becomethenationallanguage,which Malay andEnglish. The compromisewas thatthe population andtheChineseIndiansbecameahotissue,sodidstatusof during itsexistence between 1924and1957remainedlimited. operational in1956.Incontrasttothe guage andmonitoringadvisingonitsuse,organizing andgrammar, propagating thestandardlan- are similar:producingastandarddictionary theiractivitiesresearch tasks.Itspublishing activities arecommercialized.Inotherfields The riotsofMay 1969alsomeantthebeginning oftheimplementationNational But inspiteoftheseefforts, thetransitiontowards Malay asthenationallanguagehas Two developments hampered fullimplementationoftheNationalEducationSystem. Za When mainlandMalaysia was headingtowards independence,thestatusoforiginal ’ ba was ofthe alsothedirectoroftranslationdepartment ’ (i.e. Chineseor Tamil) numberofparents(and ifthisisthewishofasufficient ’ . Inspiteofthat,thenumberMalay schoolbookspublished by theBureau (Book-Writing Bureau),which was modelledafter ’ s economy attention. began toattractinternational The resultwas bahasa Melayu Dewan BahasadanPustaka Pusat Bahasa OOILHSOYADLNUG OIY71 COLONIAL HISTORY AND LANGUAGE POLICY was was reintroducedinthe1990s. the nationallanguageanditssupra-ethnic ‘ the British [we]re more efficient than the British[we]re moreefficient ‘ , theCouncildoesnothave in-house immigrants bahasa Malaysia ‘ language month Pusat Bahasa ’ would acquirefullciti- (Council forLanguage Balai Pustaka Pejabat Karang- . However, for Pusat Bahasa . Itbecame ’ activities, ‘ mother in the Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 04:14 30 Sep 2021; For: 9780203821121, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203821121.ch3 sister organization andaclosecopy oftheMalaysian of thecountry. language alongside English),andintheconstitutionof1959itwas declaredtheofficial independence in1984.However, Malay never ceasedtobeusedingovernment (albeit was reducedtoitspresentsize.ItbecameaBritishprotectoratefrom1888until nationallanguage. languageandthecurrent the court the Indonesian propervehicle ofcommunication. a globally observable reductionofthedomainsinwhich minority languages are the used by ofotherethnicbackgrounds. manifestationof Bruneians This istheBruneian 1996). Today itisgenerally acceptedasthenationallinguafrancaanditis increasingly languages ofthecountry, ofwhich arenon-Malayic five andPoedjosoedarmo (Martin the mentioned inthesectiononIndonesia(above), joined its neighboursinforming Brunei In developing cooperateswithMalaysia astandardlanguageBrunei andIndonesia. As differing Malay. fromitinpronunciationanditslexical influencefromthelocalBrunei of standardMalay. This standardMalay similar totheMalaysian isvery standard, only tongue ically andpolitically inthismulti-ethniccountry. thedominantgroup Their mother classical Malay was presumably thelanguageofcourt. The as Manilaandforalongtimeextended over Borneo. thewholeA variant ofnorthern of centreinSoutheast been animportant Asian trade.Itspoliticalpower oncereachedasfar sultanate had Since centuriesbeforetheEuropeanpresenceinarchipelagoBrunei BRUNEI DARUSSALAM 4 ment) ithastocompetewithEnglish,muchmoresothanisthecaseinIndonesia. communication(includingeducationandgovern- languagetobeusedinofficial official educationatMalaysecondary languageschoolsareataseriousdisadvantage. level, withtheobvious attertiary remained thenorm effect thatstudentswho followed ofscienceandtechnology,pursued. Especially in thefields Englisheducationhas level)the only were (including attertiary languageofinstruction nolongerwholeheartedly a globalhigh-techandeconomicplayer by 2020. As aresult,theefforts tomake Malay wider communication,essentialforMalaysia ofEnglishasthe languageof emphasisontheimportance ing ofallwas therecurrent pronunciation (which maintains a word-final [a]wherepronunciation (which theJohorhas[ maintainsaword-final they didspeakMalay, they failed for usingEnglishinpublic speeches,even ifnoforeignerswere intheaudience. When the statusofMalay. Government (includingthePrimeMinister)were criticized officials were affiliated. forstudyattheBritish, Australian and certificates American universities towhich they a mushroomingofprivate colleges providing educationinEnglishandleadingto THEAUSTRONESIANLANGUAGES 72 the linguisticecology ofthecountry After independence the Bruneian After independencetheBruneian lostcontrolofSabahandSarawak Brunei In thecourseofnineteenthcentury and So far, thestatusofMalay asanationalsymbolremainsundisputed.However, asan At thesametimeMalaysian government toissueambiguoussignalsregarding started Meanwhile theroleoflocalMalay variety, Malay, Brunei isalsogrowing within Maj(e)lis BahasaBruneiDarussalam-Indonesia-Malaysia – Brunei Malay Brunei Pusat Bahasa – isadistinctvariety of Malay andconsiderably different from , with a similar task: the propagation and corpus planning , withasimilartask:thepropagationandcorpus Dewan Bahasadan Pustaka – withrareexceptions – tothedetrimentofsixindigenous minority ’ s ambitiousdevelopment policy tobecome Dewan Bahasadan Pustaka – tousethestandardized puak Brunei (MABBIM). was established. Itisthe 7 ]). Mostconfus- were numer- and Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 04:14 30 Sep 2021; For: 9780203821121, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203821121.ch3 BELAIT languages are to them.Only thatthese sincethelastdecadehasunderstandinggainedground dialects, which releasedthegovernment fromtheobligation ofpaying specialattention O increasing numberofsubjects,includingscienceandmathematics(seeJones1996 in theseven foran educationEnglishisthemediumofinstruction years ofsecondary educationand ofprimary education.Inthenext threegrades ofprimary three grades first Within thisnew systemofbilingualeducation,Malay inthe isthemediumofinstruction for allcitizens,bothtypesofeducationwere combinedafterindependence(1984). opened. governmentChristian missionaries.Itwas Englishschoolwas notuntil1951thatthefirst outside world. These schoolswere private schools, organized by (non-sectarian) after thediscovery ofoilin1929,which requiredincreasedcommunicationwiththe oftheseschools.Meanwhile English-mediumschoolshadbeenestablishedcurriculum established. Otherschoolsfollowed. Only in1952was Englishintroducedintothe was secularMalay-medium school education continuedtoexpand andin1914thefirst emphasis on Arabic andwithMalay asthelanguageofinstruction. After 1888thisMalay sion oftheminoritylanguagestonew generationsisnolongerguaranteed. MalayBrunei andthestandardvariety) andofeducationalpolicy aresuchthattransmis- Muslim, andgoverned by aKing). The combinedeffects ofthestatusMalay (both education retainMalay astheir changes inthelinguisticecology. Only inthe1950sdidPortugal changeitspolicy: it now presenceintheareawere notcharacterizedby any consciously planned Portuguese domains. tothemoreformal remained confined Yet fourcenturiesof thefirst and above allaconspicuousnumberof Portugueseplifications loanwords. Portuguese compared withthemorewestern Tetum Terik sim- dialects, containssomegrammatical located intheMambai-speaking area,avariety arose of contactbetween thePortuguese andthelocalpopulation.Incapital,Dili,which was Catholic Churchasthevehicle Consequently forthefaith. italsobecame thelanguage Dili theirstrongholdinthearea.Inany casethelanguagewas adoptedby theRoman already themajorlanguageofinter-ethnic communicationwhen thePortuguese made spoken inEast Timor, Austronesian Tetum isthemostwidespread.Presumably itwas Among the15 EASTTIMOR 5 where aminoritylanguage isspoken. Malay which oftenreplacesstandard Malay alsoinregions as amediumofinstruction, variety, languageofany Inpractice, therefore,itisBrunei Bruneian. which isnotthefirst educationisthestandard subjectatalllevelsan obligatory andsecondary ofprimary Malay andwhich which is issupposedtobe usedatschoolasthemediumofinstruction emblem of national cultureandidentity, in Englishasasecondlanguage. ≠ Until the end of the 1980s the minority languages were officially qualified asMalay Until theendof1980sminoritylanguageswere qualified officially Until 1985bothtypesofeducationcoexisted, butinordertoachieve equalopportunities Before 1888educationhadbeenidenticalwithIslamicreligiousschooling,an The philosophy behindthismodelofadditive bilingualism isthatMalay, beingthe ó g 1996fordetails). ofsecondary The intendedresultofthissystemisthatgraduates ). Yet theundisputedstateideology remains – not 20 indigenous(Austronesianandnon-Austronesian)languages currently Malay, andbeginnings have beenmadetodescribethem(cf. ‘ first ’ language, while ofproficiency acquiringahighdegree OOILHSOYADLNUG OIY73 COLONIAL HISTORY AND LANGUAGE POLICY is the first languageofallcitizens.However,the first the Melayu IslamBeraja – known as Tetum-Pra (to beMalay, ç a – which, CLYNES , Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 04:14 30 Sep 2021; For: 9780203821121, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203821121.ch3 other publications are ready foruse:itisastandardized, language,inwhich teachingmaterialsand modern of thepopulation,was rejected. languagesofthenew country.official A proposalforIndonesian,known by some70% On 11December2001thenew National Assembly adoptedPortuguese and Tetum asthe for thefreeworld forces withtheconsentof American government and intervened the East Timorese nationaliststriedto promote Tetum ineducation,Indonesianarmed thanbefore. more important to bethelanguageofeducation,while alsoinchurchtheroleofPortuguese hadbecome use of Tetum andotherregional languageshadbeenforbiddeninschools.Portuguese had Portuguese lessonsin1974,theyear ofthePortuguese revolution. Sincethe1950s schoolswere(elementary) resultinginsome75%oftheschoolchildrenobtaining built, citizens (cf.Hajek2000).Educationwas themeanstoachieve thisandmany new became theexplicit objective allEast toturn Timorese intoCatholic,Portuguese-speaking THEAUSTRONESIANLANGUAGES 74 spelling (withsomedeviations fromthemostwidespread practiceuntilrecently) has Bahasa Lingu for theimplementationof nationallanguagepolicy isthe Portuguese withinthe educationsystem,however, canonly begradual. andthroughexpertise. speaking countries,financially The shiftfromIndonesianto 40 that Tetum hadtobe Portuguese would languageand bechosenasofficial Tetum asnationallanguage, and 2000 the languageforEast asapossible nationalandofficial Timor.disqualified On30 August andisnow thelanguageofaforeignpower.and terror officially As such,Indonesianwas no longeraneutrallanguage linguistic ecology changedagain.For ofthecountry mostEast Timorese, Indonesianwas into Tetumgospels Terik. (alias communist).Oneoftheresultsthischurchpolicy was thetranslationof Tetum-speaking Catholicwas lessofasecurityriskthananIndonesian-speakingatheist consentoftheIndonesians:afterall,a the RomanCatholicreligion,withgrudging Indonesian either, inspiteofIndonesianpressure.Instead, Tetum becamethelanguageof Tetum andPortuguese internally. Notlessimportantly, thechurchdidnotshiftto and continuedtousePortuguesepublic dealings,and (andEnglish)intheirinternational Portugal and movementAustralia andtheguerrilla inthislanguageshift, didnotpartake uation, theroleandknowledge ofPortuguese obviously lessened.However, refugeesin schooling may nothave beensuccessfuleverywhere becauseoftheunstable politicalsit- erations ofstudentsreceived theircompleteeducation inIndonesian,andalthough by theIndonesians,which touniversity. rangedfromkindergarten As aresultseveral gen- as muchpossible. Indonesian Republic theuseandknowledge and ofIndonesianhadtobefosteredasfast ofEast hadtobefreedfrom.Inordersmooththeintegration country Timor intothe The practicalimplementationsofthesedecisionshave tobeawaited. Portuguese is – In 1975thePortuguese withdrew fromEast Timor. interval inwhichAnd afterashort As regards thestatusof Tetum muchwork stillhastobedone. The body responsible After thedestructive withdrawal oftheIndonesianforcesfromEast Timor in1999the From 1976to1999Indonesianwas usedthroughouttheeducationalsystemintroduced 45 stillknow itquitewell. isgiven Strongsupport fromPortugal andPortuguese- í stica and itssisterorganizations inMalaysia Darussalam. andBrunei A standard Conselho NacionaldaResist in Dili,thestatusofwhich canbecompared withtheIndonesian ’ . From then onPortuguese was repressedasthe ‘ – developed inprinciple – ifitever was. Itwas oppression associatedwithmilitary ’ within a period of five totenyears (Eccles2000:23). within aperiodoffive – readily available. Mosteducatedpeopleolderthan ê ncia Timorense (CNRT) adoptedthemotionthat ‘ Instituto Nacionalde colonial language ‘ saved thecountry Pusat ’ the Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 04:14 30 Sep 2021; For: 9780203821121, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203821121.ch3 these 1968:735). mostoftheminoron appeared intheearliestdecades ofSpanishrule, Tagalog (Llamzon An impressive number ofpublications inandonthemajorlocallanguageshadalready VOLUME production ofastandardgrammar, textbooks, teachingmaterials,andthe already beenaccepted. The next stepswhich have tobe(orarebeing)taken arethe in the tenth century orearlier(assuggestedbyin thetenthcentury theLagunacopperplate;see ward, toreachtheManilaareaby 1565.Malay influencemusthave beenstrong,starting Islam madeinroadsandsultanatescomeintoexistence. From thereIslamspreadnorth- Onlykinship group. intheSuluarchipelagoandadjacentareasofMindanaohad million inhabitantslived units,eachoriginally belongingtoasingle insmallterritorial Europeansarrived inthePhilippinesmajorityofitsestimatedhalf When thefirst THEPHILIPPINES 6 languages iscoordinatedby the thedevelopment andstandardizationof Tetum. Researchwithregard toalllocal to other than Tetum p.c.).For (RamosHorta, themoment,however, prioritywillbegiven asubject)isstilluncertain. education (as imperialism anced by two hoursofPortuguese inordertoavoid possible effects of of theCNRT itwas stipulatedthatevery hourdevoted toEnglishshouldbecounterbal- will assign a(more)centralplacetoEnglishafterindependence.Itisforeseenthat activities. of thesecorpus-planning any case,thefutureofstatus Tetum willdependontheprogress andeffectiveness mostly spoken interchanges;finally, informal dictionarieswillhave tobeproduced.In tion orders, withtheexception oftheJesuits,opposedteaching ofSpanishtothe teacher-training colleges. Although Spanishwas thelanguageofgovernment, the the educationalsystemonalllevels, whereas theJesuitsremainedresponsible forthe government established of education,thefriarskept freepublic thesupervision primary orders hadthesoleresponsibilityforeducation.Even after1863,when theSpanish and theestablishment ofasystemlarge landestates.From beginning thevery the of theiractivities were theconversion ofthemajoritypopulationtoCatholicism fromSpainor ofSpanishdescent.Mostconspicuousamongthelastingresults recruited the Jesuitsandtofriarsof Augustinian, DominicanandFranciscan orders,all the term of wasof administration,Spanishcolonialrule indirect, thuscreatingaFilipino upperclass istrative, military, commercialandreligiousactivity toManilain1573. At thelower level Spanish established themselves permanently onCebu. They shiftedtheircentreofadmin- Ferdinand Magellanat Cebu in1521,who claimedtheislandforSpain.In1565 Only few avery Filipinos hadbeenallowed toenterSpanishschools.Itwas among East Timorese leadersrealizethatprovisions have tobemadeforindigenouslanguages During theUnitedNationsinterimgovernment somepressurehasbeenexerted to The first reported interferenceinlocalaffairs by reported Europeanswas thearrivalThe first of ‘ principales ’ have nottooprominently: aplaceineducation,but attheabove-mentioned meeting of thelexicon inordertomake thelanguagesuitable foruseoutsidethedomainsof – mostly upperclass ), and reaching as far north as southern Luzon. assouthern north ), andreachingasfar ‘ friarocracy ’ (Eccles 2000:24). To what extent Indonesianwillcontinuetohave arolein ’ . At thehigherlevel, stateandchurchwere inseparable, somuchthat ’ was coined.Muchexecutive andlegislative power was assignedto –
‘ ilustrados Instituto NacionaldeLingu OOILHSOYADLNUG OIY75 COLONIAL HISTORY AND LANGUAGE POLICY ’ that thenationalistmovement aroseinthefinal í stica . ‘ moderniza- MAHDI ‘ linguistic ‘ indios , THIS ’ . Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 04:14 30 Sep 2021; For: 9780203821121, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203821121.ch3 Philippines were independencewithinacommonwealth according granted construction: economy. tothePhilippine theBisayanplantations andexports, significantly homeland contributed on theotherhand, was themothertongueof abouttwiceasmany speakers, andwith its the Filipinos inandaroundthepolitical,culturaleconomiccenterof power. Bisayan, However, thequestionwas sensitive fromthestart. Tagalog was spoken by some20%of posed by somenationalistsasthemostsuitable candidateforanationallanguage. Most ofthepublications were in Tagalog, however. And itwas Tagalog which was pro- had probablySpanish colonialrule beenlessthan3%. 1980:26), whereas thepercentageofthosewithknowledge ofSpanishtowards theendof percentage ofFilipinos able tospeakEnglishhadrisenmorethan25%(Gonzalez where Spanishcouldnot beoustedsoeasily. Inthe37years ofdirect the American rule domains,withtheexceptiontant ifnottheonly ofthelaw, languagetobeusedinofficial languagealongsideEnglish.Englishsoonbecamethemostimpor- remained anofficial and dominatedpoliticallife.Sincemany ofthemwere Spanish-educated, Spanish to bealocallanguage.Inpracticeitwas English. cation. Theoretically, in schoolsanduniversities themediumofinstruction was supposed among thesewere theseparationofchurchandstate,representative bodiesandmassedu- the revolution was crushed, and American institutionswere established. Mostimportant allies againsttheSpanish,Philippinerevolutionaries now became America coloniestotheUnitedStatesinexchange for$20million.Fromsome smallerformer Philippines. Inthe Treaty ofParis ofDecember1898,Spaincededthe Philippinesand local languages. educational program ofthenew republic, whereas nomentionwas madeofany ofthe ities andjudicialaffairs languageforthetimebeing,tobeusedin of Spanishastheofficial tion ofalargely Spanish-educatedelitewas thereasonwhy Tagalog was rejectedinfavor Spanish languageoftherepublic) (Gonzalez 1980:12). official With theoutbreakof Kapampangan, Pangasinan and non-Tagalog were backgrounds present. Among themwere speakers ofIlokano,Bikolano, Constitutional Assembly (convening inMalolos,September1898)representatives with areas, andon12June1898the Act ofIndependencewas proclaimed, inSpanish. At the Spanish Philippines, itsactualscoperemainedlimited. revolution expressed notionsofanationalunitembracingallinhabitantsthe the movement was the Tagalog-speaking Manilaarea,andalthoughtheleadersof greater towards independence, Tagalog language. The geographical coreofthe becameitsfirst alternative toSpanish. When themovement anditsaimsshifted tookapopulist turn authorandnationalheroJos famous baseofthepopulation.Sincemostilustradoswere of Tagalog origin,like the wider and emancipation,oneofitsprograms beingtheextension ofSpanishteachingtoa decades ofthenineteenthcentury. Initsinitialstagestheemphasiswas onassimilation THEAUSTRONESIANLANGUAGES 76 The discussion came to a temporary conclusion withtheconstitutionof1935,when the The discussioncametoatemporary At thesametime,larger locallanguageswere usedinprinting andinthepress. Meanwhile the oldeliteadjustedtonew situation:they kept theireconomicpower However, thedefeatof Spanishmeantthebeginning ofthe Anglicization ofthe In theprovisional constitutionoftheFirst Republic (1897),itwas proclaimed – – American war (April1898)therevolt againstSpainalsospreadtonon-Tagalog that ‘ [e]l tag á ’ log ser (Gonzalez 1980:20).Spanishalsoremainedprominentinthe á – la lengua oficial delaRep lalenguaoficial notably é Rizal,only Tagalog cametobeconsideredasan – Bisayan. This linguistically mixed constella- ú blica ’ ‘ (Tagalog shallbethe acts ofpublic author- ’ s enemy: – in Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 04:14 30 Sep 2021; For: 9780203821121, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203821121.ch3 national symbolicfunction,thelanguagewas called teaching methodswere appliedtoboth Tagalogs andnon-Tagalogs. Inordertostressits knowledge, trainingtoingrammatical andthesame shifted fromproficiency However, theefforts todisseminatethelanguagewere somewhat traditional:theaccent Manila areawere limited. among thenon-Tagalog. Becauseofthewar, however, theresultsoutsidegreater Republic (Philippine) nationallanguage clashes between puristsandliberals.Intheearly 1960sthiseven amountedto National Language(previously theNationalLanguageInstitute)gave risetofierce disguise. regional languages,however, andforemosttheBisayans, thisepithetremained athin supposedly different from Tagalog andonly cessful guage basedonthe the nationallanguage.On30December1937presidentQuezonproclaimedalan- with therichestliterature,Instituterecommended Tagalog asthemostsuitable basefor this commonnationallanguage. Arguing thatitwas thebest-studiedPhilippinelanguage established, which was responsible fortheselection,standardizationandelaborationof ing languages the development andadoptionofacommonnationallanguagebasedononetheexist- to theconstitutionitwas stipulatedthattheNational Assembly would schoolbooks in Tagalog was stimulated. At thesametimegovernment ofthe tobereplacedeventuallyof instruction, by thelocal vernaculars. The productionof languages.Forofficial thetimebeinguseofEnglishwas stillallowed asamedium bybitterness theBisayans, ifindeedthey accepteditatall. of presidentQuezonhadsaved Tagalog forthetimebeing,butitwas acceptedwith Spanish, anditwould gradually replaceEnglishasmediumofinstruction. The authority Commonwealth period(July 1946) Tagalog would languagelike Englishand beanofficial schools aswell schools,ifteacherswere asinnormal available. At theendof Tagalog ofelementary andsixthgrades would beintroducedasasubjectinthefifth a grammar, a Tagalog common nationallanguagebased onallPhilippinelanguages,tobeknown as stepswouldand Pilipinowould languages,but betaken betheofficial todevelop anew national language.Intheconstitution of1973itwas statedthatforthetime beingEnglish and were vigorously voiced. As aresult, Tagalog-based Pilipinowas rejectedas the infact vention torevise the American-based constitution,anti-Tagalog resentmentsflaredup again implicit takeover bidby the Tagalogs. When in1971preparationswere foracon- started Manila variety of Tagalog which becamethevehicle andsymboloftheirstruggle. students revolted against andculturalimperialism,itwasAmerican military thecommon 1969). became moreprominent(Bonifacio When towards theendof 1960sthe and theroleofPilipinoineducation,asasubjectwell asalanguageofinstruction, Pilipino gainedground. these obstructions There was anincreaseinPilipinopublications, which theuseofpuristic Tagalog inthenationallanguagewas challenged.Inspiteof After thewar, Tagalog began tobetaughtasasubjectatalllevels ofeducation. Meanwhile the continuedstandardizationandelaborationefforts oftheInstitute Shortly aftertheJapaneseconquest,however, Tagalog andJapanesewere proclaimed Among thenon-Tagalog eldergenerations, however, Pilipinocontinuedtobefelt asan – ’ lawsuits againstmembersoftheInstituteandhighgovernment in officials (1942 ’ (Gonzalez 1980:59).Oneyear latertheNationalLanguageInstitutewas – 44) conducted vigorous proficiency trainingcampaignsin 44) conductedvigorousproficiency Tagalog ‘ Tagalog dialect – English vocabulary andateacher English vocabulary ’ . namebecame After 1959theofficial ’ to becomeeffective two years later. Inthemeantime, OOILHSOYADLNUG OIY77 COLONIAL HISTORY AND LANGUAGE POLICY ‘ Tagalog-based wikang pambansa(ngPilipino) ’ s manualwere prepared.In1940 ’ . For speakers ofother ‘ take stepstowards Pilipino Filipino – ‘ . Itwas unsuc- Second ‘ . the Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 04:14 30 Sep 2021; For: 9780203821121, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203821121.ch3 study on Malay and Malagasy (first published in1603;see Lombard study onMalay andMalagasy(first theoldestEuropean sources onan Austronesian languageisDeHoutman of the development of thenationallanguageshows similaritieswiththe Philippinecase. geneous. Yet ecologically andeconomically itisnot,andthisultimately thereasonwhy and expatriates. Byandlarge, however, may thecountry besaidtolinguistically homo- therearesomeIndian,Pakistani, ChineseandFrenchnorthwest. immigrants Furthermore, ment inthesoutheast,andthereisasmallcommunityofBantu-speaking Comoransinthe language areclosely relateddialects. There was onceanallegedly Arabic-speaking settle- monolingual, i.e.theindigenouslanguagevarieties which collectively theMalagasy form discussed inthischapter. Madagascarhastheuniquecharacteristicofbeingpractically The linguisticsituationofMadagascarismarkedly different fromthat ofothercountries MADAGASCAR 7 to bethemainlanguage. medium. Inbusiness,industry, highereducationandinprivate schoolsEnglishcontinues and ininterethniccommunication, Tagalog-based Pilipinohasremained themajor ofstateschools,andasthedaily areas.Intheurbanizedcentres grades languageinrural within thefamily, languages(alongsideEnglishandPilipino)inthelower asauxiliary andmassmedia. industry the film which isalsotheresultofincreasedmobility, ongoingurbanizationandtheinfluence of taught atschoolsallover thecountry. Knowledge undeniably ofitisinfact increasing, uniting. Meanwhile Pilipino(whether ornotconsideredtobeFilipino) continuestobe symbol ofnationalunity. Butassoonitisgiven contentitbecomesdivisive ratherthan Cebuano, themajorvariety ofBisayan, beusedasalanguageofeducation. Cebu province thegovernor refusedtoimplementthedecreeandinsistedinsteadthat h islandappearednottobeattractive enoughforalastingEuropeansettlementuntilthe the too Congress guise protest from the Congress becausethedecree protest fromtheCongress medium of instruction, andasaconsequencecouldonlymedium ofinstruction, bePilipino,or the taskofdeveloping Filipino. This notyet existing Filipino now hadtobeusedas yet passed the billonCommissionFilipino language,which was tobeassigned decree itselfwas inEnglish andhadobviously bypassed theCongress. The latterhadnot all levels communicationingovernment. ofeducationandasthelanguageofficial The that Aquino Constitutionof1986thesectiononlanguageasserts clear what itwould looklike, andhow itshouldbepropagatedanddisseminated.Inthe THEAUSTRONESIANLANGUAGES 78 Although Madagascarwas frequented by Europeanshipsontheirway to Asia The polyglossic have situation hasnotchanged:thelocalvernaculars kept theirfunction The futureofFilipino isuncertain. As longasitremainsnon-existent itfunctionsasa In 1988President at Aquino declaredFilipino tobeusedasthemediumofinstruction communicationandaslanguageofinstruction. of official Government shalltake stepstoinitiateandsustaintheuseofFilipino asamedium Subject toprovisions oflaw may andastheCongress deemappropriate,the developed andenrichedonthebasisofexisting Philippineandotherlanguages. [t]he nationallanguageofthePhilippinesisFilipino. As itevolves, itshallbefurther The functionofthisnew languagewas clear: asymbolofnationalunity. Butitwas less ’ in theeyes ofthenon-Tagalog. The reactionwas predictable: therewas strong ’ (Philippines Free Press 1991), and open obstruction fromtheBisayans.(Philippines Free Press1991),andopenobstruction In ‘ kick[ed] the Constitution in the face [a]nd kick[ed] theConstitutioninface ‘ Tagalog indis- et al. ’ s remarkable 1970) – one – Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 04:14 30 Sep 2021; For: 9780203821121, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203821121.ch3 kingdoms was stratified intoahierarchy ofcastes,withnobility( kingdoms was stratified which thoseoftheSakalava andtheMerinabecamemostprominent.Societyinthese lands). dry (southern mountains),theSakalavaTsimihety (northern (western savannahs), andthe Antandroy centralmountains),the the Betsimisaraka(alongeastcoast),Betsileo(southern centralmountains), inorderoftheirnumbersare theMerina(northern groups important tothedivision intodialects(see corresponds Wermter and Rubino,thisvolume). The most the southandsouthwest. savannahs andcactuslandin bush ofthebroadwestern dry coastalareasandinthevery mountainslopes,andcattlebreedinginthe andalongtheeastern forests inthenorth ricecultivationlands, fishery, dry coast,rain cropsalongthesmalleastern andexport of itswidely diverging ecologies andeconomies:wet ricecultivation inthecentralhigh- beginning ofthenineteenth century. Beforethattimeitwas never apoliticalunitbecause ( the first governor-general ofthenewthe first colony, Galli to anendwhen Galli recognized, independentstatewithambassadors inLondonandParis. Itssovereignty came itwaslanguage ofinstruction, theMerinadialect. education was asMalagasywas concentratedinthecentral highlandsandinsofar usedas Ranavalona Itheschoolswere reopenedandtheLMSreappearedonscene. Again missionin1837.In1862afterthe deathof Protestants by establishing theirfirst fromthetemporarily oftheBritish lowclosed (1835).French Catholicsprofited profile everybody who allschoolswere didnotbelongtothegovernment andfinally service, demise oftheschoolsystem.First itwas forbiddenforslaves tobecomeliterate,thenfor average of 100pupils(onethirdofwhom were girls)in1828(Heseltine1971:105). nobility. The numberofschoolsrosefromonewiththreepupilsin1820to23an among the literateswere thechildrenofMerina in thecentralhighlands,andfirst schools andtodevelop teachingmaterials. The new educationsystemwas concentrated alphabetofthekingdom. Healsogaveto betheofficial theLMSafreehandtoestablish for Malagasy byintroduced theReverend Society(LMS), JonesoftheLondonMissionary things by introducing literacy. In1823heproclaimedtheLatinscript,asithadbeen colonial powers hiscountry, atadistance,RadamaIdecidedtomodernize amongother Faced century). withthenecessitytokeep theEuropean asthefifteenth go backasfar was chronicles,divinations, andtreatisesonastrology andmedicines(theoldestrecords Antaimoro inthesouthhadbeenexclusive owners ofthisscript,andwhat they wrote script, nowadays called the beginning ofFrench colonization. practically thewhole ofMadagascar. Only theextreme southremainedindependent until son RadamaI(1810 were unitedunderKing Andrianampoinimerina (1782 contacts withEuropeanswell beforethenineteenthcentury. doms oftheSakalava becamemostinvolved. These kingdomsconsequently hadregular theslave facilitated kingdom. trade,inwhich thecoastalking- This socialstratification hova Before the age of colonialism groups ofclanswereBefore theageofcolonialismgroups unitedintokingdoms,among Usually theMalagasyaresubdivided into18different andthisroughly ethnicgroups, Until the end of the nineteenth century Madagascarremainedaninternationally Until theendofnineteenth century Under Radama MalagasywasUntil thenineteenthcentury rarely written.Ifitwas, itwas in Arabic Towards theMerinakingdomsin the centralmountains theendofeighteenthcentury ) and(descendantsof)slaves ( ’ s daughter, QueenRanavalona I,however, abacklashcausedthe – é 28), who defeated theSakalava andextended Merinapower over ni conquered the country forFrance byni conqueredthecountry in1896. forceofarms As sorabe ‘ big writing andevo OOILHSOYADLNUG OIY79 COLONIAL HISTORY AND LANGUAGE POLICY ’ ). A kingorqueenstoodattheheadof (the traditionalnameis é ni vigorously stimulatedFrench-style – 1810). Hewas succeeded by his andriana volan ’ ), commoners onjatsy ). The Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 04:14 30 Sep 2021; For: 9780203821121, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203821121.ch3 details). University ofateachertraining program (seeClampitt-Dunlap1995for ofGuam, aspart be conductedinEnglishonly. were coursesinChamorro given atthe In1993thefirst allowed andforeignlanguages;allothercourses,however, forteachingChamorro hadto cation, and30minutesinthe higher grades). itwasAnd asalanguageofinstruction edu- accepted by ofprimary law three grades asasubject(20minutesdaily inthefirst was languagethrough theschoolsystem.Inmid-1970sChamorro the Chamorro ofrevivingLanguage andCultureProgram was setupwiththepurpose and preserving andadictionary.had thetaskofwritingagrammar A few years latertheChamorro which causedaninfluxinto Guamof Asians, islanders. Americans andPacific This relatively quietsituationchanged in1962when Kennedy lifted theClearing Act, to theNaval Clearing Act, Guamwas immigrants. closedfortouristsandnon-military the originalpopulation,who were outnumberedby American army personnel. Yet thanks punishment. oreven was physical forbiddenon penaltyofafine schools theuseofChamorro Henceforth all instruction was allinstruction givenHenceforth inEnglishand was largely society. duetothematrilinealcultureofChamorro languagecontinuedtobespoken, albeitwithheavyChamorro Spanishinfluences,this inparticular. malewarriors theChamorro Ifthe The Spaniardskilledanddeported 85,000 atthearrival oftheSpaniardspopulationhaddwindledtosome5000in1741. fromanestimated65,000to populationalmostresultedintheirtermination: Chamorro and thePhilippines. Vigorous efforts by theSpaniardstosave thesoulsofindigenous In 1521Guambecameamidway stationintheSpanishgalleontradebetween Mexico Guam 8.1 LANGUAGE POLICYINOTHER SOUTHEAST ASIAN COUNTRIES 8 towards Merinadominance. )isthecontinuedresentmentofperipheraltribes from pressureFrance itself languageinthefuture(apart of (Merina-based)Malagasyasthemainoronly official languages. are official A majorreasonwhy French may beexpected tosuppresstherise achieve atruly nationallanguage.For themoment,however, bothFrench andMalagasy idea istoenrichaMerina-basedMalagasywithlexicon fromotherdialectsinorderto ofscience. ing onstandardizationandterminology developmentThe avowed forallfields Nonetheless,several hadtobeaborted. bodieshaveplanned andfinally continuedwork- the schools. subjectinsecondary compulsory a tion, which remainedcompletely French. Itwas notuntil 1965 thatMalagasybecame French citizenscontinuedworking asteachers,especially andhighereduca- insecondary on which occasiontheFrench were proclaimedtobeMadagascar tinued, butin1958theMalagasyoptedforindependence,which was effectuated in1960, World War IImany ofthemdid. After thewar theFrench policy ofassimilationwas con- education. Malagasy. tolearn At thesametimeheencouragedallFrench officials Until THEAUSTRONESIANLANGUAGES 80 As areaction,thegovernment LanguageCommission,which installedthe Chamorro After World War marginalized base,which further IIGuambecameamajormilitary As aresultoftheSpanish In the1970sMadagascarfollowed aleftistpolicy, which ontheculturalplainaimedat ‘ malgachisation ’ of secondary andhighereducation.However,of secondary thepolicy was weakly – American War, Guambecame American (1898). ‘ No Chamorro ’ s nineteenthtribe.Many ’ became the rule. In became therule. Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 04:14 30 Sep 2021; For: 9780203821121, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203821121.ch3 Malay peninsulaasSingapore a fully independentstate. independent member. Two years later, however, itseceded from theFederation tobecome self-governanceacquired internal andin1963itjoinedtheFederation ofMalaysia asan occupation in World War IISingaporewas madeaseparateCrown Colony. In1959it system. In1867itcameunderdirectcontroloftheColonialOffice. After theJapanese original populationoftheislandstate,Malay, have dwindledtosome14%. Cantonese, andothers).Indians(mainly Tamil) constituteaminorityof7%,whereas the millionSingaporeansarenow ofChinesedescent(consistingHokkien, Teochew, 3 itintothemulti-ethniccityistoday. large scale,turning The majority(78%)ofthe a tradeintheworld. on the maincentreofrubber Itsprosperityattractedimmigrants planting inmainlandMalaysia inthelastdecadesofnineteenthcentury, italsobecame especially aftertheopeningofSuezCanal(1869). With thedevelopment ofrubber ofcallinthetradebetweenport EuropeandChinainthecourseofnineteenthcentury, major Established asatradingstationby SirStamfordRaffles in1819,Singaporebecamea Singapore 8.2 of China. But with the victory ofthecommunistsoverof China.Butwiththevictory oftheKuomintang thearmies the Austronesian andtheChinese)hadnostatuswhatsoever. In1945 Taiwan becamepart During thattimeJapanesewas thenationallanguage, and theindigenouslanguages(both dialect), laterfollowed by Hakkaspeakers. by of theisland, ofspeakers large-scale ofHoLo(aFukien immigration first sinification (cf. nineteenth century Adelaar 1999). The conquestofZhengChenggongmeantthe Koxinga), usersatleastuntiltheearly this script was usedby descendantsofthefirst the ChineseadmiralZhengChenggong(known Dutchsourcesas incontemporary inal Formosan languages(Siraya andFavorlang). Longafterthey hadbeendefeatedby themselves ontheislandthey introducedtheromanscriptforatleasttwo oftheaborig- In 1624theDutchestablished apostinwestern Taiwan, andinthe37years they maintained Taiwan 8.3 tongue an increasingnumberofpupilsIndiandescentappeartochoose Malay astheir mainland Chinesemarket. Sincetheeconomicincentive tochoose Tamil islessobvious, Mandarin Chinese speakMandarin,andMalays speakStandardMalay. Subsequent out linguisticdividing lines withinthedifferent ethniccommunities:Indiansspeak Tamil, guage, andnotallIndiansspeak Tamil. The ideabehindthiseducationalpolicy istowipe education,evenand secondary thoughfew Chinesehave Mandarinastheirhomelan- the constitutionMalay, Mandarinand Tamil aretaughtas However,it remainedEnglish-basedwithEnglishaslanguageofinstruction. inlinewith languageofadministrationandcommerce. primary fourofthemmay beusedinparliament.Inpractice,however, Englishremainsthe All English, Tamil andMandarinChinesehave languages. alsobeenproclaimedofficial of thestate. Malay istheMalaysianThis official standardvariety. Alongside Malay and Because of the common history withMalaysia ofthe Because ofthecommonhistory andtheeconomicimportance Already atanearly stageSingaporeacquiredaspecialstatuswithintheBritishcolonial From 1895untiltheendof World War II Taiwan was oftheJapaneseempire. part hadbeenexclusivelyEducation underdirectBritishrule English. After independence ’ . ’ campaigns have had the additional benefit ofeasingaccesstotheemergingcampaigns have hadtheadditionalbenefit ’ s immediatehinterland, Malay stillisthenationallanguage OOILHSOYADLNUG OIY81 COLONIAL HISTORY AND LANGUAGE POLICY ‘ mother tongues ’ in primary ‘ mother ‘ Speak Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 04:14 30 Sep 2021; For: 9780203821121, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203821121.ch3 since 1996one local languagesarebeginning asteachersareavailable), tobeusedassuch(insofar and Mandarin hasnolongerbeentheonly Inthelower languageofinstruction. the grades those ofthe Austronesian minorities,cametobereevaluated. For thepastfew years, inits ownChinese empirebutacountry right.Locallanguagesandcultures,including political perspective, accordingtowhich Taiwan was nolongeranappendixofthegreat accepted in Taiwan. implementedfor MandarinChinese,butforpoliticalreasonsthesewere not were languages were reducedtoonehourdaily. IncommunistChinaspellingreforms pletely replacedby Mandarin. Towards law theendofmartial broadcastsinthese (Taiwanese/Ho LoandHakka)was allowed onconditionthatthey shouldintimebecom- lawJapanese. Duringmartial broadcasting inthelocalvarieties ofChinese continued theone-languagepolicy oftheJapanese,substitutingMandarinChinesefor they law established martial ofthewhole and rulers ofChina.Underthisfiction ful andconsideredthemselves theright- of theKuomintang andtheirsupporters, armies fromthemainland,immigrants many ofwhom spoke Mandarin. They were theremnants mainlandChinain1949itwas separatedagain. Taiwan was floodedby athirdwavein of THEAUSTRONESIANLANGUAGES 82 OE N MOKLEN AND MOKEN Thailand, Moken/Moklen (approximately 2500 guages ofthe Austronesian sea-nomadsscatteredalongthewest coastofsouthern ofalanguagehierarchylanguages areallpart dominatedby Standard Thai. The lan- inBangkok. determined The majorregional languagesaswell asthesmallerminority In Thailand allstateeducationisinStandard Thai, withcentralizedcontrolandacurriculum Thailand 8.4 educationcurriculum. the elementary hierarchy (Smalley 1994:366 in bringingtheprivate schoolsunderitscontrol.Since1968nonew schoolsforIslamic opposite effect amongtheMalays. Inthe1960s,however, the Thai government succeeded and againinthe1950s)attempts toforceassimilationofthenationalminoritieshad the twentieth century, andunderPrimeMinisterPhibunsongkhramduring World War II During themajorwaves of Thai chauvinism(underKing Vajiravudh atthebeginning of Standard Malay writtenin Arabic script, andthey were discussedinPattani Malay. activity inthisprivate educationwas thereadingofreligioustexts. These texts were minimal. Mosteducationwas private, centeredaroundalocalMuslimteacher. The main cational policy metwithmuchresistance.Untilthe1960simpactofstateschoolswas of educationhasgenerally beenaccepted.InthePattani Malay area,however, Thai edu- ers aremostly andthe bilingual(SatunMalay andPaktayThai system (Southern Thai)) southwestern province ofSatunanothervariety ofMalay isendemic,althoughitsspeak- Yala, ofSongkhla(Smalley Pattani, 1994:155).Inthe Narathiwat part andthesouthern Malay isspoken by probably over provinces amillionspeakers inthesoutheastern of itwasThai kings,but not until1893thatitcameunderdirect Thai rule. Today Pattani an independentandattimespowerful sultanate.Periodically ithadtopay tothe tribute the processofculturaldeprivation andlanguagedecline. Thai-based writingsystemforUrakLawoi In 1988 martial lawIn 1988martial lifted. was finally The subsequentdemocraticprocessledtoanew Since itsconversion toIslamin1474,Pattani hadbeentheMalay-speaking centreof ‘ period ) andUrakLawoi ’ per week hasbeenallottedtotheteachingoftheselanguagesin – 367). No efforts are made to preserve theselanguages. 367). Noefforts aremadetopreserve A ’ (with some3000speakers) areatthebottomofthis ’ , developed by missionaries,hasnotreversed – 3000 speakers per group; see 3000 speakers pergroup; LARISH , Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 04:14 30 Sep 2021; For: 9780203821121, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203821121.ch3 books thereforehave hadtobewrittenby details). hand(seePo 2001forfurther Dharma typewriters adaptedtothetraditionalChamwriting system,letalonecomputers. The schoolbooks have beenproduced.However, thecommitteedoesnothave atitsdisposal the150schoolsintwosupervises provinces where five thebooksare tobeused.Sofar Textbooks inCham(BanBi has beensetup. tural centrefortheChamethnic group A CommitteeforDraftingSchool ofHoChinMinhCity. north and Ninh InNinh Thuan, some200km Thuan alarge cul- for Chamissomeprovision madeineducation,andthatonly intheprovinces ofBinh Tuan edged, butinpracticeotherprioritiesprevail. As regards the Austronesian languages,only traditional lands. way oflifetheminorities. As aconsequencethey were marginalized intheirown worksstructural (industry, thetraditional transformed mines,roadsanddams) further by Masseducation(in theminoritygroups. Vietnamese) was introduced andlarge infra- landless Vietnamese began tosettleintheareaswhich were onceexclusively inhabited ideology didnotleave muchroomforindependentculturaldevelopment. Streamsof hardly improved forthe Austronesian minorities. Vietnamese nationalismandcommunist territories. settlementsfromwhere they nolongerhadaccesstotheirancestors trated intofortified defoliation ofthejungle. The Chamandotherminoritieswere and/orconcen- deported logic ofwar oftheirhabitatby requiredthedestruction continuousbombardmentsand Ho ChiMinh Trail ranthroughtheregions populatedby the Austronesian minorities. The highlands provided thebesthidingplaceforanti-colonial/communistforces,and Vietnam forthe West, theminoritiescameunderpressure. The junglesofthecentral War II.Especially afterthe Americans hadsucceededtheFrench intheirefforts to that were accessible tochildren fromtheminorities. illiteracy rateofalmost100%.Nominoritylanguagewas usedinany ofthefew schools dramatic changedoccurred. The French hardly interferedwiththeminorities,who had an This situationcontinuedtoexist forcenturies.Even no undercolonialFrench rule and theother hadbecomeminoritiesvis- Austronesian ethnicgroups central Vietnam. This createdastateofrelatively stable symbiosis, inwhich theCham regions ofIndochinadrovethe southern mostofthe Austronesians tothemountains of annexedwas finally by the Annamites in1471. The subsequentinfluxof Vietnamese into with the Vietnamese kingdomof andtheKhmerinwest,Annam inthenorth andit once covered ofmainlandSoutheast large parts Asia. This kingdomwas regularly atwar language. Itwas thelanguage oftheChampakingdom(seventh Of thefive Austronesian languagesof Vietnam, only Chamusedtobealiterary Vietnam 8.5 over by coursesandweekend extracurricular schools. functionofteachingIslamicvaluesp.c.), buttheirformer andreligionhasbeentaken the Pattani-speaking provinces stillexceeds thenumberofstateschools(ZaphirNikhab, Malayinstruction. isonly allowed forreligion. Today thenumberofprivate schoolsin have hadtoadoptacommon aswellThai curriculum as Thai asthemainlanguageof education have beenable tobeestablished any more,andtheexisting Islamicschools Officially theneedforpreservation andcultivationOfficially oftheminorityculturesisacknowl- After thedefeatof American forcesandtheirSouth Vietnamese allies,thesituation The situation began to change with the anti-colonial struggle duringandafter The situationbegan tochangewiththeanti-colonialstruggle World ê n SoanChuCham)hasbeeninstalled. The committeealso OOILHSOYADLNUG OIY83 COLONIAL HISTORY AND LANGUAGE POLICY – fifteenth century) which century) fifteenth à -vis the Vietnamese. ‘ save ’ ’ Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 04:14 30 Sep 2021; For: 9780203821121, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203821121.ch3 lished. Not without strong political support fromPortugal, Portugueselished. Notwithoutstrongpolitical support was reintroduced Indies. Butintheothercountries theoldcoloniallanguagewas never completely abo- Indonesia. Dutchlanguagepolicy tomake Dutchindispensable failed intheDutch regime. positions withinthecentralized Suharto sectionofthepopulation, towitallthosewho had withaspecific times identified tion ofthestandardlanguage.Becauseitscentralizedstandardization itisnow some- most successfulinitslanguagepolicy, critiquehasrecently beenraisedagainsttheposi- seen asunduly advantageous forany andwhich thereforehadbeen ethnicorsocialgroup, newcomers. Even inIndonesia,where thestatusofnationallanguagehadnever been upon the Taiwanese as powers. The consequencewas thatJapaneseandsubsequently Mandarinwere imposed Indonesia, Pilipino/Tagalog inthePhilippines,andMalagasyMadagascar. national: Malay Singapore,and inMalaysia, Darussalam, Brunei lesser extent inMalaysia. With independence,indigenouslanguageswere proclaimedtobe a andto Darussalam, languageintheDutchIndiesandBrunei official became asecondary Vietnam; andSpanishsubsequently English in thePhilippinesandGuam.Malay and Singapore;DutchinIndonesia;Portuguese inEast Timor; French inMadagascarand functions:EnglishinMalaysia,ing power Darussalam theseofficial Brunei which fulfilled and/or themedia. communication,education, language,i.e.inofficial is meantalsotobeusedasanofficial as Malay inSingapore).Butmostcasesthelanguagechosenasnational may indeedbepurely (suchasFilipino), orofnopracticalconsequence(such imaginary not states(alsooutsideSoutheast of themodern Asia) istheexistence of Europeanand American wars, greed, andpoliticalagreements. A major multi-cultural statesofSoutheast Asia (includingMadagascar)areultimately theproduct intheaboveRecurrent discussionsistheproblem oflegitimation. The multi-ethnicand CONCLUDINGREMARKS 9 THEAUSTRONESIANLANGUAGES 84 ‘ either, precisely becauseofitsfunctionasacompensationfortheposition In Malaysia languageisnotundisputed thepositionofMalay asthenationalandofficial the PhilippinesandinMadagascarwithregard toPilipino/Tagalog andMerinaMalagasy. sectionofthepopulationitwas resentedbyfiable others. This was obviously thecasein majority ofthepopulation. Wherever thischoicewas feltasatakeover bid by anidenti- ise, andpoliticalwill,butabove allontheacceptabilityoflanguagechoice tothe point toany results. ofsuccessinothercountriesdependsonfunds,expert- The degree efforts varies tocountry. fromcountry For suchasEast acountry Timor itistooearly to propagation (education,publication, languagecampaigns, etc.). The successofthese (standardizationofspellingandgrammar, terminology development) and ning languageimpliedsubsequentprovisions plan- butalsoasanofficial forcorpus guage namely Tetum and Portuguese. the only intheregion which country sinceitsindependencehastwo nationallanguages, forcesin1999.East the Indonesianarmed Timor continuestobeanexception sinceitis language ofEast Timor fromitsannexation by Indonesiain1975untilthewithdrawal of bumiputra Nevertheless thereis neitheranindigenousnoraforeignalternative forIndonesianin Taiwan andEast Timor were exceptional inthatthey were (also)colonizedby Asian In thecolonialperioditwas inmostcountriesthelanguageof(European)coloniz- In mostcountriesthechoiceofanindigenouslanguagenotonly asanationallan- – of one particular languagefunctioningasanemblem ofthenation.Suchalanguage ofoneparticular ’ (indigenous) Malay vis- their national language,whereas Indonesianbecamethe à -vis the(descendantsofthe)ChineseandIndian – inanothervariety – eitherimaginedor raison d ‘ national ’ê – tre in ’ Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 04:14 30 Sep 2021; For: 9780203821121, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203821121.ch3 Eccles, L.(2000)‘East Timorese LanguagePolicy and theLanguagePolicies ofOther Clampitt-Dunlap, S.(1995) Bonifacio, A.F. attheUniversity (1969)‘PilipinoasMediumofInstruction Level’, Adelaar, K.A.(1999)‘Retrieving Siraya phonology: A new spellingforadeadlanguage’, REFERENCES stimulating reminders. suggestionsandremarks, and data onthePhilippines,andtoeditorsfortheirfruitful onEast toJohnHajekforhisinformation I amgrateful Timor, to Willem Wolters forhis ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS generations. communication) may causemany ofthe minorlanguagestobecomeextinct withinafew cial languagesinthesecountries(withitsvarious implicationsforeducationandmass guages. Nonetheless,itmay beexpected thatthemereexistence ofthenationalandoffi- lan- stand outfortheirattentiontothelocallanguagesotherthannationalandofficial be preserved. Within Southeast Asia thePhilippines,Indonesiaandespecially East Timor assurancesthattheselanguagesshould themselves tounspecified Thailand), orconfine largelyguages (asusedtobethepolicy inBrunei), neglect them(suchasinMalaysia and guages. Policy-makers have even lesstogoon. They may deny theexistence ofotherlan- trained linguistswillhave limitedunderstandingoftheexisting avery variety oflan- for otherlanguages. The Southeast Asian linguisticsceneissocomplicatedthateven colonies. and American can only roleatthenationallevel, resultinagreater andnotonly British intheformer Darussalam. and toalesserextent inBrunei The statusofEnglishasthegloballanguage Philippines andSingapore(aswell noticeable asinGuam),butitisalsovery inMalaysia British coloniestheroleofEnglishisstillprominent. This isobviously thecasein Heseltine, N. (1971) (1999) Hassan Ahmad Hajek, J. (2000)‘Language PlanningandtheSociolinguisticEnvironment inEast Timor: (1980) Gonzalez, A.B. Tsao, Feng-fu (1994) ofthedrivefailure for languageinEast as anationalandofficial Timor. PressurefromFrance tothe contributed Small Pacific Nations’, Small Pacific Rico,