sign in sign up
<<
Home , Brazzaville Conference, Colonial empire, Direct rule, French Fourth Republic, French Sudan, French Union

Annals of Global History Volume 1, Issue 1, 2019, PP 37-47

British, French, Belgian and Portuguese Models of Colonial Rule and Economic Development in

Ngozi Caleb Kamalu, Ph.D Fayetteville State University, Department of & History, 1200 Murchison Road, Fayetteville, North Carolina 28301, USA *Corresponding Author: Ngozi Caleb Kamalu, Ph.D, Fayetteville State University, Department of Government & History, 1200 Murchison Road, Fayetteville, North Carolina 28301, USA, Email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT Although the goals of the colonial powers of controlling the human and material resources of Africa were alike, their means of achieving those colonial goals and interests were different by virtue of their different approaches in social control, economic development and political integration. Despite achieving , many African still suffer from the remnants of in the form of – economic, social, language and cultural dependencies. Other contemporary conflicts African countries face in the post-colonial era include border disputes, disparate and unequal patterns of economic development, cultural and language differences resulting from colonial histories and experiences. This paper sets to narrate the history and evolution of European presence in Africa; analyze different and competing types or styles of colonial rules as well as patterns of development adopted by different European powers in their respective in Africa; examine the British, French, Belgian and Portuguese types of rule in Africa and identify some of the major reasons why each colonial power adopted its own distinct form of policy. Keywords: Berlin Conference, Race and , of Africa, Bakassi Peninsula, Industrial Revolution, Slave Coast, Triangular , Warrant Chiefs, , Assimilation, Emancipation, Brazaville Conference, Poll Tax, Paternalism, Sabon Gari, Colonialism, Compulsory/ Forced labor.

INTRODUCTION introduced their nationals to work as officers (DOs) who governed through “Warrant Between the 16th and early 19th century, the Chiefs” in Eastern . Also, the colonial focus of European trade was slave trade. This powers had the urge to establish new markets resulted in the “triangular” or “Trans-Atlantic” for finished surplus goods and mineral slave trade in which slaves were purchased in resources; and in return secured sources of raw , shipped to the cotton fields and materials such as timber, gold, rubber, cocoa, coal mines in America. The produced cotton and copper, nickel and palm oil. other goods were then shipped back to , then converted into textiles and shipped back to There was also the economic reason on the part Africa to be used for exchange for more slaves. of the colonial states to provide the protection to The arduous journey called the “middle the national multinationals companies that passage” claimed many African lives. With the operated in Africa. In Nigeria and , inception of the Industrial revolution in Europe Britain provided security and protection, as well between 1840 and 1870, the need for slave labor as comparative advantage in overseas trade to its waned. The industrial revolution introduced parent company the British Royal technology - machine tools, steam-powered Company. The fight to control the African railways, boats and ships. resources and exclude other competitors was so intense among the colonial powers that it was The colonial powers then sought strong dubbed the “scramble” and “Partition” of footholds in order to introduce colonial-style Africa. ; resettle and employ indigenous populations displaced by the industrial The “cut throat” completion among European revolution. For example, the British government States including Britain, , ,

Annals of Global History V1 ● I1 ● 2019 37 British, French, Belgian and Portuguese Models of Colonial Rule and Economic Development in Africa

Spain, , and resulted in African Coastal countries and contiguous areas the convening of the Berlin Conference (1884 - of Nigeria, Ghana and Sierra Leone dubbed the 85) by then German Chancellor Bismarck. The “slave Coast”. It was not until 25, 1807 conference presented the framework for that the British efforts in Parliament, designed to dividing up Africa among European nations. abolish the slave trade came to fruition with the The criteria used were that any that first passage of the Slave Trade Act. established presence and a form of government in any part would take control and possession of EUROPEAN SCRAMBLE AND PARTITION OF that area. As a result, almost every European AFRICA nation had territorial possession (colonies) in Often referred to as the “race for Africa,” the parts of Africa. Each colonial power not only European powers fought and struggled among influenced the culture, language and education themselves for the primary purpose of of its possession, it also introduced its type of establishing their territorial claims and controls rule/ government, social control, economic of Africa‟s huge mineral resources. The development and political integration. The resource promise of Africa was informed by the European presence has lingering effects in accounts of early European explorers of the 18th contemporary Africa. It is the root cause of Century, such as David Livingstone who sailed conflict among African States over international along River ; Mongo Park who borders. For example, the Nigeria-Cameroonian explored The River Niger and the hinterland. conflict over Bakassi Peninsular and the The explorers thus opened a trail for the Ethiopia-Somalia conflict over the Ogaden presence of Christian missionaries who (1977-78).The purposes of this paper are to: preached the bible, converted Africans to  Trace the history and evolution of European Christianity, condemned some aspects of presence in Africa traditional African worship, practices and customs and introduced western- style  Analyze different types of colonial rules education. Their struggles at some time became adopted by different European powers in chaotic, unhealthy and out of control to the their colonies in Africa extent of warranting some level of control.  Examine the British, French, Belgian and Hence the Berlin Colonial conference of 1884- Portuguese types of colonial rule in Africa. 85 was necessitated at the invitation of Otto Von  Identify some of the reasons why each Bismarck, the then Chancellor of Germany. colonial power adopted its own distinct form of policy The goal of the conference was to lay down the  Identify factors responsible for variations in framework and conditions by which the development patterns in Africa scramble for African and resources were to be enforced. As reflected in the treaty, EUROPEAN CONQUEST AND AFRICAN the European powers agreed that any power SLAVE TRADE claiming any piece of African must first The African slave trade is attributed to the occupy the said territory, establish a working history of European conquest and rule of Africa. government in it and then inform its This opened the gate for the colonial powers to competitors. It was strictly based on the exploit Africa‟s human and mineral resources. principles espoused by the agreement that During the 15th and 16th Century the main focus encouraged European powers – Britain, of European trade was the slave trade in which Portugal, Italy, France, Germany, Belgium, and the Portuguese and the Dutch were major to partition the into their participants. Hence, the “triangular” trade in possessions, develop colonial rules, declared the which the European powers purchased African major international waterways, such as Rivers slaves in West Africa and shipped them as Niger and Zaire free to all transportation as well human cargo to Europe and America to work in as abolish slavery in states occupied by each the cotton fields and coal mines. The produced colonial power. It is worth noting that this cotton was then shipped back to Europe where it exercise was both foreign and an imposition on was converted into raw material for textiles the African continent as no African chiefs were which subsequently was shipped to Africa to either invited or in attendance. It was at the serve as exchange goods for more slave labor. conclusion of the meeting that agents of the This long and arduous journey called the European colonial powers began to stream into “middle passage” claimed many West African Africa to lay the ground work for an orderly lives. Most of these slaves hailed from the West transition into boundary demarcation and the

38 Annals of Global History V1 ● I1 ● 2019 British, French, Belgian and Portuguese Models of Colonial Rule and Economic Development in Africa declaration of colonial possessions (colonies) designed to covert Africans in the territories to for each participating power. The only territories French citizens; the policy of self- government that survived the colonial exercise were the by the British which replaced traditional African territories of Liberia and Abyssinia (Ethiopia) chiefs with “headmen” and in some cases,, respectively. “warrant” chiefs constructed in a way capable of promoting self-rule by Africans while at the Soon, a new contour or map of Africa was same time appointing some indigenous Africans introduced, with each colonial European power as state officials doing the British bidding. establishing its own type of colonial government and spheres of influence. A bird‟s eye view of By not dismantling existing traditional African the map of Africa shows that in Northern Africa, institutions, the British colonial administration France controlled such countries as , put alid on the prospects of confrontation and and , while Italy controlled protests. The quasi-autonomy enjoyed by Libya and Britain controlled Egypt, and Spain Africans in the British territories turned out to exercised its influence and control over Spanish have prepared African leaders such as Nnamdi . With respect to the west African , Azikiwe of Nigeria and of Britain took control of Nigeria, Gambia and Ghana for early independence in Nigeria Sierra Leone, while France controlled Cote (October1960) and Ghana (March 1957) Devoir (Former ), Mauritania, respectively. French (Now ), Upper Volta (now Under Belgium colonial rule of paternalism, ), Dahomey (now of Belgian multinational companies, the colonial Benin), and Niger. Spain took possession of administration and the became , while Portugal took possession the channels of governance and control. With of Cape Verde. As regards , respect to Portuguese colonial rule in of France controlled Chad and central Africa assimilation and paternalism, its decline as a Republic, while Belgium controlled colonial power and circumstance as a poor state and Republic of Congo (formerly Zaire). forced it into excessive and brutal exploitation While Spain took possession of the Island of of its African colonies. Fernando Po, Portugal took over Sao Tome and Hence, in Africa, different patterns of political Principe Islands. Burundi and Rwanda fell under expression and freedoms emerged as well as the colonial grip of Belgium and English- varied degrees of development such as Speaking (Cameroon was divided education of the indigenous populations and between the French and English sections), Chad, different modes of colonial resistance and Central Africa Republic and French Speaking struggles for independence of the colonies. Cameroon came under French rule. In , the story was no different. While Britain FRENCH, BRITISH, PORTUGUESE AND controlled , and , BELGIAN COLONIAL POLITICS AND Germany controlled Tanzania (former DEVELOPMENTS: A PRECURSOR ). In terms of the northeastern region of Africa, while Britain controlled parts of According to Zahorik, Jan (2019), every Somaliland and Sudan, France took possession European power that had colonial possessions in of part of Somaliland. Italy controlled Eritrea Africa - France, Portugal, Britain or Belgium and a portion of Somaliland as well. Southern tried to develop its own administrative system, Africa saw Britain in control of , differed in her perception of Africans, yet their Southern (now ) and common tendencies was to look upon an . Portugal controlled Angola and African as an inferior being; and that this feeling , while Germany controlled of superiority of the European society was (Former South-West Africa) and facilitated or given impetus by the technological France took over (formerly known leap in Europe. as the Malagasy Island territory). The French colonial system was based on colonial rule and direct control over its colonies. DIFFERING PATTERNS OF POLITICAL This involved the creation of vast bureaucratic SYSTEMS AND DEVELOPMENTS apparatus and involvement in Africa as the The European colonial powers adopted different French embarked on what Zahorik called “the approaches styles of governance through which creation of an undisputed Francophone territory they ruled their territorial possessions in Africa. that would stretch from to the The French instituted the policy of assimilation and ”. Soon the program of French

Annals of Global History V1 ● I1 ● 2019 39 British, French, Belgian and Portuguese Models of Colonial Rule and Economic Development in Africa colonial policy became a form of cultural export ). Under this policy, the independent and assimilation – the spread of French territories of France came under and culture throughout it territories umbrella or shield. This policy was a political and possessions. According to Zahorik, Jan entity created by the to (2019), part of the French strategy was to replace the old French colonial system that educate „loyal” African political elites so as to existed between 1946 and 1958; and marked the keep the continuity of French dominance in its formal end of the "indigenous" (indigène) status colonies after II. To illustrate, the of French subjects in colonial areas. The French first Presidents of independent Francophone Union had five components, comprising countries, such as President Leopold Sedar , which included French Senghor of Senegal, President of Ivory Coast Algeria; 'Old' colonies of the French West (now) Cote d‟Ivoir, Felix Houphouet-Boigny Indies in the ; 'New' colonies, now and President of Niger, HamaniDiori were not overseas territories; of French only friends of France, but rather spent a large Indochina. However, it should be noted that the portion of their lives – residing, schooling, rulers of French Morocco and French Tunisia training, working, and vacationing in . refused to become members and never became one; including Trust Territories, The French intent was to cultivate them through such as French and French immersion, cooptation, socialization and , successors of the acculturation. In the analysis of Zahorik, Jan mandates. (2019), the idea of the unification of Francophone colonies in Africa through The British developed in many of their colonial language and cultural assimilation was designed possessions or colonies, such as Nigeria, Ghana to ward off these countries from unnecessary and Kenya the system of “indirect rule” where disintegration as were the experiences of the unlike the French, did not have the appetite or Portuguese and Belgian colonies during their desire to assimilate indigenous Africans. struggles for independence. Hence, in search of Instead, the Brits allowed Africans many of a gradual and peaceful transition from colonial their traditional institutions and cultures intact rule to independence, the and to flourish on the reasoning that their main government was unwilling to allow any visible, goal was more for “economic profit” than overt emancipation of the colonial people “cultural dominance”. As Zahorik, Jan (2019) because of fears of violent, revolutionary, quick well noted, “British or generally European and chaotic process possibly colonialism owed much to great explorers and involving armed conflicts. personalities such as who established the basis of British in Examples are not far-fetched regarding how South Africa. Because of British eyes on France pursued such goals. In 1958, the economic gains and profit, Britain acquired and independence for was put to vote in a annexed which was referendum organized by its colonial master contiguous to known as the France. Similarly, with regard to the “copper belt” because it was endowed with large independence for Algeria, France organized a deposits of copper and other metals including plebiscite in its territory where indigenous nickel. As Zahorik, Jan (2019: 5) further argued people of Algeria voted to consider Algeria an or asserted, Britain just like any other imperial integral part of France. These initiatives, argued power was more preoccupied, sensitive and Zahorik, Jan (2019), showed how worried and concerned with proving her military and concerned France was of losing its power and technological superiority over Africans knowing prestige not to mention its economic and full well that any hegemonic or colonial power cultural consequences of its colonies. As in Africa would eventually be confronted with Zahorik, Jan (2019:4), also argued, against any forms of economic and colonial designs as regards “cultural cultural oppression. Thus, the British became imperialism” fell short of its goals and insensitive to the rich and vast cultures and objectives in light of the fact that “only about histories of their colonial subjects, which they 15% of the people of Francophone Africa speak often portrayed as the primitive “other”. French while the rest of the population gives preference to local and indigenous languages”. The Portuguese colonial approach under the Further, during Post World War II, the French Salazarist regime or government incorporated its colonial policy in Africa evolved from colonies because of Portugal‟s economic “assimilation” to “” (French backwardness. As Zahorik, Jan (2019) claimed,

40 Annals of Global History V1 ● I1 ● 2019 British, French, Belgian and Portuguese Models of Colonial Rule and Economic Development in Africa

Portugal did not show good economic figures the National Liberation Front of Angola and thus needed the natural resources from the (FNLA) was headed by Holden Roberto. colonies to prop up, boost and maintain its Antonio Agostinho Neto headed the Popular domestic economy. Hence, Portugal considered Movement for the Liberation of Angola the colonies its “” or extensions of its (MPLA) which was founded in 1956. After colonial or imperial territory. According to Neto‟s death in September 1979 as the first Zahorik, Jan (2019), Portugal‟s colonial system President of Independent Angola, he was was based on the theory of “social Darwinism” - succeeded by Eduardo dos Santos who rules which hypothesizes that Africans have nothing Angola as President from 1979 to 2017. tangible to contribute to the development of The Belgian colonial possessions or colonies in society or civilization, and that consistent with Africa included Angola, Mozambique, and this assumption, Portugal designed a 3-stage Guinea-Bissau. The Belgian political and system of assimilation whose overarching goals economic development relied primarily on were to: direct control of developments by its colonial  Destroy traditional African societies and bureaucracies, and direct involvement of the cultures Catholic Church. In terms of developmental  Infiltration and adulteration of African usurpation, Belgian colonial administration built societies by Portuguese culture and robust infrastructures such as schools, railways,  Integration of detribalized Africans to roads, plantations, mines, industrial areas, and Portuguese society airports. Despite the modest improvements in the lives of the Congolese, the Belgians created By so doing, the Portuguese were able to two separate societies, one for whites and the construct a hierarchical and unequal system in other for natives. its territories in which the so-called “assimilates” could use certain privileges as The whites had all the luxuries as opposed to opposed to native Africans (indigenea) who native Africans who lacked almost everything. were designated as second-class citizens. As In fact, it was an apartheid-like type of social Zahorik, Jan (2019) argued, for anyone to make and political system where all the major the transition to the category or class of decisions concerning Congo‟s socio-economic “assimilado” he or she would have to show and political development and modernization competence, fluency or adequate knowledge of fell at the lapse of Brussels, with the indigenous the and thus be certified as Congolese population not even allowed to having proved principle of a “civilized lifestyle. participate in the running of their own country. Regardless, Portuguese control over indigenous The construction of “two separate societies” African natural resources and its people and its policy by Belgium is what Zahorik, Jan (2019) resistance to peaceful decolonization of its referred to as the “formation of ethnic and racial territories never worked as numerous categories”; a policy that traced its origin from independence resistance and liberation Western or Hamitic mythology. movements with divergent political ideologies Hamitic hypothesis states that everything of mushroomed as exemplified by its experiences value ever found in Africa was brought there by in , particularly in Angola, the Caucasian race. The theory is clearly Guinea-Bissau and Mozambique respectively. symptomatic of the nature of race relations that In Guinea-Bissau, President Luis Cabral permeated colonial policies in their Africa became its first President after independence in colonies all for the purpose of constructing a September 1973. In Mozambique, Frelimo racist ideology that could permit the rape of (Mozambique Liberation Front) won the Africa‟s resources without a blink in the multiparty elections held in Mozambique in consciences of even the most ardent of 1994. Later, Joaquim Chissano became leader of Christians. Frelimo in 1986 after the death of Samora Also, according to Zahorik, Jan (2019), in the Machel and eventually became the first elected Belgian mandate territory of Ruanda-Urundi, president of the country after independence in the Tutsi aristocracy were elevated to the role of June 1975. For Angola, many splinter groups real rulers who enjoyed relative advantages in fighting for independence emerged prior to her wealth , education and power while the Hutu independence in November 1975. The National farmers and Pygmies named Taw became Union for the Total Liberation of Angola officially second-class citizens; and that because (UNITA) was headed by Jonas Savimbi while of this hierarchical polarization of the society in

Annals of Global History V1 ● I1 ● 2019 41 British, French, Belgian and Portuguese Models of Colonial Rule and Economic Development in Africa which social and ethnic categories became the works of Crowder, Michael (1964); Bush, fixed that gave Rwanda and Burundi a genocidal Barbara and Malt by, Josephine (2004) and character. Hayes, Patricia (1997).Although African Chiefs showed their faces, the real and actual power British Colonial System of “Indirect Rule” rested with the British colonial officers. “The British wanted traditional societies to Examples are not far-fetched. The Aba maintain their uniqueness and therefore stay Women‟s Riot of October 1929in particular, the way they had always been”-----Markovitz, was perceived or seen as major challenge to the Irving L. (1977:64). British colonial authority in Nigeria and West African region at large during the colonial era. The British strategy in this model was to rule Africa from a far. Put another way, to impose an The roots of this social upheaval could be traced external control, or even ruling Africa all the to 1914, when the first Nigerian colonial way from England. With the stereotypes of , Lord Lugard imposed a system of Africans as less advanced and backward people, “indirect rule “in Southern Nigeria. Under the they opted for “indirect rule” as a way of British plan, the warrant Chiefs who were preparing Africans whom in their opinion were appointed by the British Governor formed the not familiar with self-government until they human infrastructural pillars of governance. would be ready to assume the full leadership of Other essential and supplementary actors were their countries after full independence. Indirect the traditional Igbo Chiefs who were elected. As rule emphasized slow and gradual change that Evans, Marissa K (2012) observed, within a few would not disturb the customs, traditions, years the appointed warrant chiefs became institutions, mores and rural life styles of increasingly oppressive. They seized property, Africans. As a way to avoid total revolution, the imposed draconian local regulations, and began British authorities believed in gradually imprisoning anyone who openly criticized increasing African participation in the political them. decisions of the colonies, using the political Although much of the anger was directed infrastructures already put in place by the against the warrant chiefs, most Nigerians knew British colonial government. the source of their power, British colonial As a follow up, the British regime established administrators. Colonial administrators added legislative councils in West Africa, especially in to the local sense of grievance when they Nigeria under the directives of Lord Lugard, the announced plans to impose special taxes on the first Nigerian colonial governor, without a Igbo market women in Nigeria. These women permanent presence in terms of large presence were responsible for supplying the food to the of British indigenous populations capable of growing urban populations in Calabar, Owerri, raising the awe and suspicion of the local and other Eastern Nigerian . They feared African population. Among the ethnic Ibos in that the taxes would drive many of the market eastern Nigeria, the British established women out of business and seriously disrupt the “warrant” chiefs who served at the whim of the supply of food and non-perishable goods British Consuls and District Officers (DOs). The available to the populace. DOs who governed through the warrant Chiefs This was necessitated by the fear among the hence became the face of British authorities local population in eastern Nigeria that the among the people of eastern Nigeria. There was British would: (a) impose separate taxation on a reversal in the pecking order of authority as the basis of gender as warrant chief Okugo was the Warrant Chiefs appointed by the British mandated by the British to count the local authorities in Nigeria took precedent over the population, including livestock for tax purposes. powers of the traditional local chiefs. Even, in (b) dissatisfaction that price control measures many cases, the British cared less about the instituted by the British as responsible for efficacy of the system they had introduced. falling prices for local produce such as palm In practice, indirect rule became the system kernel, vegetable oil as opposed to imported through which the British used African goods which sold at relatively high prices. (c) traditional rulers to subjugate the mass African Hatred and suspicion of the Warrant Chiefs and populations. In fact, the way the British the native (customary) courts suspected of depended on indirect rule, their civilizing corruption and unfair sentencing practices. mission in Africa as well as taxation as a system Several thousands of women participated in the of control in their African territories dominated mass riots and demonstration. The rampaging

42 Annals of Global History V1 ● I1 ● 2019 British, French, Belgian and Portuguese Models of Colonial Rule and Economic Development in Africa women attacked the symbolic and oppressive declaration of emergency in Kenya by the institutions used by the British colonial powers British colonial administration. that include native courts run by colonial The French Colonial Policies of officials and even burned some to the ground, and Assimilation European-owned factories and stores, Barclays Bank, as well as broke into prison and released “The French objective, however, was not that inmates. the African should develop on his own lines, but that he should become civilized – that is a Even the residential neighborhoods in the black Frenchman” ----Markovitz, Irving L. were segregated. For example, the areas of the (1977:64). towns were European officials inhabited were designated and called “European quarters”. Permanent association of colonies with colonial These were the best or plum, isolated, and lined France characterized the French policy in with trees, shrubs and peaches as well as good Africa. Its intention was never to lead its roads. Even in Northern Nigeria, where the colonies to independence given the fact that British experiment had failed and where the France never wanted to break its ties or Fulani and Hausa had established the Soko to connection with its colonies. As Markovitz with the Emirs at the helm, segregated (1977: 64) challenged, “Who would want to neighborhoods characterized the British break the connection with the mother country? experience, as certain sections of the African To ensure complete juridical and administrative community reserved for Africans, but not integration of the dependencies into the British officials were called “Sabon Gari”, metropolitan institutions, the French system meaning “strangers‟ quarters” in English incorporated a type of unity and wholeness language.In reaction, the and unique for the size and variety of its empire. The police were called in to quail the riots. They great goal of administrative integration was for a fired into the crowd, killed and wounded many. visitor to be able to “walk into any classroom in This violent reaction eventually forced the Aba any school in any part of France and find every colonial authorities to drop their plans to impose student in every classroom on exactly the same a tax on the market women as well as to curb the page in exactly the same book”. Put succinctly excessive powers exercised by the Warrant to achieve total harmony in the educational chiefs. In the end, the British ended the Warrant system. The French refused to grant Chief system. independence to their territorial holdings. They also did not abolish the system of “forced labor” As Markovitz Irving Leonard further noted, on all adult population who were not French under this model/ system of Indirect Rule, the citizens nor allow universal suffrage British administration declared they would characterized by the imposition of the poll tax in recognize and support the customary authorities the colonial territories. But, instead, they in African tribal societies - the chiefs and elders, extended citizenship to Africans. As a pragmatic even though these authorities differed from any rule, the French model rested on dual principles the British had previously encountered. – direct rule and assimilation. However, the British insisted that they be purged of excesses – anything contrary to the The French saw themselves as a superior race British traditions and customs, such as with a divine mandate to extend its superior polygamy, clitoridectomy (circumcision) which racial culture of governance to the backward especially stirred the British sense of repulsion. peoples of Africa inhabiting the colonies. They also assumed that the conferment of French In fact, the British appeared to have learned citizenship was good enough to reward those from their earlier experience from the Mau Mau Africans that showed competence in their uprising in the which was deeply rooted socialization and embrace of the French in the resentment of the Kikuyu tribe in Kenya civilization and culture. over the banning of the practices of circumcision which had great symbolic African native institutions were either neglected significance among the tribal population.In the or brushed aside as the French considered them illustrations of Lonsdale, John (1990)and primitive and deserving of the French Branch, David (2007), the resentment and imposition of its on them. Hence, the uprising by the national liberation group, Mau French colonial authority was centralized, with that followed led to further repression of the its headquarters in Paris through which it movement by the British and the eventual governed the colonies in Africa in a pecking or

Annals of Global History V1 ● I1 ● 2019 43 British, French, Belgian and Portuguese Models of Colonial Rule and Economic Development in Africa hierarchical order through the Governor-General  Citizens of French colonies would have the to local Governors and all the way down to the right to vote for the African native inhabitants of the colonies. The  The native population would be employed Governor Generals in the African colonies were in public service positions within the based in , Senegal and colonies respectively.  Economic reforms would be made to The French rule in Africa stood on two main diminish the exploitative nature of the ideological pillars, namely the imposition of relationship between France and its “poll tax” which was an anathema to the colonies. principle of universal suffrage among the The conference also committed the French French colonial subjects and the imposition of government to respect local customs, abolish forced labor practices on all non-French adult “indigenat”, adopt a new penal code, end labor population. conscription, improve health and educational Although the French boasted of their policy of facilities and opportunities and open positions in direct rule and assimilation as promoting the the colonial administration to Africans. In the universal principles of human rights and end, the assembly reevaluated French colonial equality, it nonetheless was lacking in its policy and drafted a plan for the union of France implementation of the policy to its conclusive and the colonies. In addition to abolishing the end. In the interim (at the outset), the French “indigenat” and forced labor system, the French granted full citizenship to Senegalese Government by relying on decrees, instituted inhabitants who had more contact with French several important reforms concerning Africans settlers. in 1945 and 1946. For example, it granted freedom of speech, association, and assembly to As the number grew the French replaced the the residents of the colonies. policy of Assimilation with Association under which only the selected Africans were granted Also, it provided funds for social and economic full French citizenship rights. The inclusion of development; adopted a new penal code and citizens to include people in Senegalese towns automatically granted all inhabitants of French of Goree and Dakar soon swelled the number of colonies in Africa French citizenship. Of course, Africans with French citizenship in Africa, with the failure of the colonial authorities of France the rest who enjoyed inferior status of “sujet” or to define in detail the rights of citizenship, Subjects liable or subject to forced labor. delayed the indigenous African populations of the colonies from enjoying the full rights on the With this, the French gave up their original ground that they were perceived not ready for it. plans to include local African rulers in their administration. Soon, the already retained local Never the less, French political rule did a lot of African leaders were relegated or reduced to harm in Africa in terms of undermining its mere and ordinary functionaries and in some traditional culture and institutions and cases, tax collectors. By so doing, the French introducing, promoting and sustaining a succeeded in undermining African traditional disparate pattern of development focusing sources of authority and replaced it with the primarily on French citizens and coastal areas French model which was entirely foreign to where they lived in contrast to Africans who Africa. inhabited the interior. It was not until the Brazzaville Conference of Belgian Colonial Policy of Paternalism 1944, during World War II that a of “Unlike the French and British, the Belgians African colonies and France recommended a who monopolized politics and commerce Union. The delegates recommended political, offered the Congolese only one channel of social, and economic reforms in the colonies. In upward mobility, the church” (Markovitz 1977: fact, research has shown that the Brazzaville 66.) Declaration as it was commonly referred made the following declarations: The Belgian comprised three colonial possessions between 1901 and 1962.  The French empire would remain united. They include Belgian Congo (now Democratic  Semi-autonomous assemblies would be ), Rwanda and Burundi. established in each According to Markovitz (1977: 64), the Belgian  Citizens of French colonies would share style of colonial rule had no philosophical equal rights with French citizens (theoretical) or symbolic consideration for

44 Annals of Global History V1 ● I1 ● 2019 British, French, Belgian and Portuguese Models of Colonial Rule and Economic Development in Africa national government or equality for Africans. expose Africans to Catholic education is that it Instead, it focused on or emphasized: instilled discipline, respect and total subservience to authority. This has the effect of  Creating vital roles for the Catholic Church making Africans less likely and less amenable to and the Congolese Clergy trained by the revolutionary activities against the Belgian Church. colonial authority  Achieving “bureaucratic Integrity” The Belgians also carried out a program of Relying on big Business for commercial and legally authorized compulsory labor. As industrial exploitation and development. Markovitz (1977: 66), also observed, “large Belgian colonial rule in Africa has been corporations themselves generally the regarded as among the most integrationist subsidiaries of a handful of giant or huge among the colonial systems in Africa – British, holding companies, dominated business in the French and Portuguese because of their impacts Congo and along with the church and the on the social structures and belief systems of administration, composed a trinity of power. indigenous Africans in the Belgian colonies. Whether based on plantations or on mining, at They stressed Christian monogamy and the least one major enterprise dominated the area adoption of Western way of life. The Belgian around it.” administrative rule in Africa meant direct rule of The Belgian administration ratified Congo Africans in the colonies by Belgium, where no budget without debate and relied on traditional African structures of governance fiat or decree by the King to enact all laws and were tolerated, no African representation in settle disputes. It was not until 1957, when the Belgian government, and absence of Africans in political winds of Ghana‟s independence began any form of political activity. They were blunt to be felt, that they proceeded to ponder and in their economic and political goals of consider the possibility to entertain the idea of generating optimum profit through economic “emancipation” strictly to slow the pace of efficiency and exploitation. independence for its colonies. They embraced the goal of detribalizing the This event was followed by the Leopoldville colonies as well as breaking down traditional riots in 1959 which for the first time forced the African systems of authority. Because of the Belgian colonial leaders to come to grips with availability of skilled manpower driven by the the aspirations of the African masses. shortage of Belgian nationals in the colonies, the Nevertheless, they never gave up the idea that Belgians embraced the idea of training Africans they could control or at least slow down the to take the place of Europeans at the lowest pace of political agitation for independence. possible cost. Belgians were not ready to repeat Hence, the Belgians chose to reduce their the experience of the British in West Africa, footprint or presence in the colonies or rule such as those with nationalists like Nnamdi through an invisible hand by planting the Azikiwe of Nigeria and Kwame Nkrumah of Belgian army officers in charge of the army and Ghana, who trained indigenous people in British civil service on the assumption that by universities, armed with knowledge and dominating key positions in the political and education in the hope that they would continue economic institutions, they could still govern the the British tradition as elites trained and colonies through the veil, cover or façade of grounded in British culture, education and way Belgium. of life, who would continue and sustain the colonial-style administration. Portuguese Policies of Assimilation and Paternalism However, they later fueled their nationalism that drove them to join the fight against colonialism In general, the Portuguese were more ruthless after their return. Hence, the Belgians chose to than any of the colonial masters. They were also insulate Africans from “subversion” by limiting the last of the European powers to leave Africa. them to practical and basic education, mainly at Their decline as world power and their relative the primary and technical levels. The Belgian poverty (compared to the other European administration relied extensively on the Catholic powers) forced Portugal to exploit the colonies Church to train many Africans in seminaries in a brutal manner. It appeared that the policy of which they subsidized, as well as paid for the assimilation and paternal responsibility were maintenance of catholic priests. One of the nothing more than myths used to conceal explanations as to why the Belgians opted to Portugal's cruel exploitation of her helpless,

Annals of Global History V1 ● I1 ● 2019 45 British, French, Belgian and Portuguese Models of Colonial Rule and Economic Development in Africa powerless and vulnerable colonial subjects “as relaxing the draconian nature and abuses of the the first colonial power, Portugal instituted the “contract labor” system and expanding the policy of assimilation and paternalism in Africa. number of Portuguese citizenships bestowed on This ruthless policy perhaps accounts for the African inhabitants of Mozambique. reason why it was the last colonial power to Overwhelmed by and resentful of the sacrifice surrender its colonial territorial holdings. and burden of fighting and dying in a lingering Portugal‟s decline as a colonial and hegemonic war of attrition in foreign land, Portuguese army power as well as its relative poverty in officers turned against the Portuguese colonial comparison with other colonial forced it government by staging a coup d‟etat in 1974. to exploit its colonial possessions without Soon thereafter, in September 1973, Guinea- conscience or feeling of obligation to its Bissau gained independence with Luis Cabral as subjects. President; followed by Mozambique in June Hence, the description of its colonial policy as 1975, when , Leader of assimilation and paternalism is nothing but a FRELIMO became President; and followed by slogan used to cover its cruel policy of cruel the independence of Angola in November 1975. exploitation without regard to any moral and ethical obligation toward its helpless and CONCLUSION dependent colonial subjects. It should be noted European colonial experiences in Africa had that Portugal had always prided itself as a some variations and uniqueness depending on civilized nonracial western empire with a the culture and politics of its possession or in Africa. It has been a widely colonies and the colonial power involved. The held view that Angola, Portugal‟s largest and French introduced the policy of “direct rule and richest colony had the highest illiterate assimilation” in order to convert Africans in population in comparison with the colonies of their territories to “think and behave” like the other colonial empires prior to its independence French citizens. from Portugal in 1975. The British on the other hand introduced the To reflect, the oppressive and cruel nature of the policy of self-government or indirect rule. It Portuguese colonial administration and the involved replacing traditional African Chiefs response of the African indigenous people with” headmen” and “Warrant Chiefs” who toward their liberation. It should be noted that in worked as tokens and proxy to promote self- 1951, the Portuguese Colony of Angola became rule. As a supplement, the British government an Overseas of Portugal. In the late appointed also, indigenous Africans officials to 1950s the People's Movement for the Liberation be the face of the British, thereby reducing the of Angola (MPLA) began to organize strategies latter‟s footprint and doing its bidding. and action plans to fight Portuguese rule as well Under the Belgian colonial government, its rule as the remunerated forced labor system which of paternalism was established. It relied affected many of the native from primarily on Belgian multinational companies the countryside that were relocated from their and the Catholic Church for control and homes and had to perform compulsory work, governance. According to the Belgians, they almost always unskilled hard work, in an exposed Africans to Catholic education in order environment of economic boom. to instill in them, discipline, respect and total Resistance to Portuguese colonialism took on subservience to the Belgian king; and by so the nature of prolonged guerilla warfare staged doing, Africans would be less likely to engage and mounted by FRELIMO (Front for the in revolutionary behaviors, conducts and Liberation of Mozambique).Even the activities against the Belgian colonial authority. implementation of the Portugal‟s Organic law of For the Portuguese, they introduced the system 1885 could not slow the pace of resistance of rule called assimilation and paternalism. Its against the colonial system and policy. It should decline as a poor and colonial power forced it be noted that the 1885 law had established local into excessive and brutal exploitation of its units of government in African areas and African colonies. Portuguese colonies were increased the responsibilities of the Legislative known to have the highest illiterate populations Council, a white advisory Council. Other in comparison to other colonial empires. measures of late reforms instituted by the colonial empire in reaction to nationalistic goals Therefore, the goals of the colonial powers in and aspirations of the Angolan people included Africa were the same – to control the human and

46 Annals of Global History V1 ● I1 ● 2019 British, French, Belgian and Portuguese Models of Colonial Rule and Economic Development in Africa material resources of Africa to their benefit. [2] Bush, Barbara and Josephine Malt by (2004). However, their means of achieving their Taxation in West Africa: Transforming the colonial interests were different as it relates to colonial subject into the “governable person”. social control, economic development and Critical Perspectives on Accounting, 15, 1, 5- political integration. 34. [3] Crowder, Michael (1964). Indirect Rule: French Although African countries have achieved their and British Style. Africa: Journal of the independence, they are still hunted by the ghost International African Institute, 34, 3, 197-205. of their colonial masters in the form of [4] Evans, Marissa K. (, 2012). Aba neocolonialism – economic, language and women‟s riots (November – December 1929). cultural dependency. Other contemporary or Rain Queens of Africa. modern problems African nations still face (https://rainqueensofafrica.com/2012/11/aba- include conflicts over international borders womens-riots-november-December-1929/) disputes resulting from separation of African [5] Hayes, Patricia (June 1997). “Cocky Hahn” and tribes and communities through partition; the "Black Venus": The Making of a Native categorization of ethnic groups; imposition of Commissioner in , 1915- foreign languages such as French, Portuguese, 1946. Journal of Gender and History, 8, 3. English over indigenous African languages; and [6] Lonsdale, John (1990). Maus of the Mind: imposition of Christian religions. All the Making Mau and Remaking Kenya. Journal of problems mentioned above constitute the African History, 31, 3, 393-421. lingering legacies of post-colonial African [7] Markovitz, Irving L. (1977). Power and Class history, experiences and realities. in Africa. Englewood, New Jersey: Prentice Hall Inc., 62 – 63. REFERENCES [8] Zahorik, Jan (2019). Inequalities and Conflicts [1] Branch, David (2007). The Enemy Within: in Modern and Contemporary African History: Loyalists and the War against Mau in Kenya. A Comparative Perspective, Lexington Books, Journal of African History, 48, 291-315. Lanham, Maryland.

Citation: Ngozi Caleb Kamalu," British, French, Belgian and Portuguese Models of Colonial Rule and Economic Development in Africa”, Annals of Global History, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 37-47, 2019. Copyright: © 2019 Ngozi Caleb Kamalu. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Annals of Global History V1 ● I1 ● 2019 47