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Routledge Handbook of Southeast Asian History

Norman G. Owen

The Colonial Intrusion

Publication details https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9780203763117.ch3 Remco Raben Published online on: 23 Sep 2013

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The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents will be complete or accurate or up to date. The publisher shall not be liable for an loss, actions, claims, proceedings, demand or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material. Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 01:29 26 Sep 2021; For: 9780203763117, ch3, 10.4324/9780203763117.ch3 and indeed global, patterns. The previous centuries had seen a growing intensity of exchanges ofexchanges intensity agrowing seen had centuries previous The patterns. global, indeed and 2008). (Sartraproong Singapore and Malaya to several and Java, to three Europe, to two abroad: journeys ten made Chulalongkorn modernizer. afervent was he individual; an as curious notonly He was powers. European from assault bymilitary ened threat- directly ofnotbeing luxury the had acknowledged, be 1868–1910),(r. who,itmust Chulalongkorn King Siamese the was innovator an outas stands who king One others. than change to receptive more were rulers Some expansion. state and ofcentralization on aprocess embarked had states Asia, Southeast mainland in Especially colonization. before commenced 76). 1999: 1903 (Corpuz in Tuason family, Spanish–Filipino fi the colony. Philippines, the the in In licenses driving had Europeans than Chinese and Indonesians more 1930s bythe 1894, and in X, the was Indies Netherlands the in automobile fi The novelties. with ofan owner rst fascination the shared region the in Many Americans. diffi itwas But West. the to opposition in formulated were others Islam; Wahhabi as such origin, Western notof were novelties Some oftechnology. use orthe institutions, ofsocial development the conceptualizations, political whether societies, Asian Southeast in changes the cated, fabri- even extent alarge to and in, participated Asians people. indigenous with exchange undeniable equally an in so did they But century. nineteenth long the in Asia Southeast on impact agrowing had institutions European and Europeans that undeniable itis said, This genealogy. complicated amuch more has West” “the often to attributed easily is parlance people. ofthe lives the and landscape the butalso patterns, economic and layout political the notonly changed powers ofcolonial assertion increasing the Asia Southeast maritime in and Vietnam, and (Thailand), Siam (Myanmar), Burma in dynasties oldruling ofthe demise the mainland the On Asia. ofSoutheast layout political the in shifts ofdeep asequence saw century eighteenth late The The colonial intrusion in Southeast Asia cannot be studied in isolation from wider regional, regional, wider from isolation in studied be cannot Asia Southeast in intrusion colonial The Some trends commonly attributed to Western- diffi is It THE COLONIAL INTRUSION tocult isolate the of “colonial” everyday in Southeast in part change What Asia. cult to escape the imported new forms and claims of the Europeans and and Europeans ofthe claims and forms new imported the escape to cult andstructures Boundaries Goa changes Global n e b a R o c m e R 3 3 25 susuhunan rst car, a Brazier, was owned by the Chinese– bythe owned was aBrazier, car, rst (emperor) of Surakarta, Pakubuwono Pakubuwono Surakarta, of (emperor) led “modernization” had already already had “modernization” led Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 01:29 26 Sep 2021; For: 9780203763117, ch3, 10.4324/9780203763117.ch3 was limited. Only in the course of the eighteenth century did the Dutch expand their their expand Dutch the did century eighteenth ofthe course the in Only limited. was control Territorial establishments. own its towards trade important muchofthe channeling in succeeded and (Bantam), Banten and ofMakassar polities coastal vigorous the subdued outcompetitors, forced places, strategic afew of only possession took Company) India East VOC the (Dutch complicated: more was situation the Indonesia, In century. sixteenth late bythe Philippines central and northern muchofthe controlled Spanish The early. orerased subdued were kingdoms powerful most the archipelagos, Philippine and Indonesian the In Asia. Southeast ofinsular those and states mainland ofthe experiences the between ahands- and rule indirect to intervention comprehensive and control direct from ranging diverse, enormously were results the and affairs; lengthy and costly very be could ofconquest wars the annexation; fortotal drive noconcerted was There outcome. Asia. However, European we conquest should was made possible by the relative be weakness careful of local polities in Southeast not to see it as a determined policy or elsewhere. an forindustries inevitable materials raw the providing to geared remained economy the as modest, and late was itself Asia Southeast in Industrialization superiority. cultural ajustifi Europeans the itgave And tin. and oil as such products new power effi military employ to means the and speed powers European the itprovided ofall, First moved onward. century nineteenth exploitation. ofstate forms preferred time foralong Dutch the business, private championed British the Whereas ofgovernments. role the in and activity ofeconomic freedom the in both tions, varia- many were there course Of policies. ofcolonial crystallization the in crucial often were incentives economic and inroads, business earlier followed often conquest Formal trade.” offree “imperialism an extent alarge to (1953), Robinson and Gallagher historians British ofthe words the in was, Asia Southeast in century nineteenth ofthe imperialism European Borneo. in oroil Sumatra, in tobacco onBangka, tin Malaya, in rubber Burma, in trade teak the itwas whether business, private from came animation European Muchofthe result. intended notthe often was However, conquest oftrade. expansion the and powers, Western between competition growing the polities, Asian ofthe weakness perceived the were conquest 1997: 62–71). (Reid states Malay the from merchants as well as shippers, American and (Calcutta- British of presence agrowing to witness bear cities port Asian Southeast ofseveral registers Shipping of action. range their and activity their expanded traders other century, eighteenth ofthe half second the in declined gradually had Company India East Dutch power ofthe the Although Asia. Southeast in ofchange substance the and pace the alter did force globalizing its cause, only notthe was colonialism Even if Asia. Southeast in politics and onlife impacts enormous had trade ofBritish expansion the and merchants, ofHadhrami arrival the Asia, Southeast to migrants ofChinese streams growing The interactions. global ofintensifying a result the late eighteenth In courts. their at traders and and oftravelers number early increasing the nineteenth itfrom get to able were and centuries, world the from news change onreceiving keen were rulers Many in world. ofthe Southeast parts various among Asia gained pace as Dynamics would vary strongly between areas. There was at fi at was There areas. between strongly vary would Dynamics the as especially ambitions, colonial forEuropean motor apowerful was Industrialization of impulse the to Adding advance. European the in instrumental were factors Several century. eighteenth ofthe end the upat picking was trade that indications many are There based) traders, but also Chinese, Arab, Balinese, Bugis, Acehnese, Danish, Danish, Acehnese, Bugis, Balinese, Arab, Chinese, butalso traders, based) xadn empires Expanding Remco Raben ciently and decisively. It also created a demand for ademand created It also decisively. and ciently 26 rst a crucial difference difference acrucial rst off approach. approach. off cation for feelings of forfeelings cation

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 01:29 26 Sep 2021; For: 9780203763117, ch3, 10.4324/9780203763117.ch3 nineteenth century. Their territorial and martial ambition made them clash with each other other each with clash them made ambition martial and territorial Their century. nineteenth of pacifi primarily consisted expansion Spanish and Dutch rule. direct under areas small and suzerainty British under ofsultanates quilt apatchwork in resulting reluctant, and late was clearest Peninsula the Malay the in involvement territorial offers British The 1858 Vietnam.) in in missionaries Catholic to threats Vietnam on after only annexation of gradual assault onaprocess embarked butthey China, to French a springboard the as Vietnam in interest shown had French although the (Earlier policy. imperialist ofaformal shifted, example strategies European when moment noonedecisive was There 300. Dutch bythe ofIndonesia that years, 60 took British bythe ofBurma annexation The experiences. shared onnationally emphasis present- our in overlooked often is that –afact uneven strikingly was presence nial rule. forindirect preference a and colonizer, areluctant advance, agradual similar: everywhere almost were of conquest patterns But changing. and uneven effects its and disparate, were motivations its warped, often byfi proceeded scramble The powers. ofWestern authority formal the under brought been had Siam except Asia ofSoutheast all later, acentury than Less mainland. onthe missionaries and traders ofEuropean asmattering and archipelago, eastern the in islands the and (Malacca), Melaka Singapore, in rule ofcolonial pockets only were there that, Besides Java. in Dutch ofthe those and Philippines the in possessions Spanish the were region the in territories European extensive only the 1820s, the Upto Africa. one in the than protracted more and vigorous less powers, European bythe forterritory scramble interests. these all protect to need concomitant the with networks, trading British ofthe expansion the and waters, Malay the in trade tin ofthe importance growing the lanes, sea control to urge increasing the and China with trade blooming –the causes various with presence, British ofthe oneofa“thickening” was empires, of history the in often so as result, The purpose. asingle to attributed itbe norcan Calcutta, or London notin least at notplanned, was Asia Southeast into expansion British London. of 1824 Treaty the in peninsula Malay the and Sumatra between boundary avirtual drawing ofinfl spheres outtheir staked Dutch and British wars, ofthe 1819.in aftermath the In ofSingapore founding the to and wars, Napoleonic the during region the in colonies Dutch most and ofJava occupation the to leading Asia, Southeast in intrusion British increasing ofan start the It was Burma. and Siam from threats the against allies as British the saw who ofKedah, sultan the from ofPenang island the rented 1786 in British the China, to route sea the along fora stronghold Looking protection. government and business ofprivate advance British demarcated their sphere ofinfl sphere their demarcated British mid- the until strategies grand European outside largely but remained missionaries, and adventurers, traders, Western occasional saw Vietnam and Laos, Cambodia, period. same the in declined Arakan and century, seventeenth late bythe Ayutthaya outof forced were Europeans ofthe Most there. affairs dominate to orintention means the nothave did powers European –butthe presence European large afairly harbored (1656–88) Narai King under (Ayudhya) Ayutthaya and (Rakhine), Arakan with trade slave vigorous of Mataram. kingdom ofthe affairs the in entanglement increasing oftheir aresult as over Java, territory Mainland Southeast Asia was dominated by three strong, expansionist empires in the early early the in empires expansionist strong, bythree dominated was Asia Southeast Mainland colo- the entirely, map the changed Asia ofSoutheast apportionment European the Even if modest own its experienced Asia Southeast century nineteenth ofthe course the Over This situation started to change in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. The The centuries. nineteenth early and eighteenth late the in change to started situation This a was –there Europeans bythe untouched notleft was mainland Asian Southeast The cation and internal colonization of existing spheres ofinfl spheres ofexisting colonization internal and cation The colonialintrusion uence in the Malay waters in a gradual two- two- agradual in waters Malay the in uence 27 ts and starts; its chronology was was chronology its starts; and ts uence. uence. nineteenth century. pronged pronged uence, uence, day Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 01:29 26 Sep 2021; For: 9780203763117, ch3, 10.4324/9780203763117.ch3 ending with the complete annexation of the kingdom by the British in 1886. 1886. in British bythe kingdom ofthe annexation complete the with ending century, nineteenth the in followed Burmese and British Two between wars more Tenasserim. and ofArakan areas coastal the acquired Company India East 1819–37) The (r. forpeace. sued Bagyidaw Ava, at King capital Burmese the reached almost forces British When moved inland. fl ofaBritish success quick the After out. broke war ofArakan, area coastal the in rebels support to started British the When ambitions. Burmese about concerned itbecame and India, in growing was Company India East British power ofthe the time same the At Assam. beyond, and, Manipur to northwestward territories their expanded had kings Konbaung the throne, Burmese the to ascent their Since Malaya. and Sumatra between ofspheres division asimilar made had Dutch the and Britain after ofinfl spheres their under years two states just uence, Malayan northern the dividing Siam, with atreaty 1826 concluded in British the war, Avoiding Perak. and Kedah vassals, former over its control regain to ittried where Peninsula, Malay the confl in states several with ict Peninsula. Malay the into south and principalities Khmer and ofLao territory the into eastward gradually moving right, own its in state imperialist an into developed 1782. Siam since dynasty Chakri the under itself serting reas- Siam, from pressure under came also which Laos, and ofCambodia states neighboring power over the their expand to tried then emperors Nguyen The years. 30 lasted had that adrawn- after Nguyen, the under reunited was Vietnam 1802 In ambitions. Siamese to threat greatest the formed that butVietnam notBurma however, itwas century, nineteenth the In dynasty. Luang Phlu Ban the ended and country, entire the to waste 1765 in 1767, Siam and invaded had which laid Burma been ithad as muchreason, with foe, principal their as Burma seen had Siamese the centuries For French. and British the with and those of the Dutch in insular Southeast Asia have been the topic of recent debate among among debate ofrecent topic the been have Asia Southeast insular in Dutch ofthe those 1893. in Siam with a war after annexed was Laos and encroachments, Siamese against foracounterweight looking was who 1841–60), (r. Duong Ang ofKing oninvitation entered French the Cambodia, 1883. In in Tonkin and Annam over protectorates establish French the did war, the into Chinese the brought even which north, the in campaigns long after only however, and continued, Vietnamese the with wars colony. The afull into turned and ofstruggle, years four 1862 in after occupied was Vietnam) (southern Cochinchina 1850s. the in court the from pressure severe under came which Vietnam, in mission Catholic ofthe interests ofthe defense the and cake Asian Southeast ofthe forapiece III’s quest ofNapoleon by acombination triggered was of Indochina ofprofi prospect by the fi were Burma in interests British Whereas late. came intervention polities. Laotian the and over Cambodia suzerainty its establishing and 1842–5 confl in into it Vietnam with ict bringing ofSiam, expansion eastward and territorialization the to impulse extra an gave This administration. and army the modernize and authority their bolster to had they survive to order in that realized they Soon neighbor. aformidable now faced Bangkok in rulers Chakri The remedies. and risks consider to forced were and intrusion Western ofthe effects the experience to began states Asian Southeast the and Asia, Southeast into deeper drawn The fi The 1824. in war to led British, the and Burma powers, confl expanding two Direct between ict Into this arena the European powers were drawn. Siam’s expansionism brought it into While the imperialist motivations of the British and French have never been doubted, doubted, been never have French and British ofthe motivations imperialist the While colonial the Indochina, as powers Western the to known be to came what in Siam, of East rst Anglo-Burmese war had an enormous impact on the region. The British were were British The region. onthe impact enormous an had war Anglo-Burmese rst t and the resulting tensions with Burmese rulers, the French conquest conquest French the rulers, Burmese with tensions resulting the t and Remco Raben eet in conquering Rangoon (Yangon), the war war the (Yangon), Rangoon conquering in eet 28 rst and foremost inspired inspired foremost and rst out civil war war out civil Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 01:29 26 Sep 2021; For: 9780203763117, ch3, 10.4324/9780203763117.ch3 was to develop and modernize, a transformation he seriously pursued after 1887. In contrast 1887. contrast In after pursued he seriously atransformation modernize, and develop to was ofsurvival strategy of Chulalongkorn’s Part heightened. circles court Siamese in emergency colony.Dutch bythe impressed be to notfail could Chulalongkorn King 89–90). 2008: (Sartraproong production” agricultural and mineral ofits development the “by ofSiam prosperity greater the towards work to ambition his emphasized turn, his in broken.” king, The been hardly has ground the respect: this in do to thing every almost still is there East Far the in “Here civil administration extolled ofthe “the director Dutch benefi the king, the to welcome speech his In railways. and schools in interest amarked with Java, and Singapore to him brought coronation, his after years three journey, confi notto voyages: many his were forSiam visions new ofhis Symbolic realm. his and kingship his ofpreserving aim the with modernization and ofreform process onalong embarked who Chulalongkorn, son, his itwas But Western. things in interest adeep developed and Europeans the from learn to need the formulated 1851–68) (r. Mongkut King powers. there. privileges similar claim could powers other years, of1855. following the Treaty In Bowring the in culminating subjects, forBritish extraterritoriality and ontrade oftaxes forabolition court Siamese the pressed British the region, the in rulers many impressed which (1839–42), China fi the ofpower show in European the after Yet years afew only fringes. tributary its and kingdom onthe grip its tightened which bureaucracy, the strengthen and kingdom the power in centralize to 1824–51), (r. started III Rama with starting rulers, Chakri timely power and negotiating butgood contingency, reform geopolitical to attributed be mainly can state were certainly instrumental authority. ofritual sources as olddynasties their upto looked still kingdoms ofthe too. inhabitants –and of decolonization In time the at consequences the important with –sometimes suzerainty fi colonial under rule nominal would contradict contemporary perceptions. Many rulers managed to continue at least upheld fi still houses royal Indies, Netherlands the in areas numerous and sultanates, Malayan the Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, in maintained: were rulers local everywhere found, be could king Manila. in allowed were houses trading American and British after fi face to itcontinued although Mindanao, and archipelago Sulu the mainly areas, new power in “pacifi complete the with ended and century nineteenth ofthe decades last the in accelerated Conquests periphery.” ofthe periphery the in oreven periphery, the in forged was “empire 97), (1994: Locher-Scholten Elsbeth historian ofDutch words the In annexation. creeping ofDutch- margins the in interference increasing and interests Dutch of However, “thickening” the Islands. Outer the in annexation and conquest from abstain to policy formal itwas onJava; concentrated rule colonial government, Dutch ofthe rule direct under 1800 from Indies, Netherlands the In century. eighteenth late the in possessions colonial oftheir contraction asevere experienced had Dutch the Indeed, historians. erce resistance. On the main islands, especially Luzón, commercial agriculture expanded expanded agriculture commercial Luzón, especially islands, main the On resistance. erce With the British and French display of power in Burma and Indochina, the feeling of feeling the Indochina, and Burma ofpower in display French and British the With The treaty sparked a heightened awareness of Siam’s vulnerability vis-à-vis the Western Western the vis-à-vis ofSiam’s vulnerability awareness aheightened sparked treaty The independent an as survival Its Siam. was annexation colonial escape to country sole The Apart from Burma, which ultimately was incorporated into British India, as no suitable nosuitable as India, British into incorporated was ultimately which Burma, from Apart ofSpanish assertion byagradual marked was ofimperialism age the Philippines the In rm his supremacy and status as as status and supremacy his rm cation” of the Indies by1910. Indies ofthe cation” ctions of rule. We could say that the old rulers were mere fi mere were oldrulers the We that say could ofrule. ctions chakravartin The colonialintrusion t of the light of Western civilization,” and added, added, and civilization,” ofWestern light t ofthe 29 (universal ruler), but to see and learn. His fi His learn. and see butto ruler), (universal rst place, the nineteenth- nineteenth- the place, rst ruled areas resulted in in resulted areas ruled gureheads, but this butthis gureheads, rst Opium War in War in Opium rst century century rst Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 01:29 26 Sep 2021; For: 9780203763117, ch3, 10.4324/9780203763117.ch3 the optimum of rationalized exploitation. The impact of the ofthe impact The exploitation. ofrationalized optimum the it in saw who colonizers, other ofmany admiration the Dutch won the system) (cultivation at crops fi of export delivery forced and resettlement, administration, ofrural program amassive instituted government farmers. the pay to government ofthe incapability the under century nineteenth late the in collapsed system the until expanded greatly cultivation oflegal area monopoly. The government the from cigars their buy to had exporters) (and smokers all that so elsewhere, growth of its complete prohibition the with combined some districts, in prices fi at oftobacco cultivation ofcompulsory asystem started Spanish the Luzón, VOC. In of cash- policy plantations. or coffee sugar, tea, tobacco, forrubber, space make to cleared simply were woodlands the often More industries. forshipbuilding timber provide to 1800 before decimated been already had coast Java’s in north lowland ofthe forests teak The affected. intensively and directly most the were Philippines ofthe parts and Burma, Java, entrepreneurs. European butnotexclusively, mostly, center. shipbuilding and alumber into developed quickly ofMoulmein village small The teak. ofgood- reserves enormous the exploit traders timber let and monopoly its abandoned government the annexation, after years afew Within system. trade global the into fi the in victory British the instance, For era. modern early the in Asia ofSoutheast most covered that woodlands extensive of the fate bythe illustrated be can This felt. was presence European ofthe impact and, production crop ofcash areas in –and 1800 before well later, hands European in –often cities port the in intensive most was presence colonial The widely. varied also industrial presence Western of purpose and intensity the strongly, diverged conquest ofcolonial pace and pattern the If activity. We should 1989). (Falkus forests ofteak exploitation not, the and ofrice, exports shipping, dominate completely would century ofthe turn the until however, least at which houses, merchant British upto opened was country the treaty Bowring the after And court. Siamese the at underestimate status enormous –achieved them among – Japanese advisors foreign century nineteenth late Bythe aprice. at came sovereignty continued But it. byannexing war risk to reluctance French and ofBritish because survive itcould Indochina, how and ofBurma colonies the between Positioned endangered. widely directly never was sovereignty Siam’s as so, do to opportunity and time the hehad rulers, Vietnamese and Burmese the to the salaried servants of the colonial state. state. colonial ofthe servants salaried into nobility Javanese the turned and economy Javanese ofthe amonetization effected which afi paid were peasants The government. Netherlands ofthe coffers profi ofthe nothing saw Javanese Moreover, the oflives. thousands costing famine, byextreme hit were ofJava people rural the 1840s the in plantations, coffee and indigo, sugar, into land ofrice conversion the and resettlement to Due disastrous. times at so- This crops. the transporting and processing, tilling, to devoted be to oflabor proportion equal an with government, forthe crops cash grow to tilled be to was The Dutch pursued a similar policy on Java, but on a much grander scale. After 1830 the 1830 the After scale. buton amuchgrander onJava, policy asimilar pursued Dutch The mercantilist astrictly developed authorities Dutch and Spanish the Java and Luzón In of agriculture commercial to way gave woodlands Asian Southeast pace, increasing an At crop cultivation, inspired in the Dutch case by monopoly systems under the the under systems bymonopoly case Dutch the in inspired cultivation, crop rst war with Burma brought the coastal region of Tenasserim ofTenasserim region coastal the brought Burma with war rst xed prices. As a rule, one- one- arule, As prices. xed Exploitation Exploitation Remco Raben

30 fi fth of cultivable land in each village each in of village land cultivable fth Cultuurstelsel ts: they went into the money, in price, xed was enormous and and enormous was called called Cultuurstelsel quality quality xed xed

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 01:29 26 Sep 2021; For: 9780203763117, ch3, 10.4324/9780203763117.ch3 crops. ofcash exploitation onthe take to business private encouraged and monopolies its withdrew slowly government The liberalization. economic championing Netherlands, the in blowing wind political ofanew pressure under about butcame principles humanitarian on based notparticularly was change policy The liberalization. gradual to way gave and some individual offi individual some and profi who ofDeli, sultan ofthe lands onthe tobacco grow to mid-1860s the in started planters Dutch Sumatra, northeastern In mining. and agriculture upforcommercial opened were areas new system remained in force until World War II (Nørlund 1989: 4–5). 4–5). 1989: World War (Nørlund II until force in remained system this colonies; the to goods export freely to them allowing while imports colonial cheap from France in manufacturers protecting system, tariff unequal an developed also French the But competitors. foreign from both protecting empire, its and ofFrance system trade the itinto integrated which tariff, Meline the under included was 1892 Indochina in policies, class. business into marginal economic roles,ramifi which severely ecological immense the from Apart hampered great. were effects adverse the byforce, often themarkets, development global the into economies Asian Southeast the of introduced had an indigenous enterprises colonial Although farmers. and merchants indigenous ofthe ofaction freedom the affected negatively ways many in government and businesses European hand, other the On intrusions. European the from paramount. was business ofmetropolitan interest economic the that nodoubt was there clashed, sometimes colonial and business private colonies, most In annexation. colonial formal preceded itoften And effects. ecological administration dramatic had and elites, oflocal status the affected institutions, social changed migration, oflabor patterns new triggered region, the in dynamism enormous often operated them. feed to rice grew Malays indigenous shoulder and plantations the worked coolies imported bywhich developed oflabor division A farms. rubber smallholder starting from to discouraged were Malays however, the Indies, shoulder. Netherlands the to contrast by1940. In acres 2.1 some million covering expanded, quickly cultivation ofrubber area the Deli, in Even As 1890s. and 1880s late the in started only tapping if Large- aims enormous. was product new ofthis popularity The Singapore. and purposes fi were trees 1870s; the in America fi numbers, increasing in states Malay the to coming latter the planters, Chinese and European 1920s. the by output muchofthe produced who too, smallholders upbylocal taken butwas enterprises, ofcolonial prerogative sole notthe was Rubber (Borneo). Kalimantan and on Sumatra areas other and Deli into way its made rubber Later, 1900. in ofthem 100,000 about already Java: and China from laborers bycontract provided was plantations onthe Labor crops. market cultivating from prevented and margins the to pushed were peasants Local rst concentrated on sugar, pepper, and coffee, but later turned to rubber. The India Offi India The rubber. to turned butlater coffee, and pepper, onsugar, concentrated rst Whereas the old sugar- and coffee- coffee- and oldsugar- the Whereas In the French empire, protectionism was a central tenet. After a few decades of liberal ofliberal decades afew After tenet. acentral was protectionism empire, French the In benefi entrepreneurs foreign Notonly It created Asia. Southeast in intrusion ofcolonial catalyst main the was Business Malaya. in Strait, Melaka ofthe side other onthe replicated were patterns Sumatran The Despite its remarkable success in exploitative terms, after 1870 the after terms, exploitative in success remarkable its Despite cations, indigenous peasants were excluded from the best agricultural lands and forced forced and lands agricultural best the from wereexcluded peasants indigenous cations, cials in Malaya experimented with rubber plants coming from South South from coming plants rubber with experimented Malaya in cials ted greatly from the lease of vast areas to the foreign businesses. businesses. foreign the to areas ofvast lease the from greatly ted rst raised in Kew Gardens and then sent to Ceylon and and Ceylon to sent then and Gardens Kew in raised rst The colonialintrusion ted: elites and those in mediating roles also profi also roles mediating in those and elites ted: growing areas were concentrated on Java, several several onJava, concentrated were areas growing 31

scale planting and Cultuurstelsel ted ce

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 01:29 26 Sep 2021; For: 9780203763117, ch3, 10.4324/9780203763117.ch3 as well. well. as areas agricultural major to extended later butwere ports, with mines tin inland connect to 1885 onwards from developed were railways Malayan coast. the to Burma Central from rice of haulage the 1877 facilitate to in operate to started railways Burma, In business. by private fi often was construction their and goals economic served primarily Trains regimes. the of strategies grand and policies colonial ofthe illustrative are development ofrailway scope companies. private by run partly Asia, Southeast in network railway dense most the World had Java War II, By markets. world to them through and harbors large to cultivation coffee and tobacco, ofsugar, areas connecting ofJava, coast north the along especially followed, initiatives other fi was and Semarang, of city harbor important the and Java ofcentral “Principalities” the in lands coffee and sugar fi ofthe opening the after 14 years post- the upon imprint their left have infrastructure and geographies how muchcolonial showing provenance, ofcolonial parts Present- effects. integrative their demonstrate visually and business, ofcolonial interests economic the betray networks rail The railways. ofthe stages early the in crucial were entrepreneurs private Again lines. upbyrailway opened were inland, located often were which ofexploitation, areas The kind. ofanother also were Intrusions after the arrival of the ambitious governor- governor- ambitious ofthe arrival the after fi 1936. The in rated inaugu- only was Saigon and Hanoi connecting aline separately; Tonkin and Cochinchina technology, and of course speed. They brought urban centers within reach, opening up the upthe opening reach, within centers urban brought They speed. ofcourse and technology, ofpower, progress, symbols were Trains ofmany. imagination modernist the to appealed 1992). (Colombijn French forthe was line Hanoi–Kunming the as engineers, Dutch forthe showpieces became railways The Lahat. near area mine the to Palembang connecting Sumatra, South in tracks new construct to continued 1894, in lobbying opened line the After overcome. be to had that problems technical the about went lyrical They heroism. for railway occasion agreat offer would line the building jobopportunities, from apart as, decision, the in lobby apowerful formed engineers railway state Dutch itbyrailway. exploit and company astate into mine the turn to decided government the lobbying, and ofdiscussion years 20 1868.After in fi coal ofWest Sumatra ofextensive hinterland discovery the the in elds with Malaya. and Siam connecting lines two the being other – the line railway ofacross- examples 1910, in regional few oneofthe it is Opening construction. the during perished ofthem 12,000 some laborers; Chinese 60,000 byabout years six in pace amazing an at built It was gorges. bridge and ridges mount to solutions technological ofspectacular hundreds necessitating terrain, mountainous ofmainly kilometers 465 fi railway, ofthe stretch Chinese The Cai. Lao via China, in Kunming to Hanoi connecting line railway a855 kilometer included also plans Doumer’s 185). 2009: (Starostina China” into forpenetration foundation “the form would lines economy. railway its The boost to strove and Indochinoise Union the consolidate The railway networks refl networks railway The geographic and speed The systems. rail their developing in slower were colonies Other fi The Trains were a hugely popular means of transportation for millions of Southeast Asians, and and Asians, ofSoutheast formillions oftransportation means popular ahugely were Trains It started Sumatra. South West and in railway Dutch the was project ambitious Asimilarly rst railway in Southeast Asia was built in Java, and started operating in 1867 in –just operating started and Java, in built was Asia Southeast in railway rst rst railway line started in 1881 in the south, but construction speeded up speeded butconstruction south, 1881 the in in started line railway rst nanced privately by the planters in the Principalities. In the next decades, decades, next the In Principalities. the in planters bythe privately nanced ected political realities as well. Railways were built in in built were Railways well. as realities political ected rst railway in British India. The Java track ran between the the between ran track Java The India. British in railway rst colonial countries of Southeast Asia. Asia. ofSoutheast countries colonial nanced by the French colonial government, ran over ran government, colonial French bythe nanced Movement Remco Raben general Paul Doumer (1897–1902), who aspired to to aspired (1897–1902), who Doumer Paul general 32 day railway networks are for large forlarge are networks railway day nanced border Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 01:29 26 Sep 2021; For: 9780203763117, ch3, 10.4324/9780203763117.ch3 geographies of Southeast Asia were rewritten. rewritten. were Asia ofSoutheast geographies the way this In cities. lowland humid hotand ofthe discomfort the escape to wanted who bycolonials founded towns and resorts ofhillside dozens the among were Java in Batu and Garut and Philippines, the in Baguio Malaya, in Larut) (Bukit Hill Maxwell Cambodia, in Bokor Vietnam, in Dalat Burma, in Kalaw and ULwin) (Pyin Maymyo resorts. hotel ments, Surabaya. others had to cede many and prominence Yogyakarta, Javanese Hue, Ava, Vietnamese Burmese geography. tocolonial the seats of new the in colonial useful be to located capitalism strategically were centers olddynastic Few labor. and in Rangoon, merchants Asian foreign and Saigon, local attracting and cities, colonial busy into developed gradually At fi Moulmein in Tenasserim, Kuala Lumpur in Malaya, areas: Medan in Sumatra, affected the upin Surabaya sprang centers New in Java. emerged. settlement and of activity nodes New century. twentieth ofthe urbanization enormous the facilitating and country texts. One author sent in the poem: poem: the in sent author One texts. Javanese classical the above preferred be to was which knowledge, their and Dutch of the Javanese- fi the In well. as culture their times at and ability technological their clout, political their Europeans, –forthe wholehearted butseldom envious, often bitter, –sometimes admiration was side other The 1997: 389). (Kumar stupid and weak forbeing Javanese the blames century nineteenth early ofthe text aJavanese Thus institutions. and culture indigenous of potency the about doubt create to was Europeans ofthe presence stronger ofthe effect One weakness. oflocal awareness the it, with ofpower and, terms in superiority European of acknowledgment forthe way made Europeans cunning alcohol- and behaving, drinking, ofstrangely discourses Earlier shift. to started had Europeans ofthe perceptions local century, subjects. and government between relationship the altered radically This interests. collective their –defending parties political later, somewhat and, scouts, boy unions, women’s organizations, to associations cultural from –ranging ofgroups list along heading colonies, the in forradicalism ground breeding the became They 1900. after unions into themselves organize to started Indies Netherlands the and Indochina in workers railway The action. ofcollective fornovel forms ground pioneering the became and laborers local by operated and built were lines railway Many did. labor orplantation system cultivation the than more Asians Southeast ofmany views world the changed steamships and Trains Attached to the new centers were webs of recreation – hill stations, bathing establish- bathing stations, –hill ofrecreation webs were centers new the to Attached Meanwhile, as a consequence of changing power relations since the early nineteenth nineteenth early the since power relations ofchanging aconsequence as Meanwhile, rst many were mere frontier towns, attracting the adventurous and greedy, but they butthey greedy, and adventurous the attracting towns, frontier mere were many rst towards higher wisdom wisdom higher towards advance to aiming learning, to themselves committing in greater ever growing usefulness, ofgreat truly and capabilities their are forimmeasurable different, are people Dutch The language newspaper, Jurumartani The colonialintrusion , started in 1864, contributors extolled the potency potency the extolled contributors 1864, in ,started Minds 33

Ricklefs 2007: 141 2007: Ricklefs rst Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 01:29 26 Sep 2021; For: 9780203763117, ch3, 10.4324/9780203763117.ch3 Hall Hall discourses of the time. time. ofthe discourses fi been had progress and ofsuperiority claim Western Moreover, the immense. were effects ecological the and economies, new bythe affected were millions fi to way given Colombijn Pre- intrusions. colonial bythe changed completely forms. onnew took elsewhere As copying. and but grafting culture, by“Western” replaced and simple of discarded notcompletely were than oldways world, the in interpretation and translation, interaction, of aresult more were West, butthey bythe claimed were and be could intrusion of colonial infl enormously butwere or emulated, copied readily notalways were patterns Western desires, consumers’ and procedures, bureaucratic ideals, political action, collective education, In ignore. to hard were models European the time bythis before, acentury to contrast In consumption. ofmass rise the and technologies, ofnew impact the organizations, ofsocial proliferation the state, ofthe sion society. ofcolonial expectations and concepts the adopted had and schools new the in educated were in schools, offi careers pursue and life “modern” in part take to emerged who oldnobility ofthe descendants the notbe itwould end, the In elite. ofanew aspirations bythe overshadowed be would peasants and ofoldelites objections and frustrations the To extent, alarge regimes. the to life- seldom were they But rule. ofcolonial end the until colonies, mainland the Large- ordesirable. legitimate considered was rule foreign that notmean does This weaknesses. own oftheir awareness the with struggled and cultures power ofEuropean and vitality the admitted grudgingly They armies. elites. Western ofthe arrogance exclusionary the given impossible, practically and unwanted often was assimilation buttotal frequent, was emulation had, elites colonial the privileges obvious bythe offered was Inspiration Falkus Falkus Kumar Kumar Corpuz Corpuz Locher-Scholten Locher-Scholten Gallagher Furnivall Furnivall Fieldhouse Review en ontginning van het Umbilin- Umbilin- het van ontginning en In the course of the nineteenth century, then, the face of Southeast Asia had been been had Asia ofSoutheast face the then, century, nineteenth ofthe course the In expan- the change: sea foranother in was Asia Southeast century, twentieth early Bythe power ofWestern superior the bowedbefore centers oldroyal the at elites Elsewhere, 1875–1935 der Nederlanden de Geschiedenis betreffende imperialism debate imperialism Geoffrey Cambridge Cambridge Weidenfeld & Nicholson Weidenfeld & Nicholson Press , D.G.E. D.G.E. , , , Ann . Malcolm , Arturo , series, , Second , , J.S. J.S. nd nd John John

Freek D.K. D.K. ( ( Jones Jones , 1997 1997 1955 1955 ( : ces, and business, but the children of colonialism – those who, to a great extent, extent, agreat who, to –those ofcolonialism children butthe business, and ces, Quezon City a Cambridge University Press Press University Cambridge 1948 1948 xed borders, states were increasingly centralized and formalized, the lives of lives the formalized, and centralized increasingly were states borders, xed ( , ( ( ( Elsbeth (eds.), (eds.), 1999 ) ; revised ; revised 1966 1966 1992 1992 1989 1989 Java and Modern Europe: ambiguous encounters ambiguous Europe: Modern and Java ), Robinson Robinson ,” ,” ) Colonial Policy and Practice: a comparative study of Burma and Netherlands India Netherlands and Burma of study acomparative Practice: and Policy Colonial ) ) “ ) “ ) “ ) “ Studies Asian Southeast of Journal

The Colonial Iron Horse: railroads and regional development in the Philippines, Philippines, the in development regional and railroads Horse: Iron Colonial The ( British Business in Asia since 1860 since in Asia Business British The Colonial Empires: a comparative study from the eighteenth century eighteenth the from study acomparative Empires: Colonial The 6 1994 1994 , Uiteenlopende spoorrails: De verschillende ideeën over spoorweg- spoorweg- over ideeën verschillende De spoorrails: Uiteenlopende 1964 1964 Early British business in Thailand Thailand in business British Early . 1 : : University of the Philippines Press Press Philippines the of University 1 , ) “ ) “ – Ronald Ronald , 15 15 1968 1968 Dutch expansion in the Indonesian archipelago around 1900 and the the and 1900 around archipelago Indonesian the in expansion Dutch . kolenveld in West-Sumatra, 1868–91 1868–91 West-Sumatra, in kolenveld , ( 1981 1981 1953 1953 uential nonetheless. The great changes in this period period this in changes great The nonetheless. uential

107 107 . References Remco Raben ) scale armed rebellions were frequent, especially in in especially frequent, were rebellions armed scale ) “ ) “ A History of South-East Asia South-East of A History , 3 The imperialism of free trade of trade free The imperialism : 34 437 – 58 58 25 , colonial and early colonial fl colonial early and colonial . 117 117 , 1 : – 91 56 56 , . Richmond ,” in in ,” – , 111 111 Cambridge Cambridge . R.P.T. , ,” ,” London : rmly planted into the the into planted rmly Curzon Curzon Bijdragen en Mededelingen

: ,” ,” Davenport-Hines Davenport-Hines Cambridge University University Cambridge The Economic History History Economic The : MacMillan . uiditieshad threatening , London . aanleg and , : Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 01:29 26 Sep 2021; For: 9780203763117, ch3, 10.4324/9780203763117.ch3 Starostina Starostina Reid Sartraproong Sartraproong Nørlund Tate Tate Ricklefs Great War 1871 1885–1940 Press Southeast Asia and Korea, 1750–1900 Korea, and Asia Southeast Anthony University of Hawai of University , , D.J.M. D.J.M. Anthony Anthony , . , , Bangkok , M.C. Irene Natalia Natalia

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London 31 31 35 : 181 181 – : 206 Macmillan PressMacmillan , . 2 vo ls, ls, Kuala Lumpur Lumpur Kuala : . . Oxford University , Honolulu Honolulu ,” in in ,” . :