The Collective Unconscious in Eugene O`Neill`S Desire Under The

Aleppo University Faculty of Arts and Humanities Department of English

The Collective Unconscious in Eugene O`Neill`s Desire Under the Elms and Mourning Becomes Electra and George Bernard Shaw`s Pygmalion and Man and Superman: A Comparative Study

By Diana Dasouki

Supervised by Prof. Dr. Iman Lababidi

A Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts In English Literature 2018

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Declaration

I hereby certify that this work, "The Collective Unconscious in Eugene O`Neill`s

Desire Under the Elms and Mourning Becomes Electra and George Bernard Shaw`s

Pygmalion and Man and Superman: A Comparative Study", has neither been accepted for any degree, nor is it submitted to any other degrees.

Date: / / 2018

Candidate

Diana Dasouki

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Testimony

I testify that the described work in this dissertation is the result of a scientific research conducted by the candidate Diana Dasouki under the supervision of Prof. Dr. Iman Lababidi, professor doctor at the Department of

English, Faculty of Arts and Humanities, Aleppo University. Any other references mentioned in this work are documented in the text of this dissertation.

Date: / / 2018

Candidate Diana Dasouki

iii Dasouki

Abstract

This dissertation explores the theory of the collective unconscious in

Eugene O'Neill's Desire Under the Elms and Mourning Becomes Electra and George

Bernard Shaw's Pygmalion and Man and Superman. The main objective is to study how the work of Jung has awakened interest in the unconscious and archetype psychology. The collective unconscious is a useful theory because studying literature, myth and religion through archetypes can reveal many deep and hidden meanings. Freud has been studied by scholars and critics more than Jung, and his theories have achieved universal importance and reputation, yet Jung's theory of the collective unconscious adds wider and richer interpretations to the world of psychology.

The study reveals the impact of Jungian psychology on O'Neill and Shaw respectively. From a dramatic perspective, the characters of the plays chosen reveal the psychological and spiritual dimensions of human beings in the twentieth century. The study also examines the relationship between the two O'Neillian and Shavian plays by deriving universal concepts from Jung such as Archetype and Electra Complex. Moreover, the study finds that O'Neill is a Jungian dramatist by revealing his interest in Jung's theory through using the Greek myth in both Desire Under the Elms and Mourning Becomes

Electra. It proves that mythology reflects the human psyche i.e. the collective unconscious of humans, and that its influence can be detected through the individual's behaviour. iv Dasouki

This study also examines the archetypes used by Shaw in the two plays in question such as the mother archetype which represents man's need for maternal love.

Moreover, the study finds that Jung's theory of the collective unconscious is incorporated within Shaw's plays. It proves that Shaw also borrows the Jungian theory to point out that humans have inherited their experiences, sins, customs and actions from the ancient ancestors.

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Acknowledgment

I would like to thank my supervisor Prof. Dr. Iman Lababidi whose knowledge, advice and guidance have formed the foundation of my work. I was inspired by her critical ideas and arguments throughout the writing process of this thesis and it is a great honor to work with her.

I am grateful to the Head of the English Department, Prof. Adnan Al-Sayyed for his generous assistance and guidance. I also thank Aleppo University for giving me the opportunity to follow up my studies.

A grateful thanks to all my professors who have taught me and shaped my intellectual development. It would not have been possible to write this thesis without their support and help.

Special thanks to all my friends and colleagues in the English Department who encouraged me to complete this work.

Most of all, I express my love and gratitude to my husband and family who have supported me professionally and personally so that this work has been completed.

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Table of Contents

Abstract iii

Acknowledgment V

Introduction 1

Chapter one: The Collective Unconscious and Analytical Psychology 10

Chapter two: The Collective Unconscious in O`Neill`s Desire Under 31

the Elms and Mourning Becomes Electra

Chapter three: The Collective Unconscious in Shaw`s Pygmalion and 63

Man and Superman

Conclusion: Similarities and Differences 94

Works cited 101

Works consulted 107

Dasouki 1

Introduction

"In addition to our immediate consciousness, which is of a thoroughly personal nature… there

exists a second psychic system of a collective, universal, and impersonal nature which is identical in all

individuals".

C.G.Jung, The Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious

The relationship between psychoanalysis and literature is based on the theories of

Sigmund Freud and Carl Jung i.e. the personal unconscious and the collective unconscious.

The interpretation of literature through psychoanalysis is a useful method of initiating a different viewpoint or meaning. The collective unconscious of Jung in the early 20th century raised interest in studying dreams, mythology and religion. From a Jungian perspective, the key to understanding any literary work is to interpret its symbols, images, myths and religious connotations. A literary work only survives when it is universal i.e. when it contains universal elements or archetypes. Moreover, Jung's concept of the unconscious is different from Freud's in that it strengthens the world of psychology through introducing richer and wider interpretations such as mythological and religious ones.

Carl Jung was an early disciple of Freud because he viewed the unconscious as a

key element in his psychology. Jung was also an active member of the Vienna

Psychoanalytic Society. When the International Psychoanalytical Association was formed Dasouki 2

in 1910, Jung became president at the request of Freud. However, in 1912, Jung publicly criticized Freud's theory of the Oedipus Complex and his obsession with sexual interpretations. This led to an eventual break in their professional relationship when Jung wrote a letter to Freud telling him "One repays a teacher badly if one remains only a pupil"(qtd. in Eisendrath 39). Jung developed his own worldview of psychoanalysis and most of his visions of analytical psychology reflected his major differences with Freud.

Rather than adopting Freud's view of psychoanalysis, Jung formulated his own concepts of image and archetype. Both Freud and Jung took remarkably different attitudes toward the unconscious. Freud was studied by scholars and critics more than Jung and he achieved universal admiration and acclaim, yet Jung's theory of the collective unconscious was applied fruitfully to the study of literature.

Jung accepted Freud`s assumption that the unconscious played a major role in man's conscious behavior, but his concept of the unconscious was different from Freud's.

Freud developed only psychological interpretations in literary works such as the Oedipus

Complex while Jung invented mythological interpretations. Moreover, he formulated a new approach to the understanding of a literary work. Jung's vision of psychological process including his theory of the collective unconscious opened the way for the analysis and understanding of cultures, religions, nations and races. The stress he laid on mythology as the projection of the collective unconscious found validation in the 20th century. Dasouki 3

According to Jung, understanding any work of art needs an interpretation of its symbols, myths and religious connotations. He states in his book Aion that "Mythology illustrates the nature of the collective unconscious" (12-13). He points out that retelling ancient myths establishes a connection between the conscious and the unconscious:

Myths and fairytales give expression to unconscious processes, and their

retelling causes these processes to come alive again and be recollected,

thereby reestablishing the connection between conscious and

unconscious (180).

According to Jung, the human psyche consists of three parts: the conscious, the personal unconscious and the collective unconscious. The conscious is directly affected by the unconscious. The unconscious is divided into two parts: the personal unconscious which exists below the surface of the conscious and contains all individual experiences or events which are forgotten or repressed due to their distressing nature, and the collective unconscious which lies in the depths of the psyche containing universal and inherited experiences shared by all humans; influencing their thoughts, behaviors and perception of the world (The Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious 3-4).

Jung divides the unconscious into two levels: the personal unconscious which is superficial and the collective unconscious which is deeper and universal (The Archetypes Dasouki 4

and the Collective Unconscious 3). Jung believes that humans are motivated by certain inherited experiences from their ancestors. These inherited experiences create the collective unconscious. Thus the collective unconscious is inborn and includes past experiences with universal concepts such as God, mother, water, earth and father that are transferred from one generation to another so that people are influenced by them. The contents of the collective unconscious influence peoples, myths, legends and religions. On the other hand, the contents of the personal unconscious are called complexes. They contain a person's ignored and forgotten experiences. Yet Jung believes that complexes such as Oedipus Complex and Electra Complex may also stem from the collective unconscious (The Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious 40-43).

The Collective Unconscious is one of Carl Jung's most famous contributions in the field of psychology. Jung contradicts Freud in his theory of the collective unconscious which he introduces in The Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious. He believes that the personal unconscious, which Freud has spoken about, is ''a more or less superficial layer"(3). He connects instincts with the collective unconscious because they are

''impersonal, universally distributed hereditary factors of a dynamic or motivating character''(43). These instincts are images which Jung calls archetypes.

Myths are born out of the collective unconscious, and therefore, are made up of archetypes. To Jung: Dasouki 5

The collective unconscious…appears to consist of mythological motifs or

primordial images… In fact, the whole of mythology could be taken as a

sort of projection of the collective unconscious …We can therefore study

the collective unconscious in two ways, either in mythology or in the

analysis of the individual (Collected Works.Vol.8. 325).

For Freud, dreams are part of the personal unconscious because of their personal nature. Jung treats dreams differently when he suggests that dreams sometimes have gaps that are related to mythology, religion and legend. So Jung's collective unconscious is an inherited part of the psyche which controls the human thoughts and experiences.

This thesis is a comparative study of the collective unconscious in O`Neill`s Desire

Under the Elms and Mourning Becomes Electra and Shaw`s Pygmalion and Man and

Superman. The study highlights the influence that Carl Jung has on O`Neill and Shaw`s drama. It also explains how the work of Jung has awakened interest in the unconscious and archetype psychology. Since the two dramatists in question deal with the collective unconscious in their drama, their plays can be studied according to Jungian analysis.

This work is a result of the similarities in the plays and the lives of the American dramatist Eugene O'Neill and the British playwright George Bernard Shaw. In fact both of them are considered leading dramatists in the twentieth century theatre. As a result, this study points out the similarities and differences of their selected works. It focuses on the Dasouki 6

theory of the collective unconscious in the four plays in question. The American playwright Eugene O'Neill, who has an Irish-born father, can be studied with profit alongside Bernard Shaw, a contemporary Irish British dramatist, in that both of them present not only a distinct Irish heritage in their works, but also a shared interest in the theme of the collective unconscious in Greek tragedies and mythology, respectively in

Desire Under the Elms, Mourning Becomes Electra, Man and Superman and

Pygmalion.

The study sheds light on two prominent figures in American and British drama,

Eugene O`Neill and George Bernard Shaw, who deal with psychological issues. The influence of Carl Jung`s archetypal psychology is clearly apparent in Desire Under the

Elms, Mourning Becomes Electra, Man and Superman and Pygmalion. It is clear that

O`Neill embodies the Jungian concept of the collective unconscious in his plays. On the other hand, Bernard Shaw`s Man and Superman and Pygmalion can be seen as a modern adaptation of a psychological theme. Shaw`s use of the myth especially Don Juan in Man and Superman reveals the Jungian psychology in his works (Hart 25). Thus O`Neill and

Shaw mix Freudian and Jungian psychology with some elements of Greek mythology.

The family played an important role in shaping both O'Neill's and Shaw's early vision of the world. O'Neill's family was in conflict with itself. As shown in his plays, his relationship with his brother and father was unstable and his mother's depression and Dasouki 7

addiction were a result of his own birth. Life for O'Neill was a tragedy, a quest for belonging and discovery. In an interview, he said, ''A man wills his own defeat when he pursues the unattainable. But his struggle is his success'' (Sharma 8). This led to another element that binds the two dramatists together. Their religious attitudes undertook a drastic change once they abandoned their Catholic beliefs. O'Neill could no longer pretend to have faith in religion when he said, ''I must confess to you for the past twenty years almost

(although I was brought up a Catholic, naturally, and educated until thirteen in Catholic schools), I have had no faith'' (Shaughnessy 9). Shaw also had a rebellious relationship with his family which made him change his view of life and religion.

This study also reveals the impact of Jungian psychology on O`Neill and Shaw`s drama by revealing the integrated unity of the two theories of Freud and Jung. In addition, it shows how much those two dramatists are affected by psychological issues of their time.

In these four plays, the characters reveal the psychological and spiritual dimensions of human beings in the twentieth century. The aim of this thesis is to explore the nature of these characters and to try to answer the question of why they show certain psychological conflicts. Each play will be analyzed from the perspective of Carl Jung and his theory of the collective unconscious. There are certain similarities and differences between the two dramatists which will be explored in this thesis. Carl Jung's term of archetypes and the collective unconscious will be used to interpret the four plays. The theory of the collective unconscious explains the theme which connects the four plays with mythology. Jung's Dasouki 8

Psychology of the Unconscious and his theory of the collective unconscious and its archetypes, world mythology, works of post-Jungian thinkers such as Jolande Jacobi,

Wilfred L. Guerin, up-to-date articles, journals and personal intuitions are used as the main sources to conduct this study.

This study is divided into an introduction, conclusion and three chapters. The introduction focuses on psychoanalysis and its relationship to literature. It identifies phenomena essential for archetypal analysis. It also links Eugene O'Neill and George

Bernard Shaw together because of their family background. Chapter one, titled The

Collective Unconscious and Analytical Psychology, presents the theories of Carl Jung especially the Collective Unconscious. It establishes basic theoretical background about

Jungian psychology exploring its history and nature. Chapter two, titled The Collective

Unconscious in Eugene O'Neill's Desire Under the Elms and Mourning Becomes

Electra, deals with the revelation of the psychological love-hate relationships between husband and wife, father and son and brother and sister. It portrays the passion and desire in the material society via Jung's collective unconscious. Chapter three, titled The

Collective Unconscious in George Bernard Shaw's Pygmalion and Man and

Superman, presents Jung's influence on Shaw's drama through exploring the two plays psychologically. The conclusion reads these two distinct playwrights in conjunction by formulating comparative observation. It includes the findings of the study i.e. the Dasouki 9

similarities and differences of the four works in question in relation to Jung's theory of the collective unconscious.

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Chapter One

The Collective Unconscious and Analytical Psychology

"The collective unconscious is the foundation of life, the eternal truth of life, the eternal basis and the

eternal goal. It is the endless sea from which life originates and into which life flows back, and it

remains forever the same".

C.G.Jung, Zarathustra Seminar

There are two schools of psychology which are known as the Freudian School led by Sigmund Freud and the Jungian school led by Carl Jung. Carl Gustav Jung was born on

July 26, 1875, in Kesswil, Switzerland, the son of a Protestant minister. During his childhood, Jung preferred to stay alone and meditate on religion and psychology.When

Jung grew older, he studied medicine at the University of Basel (1895–1900). He received his medical degree from the University of Zurich in 1902. Later he studied psychology in

Paris, France.

When Jung read Sigmund Freud's Interpretation of Dreams, he widened his own reflections and observations . He sent his publication Studies in Word Association (1904) to Freud, and this was the beginning of their work together, as well as their friendship, which lasted from 1907 to 1913. Jung was eager to explore the secrets of the unconscious Dasouki 11

psyche expressed by dreaming, fantasies, myths, fairy tales, superstition, and supernatural powers. Unlike Freud, Jung believed that man's yearning was not directed towards satisfying physical needs, but in his view man longs for a life of meaning and purpose.

Moreover, Jung assumes that man's problems or obstacles stem from the collective unconscious which is a powerful psychological force dominating man's life and making it catastrophic.

For him the unconscious is not only a disturbing factor causing psychic illnesses but is also the source of man's creativity and consciousness. Jung came into conflict with

Freud, who regarded Jung's ideas as irrational. While Freud viewed man to follow animalistic whims, Jung looked upon man as a respectable human being emphasizing the spiritual aspects of his psyche. Jung accused Freud of narrow-mindedness, calling him a

"tragic figure" (Memories,Dreams,Reflections190). He was bothered by his break with

Freud, "After the break with Freud, all my friends and acquaintances dropped away. My book was declared to be rubbish" (Memories, Dreams, Reflections 207).

He began his own journey into discovering the mysteries of the unconscious psyche. During the years from 1913 to 1921, Jung published only three important papers:

"Two Essays on Analytical Psychology" (1916, 1917) and "Psychological Types"

(1921). In 1916, Jung used the term "Analytical Psychology" to describe his own vision of psychoanalysis which speaks of the human psyche. The purpose of Jung's analytical Dasouki 12

psychology is to help the reader establish a connection between universal symbols and human behavior or experience.

Jung lived for his discoveries, his visions, and his psychological reflections, which he had to give up in 1944 due to a severe heart attack. His career included the professorship of medical psychology at the University of Basel and the professorship of philosophy at the Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich. In 1948 he founded the C. G.

Jung Institute in Zurich. Honorary doctorates were given to him by many important universities all over the world. Carl Gustav Jung died in Küsnacht in 1961.

Jung's concept of the collective unconscious was based on his experiences with schizophrenic persons .When he studied the cases of his disturbed patients, he perceived that the contents of their dreams and fantasies could not be limited to their personal experience. Unlike Freud who suggested that dreams are repressed wishes, Jung described dreams as collective and universal. Moreover, he observed that dreams and fantasies often contained mythological themes that existed in previous cultures and times. From these observations and reflections he developed his theory of the collective unconscious, which he defined as the ancestral heritage of images common to all human beings. He talked about this idea in C.G.Jung Speaking Interviews and Encounters: "I have treated patients who had visions about events which happened hundreds of years ago" (59). Dasouki 13

Jung introduces the collective unconscious as the shared element in the psyches of all men. He thinks that humans cannot liberate themselves from the collective unconscious.

He argues that there are universal themes which run through the whole history of the human race constituting a universal character in all individuals. Through his discoveries and reflections, Jung finds out that there are inherited dreams which belong to mankind in general. Thus he has devoted much of his time to study dreams and their effects on the individual.

Historically, most of the world's cultures believed that dreams came from an outside source and carried messages from the gods to man. Since the birth of psychology in the late nineteenth century, scientists began a serious study of dreams. The most famous of these were Sigmund Freud and Carl Jung. Freud, the father of psychoanalysis, wrote

Interpretation of Dreams in 1899 in which he was the pioneer to explore the unconscious background of consciousness. He worked on the general assumption that dreams were associated with conscious thoughts and problems. Thus Freud believed that by studying the dreams of his patients he could determine the causes of neurotic illnesses in the unconscious mind.

On the other hand, Carl Jung has spent his whole career studying dreams. He believes that our unconscious mind "speaks" to us in the form of dreams stating that ''Man also produces symbols unconsciously and spontaneously, in the form of dreams'' (Man Dasouki 14

and His Symbols 116 ). These dreams have their own language; they speak to us in symbols. The symbols are filtered through our dreams and come from our unconscious mind. Thus our unconscious mind acts almost as another person inside us i.e. a ''second personality'' within. In other words, Jung believes that there is a kind of spiritual dialogue between the conscious and the unconscious through dreams.

In addition, dreams contain certain basic patterns that contain messages carried from the unconscious to the conscious mind. Each symbol in a dream is called a motif or archetype; these symbols or motifs have two meanings: a personal meaning for the dreamer and a collective meaning for all mankind. For example, the American dream has a personal meaning when it is dreamt by a particular American, but it also acquires a collective meaning when it becomes a universal concept all over the world. America is the desired land where people come looking for gold and glory. Thus the American dream is the archetype of success and happiness and America appears as Eden where man hopes to return to.

In Man and His Symbols, Marie Louis Von Franz states that according to Jungians:

The dream is not a kind of standardized cryptogram that can be

decoded by a glossary of symbol meanings. It is an integral,

important, and personal expression of the individual unconscious.

The dreamer's individual unconscious is communicating with the Dasouki 15

dreamer alone and is selecting symbols for its purpose that have

meaning to the dreamer and to nobody else. Thus the interpretation

of dreams, whether by the analyst or by the dreamer himself, is for

the Jungian psychologist an entirely personal and individual

business (50).

In other words, Jung views dreams as psychic expressions of the unconscious which affect man's psychology and dominate his thoughts.

When most people consider the unconscious, they think of Sigmund Freud.

Freud's theory is that the unconscious is made up of repressed and forgotten wishes of the individual. Jung agrees with Freud's definition of the unconscious but thinks that it is limited, covering only the personal unconscious. According to Jung, there is another dimension to the unconscious. He borrows some of Freud's ideas, rejects many others, and works on new theories and concerns, establishing the field of analytical psychology.

Although Jung accepts Freud's assumption that the unconscious exists and plays a major role in our conscious decisions, he rejects Freud's analysis of the contents of the unconscious, and he formulates a new approach to the understanding of a literary work.

Jung establishes the link between mythology and psychology by highlighting the value of myth in literature through his theory of the collective unconscious and its archetypes. In Dasouki 16

other words, Jung refashions Freud's theories by exposing hidden things which Freud has not thought of.

Jung's notion of the collective unconscious is the most important difference between him and Freud. As Von Franz puts it, '' In Jung's view the unconscious is the great guide, friend and adviser of the conscious'' ( Man and His Symbols 20).Though initially

Jung follows the Freudian theory of the unconscious , he later develops his own theory to include new concepts. In Freud's view, the unconscious has a personal base derived from individual experience while in Jung's view, the unconscious is created by collective or universal symbols shared by all mankind. The most important of them is the archetype.

This notion of the archetype gives Jung's theory of the collective unconscious its importance as well as its real meaning. Jung considers archetypes as the language of the unconscious and he reveals that they are expressed through certain universal images and symbols which affect how humans see the world, "it is quite certain that man is born with a certain way of functioning, a certain pattern of behavior, and that is expressed in the form of archetypal images" (Interviews and Encounters 292).

Jung states that humans have a ''collective unconscious'' made up of experiences and ideas that they inherit from their ancestors. Jung defines archetypes as the contents of the collective unconscious which have powerful effects on the individual. He states in his book

Aion, "whereas the contents of the personal unconscious are acquired during the Dasouki 17

individual's lifetime, the contents of the collective unconscious are invariably archetypes that were present from the beginning'' (26). Thus the discovery of the collective unconscious and the theory of the archetypes are Jung's major contributions to psychology.

He was the first to suggest that archetypes directly affected the way humans responded to external elements. Anyway, Jung never concerned himself with trying to develop a clear explanation of the origin of the archetypes. As a result, some of his critics assumed that he believed that people could inherit ideas or concepts, as well as their physical characteristics, from their parents or remote ancestors. Jung says, "The archetypes are eternally inherited forms and ideas which have no specific content. Their specific content only appears in the course of the individual's life, when personal experience is taken up in precisely these forms" (Collected Works.vol.11. 518).

However, Jung specifically states that the archetypes are innate patterns with which a person organizes his or her perception of the world. In The Archetypes and the

Collective Unconscious, Jung describes the archetypes as "the unconscious images of the instincts themselves, in other words, that they are patterns of instinctual behavior"(44).

According to Jung, people from all over the world respond to certain myths the same way because the racial memories of humanity`s past exist within mankind's collective unconscious. The collective unconscious "appears to consist of mythological motifs or primordial images, for which reason the myths of all nations are its real Dasouki 18

exponents" (Collected works.vol.8. 325).Thus the collective unconscious exists in the form of archetypes: motifs or images of repeated human experiences such as mother, father, death and birth that express themselves in stories, dreams, religions and fairytales.

"Archetype" is a Jungian term which represents the inherited and timeless experiences, symbols and images of mankind which transcend cultures. Archetypes are represented in myths and dreams so that they link psychology and mythology. They are deep and profound patterns in the human psyche that remain powerful, universal and present over time. Religion plays an important role in the creation of mythology. For example, the mythological journey of Gilgamesh is similar to the religious journey of

Moses. So religion is a universal force that controls mankind and dominates their deeds. In contrast to Freud, Jung respects religion and considers it a superior power that arises out of the unconscious and dominates the individual. Jung proves his theory through religious archetypes such as Christ, Virgin Mary, Moses and Mohammad who influence the human mind and behavior. Jung highlights the importance of the "religious myth" in his

Psychology of the Unconscious stating that it is "psychologically true, because it was and is the bridge to all the greatest achievements of humanity" (262).

Jung referred to the contents of the collective unconscious as archetypes that act to organize human experience. For example, the mother archetype is symbolized by the mother Eve, in Western cultures. Thus the mother archetype symbolizes a universal mother Dasouki 19

not a personal mother; "it also has an archetypal base, in that humans are "wired up" to recognize and participate in mothering and being mothered (Eisendrath 63).When archetypes occur in literature in the form of plot patterns, symbols or character types, these archetypes stir profound emotions in the reader because they awaken images stored in the collective unconscious as Jung says "poets…create from the very depths of the collective unconscious, voicing aloud what others only dream" (Collected Works.vol.6. 323).

Jung insists that archetypes are shared by all, and not just people of one culture because the collective unconscious is "common to all; it is the foundation of what the ancients called the 'sympathy of all things "(Memories Dreams and Reflections 138).

Archetypes are images and thoughts which have universal meanings across cultures and may appear in dreams, literature, art and religion. Jung believes symbols from different cultures are often very similar because they have emerged from archetypes shared by the whole human race. For Jung, the past becomes the basis of the human psyche, directing and influencing present behavior. Archetypes constitute the structure of the collective unconscious. Thus human activities associated with mothering, fathering, birth, identity and aging are controlled by archetypes. Jung states in Psychology and Alchemy that "…as the father represents collective unconscious, the traditional spirit, so the mother stands for the collective unconscious, the source of the water of life" (71). Dasouki 20

Jung thought of the archetypes as primordial images within the basic structure of the human psyche that have appeared repeatedly in myths, symbols, literature, dreams and personified forms throughout human history. The similarity of the motifs and themes in the myths and symbols of many different cultures suggests the existence of a collective unconscious shared by all human beings.

Archetypes can be seen throughout literature as they are represented through three basic types: events, symbols and characters. Archetypal events include death and rebirth.

Thus morning, sunrise and springtime represent birth, youth, or rebirth while evening, sunset and winter suggest old age or death. There are other archetypal events such as The

Fall and the Battle between Good and Evil. Jung describes these archetypes in The

Integration of the Personality as "symbolic expressions for the inner and unconscious psychic drama that becomes accessible to human consciousness by way of projection"

(55). The Fall represents the descendent from a higher place to a lower one i.e. Adam and

Eve's fall from paradise to the earth because of their sin. It has archetypal elements and it

"takes the form of political, religious, personal disappointment and disillusionment" (The

Hero Within 65). Carol Pearson, a Jungian analyst, describes the Fall archetype within the collective unconscious of mankind:

Many cultures have myths that recount a golden age from which

humankind fell. In our culture, the primary story that gives this meaning to Dasouki 21

us is the myth of Adam and Eve, according to which (1) the Fall results

from human sin, (2) that sin is more woman's fault than man's, and (3) the

penalty for sin is suffering. For Adam, it is making a living by the sweat of

his brow; for Eve it is childbirth; and ultimately for both it is death. (64)

Jung considers the journey one of the event archetypes. He talks about religious and mythological journeys in his book Psychology of the Unconscious. For example, the religious journey of Moses and his “servant” mentioned in the Koran is described by Jung as follows:

The journey of Moses with his servant is a life-journey (eighty

years). They grow old and lose their life force(libido), that is, they

lose the fish …which means the setting of the sun. When the two

notice their loss, they discover at the place where the "source of

life" is found (where the dead fish revived and sprang into the

sea)…(223).

Moreover, Jung compares the religious journey of Moses to the mythological journey of Gilgamesh where he starts a long journey in search of immortality. He describes this journey as follows: "Gilgamesh wandered through the world, driven by anxiety and longing, to find immortality…Gilgamesh's journey had lost its purpose on account of the loss of the magic herb" (224). Dasouki 22

According to Jung, the two journeys are similar in that both of them start in search for something and both of them end with the loss of that thing i.e. Moses searches for John the Baptist (Al-Khidr in the Quran) and ends his journey when he loses the fish while

Gilgamesh searches for immortality and his journey comes to an end when he loses the magic herb. Carol Pearson describes the journey archetype in her book The Hero Within, stating that the "need to take the journey is innate in the species" (40). This proves man's desire for adventure and quest which exists within the collective unconscious of humanity.

Character Archetypes are represented through many individuals such as the Devil

Figure i.e. Lucifer, Satan or Mephistopheles. The outcast is a figure who is banished from a social group for some crime ( real or imagined) against his fellow men. The outcast is usually destined to become a wanderer from place to place e.g. Cain who killed his brother

Abel and he was punished by God to a life of wandering. Earth mother is symbolic of fertility, abundance and fruition. This character traditionally offers spiritual and emotional nourishment and support to those with whom she comes in contact (Guerin 104).Thus the archetypes live within the collective unconscious of humans. To quote Carol Pearson

"passions, desires and sins are programmed by the culture. The process of listening to our desires and acting to fulfill them is fundamental to building an identity" (99).

Jung identified a large number of archetypes but paid special attention to four: the persona, the shadow, the anima and the self which are considered as the "the structural Dasouki 23

components of the psyche that human beings have inherited" (Guerin 205). The ''persona'' is the social mask man shows to the outside world. It conceals the person's real self and

Jung describes it as the ''conformity'' archetype, pointing that "the persona is that which in reality one is not, but which oneself as well as others think one is" (The Archetypes and the

Collective Unconscious123). Another archetype is the anima/animus which is the psychological image of man i.e. the unconscious feminine side in males and the masculine tendencies in women. Each sex manifests attitudes and behavior of the other by virtue of centuries of living together. The psyche of a woman contains masculine aspects (the animus archetype) and the psyche of a man contains feminine aspects (the anima archetype). The anima/animus originates in the collective unconscious as an archetype and remains extremely resistant to consciousness. (Fleming 13).

Jung believes that the anima originates from early men's experiences with women including mothers, sisters, and lovers which combine into the concept of women. The anima is the image of the woman which the man carries in both his personal and collective unconscious; it is the "living thing in man…which lives of itself and causes life" (Guerin

206). This archetype is sometimes represented as "the soul- image" and at other times it is a feeling or a mood. On the other hand, the animus is the masculine side of women and originates in the collective unconscious as an archetype that is resistant to consciousness

(Fleming 13). The animus is symbolic of thinking and reasoning and is capable of influencing the thinking of women and yet it does not belong to them. It belongs to the Dasouki 24

collective unconscious and originates from the encounters of prehistoric women with men.

Moreover, the animus originates from early women's experiences with men including fathers, brothers, and lovers that are combined into the concept of men. The animus appears in dreams, visions and fantasies in a personified form. Both the anima and animus can influence the relationship of men and women with partners. (Fleming 14).

Mythology represents the anima as maiden goddesses or women of great beauty, such as Athena, Venus and Helen of Troy; while the animus is symbolized by noble gods or heroes, such as Hermes, Apollo and Hercules. The shadow is the dark or evil side of personality like the id in Freudian psychology. It is the archetype of darkness and repression, representing the qualities that man attempts to hide from others. Jung defines the Shadow as '' the thing a person has no wish to be'' (Collected Works.vol.16. 470). In dreams, the Shadow usually appears as a person of the same sex. However, it can also take the form of the brother or sister figure; for instance, the biblical figure of Cain, the first human born or Abel, the first to die. Carl Jung states in The Integration of the Personality,

''Taken in its deepest sense, the Shadow is the invisible saurian tail that man still drags behind him. Carefully amputated, it becomes the healing serpent of the mysteries''(30).

The Self is the most powerful archetype. It provides a sense of unity in experience because it pulls together the other archetypes and unites them. Thus it is the psyche's image of wholeness. For Jung, the ultimate aim of every individual is to achieve a state of Dasouki 25

selfhood. In other words, Jung believes that each person possesses an inherited tendency to move toward growth, perfection and completion, and he calls this innate tendency the Self

(The Integration of Personality 79). Jung considers Christ the most complete Self symbol humans have known throughout history. Christ, unlike the rest of humans, is sinless

(Eisendrath 327).

There are other important archetypes such as the "Great mother", "Wise Old Man" and "Hero". The mother acquires her power and influence through the collective unconscious. The concept of mother has both positive and negative sides. The great mother represents the loving, nurturing, caring and protective aspects of the Good Mother and the poisonous, attacking, envious and destructive aspects of the Terrible Mother. It is also known as Mother Nature and Mother Earth. The wise old man archetype is representative of wisdom and meaning, and symbolizes human's pre-existing knowledge of the mysteries of life. It is also unconscious and cannot be directly experienced by the individual. The wise old man archetype is personified in dreams as father, grandfather, teacher, philosopher, doctor or priest. It can be a king, sage or even a magician in tales and stories.

Jung states that the Wise Old Man supports the hero when he is in danger, "The old man always appears when the hero is in a hopeless and desperate situation from which only profound reflection or a lucky idea…can extricate him"(Guerin 188). Dasouki 26

The hero is an archetype that is represented in mythology and legends as a powerful person, savior or deliverer who "undertakes some long journey during which he or she must perform impossible tasks, battle with monsters, solve unanswerable riddles, and overcome insurmountable obstacles in order to save the kingdom" (Guerin 190). At the same time the hero serves as a model for the ideal personality. In other words, the hero is always mortal because an immortal person has no weaknesses and cannot be a hero. Jung describes the hero in Man and His Symbols:

Usually, in mythology, the hero wins his battle against the monster. But there are other hero myths in which the hero gives in to the monster. A familiar type is that of Jonah and the Whale, in which the hero is swallowed by a sea monster that carries him on a night sea journey from west to east, thus symbolizing the supposed transit of the sun from sunset to dawn. The hero goes into darkness, which represents a kind of death (117).

Jung also distinguishes between the archetype and the archetypal image i.e. the archetype in its pure form and the symbolism it stimulates. The archetype is an abstract theme while the archetypal images are concrete variations on that theme (Eisendrath 419).

Thus the archetypes stimulate the individual mind to make a vast variety of images. For example, if Ernest Hemingway had never acquired any direct or indirect experience of the sea, he could never have written The Old Man and the Sea. His mind has stimulated the image of the old man who loses his fish which reminds the reader of the Prophet Moses Dasouki 27

and his search which ends in the loss of the fish. As Von Franz points out, ''there is no such thing as a typical Jungian analysis. There can't be, because every dream is a private and individual communication, and no two dreams use the symbols of the unconscious in the same way. So every Jungian analysis is unique'' ( Man and His Symbols 80). Jung also states in Psychology of the Unconscious that dreams ''are symbolic in order that they cannot be understood; in order that the wish, which is the source of the dream, may remain unknown'' (73). Thus the archetype evokes many images and encourages the individual to provide descriptions and elaborate them.

Another important contribution that Jung made to psychology was his notion of the

Electra Complex. Jung was the first to define and use the Electra Complex as opposed to the Oedipus Complex which was defined by Freud. Jung described the girl's competition with her mother for the affections of her father and he named the complex after Electra who plotted her mother's murder to revenge her father. Freud disagreed with Jung's theory of the Electra Complex and he argued that boys only had the Oedipus Complex. Jung talks about the Electra Complex in Psychology of the Unconscious:

The jealousy of the daughter towards the mother is called the Electra

Complex from the myth of Electra who took revenge on her mother for the

murder of the husband because she was in this way deprived of her father

(38). Dasouki 28

One of the earliest criticisms of Jung's work was that it had been anti-scientific in its intentions as well as its content. This accusation began when Jung rebelled against Freud in

1913. Jung's view of the functions of symbolism in dreams led to his isolation from the psychiatric community. As he put it ''… all my friends and acquaintances dropped away.

My book was declared to be rubbish; I was a mystic, and that settled the matter''

(Memories, Dreams, Reflections 207).

Throughout the 1920s and until his death, Jung has continued developing his methods of analytical psychology. Thus when applying his theories and methods to literature, the reader engages in archetypal criticism. Northrop Frye disagrees with Jung attacking his theory of the collective unconscious in his book, Anatomy of Criticism in 1957, stating that it is ''an unnecessary hypothesis in literary criticism, so far as I can judge'' ( 123).

Anyway, Frye accepts the role of psychology in interpreting literature. He admits that a

''psychologist examining a poem will tend to see in it what he sees in the dream, a mixture of latent and manifest content'' (123). Frye also identifies mythology with literature accepting the universality of archetypes in literature, "A symbol like the sea… is bound to expand over many works into an archetypal symbol of literature as a whole (100). Jung's theories on archetypes, complexes, the collective unconscious and the individuation process along his understanding of the symbolism find in dreams the basis of his clinical approach which he calls analytical psychology. Dasouki 29

On the other hand, Wilfred Guerin and other Jungians defend Jung and his theory of the collective unconscious in A Handbook of Critical Approaches, where Jung is seen as the founder of psychoanalysis:

Jung is not merely a derivative or secondary figure; he is a major influence

in the growth of myth criticism. For one thing, he provided some of the

favorite terminology now current among myth critics. The term

"archetype" itself, though not coined by Jung, enjoys its present

widespread usage among the myth critics primarily because of his

influence. Also, like Freud, he was a pioneer whose brilliant flashes of

insight have helped to light our way in exploring the darker recesses of the

human mind (204).

Jung is considered too difficult for the average or educated reader, and he has not achieved the same popularity as Freud who is well known all over the Western world.

Anyway, the psychology of Jung provides new insights and reflections for society at large.

Jung's analytical psychology especially his theory of the collective unconscious provides one of the most notable and influential contributions to the twentieth century. It is applied to a lot of literary works worldwide. The usual critic relies on history and the biographical background of the writer to analyze any work of art while the Jungian critic is interested in mythology and the universal archetypes as a projection of mankind's collective psyche. Dasouki 30

Moreover, this theory can be seen to relate the work of Eugene O'Neill and George

Bernard Shaw regarding the field of psychology.

Dasouki 31

Chapter Two

The Collective Unconscious in Eugene O'Neill's Desire Under

the Elms and Mourning Becomes Electra

“The world of gods and spirits is truly nothing but the collective unconscious inside me."

C.G.Jung, Collected Works.vol. 15

Eugene O'Neill is a modern tragedian who established a fine position in the history of American drama. He was born in 1888 in New York. He is regarded as the father of

American drama and, so far, the only American dramatist to be awarded the Nobel Prize.

He had a very chaotic life which helped him dramatize subconscious emotions. Raymond

Williams quotes of O'Neill in his book Modern Tragedy as follows:

The tragedy of man is perhaps the only significant thing about him.

What I am after is to get an audience leaving the theatre with an

exultant feeling from seeing somebody on the stage facing life,

fighting against the eternal odds, not conquering, but perhaps

inevitably being conquered. The individual life is made significant

just by the struggle (106).

He possessed great love for his mother, Ella Quinlan O'Neill and he was emotionally hurt when sent away from her to a boarding school. His strong desire of being Dasouki 32

with his mother created a sense of alienation and nothingness within him. As he grew up, he witnessed his object of perfection i.e. his mother being addicted to drugs which shattered his world. Her illness had a very damaging impact on his faith in religion and

God. He thought that God was merciful and would cure his mother of her illness, but his mother remained addicted, so he lost his faith in God. O'Neill married three times, but he was never satisfied because he searched for a surrogate mother in his wives. O’Neill made his mother the symbol of his "lost paradise" in his plays.

Early in life, O'Neill underwent many unhappy experiences and tried his luck in several professions rather unsuccessfully, which made him have a tragic vision of life.

Along with his plays, there is a picture of O'Neill's personal life. He had a broken relationship with his children. His daughter, Oona, went against his wish and married

Charlie Chaplin, a man as old as her father. This action of Oona compelled O'Neill to disown his daughter. His son, Eugene Jr committed suicide after he suffered from depression and melancholy. After suffering from alcoholism for many years, O'Neill died in the Sheraton Hotel in 1953 at the age of 65.

Real tragedy is an integral part of O'Neill's life. The harsh realities which struck O'Neill throughout his life can be traced in his drama. The reader can view psychologically a similar pain and depression in his plays. O'Neill actually expresses the meaning of his life through his tragedies. Barrenness and desolation link his own Dasouki 33

personality to the characters of his plays. His protagonists represent his personal depression, agony, isolation and alienation. Jean Gould remarks about the painful existence of O'Neill in Modern American Playwrights :

Eugene O'Neill died as he (largely) had lived- in frustration and

anguish. For all his delving the mystery of man's eternal struggle

with himself and an overwhelming universe the closest he came to

a solution was his belief, stated so forcefully in The Iceman

Cometh, that man must cling to his illusions or perish (76).

Moreover, the great urge for his mother is symbolic of female protagonists in his plays i.e. the Mannon's urge for the ''Great Mother'': Marie Brantome in Mourning

Becomes Electra or the presence of the deceased mother: the ''Dark Mother'' or the

"Terrible Mother" of the Elms in Desire Under the Elms. Mother Earth is the archetype which occurs time and again in O'Neill's plays. Fog and sea also recur as symbols in his drama. Jung also treats the sea as ''the symbol of collective unconscious because it hides unsuspected depths under a reflecting surface'' (The Integration of the Personality 103).

The farm is also an embodiment of the forest which is a symbol of the collective unconscious (Psychology of the Unconscious 375). Thus O'Neill is deeply influenced by

Jung's concept of the collective unconscious. Dasouki 34

O'Neill was influenced by Carl Jung , the psychoanalyst, who stressed the importance of the subconscious in human behavior. In a letter to Clark, Barrett H, O'Neill admits this influence stating that ''Jung is the only one of the lot who interests me. Some of his suggestions I find extraordinarily illuminating in the light of my own experience with hidden human motives'' (qtd. in Jenkyns and Quer 6). He highlights the importance of emotions saying that:

Our emotions are instinctive. They are the result not only of our

individual experiences but of the experiences of the whole human

race, back through all the ages. They are the deep undercurrent,

whereas our thoughts are often only the small individual surface

reactions. Truth usually goes deep. So it reaches you through your

emotions (Estrin 27).

So O'Neill believes that emotions are universal, which calls to mind "the fateful links between me and my ancestors" (Memories, Dreams, Reflections 233). Like Jung, O'Neill stresses the link between the individual's experience and the collective unconscious of mankind.

His philosophic worldview is limited not only to America, but it extends to the whole mankind. O'Neill admits that he is influenced by Jung especially when he declares: Dasouki 35

The book that interested me the most of the Freudian school is

Jung's Psychology of the Unconscious... If I have been influenced

unconsciously, it must have been by this book more than any

other… (qtd. In Krasner 142).

He wrote about thirty plays which made him the major American playwright of the twentieth century. His plays explore the darkened depths of the human mind. The reader can see the psychological terrors, obsessions and disorders in his drama . O'Neill portrays the psyche of the modern man showing his mental conflicts. His world is full of psychic clashes within the minds of his characters who relive the agonies of their ancestral past. The struggle between the conscious and the unconscious created tragic tensions in his plays. O'Neill's dramas are called ''the dramas of soul''. In other words, he explores the hidden mind i.e. the unconscious .

For O'Neill, the primal urges relate the mind to the external problems. He also explores the subconscious mind. N.K.Sharma quotes of O'Neill in his book O'Neill's

Dramatic Vision that:

The Theatre should give us, what the Church no longer gives, a

meaning. In brief, it should return to the spirit of Greek grandeur.

And if we have no Gods, or heroes to pray, we have the

subconscious, the mother of all Gods and heroes (7). Dasouki 36

Desire Under the Elms is his first tragedy which reveals the psychological passions of man's involvement with the mother image. The play is a tragic panorama of

American life, lived in a farm in New England 1850. It is the story of a powerful father,

Ephraim Cabot who oppresses his whole family. He is cruel, harsh and greedy and is both feared and hated by his sons. There is no emotional bond between the father and the three sons. Ephraim married many times: the first wife is the mother of Peter and Simeon; the second is the mother of Eben and the last wife is Abbie. Eben accuses his father of killing his mother because he makes her work to death:

EBEN--(fiercely) An' fur thanks he killed her!

SIMEON--(after a pause) No one never kills nobody. It's allus somethin'.

That's the murderer.

EBEN-- Didn't he slave Maw t' death?

PETER-- He's slaved himself t' death. He's slaved Sim 'n' me 'n' yew t'

death--on'y none o' us hain't died—yit ( 1.1.6).

When Cabot marries Abbie Putnam and brings her to the farm, problems start.

Heritage is the main problem in Cabot's family. Abbie marries Cabot because she wants to inherit the farm. Simeon and Peter believe that they should get the farm because they had worked hard on it, ''We been slaves t' stone walls here'' (1.4.13) . Eben also claims that the Dasouki 37

farm should be his own because his father robs his mother of her farm. Anyway, Simeon and Peter decide to leave to California in search of gold after they have sold their shares to

Eben.

On the other hand, Abbie forgets her scheme and lusts for Eben, ''her desire is dimly awakened by his youth and good looks.'' (1.4.18). She tries to get Eben's attention by pretending that she is like his mother. Yet Abbie strives to get Eben's love and fulfill her needs so that she shows a sincere maternal love as a mother believing that she loves Eben as her lover and son, ''I'll sing fur ye! I'll die fur ye! (In spite of her overwhelming desire for him, there is a sincere maternal love in her manner and voice—a horribly frank mixture of lust and mother love.) Don't cry, Eben! I'll take yer Maw's place! I'll be everythin' she was t' ye!" (2.3.31).

Abbie tries to seduce Eben using many tricks, but when she fails she accuses him of harassing her sexually in order to convince Cabot to have another son. Eben is involved in an incestuous relationship with his stepmother and fathers a son by her. Consequently,

Abbie loves Eben truly forgetting the farm and inheritance. Eben thinks that she has wanted the child only to become the heir of the farm. Abbie, the mother-mistress, smothers her son trying to prove her love and loyalty for her stepson lover, ''I done it, Eben! I told ye

I'd do it! I've proved I love ye—better'n everythin'—so's ye can't never doubt me no more!''

(3.3.43). After he informs the police, Eben realizes that Abbie kills the child to prove her Dasouki 38

genuine love for him, so he goes back to the farm and asks Abbie to run away with him.

When she insists on staying to face her punishment, he decides to take part in the punishment. Abbie's greed drives her to marry Ephraim, seduce Eben and eventually kill the infant.

Jung states in Psychology of the Unconscious that ''passion destroys itself''. In this context, ''the chaotic primitive power of passion'' has destroyed Abbie, Eben and the child.

As Jung says, '' It is the inevitable result of that sinful passion which has broken through all barriers'' (183). Thus passion dominates human nature so that choice is taken and ''the race of Cain and the whole sinful world must be destroyed from the roots" (183). Jung regards passion as part of the collective unconscious. In his view, "the guilty descendants of the sinner Adam" commit sins related to passion across cultures and times (302). From the very beginning i.e. the title of the play, the reader observes the clear notion of Jung's hypothesis of the collective unconscious. Desire reveals the original sin of Adam and Eve which is committed under the Tree in the Garden of Eden. O'Neill also uses the elm tree in his play which evokes the Tree under which the original sin is committed. Again, the concept of the collective unconscious is apparent here.

Infanticide is also considered part of the collective unconscious. In mythology and history, there are many examples of infanticide, the sense of universal guilt for killing the infant such as the myth of Medea who murders her children to avenge her unfaithful Dasouki 39

husband while Abbie chokes her child to regain the lost love of Eben. So O'Neill believes in Jung's concept that dreams reflect the unconscious desires and needs of the individual while myths project people's cultures, thoughts and principles (Relke 3).

O'Neill greatly admired the ancient Greek tragedies and used them in writing his dramas. He used the Greek myth in his plays: Desire Under the Elms and Mourning

Becomes Electra. Jung believes that the collective unconscious can be found in ancient myths, dreams and primitive religions. O'Neill draws on the myth of Hippolytus in his play

Desire Under the Elms. Hippolytus is the son of Theseus who was a misogynist. His stepmother Phaedra, falls in love with him, but he rejects her. As a result, Phaedra accuses him of trying to rape her; ultimately she kills herself. Hippolytus is driven to exile by his father then he is killed by the gods (U.X.L Encyclopedia of World Mythology 1023).

O'Neill almost tells the same story in an 1850 New England farm setting in his play. He adds other characters and changes certain events, but the core story is still the relationship between the son and his stepmother. The difference between the two stepmothers is that the Greek stepmother, Phaedra, lies but the American Abbie kills.

Philip Weissman in his essay entitled ''Conscious and Unconscious Autobiographical

Dramas of Eugene O'Neill'' has argued that the infanticide in Desire Under the Elms may be analyzed through studying O'Neill's background. O'Neill blamed himself for the death of an infant brother who he infected with measles, but he also abandoned his own Dasouki 40

first child i.e. his daughter for marrying Charlie Chaplin. Thus Eben reveals an unconscious portrait of O'Neill himself. Weissman believes that O'Neill and his characters are controlled by invisible psychological forces unlike the Greeks who are governed by gods ( 432-457).

Moreover, Eben and Abbie's acts remind the reader of Adam and Eve and their original sin committed in Eden i.e. the farm. So the farm can be an archetype or a symbol of a beautiful place where hideous sins like murder, incest and lust take place. For Eben, the farm is the symbol of his mother. He is haunted by the spirit of his mother, so he thinks that he has the right to possess the farm, ''I'm her—her heir''(1.1.6). The farm is part of the collective unconscious and it has a ''maternal significance'' according to Jung. Eben's need to possess the farm reveals his unconscious need to reclaim the dead mother. In Desire

Under the Elms, O'Neill mixes the two myths: the Greek and the Genesis story i.e.

Ephraim is portrayed as the domineering founder of the tribe of Israel in the Old Testament

(The Bible 41:52). O'Neill depicts Cabot and his sons as Ephraim's tribe. This proves

Jung's theory that humans are affected by religions, myths and dreams.

O'Neill structured the play's setting with many Jungian archetypal opposites. The elms and the rock walls reflect the polar contents of the anima and animus. The rocks which enclose the farm within its boundaries symbolize the masculine elements contained in the animus while the elm trees stand for the feminine side i.e. the anima (Fathima 7). In Dasouki 41

Jung's view, the tree has "maternal significance". It is the symbol of the mother archetype and it is closely associated with ''the origin in the sense of the mother. It represents the source of life, of that magical life force'' (Symbols of Transformation 258). The farm is surrounded by two large elms that reveal the feminine soul i.e. the embodiment of the mother's ghost which covers the Cabot's house. Steven Bloom indicates in his book

Student Companion to Eugene O'Neill that:

In conjunction with the maternal breasts like elm trees, this house

establishes a setting that is not only a farmhouse in England, but also the

manifestation of a subconscious focused sexually on a female and

specifically on the maternal (99).

The elms, the most powerful symbol in the play, represent the spirit of the mother which is always with her son Eben. In other words, this spirit reflects the female dominance over the other characters throughout the play:

Two enormous elms are on each side of the house. They bend their trailing

branches down over the roof. They appear to protect and at the same time

subdue. There is a sinister maternity in their aspect, a crushing, jealous

absorption. (1.1.2).

D.V.Falk suggests that the elms stand for nature whose violated spirit works vengeance through Eben (20). Jung also states in Psychology of the Unconscious that the Dasouki 42

tree '' can also be called a woman or the uterus of the mother'' ( 311). The Cabot house is surrounded by two elm trees that reveal the image of Eben's dead mother hovering over the farm. Thus, desire, Eben's mother and nature are seen as one entity in the play. N.K.

Sharma points out in his book, O'Neill's Dramatic Vision that the elms also suggest the psychological struggle between Eben's two selves_one proud and paternal and the other submissive and maternal i.e. the anima and the animus (92).

Jungian psychology is clearly represented through the characters in Desire Under the Elms. Ephraim Cabot passes down to his three wives the story of his 50-year life lived at the farm surrounded by the elms. This story is also passed down to his three sons. It is like a universal fairytale that is passed down from one generation to another. Cabot represents the ''Wise Old Man'' or what Jung called a mana personality; the archetype which symbolizes ''knowledge, reflection, insight, wisdom, cleverness and intuition''

(Guerin 188 ). Cabot's pride plays an important role in his own destruction. Like Satan,

Cabot's hubris makes him rebel against the will of God and as a result he causes the downfall of his farm, his wives and his sons. In other words, he, like Satan, destroys the farm which represents Paradise and his wives and sons who represent Adam and Eve and the whole mankind. According to Jung, hubris is part of the collective unconscious because it is the sin of Satan who disobeys God and causes his destruction (Presley 27). Hubris also destroys Cabot and his farm when at the end of the play, he decides to burn it: Dasouki 43

''T' hell with the farm. I'm leavin it!...I'm freein' myself!... I'll set fire t'

house an' barn an' watch 'em burn, an' I'll leave yer Maw t' haunt the

ashes…so that nothin' human kin never touch 'em!''(3.4.49). During the

play, Cabot unites himself with God, ''It's a- goin' t' be lonesome now than

ever it war afore—an' I'm gittin' old…Waal—what d' ye want? God's

lonesome, hain't He? God's hard an' lonesome!'' (3.4.49).

Moreover, when Cabot burns the farm, he falls, abandoning the social status he has accumulated represented by the ''stone wall''; the symbol of the ''paternal archetype''.

O'Neill symbolizes the paternal archetype as the ''stone wall''. He employs the symbolic stones around the land to signify the imprisonment of the family by the paternal power which governs his wives and sons and imprisons them ( Sharma 92). The ''stone wall'' is the result of Cabot's 50 years of hard work which represents the paternal archetype i.e.

Cabot forces his sons and wives to do unendurable labor which causes the death of Eben's mother. (Kumi 98). Peter talks about his father's stone wall describing how Cabot enslaves them and treats them badly to achieve his dream of building stone walls i.e. the house which is like a prison for his sons and wives, "it's stones atop o' the ground--stones atop o' stones--makin' stone walls--year atop o' year--him 'n' yew 'n' me 'n' then Eben--makin' stone walls fur him to fence us in!'' (1.1.4). Dasouki 44

Eben Cabot shows affection towards his deceased mother who is the symbol of the

''Great Mother'' and represents the maternal archetype. He is involved in an incestuous relationship with his stepmother, Abbie. Jung considers that sin is part of the collective unconscious because of the original sin of Adam and Eve, the couple who lived in the

Garden of Eden unaware and without consciousness. They were awakened by the Serpent which convinced them of eating from the forbidden tree and as a result becoming conscious. Jung states in Psychology of the Unconscious that '' the original sin of incest weighs heavily for all time upon the human race'' (124). So it is our ancestors' sin i.e. the sin of Cain who loved his sister and wanted to marry her, ''it is the sinful ambition of the race of Cain for love'' (183). Thus Eben is in love with Abbie because he is ''unable to detach his libido from the mother-imago; he therefore suffers incestuous resistance'' (311).

He is driven unconsciously to commit sin.

Sin and evil play an important role in Desire Under the Elms. Cabot's sin is that he makes Eben's mother work to death. Eben's sin is that he commits incest with his stepmother. Abbie's sin is committing incest and killing her child. Like Medea, Abbie murders her child. She kills what she loves. The Jungian reading of the play suggests that man might be disturbed psychologically to commit incest and infanticide and to avoid them is futile. O'Neill's world is like Jung's, full of gods, myths, dreams, fairytales and superstitions. It is the concept of the collective unconscious that governs man and determines his fate. Man is controlled by his past i.e. "the remote past" of his ancestors; Dasouki 45

their sins and evil deeds (Interviews and Encounters 57). Jung discusses the concept of the original sin in his biography Memories, Dreams, Reflections stating that Adam and Eve

"were perfect creatures of God… and yet they committed the first sin" (56). Jung supports his theory by this evidence because Adam and Eve are victims of sin and evil so humans have inherited these archetypes from them and they stand hopeless in front of their fate.

O'Neill resorts to a psychological scheme formalized in his generation by Jung and based on myths and archetypes. He explores passion and desire in the human relationships and conflicts within individuals. David Rogers points out in the introduction of The Plays of

Eugene O'Neill:

In Desire Under the Elms, O'Neill's straightforward determinism gave way

to a more profound awareness of the hidden and uncharitable depths

within individual men. Characters are not so much dominated by their

social and economic circumstances...Instead, their fate is determined by

the universal and timeless passions that drive them from within (28).

Thus, O'Neill's drama reflects the universality of passions and emotions through mythical references from different ages and cultures which proves the Jungian hypothesis that certain experiences are archetypal i.e. universal.

O'Neill agrees with Jung when Abbie tells Eben that their relationship is inevitable, ''Ye been fightin' yer nature ever since the day I come… Nature'll beat ye, Dasouki 46

Eben'' (2.1.21). Jung also states that committing incest is for ''gaining entrance into the mother's womb. One of the simplest ways would be to impregnate the mother, and to reproduce one's self identically'' (313). After surrendering to Abbie's wild passion, Eben tries to deny that he has really committed the forbidden sin, incest with his stepmother, ''It was like pizen[poison] on 'em. When I kissed ye back, mebbe I thought 'twas someone else'' (2.2.29). This quotation calls to mind Jung when he explains in his Psychology of the

Unconscious how ''incest can be evaded'' by transforming ''the mother into another being''

(313). So O'Neill makes Eben deny his own incest believing that he has a relationship not with Abbie but with another woman.

Thus O'Neill believes in the Jungian concept i.e. ''the original sin caused men to wish to go back into the mother again, that is, the incestuous desire for the mother''

(Psychology of the Unconscious 328). Like Jung, O'Neill assumes that man's problems stem from the collective unconscious to emerge as psychological truth . In other words, when man overlooks the unconscious or suppresses this powerful force, he is catastrophic.

When Eben tells Abbie that they are guilty of incest saying that , ''I'm as guilty as yew be!

He was the child o' our sin.'', Abbie asserts ''I don't repent that sin! I haint askin' God t' forgive that!". Eben says he does not repent the sin either, ''Nor me'' (3.4.48). The only sin

Abbie repents is infanticide. She admits that she is guilty and accepts her punishment, ''I got t' take my punishment—t' pay fur my sin'' and Eben also admits that he is guilty like her,''I want t' share it with ye'' (3.4.48). Dasouki 47

O'Neill makes Abbie and Eben share this universal guilt i.e. child murder and incest.

According to Patrick Nolan, O'Neill resorts to the Medea and the Hippolytus myth to show that the Jungian archetypal instincts of the anima and the animus govern much of human behavior. In this context, much of Eben and Abbie's behavior is controlled by the anima while much of Cabot's behavior is directed by the animus and his greed for property (20).

Moreover, Greek mythology is full of animal symbolism. In Man and His Symbols, Marie

Von Franz states that ''Zeus, the father of the gods, often approaches a girl whom he desires in the shape of a swan, a bull or an eagle” (235). O'Neill also describes the intense desire in the Cabot house in terms of animal imagery. He likens Eben to a wild animal to reveal his animalistic lust:

His defiant, dark eyes remind one of a wild animal's in captivity. Each

day is a cage in which he finds himself trapped but inwardly

unsubdued (1.1.3).

The three major characters in the play: Cabot, Eben and Abbie reveal the wild and unrestrained desire of man. Desire lies in the triple confrontation of characters (Cabot,

Abbie, Eben) where they are explored not only for their psychological, but moral contrasts.

Such desire as Abbie's or Eben's converts human nature into chaos and destroys man psychologically. They fight over sex and money, showing the animalistic side of human nature. In this context, O'Neill presents the psychological dilemmas of the twentieth Dasouki 48

century man by focusing on Cabot, Eben and Abbie who reflect the barbaric nature of the modern man and his quest for passion, wealth and pleasure and who reveal O'Neill's moral message that the frankness in passion brings man to destruction. This calls to mind Jung's vision of the modern man in C.G.Jung Speaking Interviews and Encounters:

As modern man is driven back upon himself by doubt and fear, he looks

inward to his own psychic life to give him something of which his outer

life has deprived him (68).

Eben unconsciously responds to his stepmother, Abbie who is the figure of the mother archetype i.e. the maternal archetype that emerged in Abbie as the mother-mistress who leads Eben to incest. O'Neill adopts the Jungian concepts of ''Great Mother'' ,''Dark

Mother'' and Greek myths to structure his play and show Eben's psychological quest for a mother figure. O'Neill explores the dilemma in Eben's personality i.e. his need for an emotional bond which is lost in his early childhood after the death of his mother. This reminds the reader of O'Neill's similar quest for the mother. The dead mother plays an active role in the play although she does not exist physically. She casts her power on the whole house. Even Cabot is aware of her presence when he says:

Even the music can't drive it out--somethin'. Ye kin feel it

dropping' off the elums, climbin' up the roof, sneakin' down the Dasouki 49

chimney, pokin' in the corners! They's no peace in houses, they's

no rest livin' with folks. Somethin's always livin' with ye. (2.1.38).

Thus O'Neill mixes Jungian psychology with Greek mythology to make his tragedy. He uses the spirit of the dead mother as a Jungian method to show that superstition is part of the collective unconscious of mankind because people from different cultures and times believe in superstitions such as spirits and ghosts. Jung suggests that everyone has two souls: one that exists in the present and the "ancestral soul" which exists in the past:

Aren't we all the carriers of the entire history of mankind? Why is

it so difficult to believe that each of us has two souls? When a man

is fifty years old, only one part of his being has existed for half a

century. The other part, which also lives in his psyche may be

millions of years old" (Interviews and Encounters 57).

Guerin suggests in A Handbook of Critical Approaches to Literature that every archetype is of a dual nature i.e. it has both negative and positive aspects. For example, the archetype of the earth mother has both sides: the Good Mother represents the positive side of the archetype while the Terrible Mother represents its negative side (187). O'Neill learns the importance of the archetypes in revealing the contents of the collective unconscious, so he uses many archetypes through his play. The elms reflect the spirit of maternity which Dasouki 50

reveals the dark side of the archetype i.e. the ''Terrible Mother'' and '' the goddess of death and destruction (Guerin 188). Abbie embodies Eben's Anima, the feminine archetype of his psyche. She represents the ''Good Mother'' i.e. the positive side of the mother that embraces, loves and protects. Abbie replaces the deceased mother who represents the

Terrible Mother and emerges as the Good Mother when she enters in an incestuous relationship with Eben.

Wilfred Guerin, in A Handbook of Critical Approaches, mentions many archetypal images such as serpent, garden, sun, desert, forest, rivers, numbers and colors. The garden stands for paradise and immortality while the sun represents the passage of time. Colors are also important symbols in O'Neill's drama. Wilfred Guerin defines many colors: white stands for innocence and purity, blue represents truth and security while green symbolizes fertility, hope and growth. Red is the color of violent desire, passion and emotion and black is related to death, chaos and mystery (185).

The darkened parlor also plays an important role in the play. It is the mother's parlor where she is laid when she dies. Black is associated with the parlor because it represents death and mystery. When Eben and Abbie enter the parlor, they start their affair, so the parlor can symbolize "the mother womb" and Eben's incestuous desire to ''go back into the mother again'' (Psychology of the Unconscious 328). O'Neill shows that Eben and

Abbie choose the parlor unconsciously to commit incest which reveals a hidden force that Dasouki 51

drives them i.e. the mother's spirit which is associated with the mysterious place. The power of the past, of the dead, ceases when Abbie takes the place of Eben's mother. This power "corresponds to the mythic land of the dead, the land of the ancestors… Like a medium, it gives the dead a chance to manifest themselves" (Memories, Dreams,

Reflections 234). Superstition is part of the collective unconscious and the belief in spirits, ghosts and magic. O'Neill employs the ghost of the mother which hovers over the house as a Jungian approach to explore the psychological and inner world of his protagonists. He also makes use of the Greek model of incest to project Eben's unconscious desire for his mother. Furthermore, O'Neill adopts Jungian concepts such as the use of myths, archetypes, the incest theme and the haunting past to portray his modern tragedy. Desire

Under the Elms is the result of Jungian influence on O'Neill who makes his characters confront with their collective unconscious.

On the other hand, Mourning Becomes Electra is another play of O’Neill’s that presents complex psychological relationships. O'Neill considers this play as the most important and successful work of his drama. O'Neill models Mourning Becomes Electra after the Greek tragedy Oresteia of Aeschylus, but he changes the Greek myth into a modern tragedy. Mourning Becomes Electra is a trilogy that consists of three parts:

Homecoming, The Hunted and The Haunted. The Oresteia concerns the story of the Atreus house after the Trojan war while Mourning Becomes Electra tells the story of the Mannon house after the end of the American Civil War. In other words, the Mannon house bears the Dasouki 52

fate of the Atreus house. In both plays, husbands are killed by vengeful wives the day they return from their wars. The most important difference is between the Greek avenger,

Orestes, and O'Neill's avenger, Orin. In Oresteia, Orestes is forgiven by the gods while

O'Neill's Orin commits suicide.

Homecoming narrates the Ezra Mannon's return to New England after the end of the

American Civil War and his death at the hands of his wife Christine. The Hunted describes

Ezra's daughter, Lavinia who discovers that her mother Christine murders her father with the help of her lover, Adam Brant. As a result, Lavinia decides to take revenge on her father's killers. She convinces her brother Orin of killing Adam Brant which leads to the suicide of Christine. In The Haunted , Lavinia drives her brother, who is obsessed by the guilt of his mother's death and incestuous desire for his sister, to suicide. Orin, dominated by images of revenge and guilt, has been made a scapegoat for his family. His blood must be shed for the sake of his ancestors. Lavinia is the only Mannon who is left at the end of the play and she decides to lock herself in the Mannon house for the rest of her life, facing the sins of her family alone.

O'Neill presents humans in his drama as psychologically disturbed persons who are inevitably condemned to sin. So he believes in the collective unconscious of Jung i.e. humans are tragic beings by nature because they are "the guilty descendants of the sinner Dasouki 53

Adam" and the original sin of Adam and Eve determines their fate (Psychology of the

Unconscious 302).

Passion, guilt, murder and incest are common themes between Desire Under the

Elms and Mourning Becomes Electra. He portrays humans as prisoners who try to escape from the darkness of the prison of the sin but in vain. The difference between O'Neill and the Greek myth is that O'Neill makes his characters pay for their sins unlike the Oresteia where Electra and Orestes are forgiven. In a letter to Brooks Atkinson, O'Neill admits that he does not want to make his Electra have "a nice conventionally content future". He declares:

"I flatter myself I have given my Yankee Electra an end tragically

worthy of herself!...She is broken and not broken! By the way she

yields to her Mannon fate she overcomes it. She is tragic!"(qtd in

Jenkyns and Quer 5).

O'Neill fashions his characters in Mourning Becomes Electra differently. Ezra

Mannon, Adam Brant, Christine, Lavinia, Orin, Seth Beckwith and Marie Brantome are explored psychologically. They conceal their personalities by wearing masks that cover their faces and make them unreal. Influenced by the Jungian archetype: the Persona,

O'Neill believes that humans wear masks and he uses the method of mask-like faces in his drama. Dasouki 54

The mask draws attention to the hidden conflicts and struggles of the mind. It conceals the true nature of the characters in the play. For example, despite his old age, Seth appears as vital and energetic, but this vitality is false “He has a gaunt face that in repose gives one the strange impression of a life-like mask” (Part I.1.2). Christine's beauty is unreal. She appears as a ''striking-looking woman of forty but she appears younger…One is struck at once by the strange impression it gives in repose of being not living flesh but a wonderfully life-like pale mask'' ( Part I.1.4). Lavinia also wears a mask like her mother,

''one is struck by the same strange, life-like mask impression her face gives in repose” (Part

I.1. 5). Ezra Mannon is not a real man, ''One is immediately struck by the mask-like look of his face in repose, more pronounced in him than in the others…He is exactly like the portrait in his study'' (Part I.3.31). Thus the Mannon faces are like ''life-like'' masks i.e. death masks. O'Neill uses the ''life-like'' masks as a symbol of the Mannon shattered self.

Thus all the characters conceal their true personality appearing as shadows who wear social masks that hide their reality. Jung introduces this archetype: the persona which is the way humans present themselves to the outside world. O'Neill creates a dark world of guilty and imprisoned characters who hide their shame and guilt behind masks that conceal their true realities.

Jung's Electra Complex is evident in Mourning Becomes Electra. Lavinia reveals this complex when she shows hatred and jealousy towards her mother in the play: Dasouki 55

CHRISTINE—I know you, Vinnie! I've watched you ever since you

were little, trying to do exactly what you're doing now!... You've always

schemed to steal my place!

………………………………………………………………………………

LAVINIA--(in an anguish of jealous hatred) I hate you! You steal even

Father's love from me again! You stole all love from me when I was

born!(PartI.3.39).

Lavinia, O'Neill's Electra, ties herself to the Mannon house where she imprisons herself all her life for her father's sake, ''I can't marry anyone, Peter. I've got to stay at home. Father needs me… he needs me more'' (Part I.1.8). Moreover, she avenges the murder of her father by driving her mother to commit suicide, ''she chose to kill herself as a punishment for her crime… It was an act of justice!" (Part III.2.98). So Lavinia becomes a prisoner surrounded by shadows of the dead Mannons who live in the house . She cannot overcome or defeat them although she tries to escape their spirits by forgetting, ''The dead have forgotten us! We've forgotten them!'' (Part III.1.95). The battle is lost and Vinnie cannot confront all the dead spirits of the house who overcome her. She looks like the ghost of her dead mother and she acts like mother to Orin trying to make him forget the past. She wants to marry Peter immediately after the death of Ezra, Christine and Orin in order to escape the dead, but she cannot achieve her goal because the spirits do not allow Dasouki 56

her marriage. At the end of the play, she surrenders to the dead and decides to live in the dark house of her family so that her shadow reconciles with the dead spirits of the

Mannons:

''I'm bound here—to the Mannon dead!...I'm the last Mannon. I've got to

punish myself! Living alone here with the dead is a worse act of justice

than death or prison! I'll never go out or see anyone! I'll have the shutters

nailed closed so no sunlight can ever get in. I'll live alone with the dead,

and keep their secrets, and let them hound me, until the curse is paid out

and the last Mannon is let die!'' (Part III. 4. 124).

So Vinnie decides to return to the dark house that is an essential part of her. She accepts her fate and stops fighting the dead when she decides to live alone in the Mannon house until her death. Thus O'Neill's Electra thinks that she is the last Mannon to die in the house so that the Mannons stop haunting her.

Long suggests in his book, The Role of Nemesis in the Structure of Selected Plays by Eugene O'Neill that O'Neill's Electra is a character with a clear moral conscience, ''Her justice is cruel… But she does have a clearly moral conscience. Any mourning she may do will truly become her, for she is never completely the victim of her selfish instincts'' ( 140).

Thus, from a Jungian perspective, the mourning that becomes Electra is the fate that becomes the whole human race i.e. O'Neill suggests that tragedy is inherent in mankind. Dasouki 57

Humans are doomed to death and mourning because Abel is killed by Cain thus becoming the first human to die and his death makes Adam and Eve mourn. So death is part of the collective unconscious because it is a shared human condition that controls life, ''Life was a dying. Being born was starting to die. Death was being born'' (Part I.3.37).

Jung points out in Psychology of the Unconscious that ''through Adam's guilt, sin and death came into the world'' (345). O'Neill uses the concept of tragedy in the light of his understanding of Jungian theory of the collective unconscious. He suggests a permanent link between the past and the present i.e. there is a common bond that transcends the individual psyche through cultures regardless of time and place. Doris Falk in her book

Eugene O'Neill and the Tragic Tension suggests that ''O'Neill assumes, with Jung, that one's problems and actions spring not only from his personal unconscious mind, but from

''collective unconscious'' shared by the race as a whole, manifesting itself in archetypal symbols and patterns latent in the minds of all men.'' (6). The sins of the fathers are committed by their children in the Mannon family. In other words, the same sins are transferred from one generation to another; from fathers to sons. For example, Ezra's father

Abe drives his brother David Mannon and his lover Marie Brantome from the Mannon house while Ezra Mannon commits the same sin of the father when he ignores Marie's pleas for assistance and allows her to die in poverty. His son, Orin Mannon also behaves in the same brutal way to his sister Lavinia Mannon when he objects her marriage and convinces Peter to leave her (Burke 5). Dasouki 58

The Mannon house plays an important role in Mourning Becomes Electra. The house is presented as a ''temple of hate and death''. Seth tells Peter that ''There's been evil in that house since it was first built in hate—and it's kept growin' there ever since'' (Part III.

1.93). Like Cabot's farm, the Mannon house symbolizes evil and sin where incestuous desires, murders and dark passions take place. The house stands in conflict with the

''flower garden'' that surrounds it. Jung states in Psychology of the Unconscious that '' The rose is the symbol of the beloved woman…therefore, it is also a direct symbol of the libido'' (509). This conflict helps O'Neill express his point of view that the Mannons are in constant conflict between love, sexuality and hatred. He uses ''the conflict between garden and house as an expression of internalized emotions and desires'' (Burke 11). But most importantly, O'Neill creates the Cabot farm and the Mannon house to indicate the inner psyche of the Mannons and the Cabots.

Thus the Mannon house and the Cabot farm are haunted by the sins of the past and by the spirits of the dead. They are symbolic of the darkness of the human mind. O'Neill's use of the past haunting the present, the original sin, death, ghosts and superstitions reinforce the Jungian concept of the collective unconscious that controls the human mind.

The Cabot farm is possessed by the spirit of Eben's mother while the pictures of the

Mannons in the house are seen as ghosts that hover through the place. Dasouki 59

There are many psychological conflicts within the minds of the characters of

Mourning Becomes Electra. They are haunted by their sins which make them suffer from guilt. Moreover, the characters relive the painful experiences of the past i.e. they commit the same sins of their fathers. They suffer from the agony of mental struggles between the conscious and the unconscious which leads to the split personalities. In fact, O'Neill shows interest in the psychological matters that reveal the dark depths of the human mind. He projects the human characters and their actions through archetypal symbols and ancient myths . In his drama, he portrays the American society and the modern man by revealing the hidden emotions through the Jungian collective unconscious. His drama shows that sin is inherent in humanity regardless of time and place. Both the Trojan War and the Civil

War provide a similar background for sin and guilt in the Atreus house and Mannon house.

Thus O'Neill sees no hope for humanity as he calls it ''a hopeless hope'' (Sharma 11 ).

Symbolism plays an important role in O'Neill's drama. It explores the hidden conflicts and emotions of the subconscious mind. Influenced by Jung, O'Neill uses different symbols which give a universal sense to his plays. These archetypal symbols are the contents of the collective unconscious of the human mind. O'Neill has used myth and legend as symbols in his plays. He focuses on the Electra story showing the psychological complexity of the human relationships through the universal myth. ''Sea'' is an important symbol of the collective unconscious in O'Neill's drama and it has many meanings. Jung in The Integration of the Personality treats the sea as ''the symbol of collective Dasouki 60

unconscious because it hides unsuspected depths under a reflecting surface'' (103). It may represent life or death as in Mourning Becomes Electra, sea becomes a symbol of chaos and death. ''Island'' stands for peace, security and beauty in the play. The tree is also symbolic according to Jung, it has a ''maternal significance'' and the elm trees play an important role in Desire Under the Elms where the elms surround the Cabot house ''like exhausted women resting their sagging breasts and hands and hair on its roof'' (1.1.2). Jung describes Osiris in Psychology of the Unconscious: ''Osiris lies in the branches of the tree, surrounded by them, as in the mother's womb'' (336). So the tree also symbolizes the mother's womb.

Jung's term ''Archetype'' is part of the collective unconscious i.e. part of the inherited experiences of the human race. O'Neill relies on the archetypes to show the hidden meanings in his plays. Marie Brantome is the archetype of ''Great Mother'' because her death is the primary reason for the tragedy that affects Adam's life and the Mannons' fate. Eben's mother is also an archetype that represents the ''Terrible Mother''. The symbols of ''Sun'' and ''Moon'' are important in O'Neill's plays. The sunrise represents birth while the sunset stands for death. The Moon has both a dark and beautiful side. Eben's incestuous relationship and Abbie's infanticide happen during the night. Marie Brantome and Eben's mother have similar roles in the play. Both of them are dead and their death affects the fate of their families. Dasouki 61

Motherly love is an important aspect of O'Neill's psychological world. He explores a kind of emotional and physical longing for the mother in his plays. Eben cannot forget his dead mother who haunts the Cabot farm since her death. He identifies himself with his mother, ''I'm Maw—every drop o'blood!'' ( 1.2.6). She is identified as the Great Mother who dominates the son and affects his life. Like Eben in Desire Under the Elms, Adam

Brant in Mourning Becomes Electra is also ruled by the mysterious power of the Great

Mother i.e. Marie Brantome. Both Eben and Adam Brant are connected with the mother emotionally and mentally, consciously and subconsciously. O'Neill portrays a type of an alienated son who seeks a sheltering womb in his quest. He suffers a lot of painful and harsh experiences and he fails, but through fighting and willing, he can belong at last. The urge to belong i.e. to find shelter, peace and love in the mother's womb controls the fate of man and leads him to his end. Both Eben and Adam Brant mirror O'Neill in their search for a mother and their desire to belong.

Desire Under the Elms and Mourning Becomes Electra are connected by the use of Jung's concept of the collective unconscious and Greek mythology. Moreover, both plays reveal psychological and mental struggles that shape the lost selves of the characters and show the guilt, confusion and destruction of the human mind. O'Neill's use of the

Greek myths in both plays projects the Jungian theory of the collective unconscious i.e. that myths are manifested through archetypes and primordial images. In other words,

O'Neill analyzes the human behavior through using the Jungian theory to explore the Dasouki 62

psychological conflicts of his characters. He presents through universal symbols and archetypes the inner psyches of his characters. Through Eben and Orin, O'Neill emphasizes passion. They suffer the torment of this passion and are driven by it to guilt and death.

Thus O'Neill applies the Jungian theory of the collective unconscious in Desire Under the

Elms and Mourning Becomes Electra by using archetypes and Greek myths to reveal the inner psyches of his characters and human beings in general.

Dasouki 63

Chapter Three

The Collective Unconscious in George Bernard Shaw's

Pygmalion and Man and Superman

"Old myths, old gods, old heroes have never died. They are only sleeping at the bottom of our mind,

waiting for our call. We have need for them. They represent the wisdom of our race.

Stanley Kunitz, former U.S. Poet Laureate

George Bernard Shaw was born in Dublin, Ireland in 1856. He was the only son of a civil clerk, George Carr Shaw. His education was irregular, due to his family's poverty.

In 1884, Shaw joined the Fabian Society which was a group of intellectuals whose goal was the transition to a new competent society. He also edited "Fabian Essays in

Socialism" which was published by the group in 1889. Shaw wrote more than sixty plays, including major works such as Man and Superman (1903), Major Barbara (1905),

Pygmalion (1912) and Saint Joan (1923) which established him as a political dramatist and a leading socialist of the twentieth century. He describes his literary career: "Like

Shakespeare…. I was a born dramatis" (qtd in Drama from Ibsen to Brecht 285). In 1925,

Shaw was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature and an Oscar for his work in the film adapted of his play Pygmalion. He died in 1950 at the age of 94 while writing another play. Dasouki 64

Through many prefaces of Shaw's writings, his family background was shown. He experienced the conflicting relationships between his father and mother in childhood. He wrote of the family difficulties of his early life: ''I hate the Family… I loathe the Family. I entirely detest and abominate the Family as the quintessence of Tyranny, Sentimentality,

Inefficiency, Hypocrisy and Humbug'' (Sixteen Self Sketches 20). Shaw's mother, Lucinda

Elizabeth Gurly was careless and neglectful of her son. In the preface to London Music in

1888, he portrayed an unloving mother:

I should say she was the worst mother conceivable, always, however,

within the limits of the fact that she was incapable of unkindness to any

child, animal, or flower, or indeed to any person or thing whatsoever…We

children were abandoned entirely to servants who …were utterly unfit to

be trusted with the charge of three cats, much less three children. (40)

In his autobiographical essay, Sixteen Self Sketches, Shaw wrote when he discovered that his father was drunk, ''my father was a hypocrite and a dipsomaniac…it must have left its mark on me'' (30), so Shaw was not loved by his parents and they left him free. He also expressed his suspicion about his religious beliefs appearing a practical man especially when he presented Andrew Undershaft in his play Major Barbara as a model businessman whose religion was ''I am a Millionaire. That is my religion" (2.3, 12). Dasouki 65

George Bernard Shaw's use of mythology directs the reader to Carl Jung's use of the same in his psychoanalytic research into the self. His knowledge of the myths affects meaning which emerges in his drama through its interaction with psychology. Yet many critics believe that Shaw's drama does not have any psychological depth. However, some works reveal unexpected psychological sides in his personality. Pygmalion and Man and

Superman are direct evidence of the Jungian influence on Shaw.

Pygmalion is one of the most important English comedies of the twentieth century.

George Bernard Shaw's Pygmalion is named after the Greek myth of the sculptor who hates women, but falls in love with a statue of his creation. He prays to Aphrodite that his statue comes to life. His wish is fulfilled and he marries the statue which he names Galatea

(U.X.L Encyclopedia of World Mythology 904). There are similarities and differences between Shaw's Pygmalion and Ovid's myth of Pygmalion. Shaw's Pygmalion also tells the story of the Professor of phonetics, Henry Higgins who has Pygmalion's view of women, '' I find that the moment I let a woman make friends with me, she becomes jealous, exacting, suspicious, and a damned nuisance…Women upset everything'' (II.29). The sculptor creates a beautiful creature out of stone i.e. Galatea while Shaw's Pygmalion,

Professor Higgins takes a flower girl ''out of the gutter and make[s] a lady of [her]'' (II.26).

Pygmalion tells the story of Henry Higgins, a professor of phonetics who meets Eliza

Doolittle, a flower girl, by accident. After hearing her strange dialect, he states that he can Dasouki 66

change her into a lady. Eliza comes to the professor's house asking him to teach her how to speak properly like a lady. During six months, Eliza is taught the good manners of the upper class, so that Higgins wins his "bet" during the garden party where people think she is a noble lady. Higgins treats Eliza badly giving her orders and ignoring her wishes and that makes her rebel against him. She tells Higgins "I wouldn't marry YOU if you asked me" (Act V.79). She prefers Freddy Hill to be her husband because he loves her.

Pygmalion's sculpture is a symbol of the self that is embedded in the Greek mythology from a Jungian perspective. According to Jung, the self is an archetype of the collective unconscious which appears in myths, legends, dreams and fairytales in the figure of ''superordinate personality'' such as a king, hero, savior or in the form of wholeness such as the cross, square or circle (Fleming 14). Pygmalion's sculpture represents wholeness and perfection. For Jung, myths, symbols and archetypes are means of understanding the collective unconscious. Greek myths allow Shaw to convey meaning through retelling myths. There is an obvious difference between the original myth and Shaw's myth. Each of the myths presents a creator and a creation. Shaw speaks through Higgins who is introduced as a professor of phonetics.

Thus from a Jungian perspective, Pygmalion is the ''superordinate personality'' that has deep and complex influence within the human psyche i.e. the collective unconscious. Shaw uses Ovid's myth to convey his hidden meaning which proves the Dasouki 67

presence of the Jungian archetype of the self in his work. The connection between the sculptor who carves an ivory statue and consequently turns it into a beautiful human being and the professor who "take[s] a human being and change[s] her into a quite different human being by creating a new speech for her'' (III.54) is represented by both Ovid and

Shaw who reflect different eras and cultures. So both art and language create the universal self which is an archetype within humanity's collective unconscious.

In other words, Shaw may be unaware of Jung's theory of the collective unconscious, but his use of Ovid's myth represents the psychological state of having myths, dreams and fairytales affects everything humans do. Jung says "the whole of mythology could be taken as a sort of projection of the collective unconscious" (Collected

Works.vol.8. 325). According to Jung, the collective unconscious can be studied through mythology. Thus, Shaw's use of Ovid's myth in his play is important for many reasons. It reveals Shaw's understanding of Jung's collective unconscious regarding the fact that Shaw was the contemporary of Carl Jung. It also reflects the ancient Greek view of the ideal wife i.e. Pygmalion's sculpture is beautiful and voiceless (U.X.L Encyclopedia of World

Mythology 905).

Carol S. Pearson, a Jungian specialist, talks about archetypes in her book

Awakening the Heroes Within, Dasouki 68

We are aided in our journey by inner guides, or archetypes, each of which

exemplifies a way of being…. We see them reflected in recurring images

in art, literature, myth, and religion, and we know they are archetypal

because they are found everywhere, in all times and places….The

archetypal resources live in each one of us and can be activated,

developed, awakened, or called forth at various stages and ages of our

lives…When we are unaware of the archetypes, they "live us" instead of

our living them. By this I mean that when we are unaware our behavior is

driven by forces that we don't know we can control. As a result, our

reactions to stimuli are unconscious and immature (3-4).

She defines twelve types of the hero archetype such as the orphan, creator, lover, caregiver, innocent, warrior, seeker, destroyer, ruler, sage, magician and fool (35).

According to Pearson, these are characteristics of the hero yet they are archetypes by themselves because the hero can be creator, lover or fool. She distinguishes archetypal characters from their experiences and journeys. The caregiver is the one who is generous and helps others while the orphan is the one who is victimized and exploited by others (The

Hero Within 43). Shaw's Pygmalion has many archetypes such as the creator, the caregiver and the orphan. Dasouki 69

Professor Henry Higgins is the archetype of the Creator because he decides to take the flower girl "out of the gutter and …make a lady of [her]" (II.26). The creator is the hero who has the power and controls everything in the story. He treats Eliza as an object ignoring her feelings as a human being. In other words, he treats Eliza Doolittle as the sculptor treats his statue in Ovid's myth. He wants to change her personality, to pass her "as a duchess" not caring about her wishes or desires (1.16). Higgins plays the role of the professor of phonetics who changes the ignorant girl into an educated lady. His knowledge of language enables him to demonstrate the power of the creator through the play.

On the other hand, in Ovid's tale, Pygmalion creates an ivory statue which turns into a beautiful woman. In Shaw's Pygmalion , the linguist Henry Higgins changes the flower girl into a lady by teaching her how to speak good grammar whereas Ovid's

Pygmalion changes the statue into a beautiful woman by praying to the goddess of love.

Moreover, both tales use the archetype of the creator with the name of Pygmalion. The sculptor and the professor create beautiful women out of art and language. In addition, both stories reveal the Transformation archetype which expresses itself in many different images with the same core of meaning. Jung describes the Transformation archetype in

Symbols of Transformation when he presents the human figure as the "finest of all symbols" stating that this archetype "takes on human form, changing into a figure who passes from joy to sorrow, from sorrow to joy, and, like the sun, now stands high at the Dasouki 70

zenith and now is plunged into darkest night, only to rise again in new splendour" (171-

206) . Thus the Transformation archetype is represented through Eliza, a lower class girl, who is transformed into an upper class lady in Shaw's Pygmalion while the ivory statue is transformed into a beautiful woman in the original myth of Ovid.

Thus Shaw's use of Ovid's myth proves Jung's collective unconscious within the psyche of humans. Eliza like Galatea is transformed by Shaw's Pygmalion, Higgins, who is like the sculptor. Shaw states in his Preface To Pygmalion, "the change wrought by

Professor Higgins in the flower girl is neither impossible nor uncommon" (6). This quote reveals Shaw's belief in the collective unconscious and its archetypes. So Shaw is unaware of the collective unconscious within his mind, but it influences how he writes the play. He retells the myth changing Galatea into Eliza and the sculptor into the professor. Ovid's myth is Greek while Shaw's Pygmalion is English, which proves Jung's theory that the archetypes of the collective unconscious are universal. This supports Jung's theory i.e. understanding mythology is a useful method of understanding literature.

Eliza Doolittle represents the archetype of the "Orphan" in the play, "Orphans seek safety and fear exploitation and abandonment" (The Hero Within 44). She is a poor girl who sells flowers to live, but she refuses to be humiliated, "I won't be called a baggage when I've offered to pay like any lady" (Act 2.21). Pearson suggests in The Hero Within that the female moves from the Orphan stage through the Warrior and Martyr stages when Dasouki 71

she tries to get independence, "A career woman who strives to be independent early in life may work on warrioring and martyring simultaneously" (47). Thus Eliza quests to regain safety throughout the play like the Warrior yet she suffers and struggles like the Martyr, but she can "take a stand and can make changes" (51). She is treated badly because of her appearance as a flower girl. When she is transformed into a lady, she is respected and admired even by Higgins. "Inventing new Elizas" is what Higgins cares for ignoring her feelings and whims. Yet Eliza rebels against her Creator, refusing to be just a "bet" he has won (Act 3.59). The "Orphan" regains power at the end when she discovers that "the difference between a lady and a flower girl is not how she behaves, but how she's treated"

(Act 5.73). She defies Higgins the Creator who calls her "this thing" and she becomes independent deciding to marry Freddy Hill who loves her.

Eliza may represent the archetype of the persona in the play. For Jung, the persona is the outward appearance that one creates and as a result the person loses contact with one's real self (Fleming 11). Eliza's entering the world of the upper class makes her feel split i.e. she is lost between two different worlds: the world of the upper class and the world of the lower class. When Henry states in the beginning of Act 1 "You see this creature with her kerbstone English: the English that will keep her in the gutter to the end of her days" (Act 1.16). Eliza decides to change her appearance, personality and speech in order to appear as a lady. As a result, she is torn between what she was in the past i.e. a flower girl and what she is now i.e. a lady. Eliza believes that becoming a lady is like Dasouki 72

acquiring a foreign language for her when she tells Higgins that "I am a child in your country. I have forgotten my own language, and can speak nothing but yours" (Act 5.74).

Eliza also confronts the fall from Eden when she changes from the Innocent to the Orphan as postulated by Pearson in The Hero Within, that "Innocents become Orphans when they discover" reality. In other words, "Feeling like the Orphan after the Fall" forces Eliza to cope with a hostile world of powerlessness and abandonment (65).

Eliza suffers from many complex psychological conflicts within her psyche. She is driven to Higgins' house by uncontrollable desire to search for another identity in the world

(The Hero Within 112). The conflict between her everyday identity as a flower girl and the desired identity as a lady troubles her thoughts making her aware of "the other" in her personality. When she confronts her teacher admitting that she cannot "go back to the gutter" i.e. her old identity as a flower girl, Eliza refuses to act as a lower class girl and at the same time she cannot believe that she is now an upper class lady, "your duchess is only a flower girl that you taught" (Act 5.82).

Thus the main difference between Ovid and Shaw is when Eliza chooses her destiny refusing to marry "her Pygmalion" (Act 5.86). Eliza the Orphan marries Freddy because she "knows that Higgins does not need her, just as her father did not need her"

(Act 5.96). Shaw states at the end of his play, "Galatea never does quite like Pygmalion: his relation to her is too godlike to be altogether agreeable" (Act 5.96). Dasouki 73

Freddy Hill embodies the Lover archetype in Pygmalion. This archetype reveals emotion, passion and desire. Through the play, Freddy is attracted to Eliza's appearance and personality. He is an example of the emotional and romantic lover who sacrifices everything to get his love . To marry Freddy or Higgins becomes the question that disturbs

Eliza's mind. Eliza rebels against the past and tries to center upon a future which is not real. Eliza's failure to cope with her new identity is because she cannot forget the old one i.e. the corner of Tottenham Court Road where she sold flowers. Eliza differentiates between the flower girl and the lady, between the past and the present or between the lower class and the upper class. Eliza chooses to marry Freddy not because she loves him, but as

Shaw puts it at the end of the play: "Will she look forward to a lifetime of fetching

Higgins's slippers or to a lifetime of Freddy fetching hers?" (Act 5.87). Thus Eliza finds safety and harmony in marrying Freddy Hill.

Colonel Pickering is the archetype of the "Caregiver" standing for the kind and generous person who helps others without return. He offers to pay Higgins for Eliza's lessons. Moreover, he sometimes addresses Eliza as a daughter calling her "my girl" (Act

2.21). He also defends Eliza when Higgins treats her cruelly and Eliza tells him "I owe so much to you…It's not because you paid for my dresses. I know you are generous to everybody with money. But it was from you that I learnt really nice manners; and that is what makes one a lady" (Act 5.72). Moreover, Colonel Pickering exemplifies the Jungian Dasouki 74

concept of the "wise old man" archetype who "personifies the spirit in myth and folklore" and provides spiritual guidance and moral wisdom for the young hero i.e. Eliza (Aion 229).

Alfred Doolittle, the father of Eliza, represents the archetype of the Terrible Father.

In contrast to Colonel Pickering, the Good Father, Alfred Doolittle mirrors the image of the heartless father who abandons his daughter. Eliza's relationship with her father is cold and there is no emotional bond between them. The life of the father is enhanced in the end by the collapse of the society's order. He is transformed to the upper class after he was a lower class citizen. So his transformation from the lower class to the upper class is part of the collective unconscious i.e. part of the archetypal pattern of the human race because for

Jung the archetypes are the contents of the collective unconscious (Jacobi 39).

Mrs. Higgins, the mother of Henry Higgins, represents the mother archetype in the play. For Eliza, she is the "mother-rival" described by Shaw in the last act. Higgins seems to "idealize his mother instead of Eliza" (Act V.85). Mrs. Higgins may represent the mother archetype who loves her son, but at the same time she is kind to Eliza and treats her in a good way when Higgins humiliates her. Mrs. Higgins can also be a portrait of the mother image Shaw has in his mind because Shaw's mother was careless and harsh and she never cared about him as he mentions in Sixteen Life Sketches.

Joseph Henderson writes in Man and His Symbols, "usually , in mythology, the hero wins his battle against the monster" (117). This means the battle between good and Dasouki 75

evil usually ends with the victory of good over evil. Within the collective unconscious of humans, good always wins over evil, so when reading about an evil character in any work of art, the reader expects the end to be their death or downfall. In Shaw's Pygmalion,

Higgins represents the monster who treats Eliza, the hero, as a slave, but in the end he is defeated by Eliza's rebellion, "I won't be passed over" (Act 5.77). She breaks free from

"the monster" telling him, "I'll let you see whether I'm dependent on you. If you can preach, I can teach. I'll go and be a teacher" (Act 5.82). This confrontation between Eliza and Higgins is an example of the archetype of overcoming the monster by the hero (Man and His Symbols 117).

Shaw also uses symbolism to convey hidden meanings to the reader. The flower is a symbol of youth, hope and vitality. Eliza is called the flower girl at the beginning of the play. She sells flowers to people i.e. she provides hope and vitality to other people although she is humiliated by them. Moreover, the garden is another symbol in the play.

According to Jung, the garden is the archetype of paradise within the collective unconscious, "the garden of paradise" (Psychology of the Unconscious 375). Higgins bets that he will "pass [Eliza] off as a duchess in six months" during the "garden party" (Act

3.44). So the garden represents paradise because without Eliza's transformation from a flower girl to a duchess, she cannot enter the paradise. In other words, the garden represents the upper class which is paradise for Eliza. Dasouki 76

Throughout Pygmalion, many archetypes are represented in a way that connects

Shaw's story to Ovid's myth. This supports Jung's theory because old myths are still alive in the collective unconscious of mankind. The Pygmalion myth affects Shaw so that he relates the professor to the sculptor so that they look the same although they come from different cultures and countries. Both the professor and the sculptor create their women and as a result the women are supposed to satisfy the creators' wishes. Galatea in Ovid's

Pygmalion is at the whim of her creator, but Shaw's Eliza rebels against the professor refusing to obey his orders. Society has placed Eliza at the mercy of an upper class gentleman because her value is attached to her class. In other words, Eliza is a heroine because she becomes a lady and gains power over her teacher.

Throughout the play, it is perhaps that because of the collective unconscious, Shaw uses mythology to give the readers a clear picture of his view. He portrays the professor in a very mythological way; a god-like man who creates a wonderful woman and expects her to obey him. Yet Shaw presents a different image of the woman showing the independence and freedom in her. Eliza's personality is revealed in contrast to that of Galatea. Shaw demonstrates Eliza's conflict between her past as a flower girl and her present as a lady through the "Orphan archetype". Moreover, the archetypes in the play such as the

"orphan", "creator", "caregiver", "persona" and "self are the contents of the collective unconscious (Jacobi 35). Dasouki 77

Joan Relke defines myths in his essay, "The Archetypal Female in Mythology and Religion: The Anima and the Mother" as "the dreams of cultures". He states that myths "are open to interpretation and can have personal meaning or convey archetypal truths about human nature" ( 2). Shaw 's Pygmalion may be interpreted in two ways i.e. the play can be understood as personal view of the English language and its dialects especially when in his Preface, Shaw attacks the English for having "no respect for their language".

He states that "English is not accessible even to Englishmen", so England needs “an energetic phonetic enthusiast" and he makes Henry Higgins "the hero of a popular play"

(Preface 3). The use of mythology in the play especially when Shaw names his hero after

Ovid's Pygmalion makes the reader understand the play in a Jungian way. But of prime importance is the use of the archetypes and symbols which reveals Shaw's collective unconscious especially when he connects Eliza with Galatea and Higgins with the sculptor.

On the other hand, Man and Superman, subtitled "A Comedy and A Philosophy", is one of the most complex plays which deals with Shaw's philosophical personality in a comic way. The play consists of four acts, but the third act, "Don Juan in Hell" is the most important of them because it is often staged as a separate play. The dream makes Act three appear as a different play so that it forms a play within a play. The action of the play is conceived in two different structures. In other words, Act one and act two reveal a comic love story between Octavius Robinson and Ann Whitefield. The third act is mythological Dasouki 78

and presents a dream which takes place in hell. The last act goes back to the romantic comedy which ends with two marriages.

Man and Superman is about Ann Whitefield and John Tanner who are the main characters. According to the will of her deceased father, Ann has two guardians: Tanner and Ramsden. Shaw portrays Ann and Tanner in a very comic way: the woman pursues the man whose flight is in vain. Another love story is between Violet Robinson, Octavius's sister and Hector Malone, a wealthy American who refuses to obey his father's wish i.e. to marry a girl of the upper class. Tanner travels to Europe, but he is captured by Mendoza and his group. He has a dream in which he is the mythological Don Juan and he is sent to hell. In hell, Don Juan meets three characters: his beloved Dona Ana de Uloa who is Ann

Whitefield, the Statue who is Roebuck Ramsden and the Devil who is Mendoza. They have a long philosophical conversation over many universal issues such as marriage, life, death women's roles and love. Don Juan decides to leave hell to continue his work in the world.

Tanner wakes up and finds that Ann has found him. In the final act, Ann manages to marry

Tanner while Violet reveals her secret marriage to Hector.

John Tanner is characterized after the Don Juan myth and he appears to be Shaw's mouthpiece in the play. Don Juan is a famous lover and seducer who kills the Commander,

Donna Ana's father, after discovering his relationship with his daughter. When Don Juan passes by the tomb of the dead Commander, the statue on the tomb warns him that he will Dasouki 79

be punished for his sins. Don Juan jokingly invites the statue to have dinner with him. The statue comes to Don Juan's house at night and when he shakes his hand, a fiery pit opens and the statue drags Don Juan to hell (Preface 7).

John Tanner represents the archetype of the hero who is the protagonist in the play.

Shaw calls Man and Superman a "Don Juan play" (Preface 3). This reveals the Don Juan myth which Shaw uses as a method to write his play. Yet Shaw's Don Juan has neither adventures nor relations with women unlike the myth. Shaw defines Don Juan as "a man who …follows his own instincts without regard to the common statute, or canon law"

(Preface 6). The difference between Don Juan the myth and Shaw 's Don Juan is that he "is no longer, like Don Juan, victor in the duel of sex" (preface 9). Shaw states that "my Don

Juan is the quarry instead of the huntsman" (Preface 13).

Tanner flees from Ann's trap to Europe, but he is captured by Mendoza and his gang who want money. The same dream which Tanner and Mendoza see is part of the collective unconscious. Tanner represents Don Juan, the Spanish nobleman while Mendoza is the Devil in the dream. They meet in hell with the Old Woman who represents Ann and the Statue who represents Roebuck Ramsden. The four characters have a long argument in hell where "the Devil is the leader" (Act III. 106). Shaw gives a depiction of hell that is

"the home of honor, duty, justice, and the rest of the seven deadly virtues (Act III.107) while heaven is "the most angelically dull place in all creation" (Act III. 115). For Jung, Dasouki 80

heaven is the place of light i.e. the sky while hell is the place of darkness. Thus Shaw's contradictory depiction of heaven and hell may be his conscious reaction to Jung's theory of the collective unconscious. Tanner talks about women's chase of men and their instinctive nature, but he also supports Violet who marries secretly and the father of her expected child is unknown, so he seems to reflect the Shavian psyche through defending women’s rights.

The Devil, "very Mephistophelean, and not at all unlike Mendoza", is characterized after Mendoza, the leader of the brigands. He calls hell his" kingdom" (Act III.114). The

Devil is an active character who participates in the conversation and gives his own opinion.

According to the Devil, "man measures his strength by his destructiveness. What is his religion? An excuse for hating me. What is his law? An excuse for hanging you." (Act

III.120). Shaw sends his message through the Devil which is a message against religion and politics. The Devil is also part of the collective unconscious and it represents the archetype of evil, but Shaw's portrayal of the Devil is different because he appears as a wise philosopher who gives advice to other people. Again Shaw is conscious of his writings because he gives the reader an opposite image of reality. He portrays his characters in relation to the Don Juan myth so that Tanner becomes Don Juan, Ann becomes Ana, Mendoza the Devil and Ramsden the Statue. Dasouki 81

Mendoza also echoes Robin Hood, the legendary bandit of England who steals from the rich to help the poor. Furthermore, Robin Hood's life in the forest with his fellow outlaws seems like Mendoza's. Mendoza says, "I am a brigand: I live by robbing the rich."

(Act III. 96). He captures both Tanner and Straker, his driver while they are on the way to

Europe. He sees the same dream as Tanner while sleeping and he appears as a wise devil.

Shaw portrays Mendoza as the Devil in the dream where he argues with the Don Juan over

"the Life Force" and warns him of "the pursuit of the Superhuman" because "it leads to an indiscriminate contempt for the Human." (Act III.143). Thus Mendoza is a representation of the devil figure designated by Jung as the Shadow archetype which is often represented in dreams.

Shaw exhibits a clear fascination towards the concept of a Superman. This concept was first introduced by Nietzsche. In his essay, "Eugenics and the Superman: A Racial

Science, and A Racial Religion", Maximilian A. Mugge defines this concept:

The Superman is a hero and a genius, uniting in himself all the partial

excellences of former heroes, combining in himself all the scattered units

of that archetype that has ever been vaguely discerned in the different

objects of man's hero-worship. He is the accumulated condensed virtue of

all ages and nations. (185). Dasouki 82

Mugge believes that the Superman is a "symbol" for "the spiritual need of future mankind"

(190). Moreover, Mugge suggests that the Superman can be an archetype of the collective unconscious, "Man will unite within himself these partial excellences, these scattered units of that archetype-the Superman. (192).

Shaw wants to create a better world through the creation of great men such as

Nietzsche who “raked up the Superman" (Act III.143). His dream of the Superman is an inherited idea that "was ever present with men" (Mugge187). Thus the creation of a world of supermen needs the mythological marriage between the Mother Goddess and the hero i.e. the combination of the intellectual force of man and the instinctive force of woman to create the Superman. Shaw describes the intellectual force of man and the instinct of woman, "what is true of the great man who incarnates the philosophic consciousness of

Life and the woman who incarnates its fecundity, is true in some degree of all geniuses and all women." (Preface 15). In The Cambridge Companion To George Bernard Shaw, Sally

Peters writes, "Shaw explores the intersection of male artistic creation and female self- creation" (7). She means the connection between the intellectual abilities of man and the instinctive knowledge of woman.

Ann Whitefield reflects the archetype of the Great Mother who plays a vital role in dominating and seducing the other characters. The Great Mother is an archetype of feminine mystery and power and Ann appears as a powerful woman who controls men. Dasouki 83

Shaw admits that Ann is the Great Mother or the Mother Goddess who determines the fate of men. Moreover, Shaw calls Ann "Everywoman" which gives her universality

(Preface22). Sally Peters Vogt in her essay, "Ann and Superman: Type and Archetype" identifies the play's characters in the dream with their mythological prototypes i.e. Tanner

/hero, Ann/ goddess, Mendoza/ Devil, Ramsden/ Holdfast. Vogt suggests that Ann plays a number of roles, those of daughter, sister, virgin, temptress, bride, mother. In other words,

Ann becomes "Queen Goddess of the World" (Vogt 114).

Moreover, Vogt notices that Ann is described as a snake in the play and she connects the snake with Eve (Vogt 115). Jung describes the snake in Psychology of the

Unconscious:

The snake in Paradise is usually considered as feminine, as the seductive

principle in woman, and is represented as feminine by the old

artists…Through a similar change of meaning the snake in antiquity

becomes the symbol of the earth, which on its side is always considered

feminine. (172).

Tanner compares Ann to the lioness, the cat and the queen bee. Vogt suggests that the lioness is a symbol of the Great Mother while the queen bee symbolizes the

Mother Goddess and the Virgin Mary (114). Marie Von Franz points out that "Greek mythology is full of animal symbolism…the cat is sacred to the goddess Freya" ( 235). So Dasouki 84

Ann is both a woman and a goddess and Tanner's flight from her is similar to the earlier rejection of the goddess by the hero i.e. when Ishtar offers to marry Gilgamesh, he rejects her, insulting the goddess ( U.X.L Encyclopedia of World Mythology 480). Like

Gilgamesh, Tanner descends into hell, but Vogt sees this journey as Tanner's " descent into his unconscious" (Vogt 118).

Tanner's mythic journey into hell parallels the underground journeys of Gilgamesh. He undertakes this spiritual journey during his sleep and when he wakes up he is united in a sacred marriage with the Mother Goddess i.e. Ann:

RAMSDEN. When you say Ann, you mean, I presume, Miss

Whitefield.

TANNER. I mean our Ann, your Ann, Tavy's Ann, and now,

Heaven help me, my Ann!(Act I.36).

Ann's marriage to Tanner is a triumph for the maternal archetype that she represents. The marriage between the Mother Goddess and the Don Juan becomes a

"mystical marriage" (Vogt 122). Thus the Superman can evolve through the union with

Tanner,

ANA. That is not what I stopped you for. Tell me where can I find the

Superman? Dasouki 85

THE DEVIL. He is not yet created, Senora.

…………………………………………….

ANA. Not yet created ! Then my work is not yet done… I believe in the

Life to Come. [Crying to the universe] A father _a father for the

Superman! (Act III.144).

Tanner describes this marriage as a "trap" that is forced upon him by Ann,

TANNER. The will is yours then ! The trap was laid from the beginning.

ANN.[concentrating all her magic] From the beginning from our

childhood__ for both of us__ by the Life Force. (Act IV.174).

This marriage is the result of Tanner's journey into hell. Jung states in Man and His

Symbols that man "produces symbols unconsciously and spontaneously, in the form of dreams" (21). Thus Tanner's journey is a symbolic quest for the "Life Force". Ann represents the "Life Force" that makes Tanner marry her. In the dream, Ann, the Mother

Goddess decides to return to earth and marry Tanner in order to complete her duty in life i.e. to be a mother and give birth to children so that the Superman is created. Shaw describes women's desire for maternity, "Woman must marry because the race must perish without her travail" (Preface 14). This desire for maternity and pregnancy is within the collective unconscious of women. In other words, it is the force that carries women Dasouki 86

through "the risk of death and the certainty of pain, danger and unutterable discomforts"

(Preface 15).

Moreover, Ann and Tanner reveal Shaw's psyche i.e. Tanner represents the intellectual side of Shaw while Ann represents the feminine sexual side in him. This suggests that Shaw is a union of intellect and sex. (Hart 16). Ann and Tanner represent the anima vs. the animus archetype. Ann represents the anima within Tanner and he represents the animus in her psyche. They appear to complement each other.

Roebuck Ramsden corresponds to the archetype of the "Caregiver" who treats Ann with compassion and generosity. He wants her to marry a good man not a Don Juan so he tries to convince her that Tanner is a careless seducer who is not a suitable husband.

Moreover, Ramsden represents the Statue, Ana's father, in the dream scene. Shaw describes him as "a living statue of white marble, designed to represent a majestic old man…His voice… is so like the voice of Roebuck Ramsden"(Act III.111). The Statue appears to hate heaven and wants to change his position because "A number of people sit there in glory, not because they are happy, but because they think they owe it to their position to be in heaven." (Act III.116). Ramsden is also the archetype of transformation because he is transformed to the Statue i.e. he is transformed from life (Ramsden) into death ( Ana's father who is killed by the Spanish Don Juan in a duel). Dasouki 87

Heaven and Hell are archetypes within the collective unconscious of mankind.

Heaven represents the place of virtue and light while hell is the place of sin and darkness.

Shaw depicts heaven as the epitome of hypocrisy and corruption while hell is "the only refuge from heaven" (Act III.118). Yet Shaw's depiction of heaven and hell remains a conscious reaction against religion. For Shaw, heaven may symbolize Christianity and the people of heaven are turned to marble statues such as Ana's father. Moreover, the Statue tells Ana that he is hypocrite like people in heaven, "I was hypocrite; and it served me right to be sent to heaven" (Act III. 114).

On the other hand, hell is described by Shaw as "the home…of the seekers for happiness" (Act III.118).Shaw presents the opposition between heaven and hell through the

Statue and the Don Juan who tell the difference between the two entities. Shaw attacks

Christianity and praises pagan people. He turns the unconscious into conscious when he reverses the roles of the two archetypes: heaven and hell. Instead of portraying hell as the archetypal pit of fire and darkness , Shaw depicts hell as "a pit of philosophers" (Preface

22).

According to Jung, "The Journey" is one of the situation archetypes which connects the present with the past in order to find meaning in life. Tanner is transported to a psychological hell to gain a deeper philosophy of life through the spiritual journey which is, according to Jung's theory, a manifestation of the underlying human psychology. The Dasouki 88

hero's journey is a mental adventure through an unknown world where he finds supernatural things. This kind of journey is part of the collective unconscious and Shaw's use of mythology i.e. the Don Juan is clear evidence of Jung's influence in this play.

The dream scene is the most important of the play. Jung writes in his book,

Psychology of the Unconscious about the importance of dreams stating that "dreams are symbolic in order that they cannot be understood; in order that the wish, which is the source of the dream, may remain unknown" (75). The dream is a Jungian method which expresses the collective unconscious of man. Shaw's characters embody archetypes from the collective unconscious and they appear in the dream. Jung considers that dreams may be drawn from the individual unconscious and from the collective unconscious. In other words, dreams are produced by the individual experience and the racial experience. Jung identifies dream images which come from the collective unconscious not from the person's personal unconscious (Lu 10).

Tanner's dream turns him to the past where he is the Spanish Don Juan. So his dream comes from the collective unconscious not from a personal experience. Shaw's use of myths, legends and dreams in Pygmalion and Man and Superman proves Jung's assumption that mythology exists within the collective unconscious of mankind. Wilfred

Guerin describes the importance of myths in highlighting the collective unconscious of mankind: Dasouki 89

…the study of myths reveals about the mind and character of a

people. And just as dreams reflect the unconscious desires and

anxieties of the individual, so myths are the symbolic projections

of a people's hopes, values, fears, and aspirations….Myths are by

nature collective and communal; they bind a tribe or a nation

together in common psychological and spiritual activities. (183-4).

Shaw also uses symbolism in Man and Superman which is a clear proof of the collective unconscious. The dream is a symbol of the hero's journey to hell. Moreover, number four symbolizes the four characters who appear in the dream scene i.e. Ana, Don

Juan, The Statue and The Devil. Jung in his study of mythology and religion discovered that the number four is associated with wholeness of the individual. He states that in The

Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious: "Between the three and the four there exists the primary opposition of male and female, but whereas fourness is a symbol of wholeness, threeness is not" (234).

In other words, the four characters in the dream represent the "symbol of wholeness" which Jung talks about. They complete each other i.e. they ask and give answers to universal questions. So these four characters may represent Jung's concept of wholeness. Shaw uses marriage as a symbol of the creation of the Superman i.e. the creation of great men. Jung in his essay "Marriage as a Psychological Relationship", Dasouki 90

regards marriage as part of the collective unconscious, not personal unconscious. He describes marriage as a similar relationship between men and women :

Seldom or never does a marriage develop into an individual relationship

smoothly and without crises. There is no birth of consciousness

without pain…First it was passion, then it became duty, and finally an

intolerable burden, a vampire that battens on the life of its creator

(Collected Works.vol.17. 331 ).

Jung assumes that marriage is a universal concept which is part of the collective unconscious. Passion and desire change into duty in marriage. Shaw also talks about marriage as man's duty "to produce something better than the single-sexed process can produce" (Act III. 124). Shaw is against marriage in which the woman's role is just a chaser of a husband to supply her financially. Tanner reflects Shaw's mind in the play and through him Shaw reveals his hidden meaning i.e. Shaw's mother archetype is presented as a wife, mother, independent and free woman who can give birth to the Superman. In other words, Shaw dramatizes the good characteristics that make a woman worthy to be a mother of the Superman who may be Shaw himself. The mother that Shaw really needs does not exist except in his plays.

Another symbol is the mountain which represents aspiration, meditation and spiritual elevation. Jung talks about the mountain in The Collected Works: "The mountain Dasouki 91

stands for the goal of the pilgrimage and ascent, hence it often has the psychological meaning of the Self" (97).Shaw uses the mountain in the third act i.e. the dream scene when the setting changes into a more mystical place: "olive trees instead of apple trees….No wild nature here: rather a most aristocratic mountain landscape made by a fastidious artist-creator." (Act III.90).

The Devil may represent the archetype of the Shadow which is the opposite figure of the Hero. Guerin mentions this archetype in A Handbook of Critical Approaches:" The most common variant of this archetype, when projected, is the Devil, who in Jung's words, represents "the dangerous aspect of the unrecognized dark half of the personality" (200).

The Good Mother is the female image which is fertile, nurturing and protective.

Jung assumes that the term "mother archetype" comes from ancient women who have become symbols of femininity within religion such as Virgin Mary and figures in mythology such as the goddesses of Venus, Aphrodite and Artemis. The Good Mother is related to symbols which represent nature, birth and fertility such as gardens, trees, flowers and animals. Moreover, the Good Mother dominates and seduces others. Ann Whitefield represents the Good Mother in the play. She is the powerful female who dominates Tanner and other males. Shaw mentions in his Preface that the female controls the male, "Don

Juan had changed his sex and become Dona Juana" (8). Moreover, Octavius, Ann's lover, describes her as an eternal female or as Eve after the Fall from Paradise: Dasouki 92

To Octavius she is an enchantingly beautiful woman, in whose presence

the world becomes transfigured, and the puny limits of individual

consciousness are suddenly made infinite by a mystic memory of the

whole life of the race to its beginnings in the east, or even back to the

paradise from which it fell (Act I.41).

Tanner also talks about the Mother archetype describing woman's relation to the intellectual man as "treacherous and remorseless" (Act I.48). Jung also points out that the

Mother archetype has both positive and negative sides. This negative side shows itself through symbols such as death, danger and sensuality. Ann also represents the negative side of the Good Mother which is called by Jung the Terrible Mother. This negative side is described by Tanner, "that's the devilish side of a woman's fascination: she makes you will your own destruction." (ActI.47). Tanner also calls Ann names such as "Lady

Mephistopheles" which reveals the evil spirit in the Good Mother. (Act I. 56).The Good

Mother is associated with the "Life Force" while the Terrible Mother is associated with the" Death Force".

Both Pygmalion and Man and Superman are connected through mythology and

Jungian psychology. Eliza Doolittle refuses to marry her creator and chooses her lover

Freddy as a husband while Ann refuses to marry her lover and chooses Tanner the Don

Juan as a husband. So both Eliza Doolittle and Ann Whitefield represent the powerful Dasouki 93

female or the Mother archetype. Moreover, Higgins-Eliza and Tanner-Ann represent the anima vs. the animus archetype. So the use of many archetypes through the plays reveals

Jung's impact on Shaw. His characters prove Jung's collective unconscious especially in the dream scene.

Dasouki 94

Conclusion

Whether they are moved simply by Jung's collective unconscious or by its archetypes, O'Neill and Shaw reveal psychological tendencies in their dramas. Undeniably,

Jung's influence on O'Neill as well as on Shaw is deep and complex. Characters are dominated by universal and timeless archetypes that drive them from within and influence their actions and reactions such as passion, death, evil and birth. The twentieth century witnesses a shift from Freudian to Jungian psychology i.e. from Complexes to archetypes that govern the human psyche. The reader encounters the symbolic manifestation of these archetypes through mythology and literature. Jung's theory of the collective unconscious influences man's experiences and behaviors, but it can only be known through studying those influences. There are many effects that reveal the influence of the collective unconscious on humanity such as certain symbols, dreams, fairytales, legends and myths.

Jung considers the Greek gods and goddesses as archetypal figures that can represent symbols. Jung also believes that the archetypal dreams involve spiritual journeys in which the hero discovers new things in life. As described and exemplified throughout this thesis, the characters' roles in Desire Under the Elms, Mourning Becomes Electra,

Pygmalion and Man and Superman fit the archetypal and mythic tradition which is based Dasouki 95

on the Jungian collective unconscious of mankind. The heavy use of mythology in the four plays in question, either admitted by the dramatists or recognized by the readers, invites the archetypal analysis of the characters.

The mother archetype is used by both O'Neill and Shaw and it represents man's need for maternal love. The mother archetype is symbolized by religion i.e. Eve or Virgin

Mary or by mythology such as the earth mother. Humans all over the world shape positive and negative images about the Mother. In other words, the Great Mother and the Terrible

Mother, depicted in myth, religion, legend and literature, are obvious images in Jung's archetypal world. Both O'Neill and Shaw were deprived of motherly love, which is reflected through the mother archetype in their plays. Their psychological quest for a mother figure is implicit in the four plays in question.

The elms are a symbol of the mother archetype in Desire Under the Elms where the elm trees stand for Eben's dead mother whose spirit hovers over the Cabot farm. Marie

Brantome also represents the maternal archetype whose dead spirit influences the Mannon house in Mourning Becomes Electra. Moreover, Shaw represents the mother archetype in his plays. Ann plays the role of the eternal female in Man and Superman. She is the mother archetype in her quest for a husband to create the Superman. In Pygmalion, Mrs.

Higgins is the mother archetype who represents the ideal mother for her son. The tree which stands for maternal significance is a common symbol between O'Neill and Shaw. Dasouki 96

O'Neill talks of the elm trees as the mother archetype while Shaw changes the setting from the apple trees to the olive trees, which makes the setting more sacred and holy.

The anima /animus is a common archetype between O'Neill and Shaw. Jung believes that humans are all bisexual in nature. The anima is the female aspect in the collective unconscious of men while the animus is the male aspect in the collective unconscious of women. Eben and Abbie represent the anima and the animus in Desire

Under the Elms while Ann is Tanner's anima and she is his animus in Man and

Superman. Eliza-Higgins also reveals the anima-animus archetype in Pygmalion.

The hero archetype is used by both O'Neill and Shaw. Eben in Desire Under the

Elms searches for a mother figure through his relationship with Abbie while Tanner in

Man and Superman finds in Ann the Mother Goddess who dominates others. In

Mourning Becomes Electra, Orin Mannon sees Christine as the Mother Goddess whom he loves and worships. Shaw in Pygmalion uses Eliza as an archetypal image for Galatea who symbolizes the mother image for the sculptor Pygmalion who creates her out of ivory and worships her beauty. Thus the hero's search for a maternal goddess is portrayed through the four plays respectively.

The reader can discern two archetypal motifs: the quest motif and the sacrificial- scapegoat motif. In the quest motif, Tanner, as the hero, undertakes a journey during which he encounters the Devil, a supernatural figure with the body of Mendoza; by defying him, Dasouki 97

he leaves hell and marries Ann in order to create the superman. In the sacrificial motif,

Orin, as a sacrificial figure, is haunted by his long and difficult journey of the soul. His sacrifice is not performed literally but is acted out symbolically on stage. Thus the reader can feel the mythic content responding to the archetypes in the four plays.

Both O'Neill and Shaw model their plays on ancient Greek myths. The use of mythology to highlight hidden meanings and psychological conflicts is evident in the four plays. Shaw's use of the Pygmalion myth and the Don Juan myth in Pygmalion and Man and Superman reflects his collective unconscious. In Pygmalion, he explores the relationship between the Creator (Higgins) and the Creation (Eliza) while in Man and

Superman, Shaw's Don Juan flees from Ann, the Mother Goddess rejecting her love like

Gilgamesh who rejects Ishtar, but in the end he surrenders and they get married in order to create the Superman. On the other hand, O'Neill uses myths to prove Jung's theory that humans have inherited their experiences, sins and actions from the ancient ancestors. The

Oresteia shapes the fate of the Mannon house which resembles the sins of the Atreus house. The Hippolytus myth reflects Eben's relationship with his step-mother and the

Medea myth parallels Abbie's infanticide. In other words, mythology plays an important role in the four plays respectively. This role is clearly shown in Jung's collective unconscious and its archetypes. Dasouki 98

Both O'Neill and Shaw use symbolism in their plays that reveals their philosophical visions of the human personality. Shaw's use of the "Life Force" symbolizes a power beyond human control in Man and Superman that forces Tanner to marry Ann. The same power is presented in Desire Under the Elms in the name of "Nature" when Abbie says that "Nature'll beat ye, Eben", she means this power that controls man's life and determines his fate. The difference between O'Neill and Shaw regarding this power is that for O'Neill

,"Nature" destroys man while the "Life Force" in Shaw's plays creates a race of Supermen and improves society.

Another difference between O'Neill and Shaw is related to the use of comedy and tragedy in the four plays in question. O'Neill's Desire Under the Elms and Mourning

Becomes Electra are tragic plays concerning the downfall of tragic heroes. O'Neill's pessimism gives a gloomy picture of the American society. O'Neillian tragic characters either die or live in a psychological dilemma for the rest of their lives. O'Neill's philosophy is a tragic discovery of the human psychology. He is influenced by the collective unconscious to the extent that his characters stand useless in front of the hereditary situations of the past surrendering their fate and blaming the ancestors for their sins. Unlike

O'Neill, Shaw's philosophy presents the creative evolution through the marriage between the intellectual man and the instinctive woman which leads to the birth of the Superman. Dasouki 99

In other words, the Shavian philosophy is directed towards the creation of a better society and consequently a better race. Thus the collective unconscious is a medium which offers many possibilities of expression. Both O'Neill and Shaw's interest is in man's inner and outer struggle i.e. the internal conflict within the human mind and the external conflict with society. Shaw's Pygmalion and Man and Superman are comedies, but they reveal the collective unconscious through mythology and archetypes.

Jung's theory of the collective unconscious is incorporated within O'Neill's and

Shaw's plays. Yet it has profound effects on O'Neill more than on Shaw. It is apparent that

O'Neill is much influenced by Jung in most of his dramas, but Shaw also uses the Jungian theory to point out that mythology can affect mankind, but man also can change his fate and get freedom and independence from the ancestors. Shaw's retelling of the Pygmalion myth and the Don Juan myth proves that he is less influenced by Jung. Shaw's Eliza does not fall in love with her Pygmalion, but she achieves independence after revolting against him. Moreover, Shaw believes that the Don Juan myth also reverses the roles of man and woman i.e. Shaw's Don Juan becomes Dona Juana which means that Ann chases and seduces Tanner so that he marries her. The same instinct that tells Eliza not to marry

Higgins makes Ann chase Tanner and marry him. Eliza exceeds the role of Galatea in the myth and becomes an independent woman by choosing her husband freely. Ann also plays the role of the seducer instead of Tanner. Dasouki 100

Thus Jung's theory of the collective unconscious has proved that individuals are subject to their ancestors' actions and sins. The four plays in question use dreams and mythic texts which prove that archetypes are active in our conscious lives. The unconscious use of archetypes in Shaw's plays reflects Jung's indirect impact on him while

O'Neill's conscious use of archetypes makes him a Jungian dramatist. Although O'Neill and Shaw belong to different worlds, countries and cultures, they are influenced by the collective unconscious which testifies to the validity of the Jungian theory. This proves that the Jungian theory can be applicable to all works of art regardless of time, place, culture or nationality.

Dasouki 101

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