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A European Culture War in the Twentieth Century? Antic-Catholicism and Anti-Bolshevism Between Moscow, Berlin, and the Vatican 1922 to 1933 Weir, T

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A European Culture War in the Twentieth Century? Antic-Catholicism and Anti-Bolshevism Between Moscow, Berlin, and the Vatican 1922 to 1933 Weir, T A European Culture War in the Twentieth Century? Antic-Catholicism and Anti-Bolshevism between Moscow, Berlin, and the Vatican 1922 to 1933 Weir, T. (2015). A European Culture War in the Twentieth Century? Antic-Catholicism and Anti-Bolshevism between Moscow, Berlin, and the Vatican 1922 to 1933. Journal of Religious History, 39(2), 280-306. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9809.12185 Published in: Journal of Religious History Document Version: Peer reviewed version Queen's University Belfast - Research Portal: Link to publication record in Queen's University Belfast Research Portal Publisher rights © 2014 Religious History Association This is the accepted version of the following article: Weir, T. H. (2014), A European Culture War in the Twentieth Century? Anti-Catholicism and Anti-Bolshevism between Moscow, Berlin, and the Vatican 1922 to 1933. Journal of Religious History. doi: 10.1111/1467-9809.12185, which has been published in final form at http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1467-9809.12185/abstract. General rights Copyright for the publications made accessible via the Queen's University Belfast Research Portal is retained by the author(s) and / or other copyright owners and it is a condition of accessing these publications that users recognise and abide by the legal requirements associated with these rights. Take down policy The Research Portal is Queen's institutional repository that provides access to Queen's research output. Every effort has been made to ensure that content in the Research Portal does not infringe any person's rights, or applicable UK laws. If you discover content in the Research Portal that you believe breaches copyright or violates any law, please contact [email protected]. Download date:29. Sep. 2021 1 A European Culture War in the Twentieth Century? Anticatholicism and Antibolshevism between Moscow, Berlin, and the Vatican 1922 to 19331 Todd H. Weir, Queen’s University Belfast In 1981, historian Winfried Becker argued for an interpretation of the German Kulturkampf within a European context, as one of many conflicts with the Catholic Church that emerged “in the second half of the nineteenth century, wherever the powerfully interventionist centralized national state joined up in the name of progress with contemporary currents that were partly secularistic and partly directly hostile to religion.” 2 Not only have comparative and transnational studies integrated the Kulturkampf of the 1870s into the wider history of anticatholicism, 3 the term “culture war” has been liberated from its German origin and is now applied as a generic expression for secular-catholic conflicts across nineteenth-century Europe. 4 Interpreting the parties to these conflicts as “cultures” corresponds to what can be described as a paradigm shift in the historical study of religion. Rejecting the 1 Research for this article was begun during a fellowship stay at the Historisches Kolleg in Munich with the financial support of the British Academy and the AHRC. It was presented as a paper in May 2013 to the LMU research group “Religious Cultures in 19th and 20th-century Europe“. I am grateful for comments made there and by the helpful suggestions of Lisa Dittrich, Stephanie Roulin and the anonymous reviewers of the journal. I would like to thank the directors and archivists of the Vatican archives for their assistance during a research stay: Archivio Segreto Vaticano, Archivio della Congregazione per la Dottrina della Fede, Segreteria di Stato. 2 W. Becker, “Der Kulturkampf als Europäisches und deutsches Phänomen,” Historisches Jahrbuch 101 (1981): 444. 3 M. Borutta, Antikatholizismus: Deutschland und Italien im Zeitalter der europäischen Kulturkämpfe (Göttingen: Vandehoeck & Ruprecht, 2010); L. Dittrich, Antiklerikalismus als europäisches Phänomen: Protest und Öffentlichkeit in Frankreich, Spanien und Deutschland (1850-1914) (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, forthcoming); A. Joskowicz, The Modernity of Others: Jewish Anti-Catholicism in Germany and France (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford UP, 2014). 4 C. Clark and W. Kaiser, Culture Wars: Secular-Catholic Conflict in Nineteenth-Century Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2003); 2 teleological implications inherent in theories of secularization or modernization, recent studies have revealed how conflicts between liberalism and ultramontanism overlapped with existing confessional antagonisms and contributed to the formation of modern party systems and socio-political milieus.5 Intellectual and cultural historians have discovered in anticatholicism a discourse and practice through which liberal ideas of subjectivity, sociability, and nation were constructed.6 Most studies of the transnational culture wars, like the other essays in this special issue, break off prior to the First World War. Yet, if measured by acts of violence, anticlericalism peaked in the 1920s and 1930s, when thousands of Catholic priests and believers were imprisoned or executed and hundreds of churches razed in Mexico, Spain and Russia. While the historical literature on anticlericalism in these three countries continues to grow,7 there has been little effort to develop a wider theoretical 5 O. Blaschke, “Das 19. Jahrhundert: Ein zweites konfessionelles Zeitalter?,” Geschichte und Gesellschaft 26 (2000): 38–75; H.-G. Haupt and D. Langewiesche, eds., Nation und Religion in Europa: Mehrkonfessionelle Gesellschaften im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert (Frankfurt a. M.: Campus, 2004). 6 While studies of predominantly Protestant countries have tended to portray Catholics as victims of a hegemonic liberalism, studies of predominantly Catholic countries have generally viewed anti-Catholicism within the context of a battle for political control between powerful Catholic forces and their liberal and subaltern opponents. For the former approach: R. Healy, “Anti-Jesuitism in Imperial Germany: The Jesuit as Androgyne,” in Protestants, Catholics and Jews in Germany , 1800-1914, ed. H. W. Smith (Oxford, New York: Berg, 2001), 153–181; M. Gross, The War against Catholicism: Liberalism and Anti-Catholic Imagination in Nineteenth- Century Germany (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2004); T. Verhoeven, Transatlantic Anti-Catholicism; France and the United States in the Nineteenth Century (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010); Borutta, Antikatholizismus; Studies that see the conflict as one of reciprocal influence: Julio de la Cueva and Feliciano Montero, eds., La secularización conflictiva: España (1898 - 1931) (Madrid: Biblioteca Nueva, 2007); Guido Verucci, L’Italia laica prima e dopo l’Unita (Rome-Bari: Laterza, 1996). 7 Three recent examples: M. Butler, ed., Faith and Impiety in Revolutionary Mexico; (New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007); Cueva and Montero, La secularización conflictiva; D. Peris, Storming the Heavens: The Soviet League of the Militant Godless (Ithaca: Cornell UP, 1998). 3 and transnational framework, such as has emerged around the study of the nineteenth century culture wars.8 Why have investigations of anticatholicism’s role in the formation of political culture generally not extended into the twentieth century, except in the Spanish case?9 The most obvious answer is that the Kulturkampf had simply abated. Historian Martin Conway names several developments in interwar Europe that point in this direction, among others, the inclusion of centrist Christian parties in pluralistic democracies, the weakening of confessional divisions, and the retreat of liberals and social democrats from anticlericalism. Conway considers anticlerical violence to have been a largely marginal phenomenon, limited to Spain or located outside of Western Europe. Thus he suggests that the Vatican’s fears of radical secularism, expressed in numerous encyclicals, was a misreading of a largely benevolent postwar environment that stemmed either from the residual trauma of the nineteenth-century culture wars or the desire to round up the flock.10 Yet, this depiction fails to convince. For, while it is true that many liberals in France, Germany, and Italy found anticatholicism less appealing after the First World War, anticlericalism increasingly became a tactic embraced by political extremists, particularly, but not exclusively, on the left. In the public sphere, the actions of these groups became linked to the news of atrocities in Mexico, Russia and Spain, thereby raising the stakes of local politics. Even where anticlericalism did not lead to physical violence, rhetorical violence was common in press, pulpit, association, and street demonstration, i.e. in the realm of culture broadly defined. The term “culture war” can be usefully applied to the 1920s and 1930s not in order to make an argument about continuity, but rather to benefit from some of the methodological innovations that have recently taken place in the study of nineteenth- 8 Although it focuses on physical violence in civil wars and does not look at culture more broadly, a useful starting point is provided by J. de la Cueva Merino, “El asalto de los cielos: una perspectiva comparada para la violencia anticlerical española de 1936” Ayer 88/2012 (4): 51- 74. 9 A collaborative research project is underway at the University of Alcalá: “Catholicism and Secularization in 20th Century Spain.” 10 M. Conway, “The Christian Churches and Politics in Europe, 1914–1939,” in Cambridge History of Christianity, vol. 9, ed. H. McLeod (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), 151-178, esp. 169–72. 4 century anticatholicism. In particular, it can pose new questions to the growing literature
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