3 ACTA ACADEMIAE REGIAE GUSTAVI ADOLPHI CLII Perspectives on Two Centuries of Norwegian Language Planning and Policy Theoretical Implications and Lessons Learnt Ernst Håkon Jahr (editor) UPPSALA 2018 Kungl. Gustav Adolfs Akademien för svensk folkkultur Language history and the power of symbols 141 Language history and the power of symbols Gunnar Skirbekk, University of Bergen Not all of it is known. Thus, there is a need to review some of the central events of the history of the Norwegian language – an ideological “archeology” (to talk in Foucauldian tongues). I will do so by highlighting five events that have been pivotal to the development of the Norwegian language, five events that, each in its way, have been under-communicated in educational contexts and in pub- lic debate, five events in the history of the Norwegian language that are rela- tively unknown to most people and seldom brought up or referred to in a straightforward way: (i) This is the case for the articles concerning language in the Constitution from November 4, 1814, as an expression of the defining power of the State author- ities, with far-reaching implications. (ii) It is the case for the gradual Norwegianisation of written Danish that first picked up speed long after 1814. (iii) It is the case for the education required for the Lutheran confirmation, based on Pontoppidan’s explanation of Luther’s catechism, a regimentation in the Danish language of all Norwegian youth, for more than 150 years, under the auspices of the State Church. (iv) It is the case for the market forces of the book trade at the end of the 1800s, when Norwegian authors en masse, including Ibsen and Bjørnson, were pub- lishing their books in Copenhagen, in Danish. (v) And it is the case for “the parents’ campaign” (in the early post World War II period) in favour of linguistic forms close to Danish, a well-organised cam- paign, with major implications, that raises interesting questions as to its organ- isation and financing and its use of “social capital” and rhetoric defining power, and still it was never investigated sociologically. Why? (I) The linguistic coup in the Constitution of November 4, 1814 The final version of the Norwegian Constitution, debated in the autumn of 1814 following the short Swedish-Norwegian war during the summer of 1814, con- 142 Gunnar Skirbekk tains several articles that make reference to “the Norwegian language” (“det norske Sprog”, §§ 33, 47, 81). In these articles, among other things, it was an- chored in the Constitution that “all laws were to be written in the Norwegian language” (“alle Love udfærdiges i det norske Sprog”, § 81). Interestingly enough, here Danish was defined as Norwegian. A linguistic “coup”, to quote the Norwegian historian Øystein Sørensen (2001). However, it did not stop here: this linguistic usage (of the term “det norske sprog”) was endorsed in 1815 by the newly established Royal Frederik Univer- sity in the capital Kristiania (Oslo), a clear but curious conclusion: Danish in Denmark is Danish, but Danish in Norway is Norwegian! To support this view, the University referred to the fact that Norwegians, for a long period of time, had used this language (i.e. Danish) in writing and that Norwegians (e.g. Lud- vig Holberg) had taken part in the development of the written Danish language. However, the same can be said of English in Ireland;1 but the Irish do not call English Irish when it is used in Ireland.2 Thus, there is something strange here in what the Norwegian University argued for. Why did the University express such a view? What was the point of this curious definition, this “linguistic coup” of 1814? Politically, there were clear strategic reasons for calling the language of the Constitution of Novem- ber 4, 1814, Norwegian: The union was now a fact, with Sweden as the stronger military partner, so it was important to make a stand, also linguis- tically. From the Norwegian side there was an anxiety that the Swedish lan- guage would conquer the country, partly because of Swedish ambitions and partly because many Norwegian dialects are more closely related to Swedish than Danish. Consequently, it was important to establish in the Constitution that the legal language should not be Swedish (Jahr 2014: 17f.). That was the main point: not Swedish. But why not “call a spade a spade”? Why not call Danish Danish? Finn-Erik Vinje (2004) formulated it as follows: “After the events of 1814, it was not ac- ceptable to refer to Danish as the official language of Norway.” [Etter begiven- hetene i 1814 gikk det anstendigvis ikke an å snakke om dansk som offisielt språk i Norge.] Since the Norwegian delegates in the negotiations with the Swedes in the autumn of 1814 had no written Norwegian language to refer to (Old Norse had not been in use for a very long time) they chose to hold on to Danish – and to call it “Norwegian”. That was understandable enough, in that situa- tion.3 1 Or also English in India, cf. that the author Salman Rushdie writes in English, not “Indian”. 2 I once asked the Irish ambassador if her “Irish” was good. She hesitated before answering, since for her the question evidently referred to Irish, the Gaelic language, and not English. 3 The State officials (embetsstanden) had strong cultural and personal connections with Denmark. That is where they went to university. (The first university in Norway, Det kongelige Frederiks Universitet, first opened in Christiania (Oslo) in 1813.) Many of them were married to Danes. Many were Danish, cf. Feldbæk (1998: 390). Language history and the power of symbols 143 However, this linguistic trickery turned out to have major implications, all the way until our time.4 For this definition expresses the dominant view for a long time to come, bluntly stated: call it Norwegian and keep it Danish.5 On the one hand, avoid calling Danish Danish (rather use terms like “mother tongue” [Modersmaalet], or “our common literary and written language” [vort almin- delige Skrift- og Bogsprog]).6 On the other hand, keep the Danish language free from Norwegian influences! Do not Norwegianise the Danish language! (II) Norwegianisation of the Danish language – so late, and so reluctantly However, this is not how the history of the Norwegian language is usually por- trayed, in retrospect, once the written Danish of Norway had gradually been Norwegianised. Now, in retrospect, this pivotal time in Norwegian language history is usually described as if a wish to Norwegianise the Danish written lan- guage was mainstream right from the start and that the effort to Norwegianise commenced shortly after 1814. References are often made to Henrik Werge- land and what he said and did early in the 1830s, as well as to Knud Knudsen a little later. In a textbook for secondary schools we may read the following: Most people agreed that we needed a genuine Norwegian language after liberation from Denmark. The question was how to best attain this new language. Three possi- bilities or methods in particular were debated: 1) Keep Danish as the written lan- guage in Norway; 2) gradually Norwegianise written Danish by introducing Nor- wegian words and expressions and by adjusting the spelling of the written language in compliance with Norwegian pronunciation; 3) develop a new Norwegian lan- guage with Old Norse as the starting point.7 The first model was rejected by most, but the other two constituted the basis for what we now refer to as the Norwegian language conflict (Fjeld 2008: 226). 4 For example, during a discussion in the Faculty of Law at the University of Bergen about the in- troduction of human rights paragraphs to the Constitution, Inge Lønning, professor of theology and prominent member of the Conservative party, insisted (emotionally) that the language of the Constitution is Norwegian. 5 Cf. the historian Øystein Rian (2009: 164–169): “the Danish-Norwegians had a strong aversion to the Swedish language. They knew that Norwegian dialects were much more similar to Swedish than to Danish and they feared that this would lead to a Swedish-Norwegian language. To fortify the legitimacy of written Danish in Norway, they made haste to call it alternately either Nor- wegian or the “mother tongue” and they held a purist attitude against any Norwegianisation of this language.” 6 These are the names used in the law for language equality of 1885, in order to avoid using the word “Danish”. At the same time, it was impossible to use the word “Norwegian” because now we had “the Norwegian vernacular language” (‘det norske Folkesprog’). Thus the term “our com- mon written and literary language” (‘vort almindelige Skrift- og Bogsprog’) was chosen. The name “Bokmål”, disliked by Riksmål activists (cf. Arnulf Øverland: Bokmålet – et avstumpet landsmål; ‘Bokmål a blunted Landsmål’), has in this way a prehistory, being used in 1885 in or- der to avoid the term “Danish” or “Norwegian-Danish”. 7 This sounds more like P. A. Munch's suggestion in the 1830s than Ivar Aasen, who had the con- temporary rural dialects as his starting point. 144 Gunnar Skirbekk In reading this, we might get the impression that there was wide consensus in favour of Norwegianising the Danish written language straight away from 1814, and moreover that the path taken led directly to the written language of Bokmål that we have today.8 But that is not the case. Rather the other way around. The prevailing opinion supported the status quo, to go on with Danish as the written language. This was the dominant view after 1814 and for a long time to come.