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SAS1 4.Language Conflict and Planning 20Th Language conflict and language planning: Norwegian in the 20th C. SAS1. February 13, 2015 Repetition: 19 th Century Two strategies to develop a new written standard of Norwegian: evolution vs. revolution 1 Should the standard be based on the “daily speech of the educated classes” or dialects? Each strategy was built on an ideal. They both made rational sense in relation to that ideal, but each was also exclusionary. Aasen • wanted to find the true language of Norway • outside influence must be filtered – populations that had more contact with, and were more influenced by, Danish culture were not as legitimately Norwegian • exclusion of a large urban population 2 Aasens most important principle: all phonological and morphological distinctions that comes from Old Norse and still exists in dialects, are to be used in writing Protonorwegian – the reconstruction of a hypothetical first dialect – Looking into an unknown first level in language history from where all dialects emerged Knudsen • wanted to maintain a modern and educated system • no sense in turning to the past when modern, educated people are living day to day using a new form • easier to modify current written form to fit the way people spoke, but based only on the speech of one population • exclusion of a large rural population 3 Knudsen • valued modernity, education • expected the languages to continue evolving • expected more interaction between rural and urban areas, thus a merging of the two written varieties? • thought Aasens form was too complicated, people would adopt easier modifications causing the two to merge: “These two roads toward a genuine Norwegian language are different only regarding the point of departure and the first stage, later they will undoubtedly merge” - Knud Knudsen, 1850 4 1885: decision of having two standard varieties: ”Regjeringen anmodes at træffe fornøden Forføining til, at det norske Folkesprog som Skole- og officielt Sprog sidestilles med vort almindelige Skrift- og Bogsprog” The government is asked to take the necessary action making the Norwegian language of the people as a School- and official Language, of the same standard as our common written- and book language. The problem: By 1917: Norwegian has two competing standards, both claimed by their supporters to be the only ”real” Norwegian. Perceived by many as an economic, cultural and political problem. Bitter tone in language conflict: will the linguistic threathen the national unity? 5 The solution: Samnorsk (Pan-Norwegian / Common Norwegian) implemented policy 1915−1964 Samnorsk • An evolutionary perspective – letting the two standards slowly merge together – 1860’s and -70’s evolutionism – An evolution for the better • A practical perspective – what is the use of having two mutually intelligible languages? • A nationalist perspective – one nation; one language 6 Why did such a good, rational idea as the Samnorsk project fail? - minor linguistic adjustments needed to merge the two standards. BUT: these minor linguistic differences had been given great sociolinguistic significance. The two standards had become important ideological symbols for strong political forces. 7 Early suggestions of Pan- Norwegian (1900–1917) • Moltke Moe (1859−1913) – professor in folk culture – argues for a written common standard in 1909 • Ernst Sars (1835−1917) – historian. Udsigt over Norges Historie (1873-1891) • Two languages – an old, primitive and Norwegian – an advanced, moderne but non-Norwegian • Sars: these two lines must converge – two cultures must blend • Garborg – the question of two nations (Dano-Norwegian vs. rural Norwegian) 8 A Samnorsk Plan • The Eitrem committee (1909) – smaller changes in both Riksmål [Dano- Norwegian] and and Landsmål adjusting the two languages to each other. 9 1907 reform Marked the principle break with written Danish. Reform reflecting Dano-Norwegian speech, but also an opening towards the dialects – p, t, k replaces b, d, g in postvocalic position in many words: haab > haap , mad > mat –-er was introduced in plural forms of the common gender: heste > hester – plural neuter form with no ending: huse > hus – the ”Danish” verb inflexional past tense ending -ede splits into three endings: -et : kastede>kastet, fiskede>fisket -te : svarede>svarte -(d)de : boede>bodde, levede>levde – adjectives ending in -ig no longer added -t in neutral form: et ærligt menneske > et ærlig menneske 1910 changes in Landsmål • first concrete steps in direction of Samnorsk. Resticted use untill 1917 – visa>vise (weak fem. nom. indef.sg.) • Dano-No: vise – stolarne>stolane (masc. nom. def.pl.) • Dano-No: stolene 10 Østlandsk reisning (1916-26) [ Eastern Norwegian Uprising] • to bridge the gap between urban oriented Dano- Norwegian and western oriented Landsmål/Nynorsk. • Didrik Arup Seip (1884-1963) – professor of Dano-Norwegian – argues for the use of a less archaic Landsmål and a more radical Dano-Norwegian. • i.e. to use more rural dialects of eastern Norway as a basis for reforming both standards. • by the force of its own momentum both Landsmål and Dano-Norwegian would move into a Samnorsk direction. • the new basis for Samnorsk would be A) the rural dialects of eastern Norway (D. A. Seip) B) the urban dialects of industrial workers (J. Gjøstein) 11 The reform of 1917 – Landsmål and Dano-Norwegian A breakthrough among the Members of Parliament in favour of Samnorsk. The 1917-reform constituted the first major step in a Samnorsk [Pan-Norwegian] direction. Both Landsmål and Dano-Norwegian • å for aa •-gt to –kt (magt to makt ) • norwegianization of some foreign writing patterns: -tion to -sjon : station > stasjon 12 1917 reform for Dano-Norwegian The development of two Dano-Norwegian varieties: – a conservative variety, high status, no popular low-status dialect forms – a radical variety, frequent use of eastern popular dialect forms (often coinciding with that of Landsmål) Landsmål →Dano-Norwegian • VC →VCC: set> sett • nd/nn [n:], ld/ll [l:] distributed according to etymology mand> mann ( NN mann), fjeld> fjell ( NN fjell), sand>sand ( NN sand), holde>holde ( NN halda) • Radical Dano-No: Feminine gender introduced en flaske, flasken > e/ei flaske, flaska • Radical Dano-No: Past tense/perfect particle ending -a introduced in many weak verbs kastet> kasta • æ replace e in many words: læse > lese, sæk> sekk • a number of optional dialect forms: bru/bro, ben> bein, løv>lauv 13 Optional changes in Dano-Norwegian • Nouns from rural dialects: – bru, tru, stein, laus, golv, ku, kje, molte, beite • Nouns fem. def.sg ending with –a: – jenta, boka, kua • Past tense made with -a: – kasta, jobba, kikka • Obligatory hard consonants: – eble>eple, bog>bok, saglig>saklig Dano-Norwegian →Landsmål • silent d removed in the same words as Dano-Norwegian: – breid>brei, lid>li, heid>hei • the plural forms -ane, -ene, and -one, were obligatory < -arne, -erne, -orne 14 1917 reform for Landsmål Landsmål was also divided into two rather separate varieties: – traditional variety only slightly changed in relation to the traditional standard – radical variety much closer to the radical Dano-Norwegian variety with a large number of word-forms and features from southeastern dialects Optional changes in Landsmål • open vowel: ‘millom ’ or ‘ mellom ’, ‘fyrr’ or ‘før’(new form is the latter) • some monophtongs allowed: ‘draum’ or ‘drøm’, ‘haust’ or ‘høst’ (new form is the latter) • double consonants allowed: ‘ven’ or ‘venn’, ‘fatig’ or ‘fattig’, ‘gamal’ or ‘gammal’ (new form is the latter) 15 •-a allowed in strong fem. nouns: – ’soli’ or ’sola’, ’boki’ or ’boka’ • -er/-ene allowed in weak fem.nouns: – ’visor’ or ’viser’, ’visone’ or ’visene’ • -e allowed in infinitive: ‘kasta’ or ‘kaste’, ‘leva’ or ‘leve’. Split infinitive allowed for school pupils • strong verbs could have -er in present tense: – ‘bit’ or ‘biter’ , ‘kjem’ or ‘kjemer’ • -te allowed in past tense of e-verbs: – ’kvilde’ or ’kvilte’, ’førde’ or ’førte’ Dano-Norwegian newspapers implementation of the 1917 reform Obligatory forms entereing the papers: • Dagbladet (1919) • Verdens Gang (1921) • Aftenposten, Nationen, Tidens Tegn (1928) • Morgenbladet (1931) 16 Norm agents Conduction • Fast introduction of obligatory forms (within mid 1920’s) • However, few used the optional forms in Dano-Norwegian. • In Landsmål all the optional forms were rapidly taken into use by many groups (geographical, educational). 17 • Dano-Norwegian consolidates itself with the conservative forms • Landsmål develops into the i-mål (’i- tongue’) and a-mål (’a-tongue’). – The more radical (newer) form of Landsmål comes closer to Dano-Norwegian than Landsmål had ever been before. Radical Landsmål and radical Dano-Norwegian • Ex. – bygd – bygda – bygder – bygdene – vise – visa – viser – visene • Conservative Dano-Norwegian – bygd – bygd en – bygder – bygdene – vise – vis en – viser – visene 18 Parliament decision of 1929 Landsmål > Nynorsk Riksmål > Bokmål Halvdan Koht and the Labour Party • Halvdan Koht (1873-1965) – Foreign minister of Norway’s first Labour Government 1935-1941 – professor of history • advocated for the strenghtening of ”The People’s Language” – ”folkemålet” within the Labour Party – a party which historically had taken a neutral stance in the question of Bokmål vs. Nynorsk 19 Koht’s aims • to introduce present day popular speech into both variants of written Norwegian • the fusing of the two variants! • the end of a battle of two variants! • A committee would have the following aims 1. A step towards unification of the two standards with a basis in the
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