Corel Ventura

Este libro forma parte del acervo de la Biblioteca Jurídica Virtual del Instituto de Investigaciones Jurídicas de la UNAM www.juridicas.unam.mx https://biblio.juridicas.unam.mx/bjv Libro completo en: https://goo.gl/D2XTZC

SCHOOL AND CULTURE

Jean-Paul D URAND1 M ister C hairman, ladies and gentlemen!

During this international congress of canonists on the theme of religious liberty here in Mexico City, we are going tospeak of the links between the school and culture. How then could we forgettopay tributetothe1 982Mexico Declaration on Cultural Policy?2 D rafted under the auspices of U N ESCO , that Mexico Declaration provided the follow-up to the Convention on the struggle againstdiscrimination in the field of teaching, which had been previously a d o p te d b y U N E SC O o n th e 1 4th D e c e m b e r 1 960. L et us note also that the Holy See has entertained close relations with UNESCO since 1946, the year after its creation as the United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organisation on 1 6 November 1 945.3

1 Dean of theFaculty of Canon L aw, InstitutCatholique de Paris, France. 2 Mondiacult 1982, Déclaration de Mexico , in Conférence mondiale sur les politiques culturelles (Mexico, 26juillet-6août1982), Paris, U N ESCO, C L T /MD /1 , 1 982: L a déclaration adoptéeà l unanimité par cent trente gouvernementstraite notamment du rôle de la famille, des rapports entre la culture et léducation. La culture estdéfinie en cestermesdansla déclaration de Mexico: Dansle sensle pluslarge, la culture peut aujourd hui être considérée comme l ensemble des traits distinctifs, spirituels et matériels, intellectuelsetaffectifs, qui caractérisentune sociétéou un groupe social. Elle englobe, outre lesartsetles lettres, les modes de vie, les droitsfondamentaux de l être humain, les systèmes de valeurs, les traditions et les croyances. L a culture donne à l homme la capacité de réflexion sur lui-même. C estelle qui faitde nous des êtresspécifiquementhumains, rationnels, critiquesetéthiquementengagés. C estpar elle que nousdiscernons des valeurs et effectuons des choix. C estpar elle que l homme s exprime, prend conscience de lui-même, se reconnaîtcomme un projetinachevé, remeten question ses propres réalisations, recherche inlassablement de nouvelles significations et crée des oeuvres qui le transcendent. (in Hervé C arrier S. J., Lexique de la culture pour lanalyseculturelle etlinculturation,Desclée,1992,p.116). 3 Maurice Barbier, LEglise Catholique et lUNESCO. Vingt-cinq ans de relations, présentation de V incent Cosmao O. P. , éd. Centre L . -J. L ebret Foi et Développement , 1 971 , 1 51 pages; Mgr Benelli, LUNESCO et le Concile au service de lhomme , La soirée de lUNESCO sur le Concile, in La documentation catholique, 1 471 , 1 5 mai 1 966, col. 909-911 ; Card. Suenens, A l écouteetau service des hommes, le Concile devantle monde etdevantlhistoire , ibid., col. 911-926; René Cassin, Vatican II et la protection de la personne , ibid. , . col. 924-928; Jacques Maritain, L e rôle du spirituel à l égard du progrès et de la paix , ibid. , col. 929-934; Philippe L aurent S.J., L e Saint-Siège à L UNESCO, trois orientations en jeu dans l actuelle C onférence générale , in La Croix,4novembre1987,p.15;MgrJean Millet, Groupe de travail (ONG) Sciences etéthique à lUNESCO, Chronique de lUNESCO , in Espritetvie, 1995,pp. 194-195.

241

We will have the occasion later to return to the institutional effortof the Catholic Church in favour of culture,4 especially in the field of school education, 5 butalso withrespecttoseminary6 and universityeducation.7 This

4 Coll. Christianisme etculture en Europe, mémoire, conscience, projet, Colloque présynodal, Vatican, 28-31 octobre 1 991, préface du cardinal Paul Poupard, Conclusion de SS. PP. Jean Paul II, éd. Mame, 1 992, 248pages; Paul V I , L ettre L umen Ecclesiae pour le V I I è centenaire de la mortde saintT homas d Aquin (20 novembre 1 974), in La documentation catholique, 1 671 , 2 mars 1 975, pp. 202-21 4; à propos de linculturation, le Pape Jean-Paul II a déclaré devant la Commission biblique pontificale: Le terme acculturation ou inculturation peuttrèsbien être un néologisme, maisil exprime parfaitementl un deséléments du grand mystère de l incarnation (26 avril 1 979), cit., par Hervé C arrier S. J., Lexiquedelaculture, op. cit., p. 13; Joseph Caillot, Eudiste, Bible etcultures, in L Evangile de la communication, c o l l . C o g i ta ti o fidei N 1 52, éd. C erf, 1 989, pp. 309-330; C laude Geffré O. P. (D ir. ), Michel de Certeau ou la différence chrétienne, coll. Cogitatiofidei N 165, éd. Cerf, 182pages; Anne Fortin-Melkevik, Théologie, université etespacespublics. Quelle théologie pour quelle culture ? Théologiques, 2/1 , 1 994, p p . 1 27-1 39. 5 D éclaration De educatione christiana Gravissimum educationis (du Concile V atican II); Education, culture, Evangélisation, éd. V atican, 1 986; Rapport de synthèse du Conseil pontifical pour la Culture, du Conseil pontifical pour les laïcs et de la Congrégation pour l Education catholique, L Eglise et la culture universitaire (25 mars 1 988), in La documentation catholique, N 1 964, 1 988, p p . 623- 628; D o c u m e n t d e la Congrégation pour l Education catholique, du Conseil pontifical pour les laïcs etdu Conseil pontifical de la Culture, La présence de lEglise dans luniversitéetdans la culture universitaire (22 mai 1944), in La documentation catholique, N 2097 , 1 994, p p . 604- 61 0. 6 Degert, Histoire des séminaires français jusqu à la Révolution, éd. Paris, 1 912; D écretPresbyterorum ministerio et vita presbyterorum ordinis (du Concile V atican II); L ettre de la Sacrée congrégation de lEducationcatholique: Lenseignementdelaphilosophiedanslesséminaires (20janvier1972)et Circulaire de la Sacrée congrégation pour l Education catholique: l enseignementdu droitcanonique pour les aspirants au sacerdoce (2 avril 1 975), et D ocument de la Sacrée congrégation pour l Education catholique: L a formation théologique des futurs prêtres (22 février 1 976), in La documentation catholique,1605,19mars 1972, pp. 262-267et1679, 6juillet1975, pp. 607-609et1698,16mai 1976, pp. 457-477; Directivespour la préparation des éducateurs de séminaires de la C ongrégation pour l Education catholique, in La documentation catholique, N 2089, 1 994, pp. 209-223; Directoire pour le ministère etla vie des prêtres de la Congrégation pour le Clergé, in La documentation catholique, N 2092, 1 994, p p . 360-389; D i recti v es pour la formation des séminaristes sur les problèmes relatifs au mariage età la famille, dela Congrégation pour lEducationcatholique , in La documentation catholique, N 21 20, 1 995, p p . 279-287; C o l l ecti f, La formation des prêtres, Synode de 1 990, coéd. Cerf-Centurion, 1 990, 336 pages; Instrument de travail, La formation des prêtres, coll; D ocumentsd Eglises, éd. C erf, 1 990, 90pages; Jean-Paul II, Je vousdonnerai des pasteurs, Exhortation sur la formation desprêtresdanslescirconstancesactuelles, introduction de Raymond Deville, coll. DocumentsdesEglises, éd. Cerf, 1 992, 232 pages. 7 G. Bardy, L Eglise etl enseignementen Occidentau V siècle, éd. Toulouse, 1948; René Aigrain, Les universités catholiques, éd. AugustePicard, 1935, 81 pages; Gérad Cholvy, LEgliseetlesuniversitésde 1919à 1960, in Esprit etvie, 20, 1 8 mai 1 995, pp. 300-303; Pie X I, Constitution apostolique Deus scientiarum sur les universités etfacultés détudes ecclésiastiques (24 mai 1931), in La documentation catholique, 1950, col. 195-206; Paul Tillich, Théologie de la culture, éd. Planète, 1 968; Jean-Paul I I , Constitution apostolique Ex corde Ecclesiae (1 5 août 1 990), in La documentation catholique,2015, 1990,pp. 934-945; Jean-Paul II, Constitution apostoliqueSapientiachristiana surlesuniversitésetfacultés ecclésiastiques (15 avril 1979) in La documentation catholique, 76, 1 979, pp. 551-561; Paul L öwenthal (dir. ), L universitécatholique aujourd hui, libertéetengagements, éd. Academia, 1 994, 1 40pages; Jean-Paul Durand O.P., Pour une théologie universitaire , in La documentation catholique,N2107,1995,p.21;P. Delhaye, L organisation scolaire au XIIèsiècle, éd. L ouvain, 1 961; J. V erger, Lesuniversitésau Moyen Age, éd. PUF, 1973;JeanGaudemet, Lesuniversitésetlaviepolitique(XIIIè-XVIIIè siècles) , in A. Romano & J. V erger (D ir.), I poteri politici e il mondo universitario (XIII-XX secolo), éd. Rubbettino, 1 994, pp. 3-1 6, Daniel Bloch, Pour les universités , in Etudes, 381 3, 1 994, pp. 205-21 5; Jean-Paul I I , Discorsi alle università, éd. C amerino, 1 991 .

ecclesial effort concerns one of the tria munera,thatistosaythemunus docendi. 8 The rightto education is recognised as a fundamental rightof the person in several international conventions, a number of which were mentioned in 1 983 by Professor Roland Minnerath in his book dealing with the context of C oncordatlaw in respectof the righttoeducate. C oncordatlaw isoftenrequired to deal w ith C oncordatStateson the question of the C hurch s rightto educate, for example, the 1993PolishConcordat.9 W i th r e sp e c t to th e l i n k s b e tw e e n e d u c a ti o n a n d c u l tu r e , P r o f e sso r Jo z e f Krokowski, atthe lastcongressof our international association of canonistsat Lublin in 1993, presented the main principles of stateand international law r e l a ti n g to r e l i g i o u s e d u c a ti o n w i th i n th e f r a m e w o r k o f sc h o o l e d u c a ti o n . 10 In this paper I would like to make a modestcontribution to the question of the relationship between school and culture - an issue which has already been tr e a te d a t l e n g th , 11 but which has raised many questions of canon law, and continues to do so. Itwould undoubtedly be overambitious totry to answer in one lecture all of the questions concerning the relationship between the school, culture and canon law. Therefore, this lecture will simply endeavour toraise the canonical issuesrelating tothe linksbetween the school and culture, issues which in factare of particular concern to canonists.12

8 C IC (L éducation catholique: cc. 793-821 ) etC C EO (D e educatione catholica: cc. 627-650); P. V aldrini, L a fonction d enseignement de l Eglise in Patrick V aldrini (D ir. ), Jacques V ernay, Jean-Paul D urand O.P., Olivier Echappé, Droitcanonique, coll. Précis, éd. Dalloz, 1989, pp. 264-295. 9 Roland Minnerath, L e droit d éduquer , in l Eglise et les Etats concordataires (1 846-1 981), la souverainetéspirituelle, préface Jean Gaudemet, éd, C erf, 1 983, p. 381, note28; Hervé C arrier S. J., D roits culturels , in Lexique de la culturepour l analysecultuelle etl inculturation, éd. D esclée, 1 992, pp. 1 29-1 35; Brigitte Basdevant-Gaudemet et Jean-Paul Durand O. P. (Dir. ), Renouveau du droit concordataire? L e concordat de Pologne de 1 993 , colloque du C entre universitaire D roitetsociétésreligieuses mars 1 994, in Revue de droitpublic, à paraître. 10 Jozel Krokowski, Education et culture , in L Eglise et l Etat dans les systèmes juridiques contemporains, VIIIè Congresso internazionale di diritto canonico, Lublin, settembre 1 993, à paraî tre. 11 Henri-Irenée Marrou, Culture, civilisation, décadance , in Revue de synthèse, décembre 1 938 et Histoire de l éducation dansl antiquité, éd.Seuil,1965,6èéd.;P.Riché,Education etculturedansl Occident barbare (VIè -VIIè siècles), éd. Seuil, 1 962; Jacques Maritain, l éducation à la croisée des chemins, éd. Egloff, 1947; G. Mialaret& J. Vial (Dir.), Histoire mondiale de l éducation, éd. PUF, 1981, 4vol.; Rapport mondial sur le développementhumain, publié par le Programme des Nations U nies pour le Développement, éd.Economica,1991;C.Rondi(éd),L université en question. Les nouveaux défis à l université par les transformations du monde moderne (Association internationale des sociologues de langue française), éd. Universitéde Toulouse-Le Mirail, 1991. 12 Marcel L aunay, lEgliseetlécoleenFranceXIXè-XXèsiècle éd. Desclée, 1988etsonarticle: LEglise catholiqueetlécoleenFranceX IX è-XX èsiècle , inJean-Paul Willaime(Dir.), Universscolairesetreligions, coll. Sciences humaines etreligions, éd. C erf, 1 990, pp. 1 1 3-1 22; Francis Messner, L Eglise catholique et lécolepubliqueenFrance , in Ecoleetreligionsdanslasociétémoderne , Le Supplément, Revue d éthique et théologie morale, N 181, juillet1992, pp. 23-38; Giorgio Feliciani, L insegnamento della religione cattolica nelle scuole pubbliche tra normativacanonica e legislazioni civili , in IusEcslesiae, 6, 1 994, p p . 1 59-1 76; Jean Gaudemet, II dirittocanonico nella storia della cultura giuridica Europa , in Coll. Scienza

PLAN

Firstof all, we shall attemptto characterise the canonical status of parental mediation with respecttothe linkswhich the Church wantstopromotebetween school and culture. The family can sometimes createa risk of confining the child within the family environment. Accordingly, the canonical legislator i n v i te s th e p a r e n ts to o p e n th e c h i l d to w a r d s th e w o r l d . I n f a c t, a s V a ti c a n I I taught, 13 the C hurch itself constitutes a lieu éminent a special place for fostering this relationship, between the personal and social, the particular and th e u n i v e r sa l . Y oung people need to become increasingly aware of their own and other cultures; they need also to understand better the specific mission of the C hurch which consistsin entering into dialogue with the various cultures. One again, the teaching of the Second V atican C ouncil specifically encouragesthismission. During the sixties, the Vatican Council presented a definition of culture which harmonised the classical understanding w ith an anthropological understanding whichonlyemergedinthe19thcentury.14 I t i s w e l l k n o w n th a t b e f o r e th e sta r t o f th e 20th c e n tu r y , th e w o r d c u l tu r e w as rarely used in a socio-historical sense; rather it conveyed intellectual and aestheticconnotationsindicating erudition, refinementof spirit, or artisticand literary pursuits. Certainly, thisclassical or humanistmeaning of theword culture is still valid, butithasnow gained a sociological and historical sense. Today we speak of cultural identity, of dialogue between cultures, of cultural domi- nation orliberation. The Christianchurchesspeak ofevangelisation ofcultures, of acculturation or inculturation. The classical notion of culture or of a cultured person alsoimpliesa normativeaspect, withculture in thiscontextreferring to a n i d e a l to b e a tta i n e d . O n th e o th e r h a n d , th e a n th r o p o l o g i c a l n o ti o n o f c u l tu r e

giuridicae dirittocanonico, éd. Giappichelli, 1991, pp. 3-29; Cardinal Paul Poupard, LEgliseau défi des cultures , Cultures etfoi, éd. Pontificium concilium de cultura, III-1, 1995, pp. 1-17. 13 C onstitution Gaudium etSpes , N s54, 58, 61. 1 ; JacquesEtienne, N ature etculture selon la théologie morale , in collectif, Nature etculture, Le Supplément, Revue d éthique etthéologie morale, N s 1 82- 1 83, 1 992, pp. 253-270; Rémi Brague, L esfondationsde l Europe: une identitéouverte, le christianisme comme forme de la culture européenne , in Collectif, Christianisme et culture en Europe, éd. M ame, 1 992, pp. 29-44. 14 C o n sti tu ti o n Gaudium etSpes, 53(du Concile Vatican II): Le Concile enseigne que au senslarge, le motculture désigne toutce par quoi l homme affine etdéveloppe les multiples capacités de son espritetde son corps; s efforce de soumettre l univers par la connaissance et le travail; humanise la vie sociale, aussi bien la vie familialeque lensemble de la vie civile, grâce au progrès des moeurs etdes institutions; traduit, comunique etconserve enfin dans ses oeuvres, au cours des temps, les grandes expériences spirituelles etles aspirations majeures de l homme, afin qu elles servent au progrès d un grand nombre et même de tout le genre humain. Il en résulteque la culture humaine comportenécessairementun aspecthistorique etsocial et quele motcultureprendsouventunsenssociologiqueetmêmeethnologique...

DR © 1996. Instituto de Investigaciones Jurídicas - Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México Este libro forma parte del acervo de la Biblioteca Jurídica Virtual del Instituto de Investigaciones Jurídicas de la UNAM www.juridicas.unam.mx https://biblio.juridicas.unam.mx/bjv Libro completo en: https://goo.gl/D2XTZC SCHOOL AND CULTURE 245 refers toa collective psychology, the lifestyles typical of a particular human group. U nderstood thus, culture leads to a descriptive approach, which also takes account of socio-historical or socio-cultural circumstances with both positiv e and negative aspects. 15 In his 1 871 book Primitive Society,Edward T aylor putforw ard the firstanthropological definition of culture: C ulture, or civilisation, consistsof an ensemble which includes knowledge, beliefs, art, ethics, laws, customs and every other aptitude or habitthatman has acquired asamemberofsociety.16 Secondly, we will consider a canonical approach to the question of culture in schools providing a Catholic education. This raises the problem of the specifically C atholic character of confessional schools, founded and directed by the C hurch. In fact, the C hurch places greatstresson the originality of her approach tothisquestion. Nevertheless, thisapproach posesthe problem of the necessary conditions for respecting the legitimate autonomy of culture in a Catholic school. Moreover, theChurch isalso presentin non-Catholic schools, both public and private, especially in contexts w here the dominant culture is non-Christian. How isitpossibletoguaranteeaCatholiceducation in suchacontext?17 Here, we need tobear in mind the Churchs special responsibility tobe presentto science and culture, bothsecular and sacred. Granted the specific character of itsown schools, how can the Church hope to guarantee an ethical approach18 to culture within the context of the school, as well as in the seminary or at a Catholic university? H o w c a n th e se i n sti tu ti o n s o f th e C h u r c h c o n tr i b u te to th e d e v e l o p m e n t o f Catholic education even in non Catholic public and private schools? W hat are the conditions in which a Catholic education is or can be given in a non-Catholic school belonging tocivil authoritiesor toprivatepersons? T his second partof my presentation will allow me to addressthe problem of the links between religious teaching and religious culture. The school, the seminary and theuniversityaswell asparish-based catechesisfor children,

15 Hervé C arrier S. J., Lexique de la culturepour l analyse culturelle etl inculturation, 1 992, op. cit., pp. 1 00-1 02. 16 H ervé C arrier S. J., ibid. , p. 1 04. 17 Jean-M arie Sw erry, Aumôneries catholiques dans l enseignementpublic. Un renouveau de la laïcité? préfacedeJean Imbertetpostface dePatrick Valdrini, coll. Droitcanonique etdroitcivil ecclésiastique, éd. C erf, 1 995, 439 pages; Episcopat Français, D roits et devoirs des parents relativement à l école, lettre pastorale (1 4septembre 1 909) , Assemblée plénière de l Episcopatfrançais: L e problème de l enseignement libre (4 avril 1 951 ) , in D enis MaunesgestS. J. (D ir. ), Le discours social de l Eglise catholique de France (1 891- 1 992), coll. D ocumentsdes Eglises, éd. C erf, 1 995, pp 1 05-1 1 6; et pp. 265-276. 18 Henri Bergson, Les deux sources de la morale etde la religion, éd. Félix, Alcan, 1932.

I. CANON L AW, C ATHOLIC PARENTSAND C ULTURE

I f w e assu m e th at C an o n L aw h as a speci al m i ssi on to safeg u ard cu l tu re, h ow i s i t p o ssi b l e to r e c o n c i l e th i s ta sk w i th th e p a r e n ts m i ssi o n w i th r e sp e c t to education, a role equally recognised by the canonical legislator? Canonlaw hasfounditnecessarytoclarifythetermsofparentalresponsibility in the field of education taking intoaccountthe new cultural challenges. T he Second V atican C ouncil devoted special attention to this subject in the A p o sto l i c C o n sti tu ti o n , Gaudium etSpes. Se c ti o n 3 o f th i s d o c u m e n t, e n ti tl e d TheMostUrgentDutiesofChristianswithrespecttoCulture, andChapter

19 Jean Stoetzel, Les Valeurs du temps présent: une enquête européenne,éd.PUF,1983,309pages; Georges-Hubert de Radkowski, Métamorphoses de la valeur. Essai d anthropologie économique, coll. Influences, éd. PUG, 1 987, 1 67pages; Collectif, l universculturel desjeunes, in Lumen vitae,XIV,31990, pp. 245-326; Anne Fortin-Melkevik, L e rapport Nature/ culture/ normativité , in Collectif Nature et Culture, Le Supplément, Revue d éthique etthéologie morale, N s 1 82-1 83, 1 992, pp. 327-337; D ocu m en t Presencia de la Iglesiaen la Universidad y en la cultura universitaria , in Cultures etfoi. II-3, 1994, pp. 161-177. 20 FIUC, Culture chrétienne etdroitsde l homme (Colloque international de la fédération internationale desuniversitéscatholiques, 1989), éd. Academia, 1991; J. Hersch (Dir.), Le droitd être un homme, recueil de textes, éd. U N ESC O , 1 968 et Le droit d être un homme, anthologie mondiale de la liberté, coéd. U N ESCO-L attès, 1 985; J.-M. Pontier, J.-C . Ricci, J. Bourdon, Droitde la culture, coll. Précis, éd. dalloz, 1 990; L uc Rouban, l Etatetla science: la politique de la science etde la technologie, éd. C N RS, 1 968; J.-J. Sal m on, Science etpolitique, éd. Seuil, 1970; P. Schlesinger, Media, Stateand nation: political violence and collective identities, éd. University of Stirling, 1 991; H. Shaughnesy & C. Fuente Cobo, Les obligations culturelles de la radiodiffusion. Législations nationales ettransnationales sur les obligations culturelles des télédiffuseurs en Europe, éd. Instituteuropéen de la Communication/ Conseil de L Europe, 1 990.

60, The Recognition of a Universal RighttoCulture and toitsPractical Fulfil- ment offer some important directions. If tomorrow culture supersedes the school, how will the Church respond? How will the church be able tosupport the family in the face of this renewed cultural challenge? Will culture escape from the Church and the family as has the school? The Synod of Bishops in Rome in 1 985highlightedthe necessity of discernmentwithrespecttoculture in order thatthe Church may exercise an appropriately critical regard.21 Vatican II itself recalled the Churchstraditional supportfor the family and the school:

The family isin the firstinstancelike a nurturing mother withrespecttoeducation. Within the family, children, surrounded by love, discover easily the hierarchy of values, whiletheyabsorb virtuallyunconsciouslytheelementsofcultural experience as they grow and develop. 22

The Catholic Church has always shown a deep attachment to the school,23 and even more sofor the parental responsibilityfor the Christian education of young people. W ith respect to catechesis, drawing on Canon 1 355 of the Code of Canon Lawof1917 24 and the spiritof V atican II, the supreme legislator emphasised in Canon 774 § 2 of the 1983Code the primary responsibilityof the parents under the responsibilityof their legitimatepastors: Parentsabove othersare obliged toform their children in the faithand practice of the Christian life by word and example; godparents and those who take the place of parents are bound by an equivalentobligation. Canon 776isalsoimportantin thiscontext, the pastor having the responsibilitytohelp and encourage parentsin their task of family catechesis. 25

21 Gérad D efois, L a crise culturelle de la modernité , in Pour une éthique de la culture, coll. Egliseet société, éd. L e C enturion, 1 988, pp 40-44. 22 Constitution conciliaire Gaudium etSpes, N 61.2; Jean-Paul II, Lettre aux enfants, en lannée de la famille , in, La documentation catholique N 21 08, 1 995, p p . 52- 56. 23 A. Michel, La question scolaire etlesprincipesthéologiques, éd. Lille, 1921; A. Mascarel, La question scolaire. Principes et solutions, éd. Paris, 1921; J. Creüsen, Lécole catholique , in Nouvelle revue théologique, 1 926; Pie X I, Encyclique Rappresentanti in terra (31 décembre 1 929) , in La documentation catholique, XXIII, col. 389; At, lEgliseetlécole daprèsle Corpus juris canonici , in Revue canonique, 1 990 pp. 388 et s. ; R aou l N az, D es écol es (C an . 1 372-1 383) , i n Traitéde droitcanonique, éd. L etouzey etAné, 1 948, pp. 1 53-1 59; Documentde la Congrégation pour l Education catholique: L école catholique (1 9mars1 977), in La documentation catholique, N 1 725, 1 977, pp. 705-71 6; Jacqueline D utheil de la Rochère & Yves Gaudemet(Dir.), Ecole etreligion à létranger , in Revue française de droit administratif,7.1. 1 991 , p p . 82. 24 L es parents ou tuteurs (des enfants, leurs) maîtres (leurs) parrain et marraine doivent assurer l instruction religieuse des enfantsqui dépendentd eux (Canon 1 335); Jean Joncheray (Dir.), L histoire des catéchismes , in Revue de l Institutcatholique de Paris, N 29,1989,pp. 1-48. 25 Jean-Paul II, Exhortation apostolique C atechesi tradendae ( 1 979) , i n La documentation catholique, 1 979.

Concerning education as a whole, CIC 1 983 Canon 1 1 36 is even more insistentasregardsparents: Parentshave the mostseriousdutyand the primary righttodo all in their power tosee tothe physical, social, cultural, moral and religious upbringing of their children. Regarding Catholic education, we know that CIC 1983Canon 793 also attributes an eminent responsibility to the parents. Whereas Canon 796§ 1 speaks of the educational task w hich falls on parents, the second paragraph of thatcanon attemptstobalance the responsibilities incumbentrespectively on parentsand on the school teachers to w hom parentsentrusttheir children. H ere canon law insistsboth on the presence of parentsand the responsibility of teachers. 26 M oreover, the legislator advocates close co-operation between parents and teachers in order that they may jointly promote an educational service that meetsthe challenge of the numerous other mediums of education and culture. In relation tothe responsibilityof civil powers, itisopportune torecall that AncientGreecewitnessedanheuristicconflictbetween the family and citywith respecttothe education of youth. 27 Thusitisalwaysrelevanttoaskthequestion: is the school on the side of the parents? The Church also has to take a stand in favour of the family considering the need toevangelisethe family itself. The Church hasalso spoken outon the links between culture and political so ci ety . 28 Perhaps never in history has culture managed to exceed the limitsof school a n d u n i v e r si ty a s i t h a s d o n e a t th i s e n d o f th e tw e n ti e th c e n tu r y , to th e p o i n t where the image of the universal man seemstobe disappearing.29 How then is the Church toassistparentsin their responsibilityover the whole range of culture and cultures? How can the school and theuniversitysupporttheChurch in the exerciseof thatresponsibilitywithrespecttochildren and adolescents? AsPiusXI wrotein 1929: Man mustexistin order thathe may be a citizen, and this existence derives not from the State but from one s parents. 30 How then does canon law contribute towards guaranteeing such freedoms and responsibilities within the life of the Church and how does itnegotiatethese withcivil society? Thesequestionsraiseanumberofchallengesfor parentsand educators butalso for pastors, theologians and canonists. Here itis notsimply a question of the risk of failing todifferentiate between religions, or between

26 Patrick T apernoux, Parentsetenseignants: antagonisme ? in Etudes, 3774, 1 994, pp. 321 -330. 27 C f. les dialogues de Platon sur l éducation: La République; leslois. 28 Constitution conciliaire Gaudium etSpes, N 61. 2; B. Duballet, La famille, lEtatdansléducation, éd.Paris,1910. 29 Constitution Gaudium etspes, 61.1. 30 Pie X I, Encyclique Rappresentanti in terra (31 décembre 1 929) , in La documentation catholique, XXIII, col. 397.

As for the public powers, it is their task, notto determine the proper character of civilisation, butto establish theconditions and to promotethemeans susceptible of favouring cultural lifefor the benefitofall, withoutforgetting theminorityelements present in a nation. This is why it is necessary to avoid at all costs that culture, turned aw ay from itsproper ends, be subjected to political and economic pow ers.31

Canon law, searching after Vatican II to guarantee the liberty of choice of school by parents, has also taken into account the Council s deepening of the Church s doctrine with respectto the responsibilities of the parentsand for the responsibilitiesof civil societiesin the matter of education. Firstof all, catechetical teaching and the magisterium mustalways be free of any civil hindrances. Canon 1322 § 2 a) of the 1917 Code specified that independentlyof any civil power, the Church hasthe rightand dutytoteach the doctrine of the Gospel to all nations . The school itself, in canonical tradition, hasno rightsoverthechild.32 W hatever rightsthe school may exercise originatefrom aparental mandate. The parents responsibilityforthe education of their children in turn derivesfrom their responsibilityfor the actswhich led to the birth of their children. In 1948, Raoul Naz described very clearly the traditional links defined in canon law between the parents, the C hurch and th e Sta te i n r e l a ti o n to th e e d u c a ti o n o f th e c h i l d r e n :

Parents, however, only give natural lifetothechild. Butthereisin thechildanother kind of life: supernatural life... the principle (of which), according to Church teaching, issacramental grace. Justasthe parentsare responsible for the development of thenatural life of thechild, so too theChurch has a mission to develop thatgerm of supernatural life she has deposited in the child. For the Church as for theparents, paternityistheunbreakable foundation of therightsand dutieswhich are incumbent o n e ac h p a r ty i n r e sp e c t o f th e e d u c a ti o n o f th e c h i l d . I f i t so h a p p e n s th at p a r e n ts or theChurcharenotin aposition tocarry outtheirresponsibilities, itispermissible to call upon the assistance of the State, which is required to assistthose under its authoritytofulfil theirpurposesineducationalmattersaswell asinallotherdomains.

31 Constitution conciliaire Gaudium etSpes, 59, 5. 32 Raoul Naz, Traitéde droitcanonique, op. cit., p. 1 53.

But assisting them mustnot be understood as replacing them, nor as taking over their rightsasin the caseof aclaim thatachild belongstothe Statein prioritytoits n atu r a l p ar e n ts. 33

According toCIC 1 917 Canon 1 374, the Church in principle forbidsChristian parentsfrom enroling their children in so-called neutral schoolsor even in so-called mixed schools. (In this context, neutral schools are those without any religious education, whereas mixed schools are schools enroling children belonging tootherreligiousconfessions.) Thecanon law ofthatperiodhowever admitted thatin cases of necessity, as judged by theOrdinary, for example in the absence of a Catholic school, itwas permissible for a child to attend such a neutral school. This permission was, of course, subject to the condition of taking appropriatesteps such asextra-curricular religious formation toavoid any risksor dangers. In Catholic schools, catechesiswasrequired tobe given on an equal footing withsecularsubjects, and linking ittothe whole lifeof the children concerned. V arious concordats were signed during the pontificates of Pius X I and Pius XII,34 which includednotably a clauseproviding for areligiouseducation in all schools, including non-Catholic schools. This education was to be under the control of, and organised by the C atholic C hurch herself with the assistance of the State concerned, butwithoutseeking to impose this religious teaching on the chi ldren agai nst the w il l of thei r parents. 35 According tocanonical tradition, the temporal power hasthe dutytoprovide parentswith the necessary means to ensure the religious education of their children. In any event, the respect of the common good, accordi ng to canoni cal tradition and the natural law , 36 requiresthe Statetoprovide all itssubjectswitha minimum of knowledge. Canon 798of the L atin Code of 1 983is more flexible than Canon 1 374 of the 1 917 Code. Canon 798 in fact provides first that parents are to entrust their children to those schools in which Catholic education is provided . But thesame canon adds that if they are unable to do this, they are bound to provide for their suitable Catholic education outside the schools. The vocabu- lary has thus become more supple, lessrigid. It is no longer a question of Catholic schoolsbeing theonly option, butsimply of schoolswhich give a Catholic education.

33 Ibid. , pp. 1 53-1 54. 34 C oncordatsde Bavière etde Pologne en 1 925, d I talie etde Roumanie en 1 929, d Autriche etde Portugal en 1 940, E spagne en 1 953. 35 Raoul Naz, op. cit., p. 1 55. 36 Pie X I, Encyclique Rappresentanti in terra (31 décembre 1 929), in La documentation catholique, XXIII, col. 389.

Thusitispossible toconceive of Stateschoolsin which Catholic education is integrated into the academic programme. C onsequently, canon 799 recom- mendstoparentstostrive for civil legislation permitting young people toreceive a religious and moral education according to the conscience of the parents in the schools themselves. CIC Canon 800in particular then bearswitnessto the C hurch s perennial claim to be able to found and direct C atholic schools. C I C C anon 797, for itspart, consecratesthe principle of the parents freedom to te a c h . T h u s i t i s n e c e ssa r y th a t th e p a r e n ts e n j o y tr u e f r e e d o m i n se l e c ti n g schools . Thisiswhy, totake the wordsof the same canon, that theChristian faithful musttherefore be concerned thatcivil societyacknowledge thisfreedom for parentsand also safeguard it with itsresources in accord with distributive justice . Thisisa principle of religiousfreedom and of religion sanctioned in principle by international law and in numerous constitutional laws.37

II. A CANONICAL APPROACH TO C ULTURE IN THE SCHOOL

W e have seen thatCanon 798of the1 983L atin Code no longer limitsCatholic parentsto choosing between on one hand a Catholic school, and on the other hand a neutral or multi-religious school. Canon 1374 of the 1917 Code had enjoined parentstoavoid sending their children tonon-Catholic schools. Today, however, the emphasisis placed on Catholic education so thatbothCatholic and non-C atholic schools may receive C atholic children provided that they be given a C atholic education , as required by C anon 798. How then can theinstitutions of the Catholic Church guarantee on one hand a legitimatecultural autonomy in Catholic schools, and on theother hand, how can they secure a C atholic education in schools w here a non-C hristian culture prevails? I t is necessary at the outset to refer to canonical tradition regarding culture.

1. Towards a Study of the Links between Canon Law and Culture

As an indication of the importance which I place on this dimension of canonical science, atthe Centenary Celebration for theFaculty of Canon L aw of theInstitutCatholique de Paris, I plan to propose to RectorPatrick V aldrini

37 Article 26§3de la Déclaration universelle desdroitsde lhomme du 10octobre 1949; Article 13§3 du Pacte international de droitséconomiques, sociaux et culturels de l O N U , le 1 6 décembre 1 966; Article 18 § 4 du Pacteinternational des droitscivils etpolitiques, du 16 décembre 1966; Article 5 § b, de la Convention relative à la luttecontre la discrimination dansle domaine de lenseignement, de lUNESCO le 1 4 décembre 1 960; l Article 2 du premier protocole additionnel à la Convention européenne pour la sauvegarde desdroitsde l homme etdeslibertésfondamentales, du Conseil de l Europe, le 4novembre 1 950.

C ulture, in fact, since itflows directly from the rational and social characterof man, always requires a just freedom in order that it may flower, and benefit from its legitimateautonomy of action, in conformitywithitsown principles. Thusculture hasthe righttoa certain inviolabilityon condition, evidently, thatitsafeguardsthe rightsof the person and of society, particular or universal, within the limitsof thecommongood.

In this spirit, Canon 803of the 1983Code makes clear thatthe Bishops C onferences will see to it that C atholic university institutions are places in which the variousdisciplinesare tobe investigated and taughtwithdue regard for their academic autonomy, and withdue consideration for Catholic doctrine . Thisethic of university culture should permeatethewhole educational effortin both primary and secondary schools as well as in seminaries. N e v e r th e l e ss, c a n o n l a w p r o m o te s a n d p r o te c ts c u l tu r e . I n f a c t, V a ti c a n I i n itsConstitution De Fide Catholica ta u g h t th a t th e C h u r c h c o n si d e r s i t to b e her duty to help and promote the culture of sciences and arts .41 Canon 807 of the 1 983Code speaks of the contribution of universities erected or directed by the Church to ahigher level of human culture . Within the framework of the canon law of thetemporal goods of theChurch, Canon 1 283relative to the administration ofecclesiastical goodsinsistson the preservation ofgoodswhich

38 Dei Filius, in Denzinger, 1795, 3015, 3019. 39 44-47. 40 C onstitution Gaudium etspes , 59, 2-3. 41 c. IV , commenté par Raoul Naz dans son Traitéde droitcanonique, 1 948, p. 1 56, note 4.

DR © 1996. Instituto de Investigaciones Jurídicas - Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México Este libro forma parte del acervo de la Biblioteca Jurídica Virtual del Instituto de Investigaciones Jurídicas de la UNAM www.juridicas.unam.mx https://biblio.juridicas.unam.mx/bjv Libro completo en: https://goo.gl/D2XTZC SCHOOL AND CULTURE 253 are either precious or of a significantcultural value .42 Thishelpsexplain the decision of Pope John Paul II on the 28June 1988to constitute the Pontifical Commission for the Conservation of the Artistic and Historical Patrimony of theChurch. The Church wantstoprotectand promoteculture asa possible privileged meeting point between persons of different philosophical or religious convic- tions. Thus, a new Pontifical Council for Culture was created on 4 May 1 993 from the union of the previous Pontifical Council of Culture, created in 1 982, and of the Pontifical Council for Dialogue with Non-Believers. In this regard, Pope John Paul II wrote that he seeks to promote the encounter with non-believersin the privileged domain of culture, which formsa fundamental dimension of the spirit, linking men (and women) together, and uniting them in thatwhich is mostimportantto them, their common humanity .43 Canon law definesthe conditionsof responsibilityof educators, teachersand especially for those w ho teach and undertake university-level research in the field of the sacred sciences. The Second Vatican Council, following the First V atican C ouncil, hasrecognised thatthere are two distinctordersof knowledge, thatof faith, and thatof reason. Thus the Church certainly is notopposed to the artsand human disciplines having their own proper principles and methods in their respective domains . 44 Both C ouncils in fact speak of a just freedom. In itsturn, Canon 21 8 of the 1 983 L atin Code declares that, par excellence, those who are engaged in the sacred disciplines enjoy a lawful freedom of inquiry and of prudently expressing their opinions on matters in which they have expertise, while observing a due respect for the Magisterium of the Church . The 1 989Instruction of the Roman Congregation for theDoctrine of the Faith, speaking on the vocation of the theologian, also respects this fundamental principle, while recalling the dutiesinherentin the responsibilities of those w ho are teachersand researchersin the sacred sciences. 45 For educators and teachers, especially those who teach in Catholic educational bodies, the su prem e l eg i sl ato r o f 1 983 al so i n si sts o n th e requ i red p erson al qu al i ti es. C an o n 803provides that teachers are to be outstanding for their correctdoctrine and integrity of life . Canon 804 then entruststo the bishop the task of ensuring thatthosewho are assigned asreligion teachersin schools, even in non-Catho-

42 Henri Kraus, A prix d or. Le financement des cathédrales, coll Histoire (petits), éd. Cerf 1 991, 368 pages; L es bibliothèques ecclésiastiques dans la mission de l Eglise. L ettre de la C ommission pontificale pourlesbiensculturelsdelEglise, in La documentation catholique, N 2095, 1 994, p p . 51 0-51 6. 43 Motu proprio Inde a pontificatus , in La documentation catholique,N2074,p.551. 44 Constitution Gaudium etspes, 59, 3; cf. Vatican I, Constitution dogmatique Dei Filius, IV, 9, 1795 (3015, 3019). 45 Instruction de la Congrégation romaine pour la Doctrine de la foi, La vocation ecclésiale du théologien, coll D ocumentsdes Eglises, éd. C erf, 1 990, 48 pages.

DR © 1996. Instituto de Investigaciones Jurídicas - Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México Este libro forma parte del acervo de la Biblioteca Jurídica Virtual del Instituto de Investigaciones Jurídicas de la UNAM www.juridicas.unam.mx https://biblio.juridicas.unam.mx/bjv Libro completo en: https://goo.gl/D2XTZC 254 JEAN-PAUL DURAND lic ones, be outstanding for their correct doctrine, their w itness of C hristian living and their pedagogical skill . Canon 805addsthat the local ordinary has the righttoname or approve teachersof religion and likewisetoremove or to demandthatthey beremovedifitisrequiredforreasonsofreligion or morals. For teachersin Catholic universities, Canon 810insistson their scientific and pedagogical capacity as well as the integrity of their doctrine and the probity of their lives. Teachers are also subjectto the cultural crisis. 46 They may thus embrace lifestyles which risk becoming a counter-witnessatthe heart of the Church s educational family of thevaluesthatshe wishestopromotein Catholic schools. However, international conventions on non-discrimination protect the private lives of teachers. 47 T he principals of C atholic schools are considered in French labour law, 48 for example, as key personnel w ho are consequently expected to show a stronger adhesion tothe values of the institution in this instance a Catholic one which hasentrusted them witha responsibility. From the point of view of the Church, such a position is considered to be a public office in canon law . 49 All the same, in a case where a failing is noted, butin which there is no scandal being caused, the diocesan bishop could, by means of a dispense, in certain cases maintain in office a person such as the principal of a school. Such a dispensewould be granted after a processof discernmentintuitupersonae and ad casum, exercised under the jurisdiction of the diocese responsible for the school. The dispense would be justified as long as the principal involved con ti n u ed to sh ow th at h e oth erw i se co n ti n u ed to po ssess th e n ecessary qu al i ti es for his postasthe principal of a Catholic school. The Catholic character of a school mustbe protected, but the bishop should not be ill-advisedly deprived

46 Face à la culture de violence, message pastoral des évêques des Etats-Unis, in La documentation catholique, N 21 09, 1 995, p p . 1 30-1 37 . 47 Jean Savatier, L application du droitdu travail dans les rapportsentrelesmaîtres etlesétablissements privés d enseignementsous contratd association , in Droitsocial, N 5, 1 992, pp. 439-445; G eorges D ol e, L a liberté d opinion etde croyance en droitcomparé du travail , ibid. , pp. 446-449. 48 Cour dappel de Montpellier, 18février 1988, cit. par Aurélia de Saint-Exupéry, La jurisprudence française etle caractère propre de l enseignementcatholique , in L année canonique, T. XXXVII, 1994,à paraître: à propos des directeurs d écoles catholiques, la Cour d appel a pris en considération le fait que l organisme employeur du directeur (organisme de Gestion de l EnseignementCatholique) prévoitdans ses statutsque lanomination ou lelicenciementdun chefdétablissementexigelaccorddelautoritédetutelle à savoir l autoritédiocésaine ou l institutreligieux délégué à ceteffet. Pour la C our, cetorganisme de gestion du lycéecatholique areconnu danssesstatutscivilslautoritécanonique dudiocèsecatholique; que lesstatuts civils de cetorganisme de gestion, employeur du directeur, interdisentà cetorganisme de recruter ou de licencier un directeur sans retraitpréalable dagrémentdûmentdélivré par l autoritécanonique (la missio canonica signée par l évêque si la tutelle canonique estdirectementdiocésaine etnon pas confiée à un institut de vie consacrée). 49 Patrick Valdrini (Dir.), Statutscivil etcanonique desanimateurspastoraux , in L année canonique, XXXV, 1992,pp.1-126.

DR © 1996. Instituto de Investigaciones Jurídicas - Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México Este libro forma parte del acervo de la Biblioteca Jurídica Virtual del Instituto de Investigaciones Jurídicas de la UNAM www.juridicas.unam.mx https://biblio.juridicas.unam.mx/bjv Libro completo en: https://goo.gl/D2XTZC SCHOOL AND CULTURE 255 of his righttogranta canonical dispense. In such a delicatematter, itwould be importanttoalso give pastoral attention tothe cultural contextof a Catholic school. An appropriate application of canon law could give precious assistance in such cases, for example in creating or defining a canonical status for the person a t f a u l t. I n ste a d o f e i th e r sy ste m a ti c a l l y p r a c ti si n g e x c l u si o n o r p r e te n d i n g to ignore the fault, the ordinary, who isresponsible for the Catholic character of confessional schools, could concretise his own canonical and pastoral respon- sibilityaswell asthe situation ofthepersonsandinstitutionsconcernedby these difficultiesof respecting Catholic moralityin confessional Catholiceducational institutions. Canon law could respond in thisway tocultural mentalitieswhich to d a y a r e m o r e a tte n ti v e th a n e v e r to th e e th i c a l c o m p o r tm e n t o f th e b i sh o p w i th r e sp e c t to b o th p e r so n s a n d i n sti tu ti o n s. C anon law needs also to appreciatethe culture of differentstates. I n the steps of Leo XIII, Pope John Paul II returns to this question in his Encyclical Centesimus Annus of May 1 991. 50 In line withthe culture of a particular state, the specifically C atholic character of a confessional school w ill be taken into c o n si d e r a ti o n to a g r e a te r o r l e sse r e x te n t. I n th e F r e n c h sy ste m o f se p a r a ti o n between religions and the state, for example, itis worthwhile to consider how French jurisprudence would deal with a problem. W hat would happen, for example, in acasein which acivil body ofmanagementin charge of aCatholic school dismissed the school principal because the bishop had withdrawn his missio canonica on the grounds that the principal had become a remarried divorcee? I n the case of a sacristan w ithout a missio canonica,butwhowasa practising homosexual, a civil judge overruled the dismissal, because in the judge s view there was no open manifestation of trouble in that case.51 Si nce thatcasemany Catholic institutionswho employ lay people in servicesor even in ecclesiastical offices prefer to proceed through arbitration in cases of dismissal in order to avoid the risk of a negative response from a civil judge before whom such a dismissal may be broughtfor judgment.52 Theseincidents

50 Jean-Paul II, L Etat et la culture , in L e centenaire de Rerum novarum , lettre encyclique Centesimus annus (1 er mai 1 991), coll. Documentsdes Eglises, éd. Cerf, 1 991, pp. 90-1 07. 51 Cour deCassation (Chambresociale), 17 avril 1991, in Gazettedu Palais, 1 3 août 1 991, pp. 8 et9, noteOlivierEchappé, cf. noteSeriaux in Juri scl asseur péri odi que, 1 991, II, 21 724. L a chambre sociale s est prononcée en faveur du pourvoi formé par le sacristain contrel arrêtde la Cour d appel de Paris du 30mars 1990: aucun trouble caractériséau sein de lassociation navaitétécréé parla conduiteprivée de sacristain salarié . La Cour de renvoi a estimé que le licenciementnétaitpointjustifié étantdonné que lassociation avait pris connaisance des moeurs du sacristain à la suite d indiscrétions. 52 Secrétariatgénéral de l Episcopat, Laïcs chargés d une mission dans l Eglise,éd.Paris,juin1995,40 pages.

DR © 1996. Instituto de Investigaciones Jurídicas - Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México Este libro forma parte del acervo de la Biblioteca Jurídica Virtual del Instituto de Investigaciones Jurídicas de la UNAM www.juridicas.unam.mx https://biblio.juridicas.unam.mx/bjv Libro completo en: https://goo.gl/D2XTZC 256 JEAN-PAUL DURAND illustratewell the question of the evolution of culture and labour law in such a state. Canon law also promotes the scientific standing of the various Catholic educational institutions. Canon 806§ 2 providesthat the directors(principals) of Catholic schools, under the vigilance of the local ordinary, are tosee toit, thatthe instruction given in them, is atleastasacademically distinguished as thatgiven in the other schoolsof the region . Canon 807takesa similar line. Throughoutthe history of the Church, canon law hasoften been called upon to se ttl e c o n f l i c ts, w h i c h w e r e e m i n e n tl y c u l tu r a l c o n f l i c ts, a n d w h i c h h a v e sometimes had considerable impacton mentalities in succeeding centuries. I tis notnecessary in thispresentMexico congress, nor in thisparticular paper, to demonstrate the importance of such canonical arbitrations in cultural or educational matters. Here I will only mention a few especially significant interventions of the Church. One of the mostimportant of these interventions for theology, piety, religious education, and culture, was during iconoclastic dispute, w hen the C hurch decided in favour of the protection of the icons. T his took place atthe Second Council of Nicaea, during itsseventh session, on 1 3 October 787. The Council thatday decreed thattheveneration of iconsof Christ, the Virgin, of angelsand saintswasjustified by virtue of the Incarnation, that such veneration in no way constituted idolatry since the hommage rendered to the icon is directed to itsprototype , and thatsuch veneration was notonly permissible butnecessary: to refuse itamounting to a denial of theincarnation of the W ord of God. 53 Moreover, we should mention here the canon law concerning missions, and itsnumerousadaptationsaswell astherichesof canon law in general. 54 Another famousepisode wastheecclesiastical processin 1 633 againstGalileo who had espoused the astronomical model proposed by Co- pernicus. 55 It would be necessary also to mention the quarrel concerning the Chinese rites.56 AndwhatofthedeclarationSollicitudini Nostrae by Pope BenedictX I V in 1 745, w here he specified the manner in w hich the H oly T rinity

53 François Boespflug & Nicolas L ossky (Dir. ), Nicée II (787-1987), douzesièclesdimagesreligieuses, coll. Histoire, éd. Cerf, 1 987, pp. 7 et8; l Eglise estintervenue par excellence à la fin du X IIè etau début du XIIIè siècle pour réguler lesrécitsde vie de saints: Cf. InnocentIII, la bulle LicetapostolicaSedesde lété1202citéeparAlainBoureau, La légende dorée. Le Système narratifde Jacquesde Vorragine (+ 1 298), préface de Jacques L e Goff, coll. Histoire, éd. C erf, 1 984, pp. 21 8 ets. 54 Paul Coulon & Paul Brasseur (éd.), Libermann, 1 802-1 852: Une pensée etune mystique missionnaire, préface de L éopold Sédar Senghor, coll. Histoitre, éd. Cerf 1 988, 938pages.; Jean-Paul II, La mission du Christrédempteur, présentation de C laude Geffré O. P. , coll. D ocumentsdes Eglises, éd. C erf, 1 991, 1 34 pages. 55 TheGalileo Galilei Affair. A meeting offaithandscience. ProceedingsoftheCracow Conference, 1984, G. Coyne, M. Heller, M. Zycinski éd.,VaticanObservatorypublications,vol.1,N3,1985;W.Brandmüller, Galilei und die Kirche oder dasRechtauf Irrtum, é d . P u ste t, 1 982 . 56 Michel Masson, L es jésuites en Chine , in Etudes, 1 990, p p . 667-678.

may be represented aesthetically for the devotion of the faithful another constantpedagogical concern of the Church? The Council of Trenthad already urged more rigour in religiousiconography. ProfessorChastel wroteconcerning this: W e forget too often that in the W est as opposed to in Greek Christianity thetheology of imageshasalwaysbowed totraditional practice, consuetudo. 57 Here we should notealso thatitwasBenedictX IV who ordered in 1 741 that the Holy Office should give its imprimatur tothe firstedition of The Complete Works of Galileo, recognising the optical proof of the fact that th e E a r th o r b i ts th e Su n . 58 And it was Pope John Paul II himself who carried outthe final rehabilitation of Galileo.59 T he beginnings of a more anthropological approach toculture can also be discerned through arereading of the teachings of the magisterium from L eo X III to John Paul II.60 Itis importantto take note of an importantpontifical arbitration during the 1 9th century concerning the presence of the pagan classics in the programmes of Catholic colleges. Mgr Jean-Joseph Gaume was unable to secure from Pope Pius IX that they be excluded in favour of exclusively Christian authors, preferably the fathersof the Church. Nor did Mgr Gaume succeed in obtaining from Pius IX that a pontifical instruction be sent to the bishops of the whole world containing the pope s response on this question, a response which was in the end quite moderate. AsDaniel Moulinetexplained in 1995, 61 Pope Pius I X o n l y w r o te tw o l e tte r s o n th i s m a tte r o n e l e tte r o f e n c o u r a g e m e n t f o r th e

57 Préface d André Chastel à: François Boepflug, Dieu dans lart. Sollicitudini Nostrae de Benoît X I V (1 745) etl affai re C escence de K aufbeuren , postface de L éonid Ouspensky, coll. Histoire éd. Cerf, 1 984, 379 pages. 58 Comme lécritle Cardinal Paul Poupard en 1992(notesuivante) laréforme implicitepar le Pape Benoît X VI de la sentence infligée à Galilée en 1633a étéexplicitée dans le décretde la Sacrée C ongrégation de l I ndex qui a retiré de l édition de 1 757 du Catalogue des livres interdits les ouvrages en faveur de la théorie héliocentrique. (p. 341 ). 59 Paul Poupard, Discours au terme des travaux de la Commission pontificale d étude de la controverse ptoléméo-copernicienne aux X V Iè-X V IIè siècles , in Le Supplément. Revue d éthique etthéologie morale, Ns1 82-1 83, 1 992, pp. 338-342; Jean-Paul II, L a conclusion de la session plénière de l Académie pontificale des sciences (31 octobre 1 992), ibid. , pp. 343-352. 60 Denis MaugenestS. J (Dir. ), Le discours social de l Eglise catholique de Léon XIII à Jean-Paul II , coll. Egliseetsociété, éd. Le Centurion/CERAS, 1985, p. 712. 61 Pie IX , Encyclique Inter multiplices (21 mars 1 853) in Annalesde philosophie chrétienne,t.46,N 40,avril 1853, pp. 297ets.; Daniel Moulinet, Lesclassiquespaïensdanslescollègescatholiques? Le combat de Mgr Gaume, préface de Jean-Marie Mayeur, coll. Histoire religieuse de la France, éd. C erf, 1 995, 485 pages: Daniel Moulinety citela lettre du Pape Pie IX au Cardinal dAvanzo de 1874; cettelettre attesteque c est l enseignement mixte des deux littératures qui est la pratique traditionnelle de l Eglise: L a coutume constantedelEgliseaétédapprendrelelatinauxenfantsparlétudemixtedesauteurssacrésetclassiques. (p. 317). L e Pape sen tientà la pédagogie etévite de se prononcer en effetsur la position de l Eglise face aupaganisme; voiraussiparailleurs: HélèneToubert, Un artdirigé. Réforme grégorienne eticonographique, coll. Histoire, éd. Cerf, 1 990, 400pages; L ouis Doutreleau, L assemblée du clergé de France etl édition patristique grecque au X V IIè siècle , in Emmanuel Bury & Bernard Meunier (D ir. ), Lespèresde lEglise au XVIIè siècle, coéd. IRHT -C erf, 1 993, pp. 99-1 1 6.

use, alongside the profane authors, of a selection of Christian writers, and another letter to recognise that the use of both kinds of literature conformed withChurch custom. The Jesuitsin factminimisedthe importanceof thesetwo pontifical letters, considering them as simply personal letters and applicable only to the formation of future priests. In 1 990, the Roman Congregation for Catholic Education published a very balanced instruction concerning The Study of the Fathers of the C hurch in Priestly Formation . 62 In any event, the effortsof the Holy See in itsattention toculture have led tothe creation of itspontifical academies63 and also to the foundation of the Pontifical Council for Culture, which is particularly attentive to questions of inculturation.64 W h o c a n a n ti c i p a te th e r e su l ts o f th i s c o n te m p o r a r y r e se a r c h withrespecttoinculturation, especiallyin Africa, in theAmericasandin Asia?65 W e can also notethatthe canonical legislatorinsistsin the field of education, even school education, on the impact of ecumenism.66 H e al so i n si sts on th e cultural effort undertaken in favour of the Oriental C hurches, and of a knowledge of the canonical institutionsof theseChurches, including thoseunited toRomeandallothers.67 Finally, thelegislatoremphasisesthetaskoftheChurch in favour of an education open tointer-religiousdialogue.68 The history of therelationsof the Catholic Church and culture bearswitness to a growing interestin culture on the part of the C hurch, and particularly of canon law. Thisinteresthasgrown in importance in the face of the particular problems which have confronted both school and university education, which

62 N 2001, 4mars1 990, pp. 262-273; L ettredesévêquesaux catholiquesde France, L espèresde l Eglise dans notre culture , in La documentation catholique, N 2084, 1 993, pp. 1 070-1 072; M ichel Fédou S. J., L es pères de l Eglise dans la culture contemporaine , in Etudes, 381 3, 1 994, p p . 629- 636. 63 RégisLadous, DesNobel au Vatican. Lafondation delAcadémiepontificaledessciences, coll. Histoire, éd. C erf, 1 994, 224 pages. 64 Jean-Paul II, Motu proprio Inde a pontificatus: U nion des Conseils pontificaux de la Culture etpour le dialogue avec lesnon-croyants (4mai 1 993), in La documentation catholique, N 2074, 1 994, pp. 551 -552: ce motu proprio modifie la constitution apostolique Pastor Bonus d e 1 988. 65 Claude PairaultS.J., Questions sur linculturation , in Revue de sciences religieuses, 83/1, 1995, pp. 61-72. 66 Directoire oecuménique: introduction et applications à la situation française, présentation par le C ardinal C assidy, coll. D ocuments des Eglises, éd. C erf, 1 994, 1 94 pages; L a méthode oecuménique qui réserve une place considérable à l éducation concernantl oecuménisme, implique notammentune relecture encommun parlesEglisesséparéesdeleursdivisions: parexemple, lexistencedecommunautésnestoriennes etmonophysites estune invitation à la relecture de lhistoire qui a entouré les Conciles dEphèse etde Chalcédoine (Cf. Déclaration commune signée le 1 0mai 1 973par le Pape Paul V I etle Patriarche Shénouda III, in La documentation catholique, N 1 633, 2 j ui n 1 973, pp. 51 4-51 6; Jean-Paul I I , Quils soient un, présentation par Bernard D upuy O. P. , coéd. C erf-Flammarion, 1 995, 1 09pages.1 09pages. 67 Jean-Paul II, Evangile, Eglise etculture , in La lumière de l Orient, présentation de Mgr Bernard D upire, coll. D ocumentsdes Eglises, éd. C erf, droitcanonique, 45/1, 1995,pp. 163-174. 68 A. -Henry O. P. (D ir. ), Lesrelationsde l Egliseavec lesreligionsnon chrétiennnes, Déclaration Nostra a e ta te , coll. U nam sanctam 61, éd. C erf, 1 966, 325pages; Jean-Paul II, L a révélation de la Prière. L appel universel à la prière , in Catéchisme de lEglisecatholique, coéd. M ame-Plon, 1 992, p. 521 .

2. Religious Culture and Catholic Education atSchool

Universal positivecanon law employsvarioustermsin thiscontext, such as generalculture,forexampleinCIC1983Canon248,orhigherlevelof human culture (Canon 807), or significantcultural interest (Canon 1 283), and also cultural upbringing (Canon 1 1 36). Canon law also speaks of Christian culture (Canon 821) within the contextof the establishmentby the C hurch of higher education in the sacred sciences. C anon 821 uses three significantterms: religious sciences, theological disciplines, and other disciplines pertaining to Christian culture . From this canon, we can see that th e n o ti o n o f C h r i sti a n c u l tu r e i n n o w a y c o n sti tu te s a c a l l f o r th e C a th o l i c o r Christian world to close itself off from the world. As in Canons 800, 802 and 807, Canon 821 placesCatholic educational institutionsatthe centreof a whole network w hich includesfreedom of teaching, freedom of the C hurch, and above all freedom of religion. When Catholic schoolsare established, itisin order to promote the whole of culture (Canon 800§1), and thusto offer an appropriate Catholic education. W i th r e sp e c t to e d u c a ti o n , th e L a ti n C o d e ( Codex Iuris Canonici)andthe Eastern Code(Codex Canonum Ecclesiarum Orientalium) presenttwo priorities for total or integral human development. The firstof these priorities calls for an education imbued witha Christian spiritasa minimum, and better still for a complete C atholic education. T he C ode s second priority is for the promotion of culture itself. The foundation of Catholic teaching establishmentscan be justified in a number of ways. One of these justifications proceeds from the implementation of the principle of theinnaterightof theChurch itself tofound and directCatholic and ecclesiastical schools, seminaries, and universities. A second justification arisesfrom the necessitytorespond tothe absence of public and private non-confessional schools offering an education imbued w ith a Christian spirit. Another justification would be the need to provide for the absenceofhigherlevelteachinginthesacredsciences.Asforthefoundation of seminaries, the justification isparticularly evident.70 Catholic establishments

69 Paul W atrelot S. J, Y a-t-il encore des collèges jésuites en France ? in Etudes, 356/5, 1 982, pp. 67 5- 685. 70 C anon 1 364 du C ode de 1 917, D ans les classes inférieures du séminaire: 1 L enseignement de la religion doitavoir la place principale, etelle doitêtre expliquée trèsdiligemment, dune manière adaptée à l âge età l espritde chacun , 2: L es élèves doiventapprendre avec soin surtoutla langue latine etla langue du pays ; 3 Dans les autres disciplines, on doitdonner une formation en rapportavec la culture commune

DR © 1996. Instituto de Investigaciones Jurídicas - Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México Este libro forma parte del acervo de la Biblioteca Jurídica Virtual del Instituto de Investigaciones Jurídicas de la UNAM www.juridicas.unam.mx https://biblio.juridicas.unam.mx/bjv Libro completo en: https://goo.gl/D2XTZC 260 JEAN-PAUL DURAND mustbeatleastascompetentasother equivalentinstitutions, however, thisdoes not imply a spirit of competition with other establishments for education, teaching and research. Professor L ambertoEcheverria, commenting on C anon 793of the 1 983used toinsiston the importance of Canon 21 7 according towhich Christian education isa rightthata Christian may demand by reason of hisbaptism.71 The end of the 1 9thcentury andthebeginning of the20thcentury saw another kind of disputeillustrated very well in France in the life of a certain Monsieur Portal. 72 T his dispute centred on the following questions: W as it necessary to try torebuild the Christian city ? Or wasitsufficienttosimply try toprovide a Christian inspiration for asecularisedand pluralistsociety? Choosing the second alternative does notin canon law exclude the possibility of choosing to found and direct confessional establishments. On the contrary, it is the fortress mentality which the spiritof Vatican callsustoeliminate. The establishmentof confessional i nstitutions, therefore, retains al l its v ali dity as an origi nal pastoral method. In the 1 9th century, on the occasion of the polemic concerning the presence of the classics within the teaching programme of Catholic schools, two contrasting conceptions of education arose. O n one hand, education w as conceived as the transmission of a certain culture. O n the other hand, education was thought of a possibilityoffered to a student to develop himself or herself as a person. 73 T he C atholic school, as defined in C anon 803 of the L atin C ode, is invited by V atican II and by the canonical legislator to put into practice freedom of teaching, but also to reconcile C atholic education and culture. Today, when a non-confessional school is capable of giving a Catholic education, itis a question of a non-Christian culture granting a place toChristian culture. This implies the necessity for reconciling neutrality in philosophical and religiousmatterswiththe demandsof cultural and religiousnon-discrimi-

de tous etl étatdes clercs dans la région où les élèves doiventexercer le saintministère . C f. le canon 248 du C ode latin de 1 983parle de C ulture générale . 71 Code de droitcanonique annoté (version francophone, Jean-Paul Durand O. P. Dir. ), coéd. Cerf-Tardy, 1 989, p . 466. 72 Regis L adous, Monsieur Portal etles siens (1855-1926), préface d Emile Poulat, coll. Histoire, éd. C erf, 1 985, 521 pages. 73 D aniel M oulinet, Lesclassiquespaïensdanslescollègescatholiques? Le combatde Mgr Gaume, 1 995, op. cit., p. 340; H enri-I renée M arrou, SaintAugustin etla fin de la culture antique, éd. De Boccard,1938, pp. 397 ets.; etH istoire de l éducation dans l Antiquité, éd. Seuil, 1 965, 2è éd. , pp. 458ets. Jean-François Gilmont, la Réforme et le livre, coll. Histoire, éd. Cerf, 1 990, 500pages; Frédéric Delforge, Lespetites éco l es de P o r t-R o ya l , 1 636-1 660, préface de Philippe Sellier, coll. Histoire, éd. C erf, 1 885, 440 pages; Martine Sonnet, Léducation desfillesau tempsdesLumières, préface de D aniel Roche, coll. Histoire, éd. C erf, 1 987, 358 pages; Jean D elumeau (D ir. ), La religion de ma mère, coll. Histoire, éd. C erf, 1 992, 400 pages; Madeleine Singer, LeSGEN de1937à mai1986, coll. Histoire, éd. Cerf, 1 993, 360pages; Gérard D efois, Pour une éthique de la culture, coll. Eglise etsociété, éd. L e centurion, 1 988; 1 32 pages.

DR © 1996. Instituto de Investigaciones Jurídicas - Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México Este libro forma parte del acervo de la Biblioteca Jurídica Virtual del Instituto de Investigaciones Jurídicas de la UNAM www.juridicas.unam.mx https://biblio.juridicas.unam.mx/bjv Libro completo en: https://goo.gl/D2XTZC SCHOOL AND CULTURE 261 n a ti o n . A t c e r ta i n ti m e s, th e q u e sti o n h a s a r i se n a l so o f h o w to r e c o n c i l e th e se values in the climate of modernity. In fact, StThomas Aquinas had already provided a basisfor this reconciliation in hisContra Gentiles (III, 76)and in his Summa Theologica IIa IIae, 49, 6, where he spoke of the free exercise of reason, aided by grace, thus opening up an extremely profound approach. By itsveryvocation, Christianfaithisopentoculture.74 Thislink betweenChristian faithand culture wasparticularly remarked upon by Pope John Paul II in his A p o sto l i c C o n sti tu ti o n Sapientia Christiana of 1979in relation touniversities and ecclesiastical faculties. 75 T h e A p o sto l i c C o n sti tu ti o n Ex Corde Ecclesiae of 1990on the Catholic universityatthe service of culture, of societyand of the Church also illustrates admirably the universal vocation of every Catholic institution for education, teaching and research. This apostolic constitution declared thatthe C atholic university constitutes the firstand privilegedplaceof fruitful dialogue between the Gospel and culture.76 Butthe school, and indeed the universityitself, are always leftbehind by culture. In France on the eve of the French Revolution in 1789, there were a number of existing universities, w hich have often been unjustly denigrated. However, itis true thata number of new intellectual centres had developed outside these universities, and the universities often ignored these new centres. For example, in Paris, knowledge wasfarmorehighly developedattheCollege de France. In fact, throughout Europe in the 1 8th century a number of academies, scientific centres, or salons were created as Professor Jean Gaudemet noted in 1 990. 77 Thus the suppression of the University of Paris on 1 5 September 1 793 passed nearly unnoticed. In March 1 995, thetheologian Claude Geffré, working on a definition of culture, w rote:

If cultureisinvestedwithsuchprestigeatleastin our western societies, itisbecause it exercises an eminent social and anthropological role, assuming in part the educational role which formerly belonged to religion and the school.78

74 Jean-Marie Aubert, Morale chrétienne etmorale laïque , in Jean-Paul Durand O.P. (Dir.), De la morale laïque , Le Supplément, Revue d éthique etthéologie morale, N 164,1988,pp. 73-82. 75 La documentation catholique,N1766,1979,p.551. 76 La documentation catholique, N2015,1990,p.940. 77 Jean Gaudemet, Lesuniversitésetla vie politique (XIIIè-XVIIIè siècles) , in I poteri politici e il mondo universitario (XIII-XX secolo), Rubbettino, 1 994, p. 1 6. Pour défendre la cause des universités de cette époque: J. de V iguérie, Quelques remarques sur les universités françaises au dix-huitième siècle , in Revue historique, N 262, 1 979, pp. 29-49. 78 C laude Geffré L a rencontre du christianisme et des cultures , in Revue d éthique et de théologie morale, L e Supplément , éd Cerf, N 1 92, mars 1 995, pp. 69-92; Claude L anglois, François L aplanche et Claude Bénichou, La science catholique: l Encyclopédie théologique de Migne (1 844-1 873) entre apologétique etvulgarisation, coll. Histoire, éd. Cerf, 1 992, 286pages.

Here, I take note of a first challenge for Concordat law79 and civil ecclesiastical law.80 This challenge arises from the fact that the canonistis no longer in presence of a simple relationship between school and religion, a relationship within which religion hastraditionally hadtofind itsown way, its role, itsfreedom, and itsauthority. Now itisthisvery link between school and culture which is undergoing a profound transformation. Another challenge for the canonistconsistsin the realisation thatreligion exactlylike the institution of the school risks to be left behind by culture in the view of many of our contemporaries. Atleastthis is the view of political scientistsand ecclesiastical leaders. And the risk is even greatertoday than in the pastthatculture w ill succeed in reducing religion solely toitscultural dimension. However, rather than denying religious belief, culture could also be seen or understood as a place for religious belief, and of itsinheritance. W e know that there is no religion without culture, no Christianity in fact without culture. A Christianity empty of culture or separate from culture has never existed. This dialogue withthetheologianswill continue. Claude Geffré haswritten that every culture necessarily has a privileged link w ith life, history, ethics and religion . For itspart, rather than denying culture, Catholic education acknowledges the human being as the way of the Church. A document from the dicasteries dated 22 M ay 1 994, on the subject of The presence of the Church in the U niversity and in U niversity Culture81 insists on the ecclesial dimension, recalling the proper responsibilityof the bishop, and of the pastoral supportof theparishpriest,bothofwhom aredirectlyconcernedwithCatholicuniversities which are presenton their diocesan and parish territories. W ithoutpromoting proselytism, itisa question of insisting on an ecclesial presence atthe heartof th e u n i v e r si ty i n sti tu ti o n a n d a t th e h e a r t o f th e u n i v e r si ty c u l tu r e , w h i c h a r e still subjectto a number of crises. Here again, the Church wantsto make a c o n tr i b u ti o n to u n i v e r si ty c u l tu r e so th a t th e l a tte r w i l l b e e n a b l e d to r e g a i n i ts intellectual, moral, physical and spiritual health. The Churchsconcern for the universitycannothelp butreflectalsoon the school. On thispoint, the Roman Congregation for Catholic Education spoke clearly in 1 977, stating that the school should be understood as a place for humanisation and not simply as a place for the assimilation of culture, withoutencouraging the faithful todevelop a c r i ti c a l se n se w i th r e sp e c t to c u l tu r e i tse l f . 82

79 Rolland Minerath, op. cit. 80 Francis Messner, op. cit. 81 La documentation catholique, N 2097, 1 994, P. 609; Pierre Eyt, L e caractère propre de lenseignementcatholique dansla sociétécivile etdanslEglise , in ECD, 1 862, 1 993, p p . 1 3- 20. 82 La documentation catholique, N 1 725, 1 977, p. 708. U n exemple d attachement particulier à l école: André L anfrey, Les catholiques français etl école (1 902-1 914), éd. Cerf, 1 990, 2 vol.

It is in the educational field that the canonical status for the protection of culture bestdemonstrates the links that need to existbetween the C hurch and itsown religious culture, which should not be confused with catechesis. The Church considers religious culture to be a part of culture as a whole. She therefore engagesin dialogue withreligiousculture and may have the dutyto criticise it using the appropriate cultural tools. T his cultural dimension also stimulates the Church to deepens her religious education as well as her catechetical teaching, her sacred sciences and her magisterium. T he C hurch can only benefit from this dialogue w ith the different cultures. Canon law distinguishes the teaching of religious culture from that of catechesis and the sacred sciences, even if the difference is not always clearly established when two or even three kinds of teaching are given by the same canonically appointed teacher. Canon law, aswe know, carefully and strictly protects the status of catechisms. Similarly, nor can the Church reamin indifferentto the teaching of non-catechetical religiousculture. T he C hurch has alwayshad the dutytoresearch thecanonical and civil meanswhich will permit her to guarantee as far as possible the doctrinal correctness of her religious catechetical teaching. This duty also extends to the field of non-academic religious culture aswell asthe teaching of universitylevel sacred sciencesin institutionswhich theChurch hasnotcreated, and doesnotdirectherself. Here also, depending on thepedagogical and academic culture of a region, thegap or distance varies to a greater or lesser extent between the upper classes of secondary schools and the lower classes of a university. In any case, only a catechesis in organic communion with the bishops concerned can be considered to be C atholic. T his principle appliesafortiorito the teaching of religious culture, and still more tothe university-level sacred sciences. W e will not discuss in this paper the specific problems posed by university teaching and research in the sacred sciences. Having said that, however, Church doctrine, astaughtin schools, seminaries and universities, mustalso be understood firstof all asa cultural discipline. However, thiscultural approach does not allow the Church to abdicate its pastoral and doctrinal responsibilities, once the doctrinal content has become the object of an educational, pedagogic, or scientific treatment. W e know how much thecanon law wishes to protectthe confessional status of the Church s doctrine, without this protection in any way denying the cultural dimension. According to the cultural areas of different regions of the w orld, attention needsto be paid notonly to linguistic differences, butalso to possible disparities between the typologies of categories, such as those concerning the catechesis of children, adolescents, studentsand adults. Attention alsoneedstobe paidto the differences between non-confessional religious cultures, or between non-

C ONCLUSION

Professor Giorgio Feliciani has deplored the absence in canonical doctrine of studies bearing on the nature of theteaching of Catholic religion. His recent (June1994)articleinthereviewIusEcclesiae has contributed to enlighten us on the canonical aspectsof this question. Thus, I have chosen notto return to this pointin detail, exceptin so far as this question concerns the links between the school and culture. Itwasnecessary in the firstpartof thispresentation tosituateschool education w i th i n th e c o n te x t o f th e w h o l e e d u c a ti o n sy ste m , w h i c h l e d m e to e m p h a si se th e n e e d f o r p a r e n ta l m e d i a ti o n . I n th e se c o n d p a r t, I d i d n o t w i sh to d e a l w i th the epistemological problems involved with particular aspects of university teaching and research of the sacred sciences. Rather, granted that catechesis and seminary training has already been well-studied elsewhere, my point was to examine the links between theaspectsof culture which are confronted in the field of education and properly religious culture. I t w a s n e c e ssa r y to ta k e n o te a l so o f th e f a c t th a t th e d i sta n c e o r se p a r a ti o n between the school and the university varies according to different cultural traditions present throughout the world. Subject to this reservation, I have presented the Catholic school in sofar asitimpingesdirectlyon culture. But we also noted that the Church has addressed itself to schools of n o n - C h r i sti a n c u l tu r e i n o r d e r to r e c a l l th e p l a c e th a t th e C h u r c h a sk s th e m to reserve toC hristian culture. T hisintervention by the C hurch soughttoguarantee the possibility of Catholic education in those places where the parentsare required to make use of public schools. As Pope John Paul II has remarked in th e C o n sti tu ti o n Ex Corde Ecclesiae, this approach needs to be seen as partof a disinterested search for the truth. Canon797oftheLatinCodespokeofaskingforsubsidies,orashareof resources, from each civil society concerned. Rector Patrick V aldrini, president of the Catholic Universitiesin France, aswell asMonsieur Pierre Daniel, the secretary-general of Catholic Education in France for school affairs, have both necessarily supported this claim for assistance, butfrom differentcivil juridical view points. T his is because free or private secondary education does not have

DR © 1996. Instituto de Investigaciones Jurídicas - Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México Este libro forma parte del acervo de la Biblioteca Jurídica Virtual del Instituto de Investigaciones Jurídicas de la UNAM www.juridicas.unam.mx https://biblio.juridicas.unam.mx/bjv Libro completo en: https://goo.gl/D2XTZC SCHOOL AND CULTURE 265 the same juridical status in France asfree or privatehigher level (university) education. Here we can see again the influence of a nation, a state, a people and its history. The State, taking itsposition from itsanti-clerical past, will still in principle protectthe youngestpupils ata public lay school from religious influences, for example, while senior (university level) studentswill be leftto decide for themselves. I n any event, subsidies come in the firstinstance from a law in favour of school education. I n the second instance, how ever, subsidiesare seen asrelatively discretionary grantsin view ofthepublicinterestthatthepresenceofaconfessional university level theology isheld torepresentin a country like France. Rector Valdrini, in his inaugural speech opening the 1994academic year, wanted to go beyond this single dimension of support of the public general interestin theology. He preferredinsteadtoemphasisethe factthatthe Catholic university, including the school of chemistry, provides a total educational environment. According to the argument of Rector V aldrini, it is this whole (and original) environment which provides a global criterion that could be of interesttoagovernment,aParliament,orpublicopinion. Thesepartnerswould then perhaps become more open to being convinced of a duty also to supporta private initiative such as a Catholic university (even if canon law still considerssuch an initiativeasbelonging topublic law).83 Asfor schoolsin charge of young pupils, the dialogue withculture continues: pedagogical culture, political culture, social culture, culture of the mind, religiousculture. In France once again, a recentissue has been the expulsion from lay public schools of young girls wearing the so-called Islamic veil. Monsieur Pierre D aniel issued a statement to the effect that a circular from the M inister of National Education, Monsieur FrançoisBayrou, issued 20September 1 994, did notconcern Catholic teaching institutions.84 T he reasoning here corresponds to the culture of the civil juridical system. French law introducescontrolssolely withrespecttothe teaching programme of Catholic institutions, and noton their internal organisation and life. It is the classes and not the establishments themselves w hich form the objectof the contractsin force since 1 959 between the Stateand each Catholic school establishment. The confessional specificity th e sp e c i f i c c h a r a c te r o f th e e d u c a ti o n a l c o m m u n i ty ta k e s i ts f o r m b y m e a n s of thefree organisation of the establishmentas a free or privateschool. On the

83 Revue de l Institutcatholique de Paris, N 53,1 et31995,pp. 159-162. 84 Le Monde,7novembre1994,p.8.

H o w c an o n e sa y th at th e v e i l i s o ste n tati o u s, b u t th a t th e K i p p a, th e c r o ss o r th e crucifix, often of large dimensions according to modern fashion, are not? The C ouncil of Statehas always refused to interpretreligions. If itis compelled to define the notion of ostentatious, thisdefinition will apply toall religions, and notjustto oneofthem.85

85 Le Monde, 20 décembre 1 994, p. 1 4.