JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE & INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION VOLUME 11, WINTER 2019 THE OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF THE HIGHER EDUCATION SIG
FEATURED ARTICLES
Rosalind Latiner Raby 66 Introduction to the JCIHE 2019 Supplemental Issue
Sayed Ahmad Javid Mussawy 72 The Challenges of Quality Assurance and Accreditation in Afghanistan: A Policy Implementation Analysis
María Paulina Arango 77 Technical Education for the Reintegration of Ex-Combatants: One Pathway, Different Trajectories
Mila Arden 81 Discourse Analysis of the New Colombo Plan funded Australian Outbound Student Mobility Programs
Sara Bano and Qing Xia 85 Chinese Undergraduate Students’ Perceptions of Learning: The Role of Language and Culture in a Short-term Public Health Study Abroad Program
Nazgul Bayetova 89 Neoliberalism and the Developing Higher Education System in Kazakhstan
Santiago Castiello-Gutiérrez 93 Purposeful Internationalization: A Common-Good Approach of Global Engagement
Lauren K. Chow 96 At the Intersections: International and Multicultural Higher Education
Shasha Cui 100 International Student Mentor Development Study
Ryan P. Deuel 103 The Inevitability of Globalized International Higher Education
Rachal Etshim 107 Integrating International Graduate Students on Campus: The Perspectives of Student Affairs Professionals
Jeremy Gombin-Sperling 110 The Development of Students’ Understandings of Social Identity, Inequality, and Service During a Critical International Service- Learning Program in the Dominican Republic
JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE & INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION VOLUME 11, WINTER 2019 THE OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF THE HIGHER EDUCATION SIG
Ana Sofia Hofmeyr 114 Development of Intercultural Competence as a Result of Internationalization-at-Home Initiatives in Japan's Top Global Universities
Minghui Hou 118 Motivation Factors of International Students Studying Under the Trump Administration
Ali Khalil and Amany Saleh 121 A Language’s Demise Through a Curricular Evolution: A Preliminary Study
Bertha Kibona 124 Higher Education for Human Development: Perspectives from Tanzanian Universities
Christopher William Kohler 127 Locally International: How Students at an American International Branch Campus in Singapore Negotiate the Spatial Dimensions of their Transnational Higher Education
Sujung Crystal Lee 131 Post-Degree Completion Plan of Chinese and Korean Graduate Students in STEM
Oleg Legusov 135 Using Bourdieu’s Theory of Practice to Investigate the Experience of Ontario College Graduates Who Are Russian, Ukrainian, and Belarusian, and Seek Career Employment and Permanent Residency in Canada
Li Li 138 A Phenomenological Study on Chinese Private College Students’ Experiences in Developing Intercultural Competence
Mary K. MacKenty 141 Stepping Outside the American Study Abroad Bubble and Into a Spanish University Classroom
Jennifer A. Malerich 145 The Impact of Short-Term Study Abroad on Online Learners
Mart Andrew S. Maravillas 150 Filipino and American Teachers: Their Differences in Psychological Needs, Performance, and Culture
Nina Marijanović and 155 Advising Experiences among First-year International Doctoral Jungmin Lee Students JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE & INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION VOLUME 11, WINTER 2019 THE OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF THE HIGHER EDUCATION SIG
Fadzayi M. Maruza 158 An Analysis of Disability Representation in African Higher Education Policies
Bernardo Sfredo Miorando 162 Universities Going Global? Comparative Perspectives on the Internationalization of Postgraduate Education in Brazil and Finland
Peace Ginika Nwokedi and 167 Wide-Lens Angle: International Students' Constructions of Academic Fumane Portia M.K. Khanare Support in a Selected South African University
Leyla Radjai, and Christopher 172 Internationalization of the curriculum in Japanese higher education: D. Hammond Strategies, pedagogies and practices in ‘international’ English- medium instruction classrooms
Vianna Renaud 176 Learning From Those Who Have Done it Before' - Peer to Peer Employability Coaching and Mentoring: A Case Study of Bournemouth University in the UK
Bruna Navarone Santos and 180 Emotions and Scientific Initiation Among Underprivileged High Isabela Cabral Félix de Sousa School Students in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Sandra Tsoenemawu Sikanku 183 An Investigation of Transition Experiences of Students with Visual Impairment in Public Universities in Ghana
Fenella Somerville 189 Capabilities for Media Graduate Employability: A Case Study of Private Higher Education in South Africa
Jamie Storey 192 Bumping into the Glass Ceiling: Exploring Women's Experiences Seeking Positional Leadership Roles Within the Student Affairs Profession in South Africa
Nicholas Robert Stroup 196 Accreditation and Anticipatory Socialization to Doctoral Education in Kosovo
Z.W. Taylor 199 Translation as Charitable Currency: Exploring Linguistic Philanthropy from International Students and Alumni
Yanhao Wang 203 Balance of Power: The Governance Structure of International Branch Campus in China
JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE & INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION VOLUME 11, WINTER 2019 THE OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF THE HIGHER EDUCATION SIG
Ayenachew A. Woldegiyorgis 206 Engaging with higher education back home: Experiences of African academic diaspora in the US
Addisalem Tebikew Yallew 209 The Expanding Use of the English Language for Research and its Implications for Higher Education Institutions and Researchers: A Case Study of Three African Flagship Universities
JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE & INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION Philosophy for Comparative and Int’l Higher Education This is the official journal of the Comparative and Editor-in-Chief International Education Society’s (CIES) Higher Education Rosalind Latiner Raby, California State University, Northridge Special Interest Group (HESIG), which was created in 2008. Senior Editor HESIG serves as a networking hub for promoting Bernhard Streitwieser, The George Washington University scholarship opportunities, critical dialogue, and linking HESIG Co-Chairs Gerardo Blanco-Ramirez, University of Massachusetts, Boston professionals and academics to the international aspects of Meggan Madden, The George Washington University higher education. Accordingly, HESIG will serve as a professional forum supporting development, analysis, and Regional Editors dissemination of theory-, policy-, and practice-related issues Africa: John Bonnell; Michigan State University; Lilian that influence higher education. Butungi, New York Institute of Technology
Submission and Review Asia/Pacific: Stephanie Kim, University of California at The Editorial Board invites contributions dealing with the Berkeley; Michael Lanford, University of Southern California; complementary fields of comparative, international, and MaryBeath Marklein, George Mason University; Tahira development education and that relate to one of the areas Naushahi, Allama Iqbal Open University; Moon Sook, Korean listed in the Philosophy section above. Contributors may: National University of Education 1) Submit a research article of 1,500 - 3,000 words. All articles will undergo a blind-review peer-editing process. Europe: Veysel Gökbel, University of Pittsburg; Marta Shaw, 2) Submit a comparative report analysis of 750 - 1,000 words Jagiellonian University in Kraków; Ligia Toutant, University of that examines current policies related to higher education California at Los Angeles institutional policy. 3) Submit graduate student research in-progress of 500 - Latin America and the Caribbean: Paulina Berrios, 1,000 words that shares new research that will help to set the Universidad de Chile; Dante Salto, National University of tone for current and emerging issues in the field. Córdoba
Electronic submissions are accepted on an on-going basis Middle East and North Africa: Hana Addam El-Ghali, and should be sent to [email protected]. Manuscripts American University of Beirut; Seungah Lee, Stanford are evaluated by the editorial board—with full University; Manar Sabry, Binghamton University (SUNY) confidentiality on both sides—and then accepted, returned for further revisions, or rejected. United States and Canada: Moon Sook, Korean National University of Education The style and format of the Journal of Comparative & International Higher Education follows the Chicago Manual General: Chris Glass, Old Dominion University; Morgan of Style. Only endnotes are allowed. USA spelling (e.g., Keller, Clemson University; Taya Owens, University at Albany center, color, organize) and punctuation are preferred (single (SUNY); Karen Robson, McMaster University quotations within double if needed), and requires a short paragraph of bibliographical details for all contributors. Managing Editor Hei-hang Hayes Tang, The Education University of Hong Kong Copyright Published by the Higher Education SIG of the Comparative Contact Information and International Education Society. The findings, Journal of Comparative & International Higher Education interpretations, and conclusions expressed in Journal of Higher Education SIG Comparative and International Higher Education are Website: ojed.org/jcihe entirely those of the authors and should not be attributed in Email: [email protected] ISSN 2151-0393 (Print) any manner to CIES, HESIG, or the sponsoring universities ISSN 2151-0407 (Online) of the Editorial Staff. The views expressed in the articles are those of the authors, who should be contacted directly about their work. Journal of Comparative and International Higher Education is published up to three times a year. Journal of Comparative & International Higher Education Volume 11, No. 3 • Winter 2019 66 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019)
Introduction to the JCIHE 2019 Supplemental Issue
Rosalind Latiner Raby
California State University, Northridge, USA
*Corresponding author: Rosalind Latiner Raby : [email protected]
Dear Readers - I would like to welcome you to the Journal of Comparative and International Higher Education (JCIHE) 2019 Winter Supplemental Issue. This issue highlights the 2nd annual JCIHE Graduate Student Work-in-Progress Issue. Contributions are made by graduate students who are currently studying in a MA, Ed.D. or Ph.D. program. The purpose of the Special Graduate Student Issue is to celebrate work-in-progress in the field of comparative and international higher education. Because the manuscripts in this issue highlight work-in-progress, some of the articles are expanded proposals while others include preliminary findings. Combined they showcase current thinking and new issues of discussion in the field. Submissions for the 2019 Winter Supplemental Issue were accepted from graduate students who are studying at the following universities Afghanistan: Baghlan University Australia: Victoria University Brazil: Oswaldo Cruz Foundation/Oswaldo Cruz Institute (PGEBS/IOC/Fiocruz); State University of Rio de Janeiro (UERJ); Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil Canada: McGill University; University of Toronto China: Sanda University England: Bournemouth University; University of Oxford Ghana: University of Cape Coast Italy: Universita Cattolica del Sacro Cuore Japan: Osaka University & Kansai University; Waseda University South Africa: University of the Free State; University of KwaZulu-Natal; University of the Western Cape Spain: Universidad Autónoma de Madrid United States: Arkansas State University; Arizona State University; Central Michigan University; Chapman University; Community College of Rhode Island; Florida International University; Lesley University; Michigan State University; Old Dominion University; Seton Hall University; Syracuse University; U.S. Institute of Peace and Florida State University; University of Arizona; University of Buffalo (SUNY); University of Iowa; University of Kentucky; University of Maryland; University of Massachusetts; University of Rochester; University of Southern Mississippi; University of Texas at Austin; Western Michigan University
Contributions for the 2019 JCIHE-Winter Supplemental Issue examine issues of higher education in 17 countries spanning the continents of Africa, Asia, Australia, Europe, North America, and South American. 13 of the articles focus on institutions in the Global North while 17 focus on institutions in the Global South.
JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) 67
Articles focus on institutional practices in Afghanistan; Brazil; China; Colombia; Ghana; Japan; Kazakhstan; Kosovo; Mexico; Nigeria; Singapore; South Africa; Tanzania; and United States. Articles focus on comparative institutional practices in Brazil and Finland; Canada and United States; Lebanon, Egypt, and Morocco; South Africa and Zimbabwe; and Mozambique, Ethiopia, and South Africa. Articles focus on student and faculty experiences while studying/working in another country: Russian/Ukrainian/Belarusian students studying in Canada; African faculty working in the United States, Filipino faculty working in the United States; Australian students who study abroad; US students who study abroad; international students in the United States; Chinese students studying in the United State; Korean students studying in the United States; United States students studying in the Dominican Republic; and United States students studying in Spain.
Articles explore several themes that highlight a range of emergent issues for the field of comparative and international higher education. Inbound student mobility: career plans post-graduation in Canada and in the United States; why students choose to study in the United States; peer mentoring practices; student affairs outreach to international students in Africa and in the United States; faculty advising of international students; graduate international students and doctoral international students. Outbound student mobility: benefits of studying abroad; development of student social identity, development of intercultural competence skills, experiences of students from Australia, from China, and from the United States; benefits for students who study in healthcare fields; who study online; and re-entry programming. Employment Preparation: skills for Nigerian tertiary graduates; skills for media students in South Africa; peer to peer coaching and mentoring for undergraduates in English; process in which Brazil & Finland postgraduates process change in terms of policy, power relations and social action. Accreditation: in Afghanistan and in Kosovo. Branch Campuses: in China and in Singapore. International Faculty Experiences: from Africa and from Philippines. Internationalization Practices: competency outcomes in China and in the United States; curriculum changes in Japan; policy strategies in Mexico and the United States; policy changes at national, association and university levels in Canada and the United States; internationalization of curriculum in English-medium classrooms in Japan; Internationalization at Home in Japan; International student alumni giving; differences in international and multicultural curriculum; curricular changes to promote language preservation in Lebanon, Egypt, and Morocco. Institutional Programs: Role of neoliberalism in emerging higher education; public good focus of higher education in Tanzania; technical Education to reintegrate ex-combatants back into society in Colombia; disability representation in South Africa and Zimbabwe higher education policies; university faculty outreach to students in underprivileged Brazil high schools to build scientific research skills that would prepare them for the university; transition from high school to university for students with visual impairment in Ghana; women's experiences seeking positional leadership roles in Student Affairs in South Africa; and implications of using English language for research and teaching in three African flagship universities. The Following Articles are included in the 2019 JICHE Graduate-Student Supplemental Issue María Paulina Arango, U.S. Institute of Peace and Florida State University, US, "Technical Education for the Reintegration of Ex-Combatants: One Pathway, Different Trajectories" explores how access to a technical and vocational (TVE) institution in Colombia for ex- combatants helps with their reintegration process back into society.
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Mila Arden, Victoria University, Australia, "Discourse Analysis of the New Colombo Plan funded Australian Outbound Student Mobility Programs" explores how the New Colombo Plan influences Australian outbound student mobility programs in terms of benefits and obstacles as well as focusing on the experiences of Australian university students who study abroad. Sara Bano, Michigan State University, US, "Chinese Undergraduate Students’ Perceptions of Learning: The Role of Language and Culture in Short-term Public Health Study Abroad Program" examines the cross-cultural experiences of Chinese healthcare professionals who participate in short-term education abroad programs in the United States with a focus on professional development learned during their abroad experiences. Nazgul Bayetova, Florida International University, US, "Neoliberalism and the Developing Higher Education System in Kazakhstan" explores the process of how Kazakhstan's market economy policies have impacted the emerging higher education system, including ramifications of less government spending and the creation of private universities. Santiago Castiello-Gutiérrez, University of Arizona, US, "Purposeful Internationalization: A Common Good Approach of Global Engagement" explores the extent to which two universities in Mexico are pursuing a higher purpose through their internationalization strategy and how these strategies contest the Anglo- American mainstream conception of internationalization. Lauren Chow, Lesley University, US, "At the Intersections: International and Multicultural Higher Education", explores how the similar goals and dueling agendas of international and multicultural offices in higher education operate with a focus on what language can inform in regards to the intersections or divergences in their work to create an inclusive campus environment. Shasha Cui, University of Rochester, US, "International Student Mentor Development Study" explores peer mentor programs that are designed to assist first year international students’ who study at US institutions and their role in securing a successful transition to Western academic success, American life and enhanced satisfaction with cultural adjustment experience Ryan P. Deuel, McGill University, Canada, “The Inevitability of Globalized International Higher Education” explores three tiers of internationalization: at the macro level within policies and practices of national and transnational governmental organizations; at the mezzo level within discourse among HEIs and professional higher education associations; and, at the micro level within programs that govern the conduct of international students. Rachal Etshim, Western Michigan University, US, "Integrating International Graduate Students on Campus: The Perspectives of Student Affairs Professionals" examines the needs of Student Affairs professionals to better serve international graduate students which are then reinterpreted in preparation and professional development programs. Jeremy Gombin-Sperling, University of Maryland, US, "The Development of Students’ Understandings of Social Identity, Inequality, and Service during a Critical International Service-Learning Program in the Dominican Republic" explores a case study how US study abroad students studying in the Dominican Republic discuss and write about their service experience to understand the nature of inequality and changes in their own social identities. Ana Sofia Hofmeyr, Osaka University & Kansai University, Japan, "Development of Intercultural Competence as a Result of Internationalization-at-Home Initiatives in Japan's Top Global Universities" examines the intercultural experiences and learning opportunities of students that result from directed internationalizing domestic campus programs in Japan. JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) 69
Minghui Hou, Old Dominion University, US. "Motivation Factors of International Students Studying Under the Trump Administration" examines what motivates international students to apply and persist in the US higher education under the Trump administration with a focus on barriers and costs that these students experience. Ali Khalil, Community College of Rhodes Island, US and Amany Saleh, Arkansas State University US, "A Language’s Demise Through a Curricular Evolution: A Preliminary Study" explores the impact of curricular changes on language preservation in Lebanon, Egypt, and Morocco with an assessment of the development of curricular design of native language of Arabic in selected institutions. Christopher Kohler, University of Buffalo (SUNY), US., "The International Branch Campus and Institutional Social Capital: Exploring the Spatial Dimensions of Capital in Transnational Higher Education" explores international branch campuses (IBCs) in Singapore and in particular how students who have studied and who are currently studying narrate their experiences and expectations from transnational higher education. Bertha Kibona, University of the Free State, South Africa, "Higher Education for Human Development: Perspectives from Tanzanian Universities" explores the purpose of higher education in Tanzania with a focus on how higher education can contribute to human development and the foster public good. Crystal Sujung Lee, Syracuse University, US, "Post-Degree Completion Plan of Chinese and Korean Graduate Students in STEM", explores the multiple factors that contribute to international STEM students’ decision to return to their home country or to stay in their country of study to work post-graduation. Oleg Legusov, University of Toronto, Canada. "Using Bourdieu's Theory of Practice to Investigate the Experience of Ontario College Graduates who are Russian, Ukrainian, and Belarusian, and Seek Career Employment and Permanent Residency in Canada" explores how international graduate students in Canada use their cultural and social capitals to obtain employment commensurate with their credentials and thereby seek career employment and permanent residency in Canada. Li Li, Sanda University, China & Chapman University, US. "A Phenomenological Study on Chinese Private College Students’ Experiences in Developing Intercultural Competence" explores the experiences of Chinese students in English as a Foreign Language instruction programs at six Chinese private colleges and the development of intercultural competency skills of these students as a result of their study abroad experiences in the United States. Mary MacKenty, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Spain "Stepping Outside the American Study Abroad Bubble and Into a Spanish University Classroom" examines the “direct enrollment” study abroad experience of US students who study within a host country’s educational system in Spain in terms of how they perceive the local universities classes, strategies they evoke to adapt to the new culture of learning and the relationships they develop with students and professors in the classroom. Jennifer A. Malerich, Arizona State University US & Universita Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Italy, "The Impact of Short-Term Study Abroad on Online Learners" examines international skill building opportunities for online students who choose to study in-person study abroad programs with a focus on the use of differential internationalization strategies for success. Fadzayi. M. Maruza, University of the Western Cape, South Africa, "An Analysis of Disability Representation in African Higher Education Policies" examines how University of Cape Town and University of Zimbabwe, as institutional actors, define and categorize disability and the solutions embedded in disability policies. Mart Andrew Maravilas, University of Southern Mississippi, US, "Filipino and American Teachers: Their Difference in Psychological Needs, Performance, and Culture" explores how the basic psychological needs of Filipino international teachers, whose presence continues to pervade the K-12 education system of the United States, are addressed in higher education institutions with a focus on Filipino international teachers’ performance.
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Nina Marijanovic, University of Kentucky, US and Jungmin Lee, University of Kentucky, US, "Advising Experiences Among First-year International Doctoral Students" examines faculty advising experiences with first-year international doctoral students in terms of preparing them to be academically and interpersonally successful. Bernardo Sfredo Miorando Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, "Universities Going Global? Comparative Perspectives on the Internationalization of Postgraduate Education in Brazil and Finland" compares how student in Brazilian and Finnish postgraduate education programs process changes in their university as a result of the implementation of internationalization in terms of policy, power relations, and social action. Sayed Ahmad Javid Mussawy, University of Massachusetts Amherst, US & Baghlan University, Afghanistan. "The Challenges of Quality Assurance and Accreditation in Afghanistan: A Policy Implementation Analysis" examines the implementation of quality assurance and accreditation policies in Afghanistan and uses sensemaking and sensegiving as a tool to interpret existing policy. Peace Ginika Nwokedi, University of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa and Fumane Portia M.K. Khanare, University of the Free State, South Africa. "Wide-Lens Angle: International Students’ Constructions of Academic Support in a Selected South African University" explores the levels of academic support given to international postgraduate students at a selected university in South Africa and their resulting high levels of agency towards their academic activities. Leyla Radjai, Waseda University, Japan and Christopher Hammond, University of Oxford, United Kingdom "Internationalization of the Curriculum in Japanese Higher Education: Strategies, Pedagogies and Practices in ‘International’ English-Medium Instruction Classrooms" explores the internationalization of university curricula in Japan in terms of approaches taken to internationalize the curriculum in English-medium instruction (EMI) with a focus on understanding their experiences in these internationalized classroom contexts. Vianna Renaud, Bournemouth University, UK, “Learning from those who have done it before’ - Peer to Peer Employability Coaching and Mentoring; a case study of Bournemouth University in the UK" explores the impact and effectiveness of peer-to-peer coaching and mentoring between first and final year undergraduate students at Bournemouth University, in terms of their awareness of their own employability and the process in which they learn about university resources. Bruna Navarone Santos State University of Rio de Janeiro (UERJ) and Oswaldo Cruz Foundation/ Oswaldo Cruz Institute (PGEBS/IOC/Fiocruz), Brazil and Isabela Cabral Félix de Sousa Oswaldo Cruz Foundation/ Oswaldo Cruz Institute (PGEBS/IOC/ Fiocruz), Brazil, "Emotions and Scientific Initiation Among Underprivileged High School Students in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil", explores the Scientific Vocation Program (Provoc-Fiocruz) which is a non-formal educational program for scientific initiation taught by university staff and directed to under-served High School students in Brazil to foster skills to be college ready. Sandra Tsoenemanu Sikanku, University of Cape Coast, Ghana, "An Investigation of Transition Experiences of Students with Visual Impairment in Public Universities in Ghana" explores student transition from high school to university for students with visual impairment and the challenges to all parties involved with a focus on the experiences of students from their own point of view. Fenella Somerville. Pretoria University, South Africa, "Capabilities for Media Graduate Employability: A Case Study of Private Higher Education in South Africa" examines the South African private higher education sector with a focus on the efforts of these institutions to counter recent college graduates' unemployment. Jamie Storey, Central Michigan University, US, "Bumping into the Glass Ceiling: Exploring Women’s Experiences Seeking Positional Leadership Roles within the Student Affairs Profession in South Africa" explores the JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) 71
meaning women ascribe to the experience of seeking formal leadership positions within the field of student affairs in South Africa in terms of navigating the work and family balance. Nicholas Stroup, University of Iowa, US, "Accreditation and Anticipatory Socialization to Doctoral Education in Kosovo", explores the 2013 Kosovo accreditation regulations that mandated that universities employ three PhD holders in every academic program to maintain accreditation to assess how difficult this regulation has been to fulfill. Zachary Taylor, University of Texas at Austin, US, "Translation as Charitable Currency: Exploring Linguistic Philanthropy from International Students and Alumni" explores alumni giving of international education students post-graduation with a focus on how US institutions solicit charitable donations from international alumni. Yanhao Wangm, Seton Hall University, US, "Balance of Power: The Governance Structure of International Branch Campus in China" explores three branch campuses in China: NYU-Shanghai, Duke Kunshan University (DKU) and Wenzhou-Kean University (WKU) with a focus on identifying the governing boards and senior leadership of the different partners and how the universities balance the power of home campuses and local partners. Ayenachew Woldegiyorgis, Boston College, US, "Engaging with Higher Education Back Home: Experiences of African Academic Diaspora in the US", explores transnational engagement in which African born academics who are working in the United States bridge relationships between US and African institutions to contribute to the development of higher education in their home continent. Addisalem Tebikew Yallew, University of the Western Cape, South Africa, "The Expanding Use of the English Language for Research and its Implications for Higher Education Institutions and Researchers: A Case study of Three African Flagship Universities" explores the implications of using the English language for research in three African universities and assesses if the use of language affects quality and relevance of research.
The editorial staff of JCIHE is please to help support the CIES Higher Education SIG in advancing JCIHE as a professional forum that supports development, analysis, and dissemination of theory-, policy-, and practice-related issues that influence higher education. I especially want to thank our Managing Editor, Hayes Tang for his support, insight, and creativity. Special thanks go to the JCIHE Copy-Editors: Angel Cheng (Lehigh University, USA) Ryan Deuel (McGill University, Canada) Melissa Mace (Maryville University, USA) Ahdi Hassan (International Association for Technology, Education and Language Studies, Turkey) Gregory Malveaux (Montgomery Community College, USA)
Please visit the JCIHE web-site to submit manuscripts or register as a peer reviewer.
JCIHE Editor in Chief, Rosalind Latiner Raby Winter Supplemental Issue 2019
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The Challenges of Quality Assurance and Accreditation in Afghanistan: A Policy Implementation Analysis
Sayed Ahmad Javid Mussawy
University of Massachusetts Amherst
Email: [email protected] Address: 809 North Pleasant Street, Amherst, MA 01003
Introduction
The quest for quality has evolved as a major concern for higher education institutions (HEIs) in developing world. A majority of these countries have adopted quality assurance and accreditation (QAA) policies in order to improve the quality of higher education services. However, implementation of QAA has generated diverse responses among different types of HEIs as their mission and scope of work vary from one another. For instance, in Afghanistan, public universities emphasize more on curriculum alignment with labor market, student centered instruction, and faculty capacity building, while private HEIs focus on mechanisms to regulate student admissions, long-term faculty employment, and partnership development (MoHE 2018; Hayward 2015). Although public HEIs in Afghanistan are fully funded by the government (McNernery 2009), they are concerned about lack of autonomy and inadequate infrastructure to fulfill accreditation standards (Roof 2018; Berger and Thoma 2015). As a result, implementing a QAA in public HEIs is not a linear process. The current research examines the challenges faced by public universities in Afghanistan as they implement a QAA system. More specifically, the study investigates how sensemaking and sensegiving occur as QAA is implemented at teaching versus research universities, and ways in which key-informants at various institutions make use of sensemaking and sensegiving as a tool to interpret the policy. The higher education system in Afghanistan has experienced fluctuation due to political uncertainties in the past four decades. The student enrollment numbers were 24,333 in 1990 even though the country was under the invasion of the Soviet Union. However, the political unrest a decade of 1992-2001 caused by the civil conflicts involving the Mujahedeen in 1992, and the Taliban in 1996, severely damaged higher education sector, which resulted in only having 6,600 students enrolled in the existing 12 HEIs (Babury and Hayward 2014). The Taliban era was particularly devastating as females were banned from any form of education (Hayward and Karim, 2019). However, beginning in 2002 with a change in political regime and direct involvement of the United States, the higher education has experienced an explosive expansion (Ibrahimi 2014; Roof 2018). A rapid growth of higher education sector as well as a mismatch between different HEIs services – failing to train graduates with relevant competencies – and the expectations of the labor- market have caused global concern about quality (Altbach and Knight 2007; Williams 2016). The concern for quality is particularly significant in higher education systems in developing countries (Kapur and Crowley 2008). The system expansion in Afghanistan was very rapid. In 2008, the existing 29 HEIs enrolled 58,769 students; however, within a decade, in 2018, the number of HEIs increased to 169 serving 388,191 students (MoHE 2018; Mussawy and Rossman 2018). In response to the rapid growth, the Ministry of Higher Education partnered with the USAID, the World Bank, and the British Council to establish a QAA process as a mechanism to improve quality (Aturupane, Sofizada and Shojo 2013; Chase-Mayoral and Amiri 2018; Roof 2014). Nevertheless, only research universities were able to meet the QAA benchmarks and to achieve national accreditation in the past three years, while the majority of teaching JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) 73 universities experienced great difficulties. In fact, the QAA policy seems to be discriminating against teaching universities as they lack both adequate infrastructure and resources to meet the accreditation benchmarks. The existing literature on QAA contends that accreditation functions as a fence to protect institutional identity against external environment (Blanco-Ramírez and Berger 2014; Skolnik 2010). The literature on QAA shows two major trends. One perspective is the criticism towards the use of corporate-driven quality assurance models as the measure to assess the quality of higher education services and to question whether quantification of higher education services produces a true measure of quality standards (Srikanthan and Dalrymple 2007). The other emphasizes QAA outcomes, illuminating how QAA efforts contribute to quality improvement and increase accountability. What is missing in the literature is how implementing QAA policies affect different types of HEIs, and the challenges faced by teaching-centered universities when implementing a “one-size-fits-all” approach to accreditation.
Theoretical Framework
The research uses sensemaking and sensegiving (Weick 1995) as a theoretical lens to analyze and interpret the implementation of accreditation at public HEIs in Afghanistan. Sensemaking is defined as a dynamic and exploratory process of learning, understanding, developing meaning, and identifying patterns (Gioia and Chittipeddi 1991; Kezar 2013; Weick 1995). While some authors use the terms sensemaking and sensegiving interchangeably, Gioia and Chittipeddi (1991) make distinguish them as two independent process by stating that sensemaking refers to a process of “meaning construction and reconstruction by the involved parties”, and sensegiving denotes a “process of attempting to influence the sensemaking and meaning construction of others” (p. 442). Similarly, Weick, Sutcliffe, and Obstfeld (2005) assert “sensemaking unfolds as a sequence in which people concerned with identity in the social context of other actors engage ongoing circumstances from which they extract cues and make plausible sense retrospectively, while enacting more or less order into those ongoing circumstances” (p. 409). Others interpret sensemaking as a collaborative learning process (Maitlis and Lawrence 2007), an interpretive exercise (Kezar 2013), and an ongoing exploration of organizational events (Gioia and Thomas 1996). Given these conceptualizations, sensemaking and sensegiving may well serve two purposes: (a) gathering information from multiple sources to learn what is going on, and (b) scrutinizing how others (organizational members) should interpret the information (Maitlis and Lawrence 2007). Weick’s (1995) “sensemaking” is the best framework for studying QAA in higher education system in Afghanistan because adopting QAA triggers disruption at universities. Stakeholders are expected to interpret the policy, make priorities, redefine roles and responsibilities and engage in constructive conversations and activities, in order to uphold the identity of their respected institutions and exhibit an image that builds trust in the public. The author views implementing accreditation, or any policy, as an instance of organizational change and thus relevant to sensegiving and sensemaking. Implementing accreditation affects institutional culture within universities as it is assumed to alter faculty and staff assumptions about ongoing events (Stensaker 2007). Weick (1995) and Gioio and Chittipeddi (1991) established sensemaking/sensegiving as an analytical approach to examine how meanings are constructed among organization leaders and followers, and how they shape or inspire one another’s interpretation. While previous research found sensemaking useful tool to study higher education in Western contexts such as the US and Europe (Degn 2015; Kezar 2013; Gioio and Chittipeddi 1991), the present research examines ways that sensemaking framework can contribute to a better understanding of QAA challenges in a non-Western context, such as Afghanistan.
Method
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The research seeks to answer the following questions: (1) How does sense-making/giving occur as teaching and research universities respond to QAA policy? And (2) What are the experiences of stakeholders at public universities in relation to QAA? The investigator used a qualitative multi-case study approach (Rossman and Rallis 2016) to collect data from a total of 46 participants that included 31 individual interviews and three focus group. The research took place at two research universities, three teaching-centered universities, the national quality assurance and accreditation agency, and three donor agencies. Research participants included senior officials at QAA directorate, senior university administrators, internal quality assurance units, peer-reviewers, and donor representatives. The investigator used a combination of participant observation, archival review, and semi-structured interviews to triangulate the data.
Preliminary Results
This research is currently in the data analysis phase. The research uses two levels of analysis to make sense of the data: (1) Marshall and Rossman’s (2016) generic steps for qualitative data analysis help in analyzing each case independently; (2) Creswell’s (2014) multiple-case study design assists in developing “a detailed description of the setting, followed by analysis of data for themes or issues” (p. 267). The study intends to contribute to policy development and policy analysis literature. It highlights the role of contextual factors in policy formulation, and challenges a standard, “one-size-fits-all” approach to implementing higher education policies. Preliminary findings suggest that administrative protocols overshadow the goals of implementing QAA at public universities. The results highlight the significance of senior administrators’ involvement in interpreting the accreditation framework (sensemaking) and making strategic decisions (sensegiving) to overcome accreditation goals. Universities, where the leadership team was actively involved in translating accreditation standards into manageable functions (sensemaking/giving), made greater progress in comparison to those with minimal engagement of the leadership team. In teaching-centered universities, although the lack of adequate resources and institutional autonomy were highlighted as the main factors that inhibited a successful implementation of QAA, the results suggest that absence of a guided sensemaking and sensegiving (Gioio and Chittipeddi 1991) approach was the primary factor that resulted in information gaps and lack of engagement among faculty and staff in QAA processes. Findings also suggest that sensemaking was minimal at teaching-centered universities as they experienced great difficulty in developing mechanisms to unpack various aspects of QAA policy. More specifically, QAA related tasks were delegated to subordinates prior to a deeper understanding of the policy at the leadership level. In other words, research highlighted a lack of alignment between senior executives’ interpretation of policy and functions that were chosen to address the problem. The study documents that participants have a positive view about QAA as a national system to oversee quality of higher education services. However, the research highlights that teaching-centered HEIs lack the structures and systems needed to effectively internalize a foreign-derived QAA policy. As a result, implementing accreditation as the sole mechanism to improve quality remains a contested process.
References
Altbach, Philip G., and Jane Knight. 2007. "The Internationalization of Higher Education: Motivations and Realities." Journal of Studies in International Education 11(3-4): 290-305. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1028315307303542. Aturupane, Harsha, Abdul Hai Sofizada, and M. Shojo. 2013. Higher Education in Afghanistan: An Emerging Mountainscape. Washington, DC: The World Bank. JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) 75
Babury, Mohammad Osman and Fred M. Hayward. 2014. "Afghanistan Higher Education: The struggle for quality, merit, and transformation." Planning for Higher Education 42(2): 1-32. Berger, Joseph B., and Hanni S. Thoma. 2015. “The Challenges of Developing an Autonomous Higher Education System in Afghanistan”. International Higher Education 81: 20-21. https://doi.org/10.6017/ihe.2015.81.8738. Blanco-Ramírez, Gerardo, and Joseph B. Berger. 2014. "Rankings, Accreditation, and the International Quest for Quality: Organizing an Approach to Value in Higher Education." Quality Assurance in Education 22(1): 88-104. https://doi.org/10.1108/QAE-07-2013-0031. Chase-Mayoral, Audree, and Fayaz Amiri. 2018. "Economics of Education in Afghanistan: Expanding Academic Programs Based on Market Demands Dictated by International Agency Funds Toward Self-Sustainability." In Handbook of Comparative Studies on Community Colleges and Global Counterparts, edited by Rosalind Latiner Raby and Edward J. Valeau, 113-130. Netherland: Springer International Publishing. Creswell, John W. 2014. A Concise Introduction to Mixed Methods Research. Los Angeles: Sage Publications. Degn, Lise. 2015. "Sensemaking, Sensegiving and Strategic Management in Danish Higher Education." Higher Education 69(6): 901-913. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-014-9812-3. Gioia, Dennis A., and James B. Thomas. 1996. "Identity, Image, and Issue Interpretation: Sensemaking during Strategic Change in Academia." Administrative Science Quarterly 41(3): 370-403. Gioia, Dennis A., and Kumar Chittipeddi. 1991. "Sensemaking and Sensegiving in Strategic Change Initiation." Strategic Management Journal 12(6): 433-448. https://doi.org/10.1002/smj.4250120604. Hayward, Fred M., and Razia Karim. 2019. "The Struggle for Higher Education Gender Equity Policy in Afghanistan: Obstacles, Challenges and Achievements." Education Policy Analysis Archives 27(139): 1 - 23. https://doi.org/10.14507/epaa.27.3036. Ibrahimi, N. 2014. "Bureaucratic Policies and Patronage Politics: Prospect and Challenges of Private Higher Education in Afghanistan.” Accessed November 11, 2019. http://www.afghanistan-analysts.org/wp- content/uploads/2014/05/20140527-NIbrahimi-Private_Higher_Education.pdf. Kapur, Devesh, and Megan Crowley. 2008. "Beyond the ABCs: Higher Education and Developing Countries." Center for Global Development, Working Paper 139. Washington DC: Center for Global Development. http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1099934 . Kezar, Adrianna. 2013. "Understanding Sensemaking/Sensegiving in Transformational Change Processes from the Bottom Up." Higher Education 65(6): 761-780. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-012-9575-7. Maitlis, Sally, and Thomas B. Lawrence. 2007. "Triggers and Enablers of Sensegiving in Organizations." Academy of Management Journal 50(1): 57-84. https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2007.24160971. Marshall, Catherine, and Gretchen B. Rossman. 2016. Designing Qualitative Research. Loss Angeles: Sage Publications. McNernery, Frank. 2009. “Policy Options to Finance Public Higher Education in Afghanistan.” PhD. Diss., University of Massachusetts Amherst. Ministry of Higher Education (MoHE). 2019. “Quality Assurance and Accreditation.” Accessed April 28, 2019. http://qaad.edu.af/en/resources/qaa-guidebook/. Mussawy, Sayed Ahmad Javid, and Gretchen B. Rossman. 2018. "Quality Assurance and Accreditation in Afghanistan: Faculty Members' Perceptions from Selected Universities." Higher Learning Research Communications 8(2): 9- 34. https://doi.org/10.18870/hlrc.v8i2.411. Roof, David J. 2018. "Challenges and Opportunities: Community College Development in Afghanistan." In Handbook of Comparative Studies on Community Colleges and Global Counterparts, edited by Rosalind Latiner Raby and Edward J. Valeau, 1-15. Netherland: Springer International Publishing.
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Roof, David J. 2015. "Day-By-Day: Higher Education in Afghanistan." FIRE: Forum for International Research in Education 1(3): 64-80. http://dx.doi.org/10.18275/fire201401031034. Rossman, Gretchen B., and Sharon F. Rallis. 2016. An Introduction to Qualitative Research: Learning in the Field. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications. Skolnik, Michael L. 2010. "Quality Assurance in Higher Education as a Political Process." Higher Education Management and Policy 22(1): 1-20. https://doi.org/10.1787/hemp-22-5kmlh5gs3zr0. Srikanthan, Gitachari, and John F. Dalrymple. 2007. "A Conceptual Overview of a Holistic Model for Quality in Higher Education." International Journal of Educational Management 21(3): 173-193. https://doi.org/10.1108/09513540710738647. Stensaker, Bjørn. 2007. "Quality as Fashion: Exploring the Translation of a Management Idea into Higher Education." In Quality Assurance in Higher Education: Trends in Regulation, Translation, and Transformation, edited by Don F. Westerheijden, Bjørn Stensaker, and Maria J. Rosa, 99-118. Netherlands: Springer. Weick, Karl E. 1995. Sensemaking in Organizations. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications. Weick, Karl E., Kathleen M. Sutcliffe, and David Obstfeld. 2005. "Organizing and the Process of Sensemaking." Organization Science 16(4): 409-421. https://doi.org/10.1287/orsc.1050.0133. Williams, James. 2016. "Quality Assurance and Quality Enhancement: Is There a Relationship?" Quality in Higher Education 22(2): 97-102. https://doi.org/10.1080/13538322.2016.1227207.
JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) 77
Technical Education for the Reintegration of Ex-Combatants: One Pathway, Different Trajectories
María Paulina Arango*
Florida State University, United States
Email: [email protected] Address: 114 W Call St, Tallahassee, Florida, United States
Problem Statement and Background
Lasting peace after a conflict depends, to a large extent, on the successful reintegration of ex-combatants into society. As defined by the United Nations (UN), ex-combatants are people who, after having been a member of a national army or an irregular military organization, decide to lay down their weapons in participation with Disarmament, Demobilization, and Reincorporation (DDR) processes (UN 2006). Technical and vocational education and training (TVET), is considered a key means to prepare ex-combatants to participate in the labor market and to assume new social roles (UN 2006) because TVET offers a general education and the acquisition of practical skills, attitudes, and knowledge relating to occupations in socio-economic sectors (ILO-UNESCO 2002). As an essential part of promoting development and preventing recidivism, international organizations and governments around the world include TVET in DDR processes (UN 2014). Some studies have found that when technical programs are accompanied by financial resources, ex-combatants shift to legal activities and are less prone to re-armament (Blattman and Annan 2016). However, despite efforts to implement TVET, in general, programs have not had expected results in facilitating ex-combatants’ reintegration (Blattman and Ralston 2015; Humphrey and Weinstein 2004). Previous studies have identified program design (Johnson et al. 2007), implementation (McMullin 2013), and post-conflict environments (Porto, Parsons, and Alden 2007) as factors limiting TVET’s effectiveness. However, in these studies, the experiences and perspectives of ex-combatants have remained unexplored. As a result, little is known about individual-level factors that influence ex-combatants’ decisions to engage in TVET, their perceptions about the programs, and how access to TVET influences their trajectories when reintegrating into society. This information is critical to understanding whether this group finds access to TVET useful, and how to shape programs to respond to ex-combatants needs and capabilities (Billett 2006). This study seeks to address this gap. Centered on the voices of ex-combatants in Colombia who graduated from technical programs, this research will illuminate the different meanings they attribute to their education, how these meanings influence decision-making and behaviors (Hall 2003) and will investigate how reintegration relates with educational experiences. The following central question guides this study: What meaning does access to technical education have for ex-combatants who graduated from a technical and vocational (TVET) institution in Colombia as part of their reintegration process? This research seeks to identify the perceptions, assumptions, and expectations that ex-combatants have regarding participation and persistence in the educational process, and how accessing education influenced their reintegration. This study is a response to the growing need to put ex-combatants at the center of research to better understand their diverse perspectives, challenges, and trajectories as a way to identify how to improve programs (Torjesen 2013). Colombia was selected for this research because its civil war has been the lengthiest armed conflict in the western hemisphere (CNMH 2013). Over the last 15 years, the government has demobilized more than 60,000 ex-combatants
78 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) from guerrilla and self-defense militias (ARN 2018). The Colombian reintegration policy includes education, and establishes TVET as a condition to receive grants for microbusiness (CONPES 3554 2008).
Methodology
A qualitative in-depth interview design guides this research. This study is part of a broader project involving Colombian ex-combatants across two levels of TVET programs, including technical courses and vocational entrepreneurship courses. In Colombia, one-year technical programs focus on skills training in specific productive sectors and require a high school diploma. By contrast, entrepreneurship education taught through complementary courses that last 40-80 hours do not require a high school diploma (SENA 2015). This study draws on data from a purposeful sub-sample of 10 ex-combatants who have graduated from technical postsecondary education programs. The respondents’ ages ranged from 18 to 35 years and included women and men from different armed groups. Interviews were semi-structured. The first interview included a background section that asked about ex-combatants’ reasons for reintegration. In the meaning of education section, questions focused on ex-combatants’ perceptions and feelings about their education, their motivations to study, expectations toward the future, and the value they find in training. The second interview explored emerging topics from the previous interviews and particular issues that needed clarification or a deeper understanding. Therefore, the protocol had some shared questions for all participants, and some questions specific for each interviewee. Questions were asked regarding whether courses met ex-combatants’ expectations, about their experiences as adult students, and on factors from the educational process that motivated them to study. Other questions focused on how they overcame challenges to finish TVET programs and connections between their educational experiences and reintegration. The interviews were analyzed in a three-stage process that includes two-cycle coding and identification of themes (Miles, Huberman, and Saldana 2014). In the first cycle of coding, each interview was analyzed separately to identify emerging codes. In the second cycle, interviews were compared and contrasted to identify emergent codes and categories. In the third step, main themes were identified and contrasted with theory (Corbin and Strauss 2008).
Preliminary Findings and Relevance
Preliminary findings show that psychosocial aspirations, more than economic aspirations, motivate ex-combatants to study and reintegrate. While participants were concerned by employment and decent wages, their primary motivations for education were to be respected and recognized, to set an example for their children, to experience a moral transformation, and to develop autonomy. These personal motivations and the hope for a better future were the main reasons to study, to stay in civilian life, and in some cases, to reject offers to re-join criminal organizations. These findings show that TVET’s assumptions that ex-combatants are only motivated by material factors such as money and employment are too reductionist. These findings mirror other research that has found that disengaged youth want to achieve social inclusion and overcome marginalization (Mercy Corps 2015). This research highlights the voices and interests of TVET stakeholders, who are often left out of policy and programmatic discussions. This knowledge is critical to understanding how to better align TVET programs with ex- combatants’ expectations, and how to help them achieve their aspirations. A more holistic education that includes channels for economic participation, but also strategies to achieve ex-combatants’ personal hopes and desires could facilitate the challenging task of reintegration.
Contributions to Comparative and International Higher Education
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TVET programs are the most common educational option for demobilized youth in conflict-affected countries (Ralston 2014). These programs have the potential to rehabilitate ex-combatants, open pathways to legal work, and deter them from crime and violence (Blattman and Annan 2016). Participation in TVET programs can also help to develop capabilities and feelings of inclusion in the community. Therefore, exploring what motivates ex-combatants to enroll and finish TVET programs is of utmost importance. Scholars identified the need to include participatory research strategies to narrowing the gap between ex- combatants’ individual needs and institutional processes to develop more sustainable and effective educational programs (Lopes-Cardozo and Scotto 2017; Novelli and Lopes-Cardozo 2008). This research, which sought to better understand ex-combatants’ perspectives and motivations for pursuing educational programs, is the first step toward more inclusive research in which ex-combatants will be part of research projects’ designs and execution.
Acknowledgements
This article was supported by a U.S. Institute of Peace (USIP) Peace Scholar Award from USIP. The views expressed in this paper are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the U.S. Institute of Peace.
References
Agency for Reincorporation and Normalization [Agencia para la Reincorporación y la Normalización] (ARN). 2018. “Reintegration”. Accessed September 10, 2018. http://www.reincorporacion.gov.co/en/reintegration/Documents/ARN_en_Mar_2018.pdf#search=numbers%20de mobilized. Billett, Stephen. 2006. “Work, Subjectivity and Learning.” In Work, Subjectivity and Learning, Understanding Learning Through Working Life, edited by Stephen Billett, Tara Fenwick and Margaret Somerville, 1-17. The Netherlands: Springer. Blattman, Christopher, & Laura Ralston, L. 2015. “Generating Employment in Poor and Fragile States: Evidence from Labor Market and Entrepreneurship Programs”. World Bank's Development, Impact Evaluation (DIME), Social Protection and Labor (SPL), and Fragility, Conflict & Violence (FCV), July 19. http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2622220. Blattman, Christopher, & Jeannie Annan. 2016. “Can Employment Reduce Lawlessness and Rebellion? A Field Experiment with High-Risk Men in a Fragile State.” American Political Science Review 110(1): 1-17. Corbin, Juliet, & Anselm Strauss. 2008. Basics of Qualitative Research: Techniques and Procedures for Developing Grounded Theory (3rd ed.). London: SAGE Publications. Hall, Stuart. 2003. Representation. Cultural Representations and Signifying Practices. London: SAGE Publications. Humphreys, Macartan, and Jeremy Weinstein. 2004. “What the Fighters Say: A Survey of Ex-Combatants in Sierra Leone.” Center on Globalization and Sustainable Development, Columbia University and Stanford University, July. http://www.columbia.edu/~mh2245/Report1_BW.pdf. Johnson, David., David Phillips, Rupert Maclean, and UNESCO. 2007. “Education for livelihoods and civic participation in post-conflict countries: conceptualizing a holistic approach to TVET planning and programming in Sub-Saharan Africa: a discussion paper." International Centre for Technical and Vocational Education and Training (UNESCO-UNEVOC), University of Oxford. Conflict and Education Research Group (CERG). http://hdl.voced.edu.au/10707/154794.
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Lopes-Cardozo, Mieke, and Giovanni Scotto. 2017. "Youth, peacebuilding and the Role of Education." INEE/YPS, December. http://s3.amazonaws.com/inee- assets/resources/INEE_ThematicPaper_UNSCR_ExecutiveSummary_2019_ENG.pdf. McMullin, Jeremy. 2013. Ex-Combatants and the Post-Conflict State: Challenges of Reintegration. New York: Macmillan. Mercy Corps. 2015. “Youth and Consequences: Unemployment, Injustice and Violence.” Mercy Corps, February 13. https://www.mercycorps.org/research-resources/youth-consequences-unemployment. Miles, Matthew., Michael Huberman, and Johnny Saldaña, J. 2014. Qualitative Data Analysis: A Methods Sourcebook. Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications. National Center of Historical Memory [Centro Nacional de Memoria Historica] (CNMH). 2013. Enough! Colombia: Memory of War and Dignity [¡Basta Ya! Colombia: Memoria de Guerra y Dignidad]. Bogotá: Centro Nacional de Memoria Histórica. National Council on Socio-Economic Policy [Consejo Nacional de Política Económica y Social] (CONPES 3554). 2008. National policy on social and economic reintegration for people and illegal armed groups [Política nacional de reintegración social y económica para personas y grupos armados ilegales]. Bogotá: Departamento de Planeación Nacional. National Training Service [Servicio Nacional de Aprendizaje] (SENA). 2015. “SENA Strategic Plan 2014-2018: Making an Impact in Decent Jobs, Productivity, and Income Generation.” Accessed March 10, 2017. http://www.sena.edu.co/es-co/sena/planeacion/planEstrategico20152018.pdf. Novelli, Mario, and Mieke Lopes Cardozo. 2008. “Conflict, Education and the Global South: New Critical Directions.” International Journal of Educational Development 28(4): 473-488. Porto, J. Gomes., Imogen Parsons, and Chris Alden. 2007. From Soldiers to Citizens the Social, Economic and Political Reintegration of Unita Ex Combatants. Burlington: Ashgate Publishing Company. Ralston, Laura. 2014. “Job Creation in Fragile and Conflict-Affected Situations.” World Bank, October 1. https://ssrn.com/abstract=2517717. Torjesen, Stina. 2013. “Towards a Theory of Ex-Combatant Reintegration Stability.” International Journal of Security & Development 2-3(63): 1-13. UNESCO and International Labour Organization. 2002. “Technical and Vocational Education and Training for the Twenty-First Century.” UNESCO and ILO. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000220748. United Nations. 2006. “Integrated Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration Standards.” Accessed March 27, 2018. http://unddr.org/uploads/documents/IDDRS%201.20%20Glossary.pdf. United Nations. 2014. “Operational Guide to the Integrated Disarmament, Demobilization, and Reintegration Standards.” Accessed January 13, 2017. http://www.unddr.org/uploads/documents/Operational%20Guide.pdf.
JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) 81 Discourse Analysis of the New Colombo Plan funded Australian Outbound Student Mobility Programs
Mila Arden
Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia
Email: [email protected] Address: Footscray Park Campus, Ballarat Road, Footscray 3011
Introduction
This research concentrates on Outbound Student Mobility (OSM), which means that local Australian higher education students go overseas to receive a part of their education. This is a relatively new field in the Australian Higher Education literature. Although there have been a few schemes that enabled Australian university students to study overseas, the Australian Government launched its flagship OSM program, the New Colombo Plan (NCP) in 2013. With this recent shift, from West to East, in the direction of student mobility, the NCP encourages domestic Australian university students to participate in study exchange programs in Indo-Pacific and Asian region. This is a qualitative study, which consists of document analysis and semi-structured interviews. For the document analysis section, the NCP is examined as the higher education policy, and Australian university students are interviewed as the third discourse contributing to OSM.
Literature Review
The literature review concentrates on the higher education student mobility programs. This paper, however, aims to shed light onto the relationship between the academic literature and the history of university policies. Briefly, the study points out the focus of the literature being on the benefits of outbound mobility. For example, according to Bentley and Broons (1999), international experience is beneficial for students to be able to work in multicultural workplaces. International experience, as it is argued, beneficial because the programs are broadening their mind and re-defining their social identities (Lambert 1989). However, information in the Australian higher education literature regarding outbound mobility is still limited. Additionally, it is reported that Australian university student numbers, attending to outbound mobility programs are low (Daly and Barker 2005; Olsen 2008; Doyle et al. 2010; Daly 2011). On the other hand, Rizvi (2011) points out to another interesting point to be taken into account. He suggests that studying abroad is not a new practice (Rizvi 2011). It is, in fact, a historical phenomenon, well established at least since the Middle Ages in the European context and even earlier in the Middle East and Eastern contexts (Guruz 2008). Despite the historical development of the concept of outbound mobility, it is a relatively new development in Australia. So too, recently, there is a shift towards outbound mobility in Australian universities, and our domestic students are encouraged to do a part of their study overseas. Consequently, there has been an emerging Australian higher education literature; however, it requires attention in both social aspects and policy development in outbound mobility. On the social side, the literature assumes inherent and obvious benefits of mobility programs, and much of the literature overlooks the issues of students’ existing cultural identities. (Crossman and Clarke 2010; Clifford 2011). However, the policy seemed to have concentrated on
82 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) the aspects of economy and the Australian public diplomacy. Therefore, it is important to examine the development of mobility policies and to examine the underpinning motives of implementing these programs. For example, Rizvi (2011) argues that initiatives such as the Colombo Plan were originally designed and introduced as foreign aid programs and further argues that the aim of these programs were linked to a far deeper stated public diplomacy issues in the past. Similarly, Manathunga (2004) critiques these international education policies by drawing attention to the Original Colombo Plan’s so-called ‘peace building’ Western imperialistic agenda. This paper only concentrates on the policy development and how it is analyzed in the research project. However, the overall project has a broader scope. In consideration of the different focuses of both academic and policy discourses on the same educational programs, including Australian university students’ perspectives to these discourses, however limited, seemed justifiable. Below, the overall research and its significance are presented. However, this paper reports on the policy aspect, which elaborates on the employed theories, methods and techniques.
Research Questions
The main question of this study is: How are the competing discourses of the New Colombo Plan funded Outbound Student Mobility Programs compared? The thesis takes the reader through different major stages and reports each stage as a separate chapter. In order to assist the main question, sub-questions are examined. In this paper, only the first sub-question is presented, which is “How have the mobility programs and the policies changed over time?” In order to explain this, the project conducted policy analysis.
The Significance of the Study
Overall, this project contributes to the existing knowledge of Australian OSM programs, particularly considering the emphasis given on these programs by the NCP policy. As mentioned, the emphasis on outbound mobility is a relatively new development in Australia, which was initiated by the NCP policy in 2013. By examining the policy, this study, a) highlights the emerging discourse of the policy, b) offers an opportunity to compare and contrast the aims and objectives of these programs with other discourses, such as the academic discourse, c) tackles the hidden neo-liberal market agendas and neo-colonial aims embedded in recent government initiatives, d) aims to offer practical outcomes to optimize educational outcomes.
Theoretical Framework and Methodology
Overall, this qualitative study examines OSM through a combination of postcolonial and Foucauldian theories. This paper concentrates on the policy analysis aspect of the project, which is conducted by the guidance of Bacchi’s (2009) ‘What’s the Problem Represented to be?’ (WPR) approach. WPR is a specific policy analysis template, which is constructed in the poststructural/Foucaldian framework and consists of a number of questions in order to analyze a policy. Since WPR approach is both theoretical and methodological, specifying methodology and methods in the same section is deemed justifiable. Foucauldian-based approach to policy analysis asks six main questions, which are as follows: 1. What’s the problem represented to be in a specific policy or a policy proposal? 2. What presuppositions or assumptions underpin this representation of the problem? 3. How has this representation of the problem come about?
JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) 83 4. What is left unproblematic in this problem representation? Where are the silences? Can the problem be thought differently? 5. What effects are produced by this representation of the problem? 6. How/where has this representation of the problem been produced, disseminated and defended? How has it been (or could it be) questioned, disrupted and replaced? The analysis is conducted by answering the questions presented above. Due to the scope of this paper, it is not possible to present the entire chapter or analysis here. However, it is possible to briefly mention the key tenets of Bacchi’s (2009) approach. She argues that policies are based on ‘problematization’ concept. This means that policies are written in order to offer a solution to a socially-related problem. However, these ‘problems’ are constructed by policy makers in particular ways to serve the interest of particular groups in society. For example, through WPR policy analysis, my study concludes that in the case of Australian OSM programs, global citizenship, employability and international experience are some of the ‘assumed’ benefits and offered solutions to graduates’ ‘employability’ anxieties for their life after post-graduation. However, the project demonstrates that the students do not necessarily acknowledge such benefits.
The Overall Significance and the Contribution of this Study
The project, overall, aims to draw attention to the discrepancies between discourses emerging from three different agents: the scholarly literature, the government policy, and the Australian university students. Considering the lack of student voices in the literature (Gargano 2009), the project contributes to the knowledge by delivering students’ perspectives and by this, paving the way for more student-friendly discourses to emerge. For example, this study brings a fresh perspective because it considers mobility programs through the eyes of students, both mobile and non- mobile. Despite the emphasis on ‘claimed benefits’ and efforts of presenting Australian OSM programs as practical solutions to problems, such as employability, the projects tackle such market appeal. In fact, by contrast, this project takes a critical approach that draws attention to shortcomings of Australian OSM programs in order to offer and optimize more socially and culturally responsible policy and educational outcomes.
References
Arden, Mils., Catherine Manathunga and Dororthy Bottrell. 2017. “Identity construction through Australian university student mobility programs.” In Student Culture and Identity in Higher Education, edited by A. Shahriar and G. Kazim,1-17. USA: IGI Global. Bacchi, Carol. 2009. Analysing Policy: What's the problem represented to be?. Australia: Pearson Australia. Crossman, Joanna Elizabeth and Marilyn Clarke. 2009. “International Experience and Graduate Employability: Stakeholder Perceptions on the Connection.” Higher Education 59(5): 599–613. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734- 009-9268-z. Daly, Amanda. 2011. “Determinants of participating in Australian university student exchange programs.” Journal of Research in International Education 10(1): 58-70. doi:10.1177/1475240910394979. Daly, Amanda and Meg Barker. 2005. “Australian and New Zealand University students' participation in nternational exchange programs.” Journal of Studies in International Education 9(1): 26-41. Doyle, Stephanie., Philip Gendall, Luanna H. Meyer, Janet Hoek, Carolyn Tait, Lyanne McKenzie and Avatar Loorparg. 2010. “An investigation of factors associated with student participation in study abroad.” Journal of Studies in International Education 14(5): 471-490. doi:10.1177/1028315309336032.
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Gargano, Terra. 2009. “(Re)conceptualizing international student mobility: The potential of transnational social fields.” Journal of Studies in International Education 13(3): 331-346. Lambert, Richard D. 1998. International studies and undergraduate. Washington, DC: American Council on Education. Manathunga, Catherine. 2014. “Discourse about war and peace in the Colombo Plan in Aetearoa/New Zealand”. Victoria University. Olsen, Alan. 2008. “International mobility of Australian University students: 2005.” Journal of Studies in International Education 12(4): 364-374. doi:10.1177/1028315308314939. Rizvi, Fazal. 2011. ‘Theorizing student mobility in an era of globalization.” Teachers and Teaching: Theory and Practice 17(6): 693-701.
JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) 85 Chinese Undergraduate Students’ Perceptions of Learning: The Role of Language and Culture in a Short-term Public Health Study Abroad Program
Sara Bano*and Qing Xia
Michigan State University, United States
*Corresponding author: Email: [email protected] Address: College of Education, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI United States
Introduction
Due to globalization, the demand for cross-cultural experiences for healthcare professionals is on the rise (Drain, Primack, Hunt, Fawzi, Holmes, and Gardner 2007). Recently, short-term education abroad programs in the U.S. are becoming increasingly popular for Chinese students (Huang et al. 2018; Powell and Biederman 2017). Powell and Biederman (2017) mentioned several benefits of study abroad, such as improvement in language skills and cultural immersion. Powell and Biederman (2017) also argued that study abroad programs enhance global learning, global awareness, civic engagement, and positively impact personal development, social intelligence, and future career prospects of the participating students. In the past two decades, many studies have focused on the experiences of international students and the challenges they face at foreign campuses (Ackers 1997; Andrade 2006; Constantine, Okazaki, and Utsey 2004; Lewthwaite 1996; Myles and Cheng 2003; Sawir et al. 2008; Sherry, Thomas, and Chui 2010). These studies demonstrate that international students experience considerable pressure to navigate new systems, learn a new language, and create social and academic networks, reflecting the prominence of globalization and neoliberalism in international education (Altbach and Teichler 2001; Altbach and Knight 2007). In the past few years, the number of Chinese undergraduate students in short term study abroad programs have substantially increased, especially in the field of public health (Huang et al. 2018; Powell and Biederman 2017). However, little is known about the experiences of Chinese students in short-term study abroad programs in the U.S., especially in the field of healthcare (Mapp 2012). In this study, we sought to develop a deeper understanding of the learning and development needs of Chinese undergraduate students who participated in a short-term study abroad program in the field of public health at an American university.
Theoretical Framework
We sought to move beyond the adjustment and neo-liberal perspectives that have been used to conceptualize the experiences of international students, especially Chinese students. For this reason, Transformative Learning Theory (Mezirow 1991; Taylor and Cranton 2012; Savicki 2008) was used to help define how participants perceived and made sense of the experiences and activities in which they were engaged while at their host institution. In experiences we include academic, professional, social, and cultural aspects of their lives during this study abroad program. This theory allowed us to interpret participants’ descriptions of their experiences through what Mezirow (1991) refers to as meaning perspectives. The overall research question pursued in this study was: How do Chinese undergraduate students perceive, understand, and make sense of their experiences in a short-term study abroad program in the field of public health?
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Research Design
This paper is a part of a large study which explored the experiences of Chinese undergraduate students from East China Medical University who participated in a short-term study abroad program in public health and nursing at an American Midwestern University. The first half of the eight-week long programs consisted of four weeks of classes on learning English and American culture and academic lectures on healthcare topics. The second four weeks consisted of shadowing in hospitals and the county health department and making professional visits to local public health and health care-related organizations. A group of 15 undergraduate students from the public health field aging between 18- 21 years old participated in this program. A qualitative study design was used to study how individuals and the group as a whole perceived and made sense of their experiences in this program. Data collection included semi-structured interviews of six participants and a focus group interview at the end the program. Since reflection is central to the meaning making process in Transformative Learning Theory, each student was requested to write a reflection paper in English. Students also kept a journal during the program, in which they used their native language, Chinese, for more precise recording of their thoughts and experiences. Data were analyzed using thematic analysis.
Findings
In this study, we found that learning was not confined to academic content or settings, but the participants wanted to learn and explore foreign culture and language to develop themselves as global professionals. Chinese undergraduate students perceived this experience as an opportunity to develop their global professional identity. The most important learning goals were learning English, especially spoken English, and learning about the American healthcare system and the differences between Chinese and American policies and practices. The meaning making process of our participants was of a comparative nature, through constant reflection. Most participants mentioned experiencing culture shock, but they denied any change in their behaviors as a result of cultural learning. However, in reflection papers, they mentioned a significant shift in their approach to their field and future career plans. Overall, we found learning cross-cultural competencies and developing themselves as global professionals were really important goals for our participants. Often professional and technical knowledge building takes precedence as the main component of international study abroad programs and the cultural learning aspect is not formally included in the curriculum. So, it is important to create opportunities for learning the foreign language and culture alongside delivering technical content in study abroad programs to develop well rounded global professionals.
Contributions to the Field of Comparative and International Higher Education
Most researchers in the field of international higher education have focused on degree seeking students’ experience and the neo-liberal perspective to explain these international experiences. Also, in study abroad literature often the focus is on American students studying in foreign countries. This study focuses on incoming Chinese undergraduate students in America and provides some insights about short-term, non-degree learning experiences at an American campus. This study confirms some of the previous findings in the research about Chinese students’ study abroad experiences, particularly their struggle with English language and its impact on their overall experience. This study adds to our understanding of global professional identity development and the significance of cultural learning, by which we mean learning about academic, professional, and social culture and language in short term study abroad programs. Findings from this study can be helpful for administrators and faculty members to plan and organize short-term study abroad programs from a holistic perspective by equally focusing on cultural learning and professional training.
JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) 87 This study also pushes the current focus of the field of study abroad from the cultural shock and adjustment paradigm to critically thinking about larger questions about learning and the nature of cross-cultural learning experiences from students’ perspectives. Future research in the field should focus on questions such as, what constitutes learning in a cross-cultural environment from students’ perspectives? What does transformative learning mean in an international setting? And, how can we assess these transformative learning experiences.
References
Ackers, Jim. 2002. "Evaluating UK Courses: The Perspective of the Overseas Student." In Overseas Students in Higher Education, pp. 199-212. Routledge. Altbach, Philip G., and Ulrich Teichler. 2001. "Internationalization and Exchanges in a Globalized University." Journal of Studies in International Education 5(1): 5-25. Altbach, Philip G., and Jane Knight. 2007. "The Internationalization of Higher Education: Motivations and Realities." Journal of Studies in International Education 11(3-4): 290-305. American Council on Education [ACE]. (2014). ACE Study Illuminates Opportunities and Challenges of International Joint and Dual Degree Programs. Retrieved from http://www.acenet.edu/news-room/Pages/ACE-Study- Illuminates-OpportunitiesChallenges-of-International-Joint-and-Dual-Degree-Programs.aspx. Andrade, Maureen S. 2006. "International Student Persistence: Integration or Cultural Integrity?" Journal of College Student Retention: Research, Theory & Practice 8(1): 57-81. Constantine, Madonna G., Sumie Okazaki, and Shawn O. Utsey. 2004. "Self-Concealment, Social Self‐Efficacy, Acculturative Stress, and Depression in African, Asian, and Latin American International College Students." American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 74(3): 230-241. Drain, Paul K., Aron Primack, D. Dan Hunt, Wafaie W. Fawzi, King K. Holmes, and Pierce Gardner. 2007. "Global Health in Medical Education: A Call for More Training and Opportunities." Academic Medicine 82(3): 226-230. Huang, Yu-zhuang, Xin Cheng, Beate Brand-Saberi, and Xuesong Yang. 2018. "The Perspectives of Medical Students in China to Undergo Short-Term Training Abroad." International Journal of Higher Education 7(4): 203-210. Lewthwaite, Malcolm. 1996. "A Study of International Students' Perspectives on Cross-Cultural Adaptation." International Journal for the Advancement of Counselling 19(2): 167-185. Mapp, Susan, and Karen Rice. 2019. "Conducting Rights-Based Short-Term Study Abroad Experiences." Social Work Education 38(4): 427-438. Mezirow, Jack. 1991. Transformative Dimensions of Adult Learning. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Miles, Matthew B., A. Michael Huberman, and Johnny Saldaña. 2014. Qualitative Data Analysis: A Methods Sourcebook. 3. Ed. Los Angeles, Calif: Sage. Myles, Johanne, and Liying Cheng. 2003. "The Social and Cultural Life of Non-Native English Speaking International Graduate Students at a Canadian University." Journal of English for Academic Purposes 2(3): 247-263. Powell, Dorothy Lewis, and Donna J. Biederman. 2017. "US-Based Short-Term Public Health Cultural Immersion Experience for Chinese Undergraduate Students." Journal of Student Affairs Research and Practice 54(4): 454- 463. Savicki, Victor. 2008. Developing Intercultural Competence and Transformation: Theory, Research, and Application in International Education. Sterling, Va.:Stylus Pub. Sawir, Erlenawati, Simon Marginson, Ana Deumert, Chris Nyland, and Gaby Ramia. 2008. "Loneliness and International Students: An Australian Study." Journal of Studies in International Education 12(2): 148-180. Sherry, Mark, Peter Thomas, and Wing Hong Chui. 2010. "International Students: A Vulnerable Student Population." Higher Education 60(1): 33-46.
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Shimmi, Y. 2014. Experiences of Japanese Visiting Scholars in the United States: An Exploration of Transition (Doctoral dissertation). Taylor, Edward W., and Patricia Cranton. 2012. The Handbook of Transformative Learning: Theory, Research, and Practice. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) 89 Neoliberalism and the Developing Higher Education System in Kazakhstan
Nazgul Bayetova
Florida International University, United States
Email: [email protected] Address: Modesto A. Maidique Campus 11200 SW 8th St, Miami, FL 33199
The Republic of Kazakhstan is one of the Central Asian countries of the former Soviet Union. The Kazakh Social Soviet Republic's Supreme Court declared the transition from a planned economy to a market economy in the early 1990s (Kyzykeyeva and Oskolkova 2011). The new market model in Kazakhstan has a major impact on its evolving higher education system. Less government spending and the creation of private universities in Kazakhstan were the core strategies that have been implemented under the neoliberal policies. The central question of this study is how neoliberal educational policies have transformed the emerging higher education system since the collapse of the Soviet Union. By applying grounded theory as a methodological tool, this research examines texts of legislation and formal statements by leaders in higher education from 1991-2019. Kazakhstan’s economic policy agenda emphasizes the social significance of comprehensive research universities to compete strongly in the global knowledge economy. The most noticeable changes, which occurred in higher education, are adequately aligned with the core tenets of neoliberalism, in particular, the sanctity of private ownership, competition, and a knowledge-driven economy (Tolymbek 2006). As a result, dozens of alternative private institutions emerged after Kazakhstan adapted the marketization and commercialization policies in higher education (Sagintayeva and Kurakbayev 2015) (see table. 1). Neoliberal policies influenced the privatization of state universities that led to the creation of joint- stock companies (Bayetova and Robertson 2019). Joint-stock companies have the lawful status of private universities albeit still subject to government guidelines. They appreciate more autonomy in leadership and greater flexibility regarding administration.
Table 1. Types of universities in Kazakhstan by ownership in 2015-16 academic year
Source: Data adapted from Energy Prom, Nearly Two-thirds of Universities and over 40% of Colleges in Kazakhstan are Private (2016). http://www.energyprom.kz
Although many critical scholars have recorded how the introduction of neoliberalism and a free-market economy has severely impacted higher education in the United Kingdom (Radice 2013; 2014), the United States (Bamberger, Morris and Yemini 2019; Radice 2013; Saunders 2013), and Australia (Connel 2013), little research has been done to indicate how neoliberalism has impacted the higher education system in Kazakhstan. Since 1991, Kazakhstani higher education has undergone sweeping changes by carefully introducing laws, comprehensive policies, and standard procedures. Some distinguished scholars (Koch 2014; Hartley, Gopaul, Sagintayeva, and Apergenova 2015; Silova
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2011; Tolymbek 2006; Ahn, Dixon, and Chermareva 2018) have attempted to provide a critical analysis of the rules and official policies on academic education in Kazakhstan, but no comprehensive research has been conducted to examine how neoliberalism was progressively introduced through them to Kazakhstan’s higher education system. To understand that process, it is necessary to explore the role of Kazakhstan’s first president, Nursultan Nazarbayev, in the complex formation of business operation, privatization, and commercialization of higher education, as he is a chief proponent of the free-market economy establishment in Central Asia. Neoliberalism was an important informing paradigm in Nazarbayev’s regime (1991-2019). I was unable to find any study that analyzed the president’s speeches in the context of higher education, in particular, President Nazarbayev’s comprehensive vision for higher education in Kazakhstan. Nor I was able to find research on conceptualizing neoliberal educational policies in the official documents. There is a need for a better understanding of changes that occurred after the introduction of neoliberal policies in Kazakhstani higher education. More specifically, it is necessary to address the following research questions: 1. Which changes took place in the higher education system after the introduction of market-based policies from 1991 to 2019? 2. How do national political priorities and critical decisions, as articulated by President Nazarbayev, influence higher education policy? To address my research questions, I employed a theoretical framework and methodological approach called grounded theory (Glaser and Strauss 1967, Charmaz 2006). A grounded theory (GT) approach was chosen to analyze the themes Nazarbayev prioritized in the relation to education in his speeches presented to the nation, because, as Glaser and Strauss (1967) argued, grounded theory is "the best approach for an initial, systematic discovery of theory from the data of social research" (p. 3). GT provides research with much flexibility and mobility. Strauss and Corbin (1990) called grounded theory a technique “for analyzing data that will lead to the development of theory, which can be carried out regardless of the philosophical perspective, the phenomenon under study, or the research situation; a position that shows enormous flexibility” (p.27). Analyzing the speeches of Nazarbayev is important because he introduced massive reforms in education aligned with neoliberal policies while he was the president for 26 years. President Nazarbayev is a vocal advocate of market economies in Central Asia (Radice 2013). Osipian (2018) concluded that “compared to other former communist rulers, whose speeches and politics are full of empty rhetoric, Nazarbayev’s ideas have resulted in bold reforms” (para. 2). For my analysis, I have gathered 24 speeches (each entitled Message from the President and totaling 445 pages of text) delivered by Nazarbayev from June 1994, to March, 2019. In addition, to track the changes and to evaluate how presidential speeches impact higher education, I collected written documents of state programs, such as (a) Strategy for the Development of Kazakhstan as a Sovereign State - 1994 (63 pages), (b) Strategy Kazakhstan 2030 (49 pages), (c) Strategy of Kazakhstan 2050 (17 pages), (d) State program of education development in the Republic of Kazakhstan for 2011-2020 (55 pages), (e) Law on Higher Education 1993 (66 pages), and (f) Law on Education 2007 (51 pages). The analysis of strategic planning, educational laws, and country reports in relation to the market economy is an essential part of my study. These documents provide a sense of direction and outline measurable goals of the country to achieve a free market system. They are useful tools for guiding day-to-day priorities and decisions that influence higher education reforms and are essential in evaluating progress and change. Speeches and policy documents coded, based upon Charmaz’s (2006) open coding techniques, according to content within each paragraph to determine which themes are present. To conduct open coding and axial coding (Charmaz 2006), I used the NVivo computer software program. Presidential speeches were collected from the official site of the president of the Republic of Kazakhstan. Educational laws and strategic plans have been accessed via the websites of the Ministry of Education of Science and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Kazakhstan.
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By conducting this study, I intend to fill the research gap in the comprehension of how Kazakhstan, a nation outside of the worldwide center, has realized neoliberal strategies in developing its emerging higher education system. In fact, during the last 28 years, Kazakhstan has been experiencing tremendous social, economic, and educational transformations. All these changes have been implemented under the leadership of Kazakhstan’s first president, Nazarbayev. By analyzing presidential speeches, laws, and strategic plans, the goal of this research is to fill the gap in the understanding of how Kazakhstan country outside of the global core, has introduced neoliberal policies in higher education. Potential findings are beneficial in the field of comparative and international higher education by providing an example of the adaption of a new market policy after the long history of a centralized government system. In addition, it will help to evaluate the role of education and country leaders in implementing a disruptive change to the system. Countries with similar experiences and histories can practically learn from Kazakhstan’s example of constructing a new citizenry that embraces competition and self-interest in the market-driven society by introducing new higher education reforms.
References
Ahn, Elise, Dixon Lohn, and Chermareva, Larisa. 2018. “Looking at Higher Education Landscape: From Transition to Transformation between 1920 and 2015”. In 25 Years of Transformation of Higher Education Systems in Post- Soviet Countries, edited by Jeroen Huisman, Anna Smolentseva and Isak Froumin, 199-225. Switzerland: Palgrave Macmilan. Appel, Hilary, and Mitchell Orenstein. 2016. “Why Did Neoliberalism Triumph and Endure in the Post-Communist World?” Comparative Politics 48(3): 313-331. Bamberger, Annette, Morris Paul, and Yemini Miri. 2019 “Neoliberalism, Internationalization and Higher Education: Connections, Contradictions and Alternatives.” Discourse: Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education 40(2): 203-216. Bayetova, Nazgul and Robertson, Douglas. 2019. “Privatization and Kazakhstan’s Emerging Higher Education System”. Inside Higher ed. Accessed November 9, 2019. https://www.insidehighered.com/blogs/nazgul-bayetova- and-douglas-robertson. Bowen, Glenn. 2009. “Document Analysis as a Qualitative Research Method.” Qualitative Research Journals 9(2): 27-40. Charmaz, Kathy. 2006. Constructive Grounded Theory. Thousand Oaks: SAGE publications. Connel, Raewyn. 2003. “The Neoliberal Cascade and Education: an Essay on the Market Agenda and Its Consequences.” Critical Studies in Education 54(2): 99-112. Glaser, Berney and Strauss, Anselm. 1967. “The Discovery of Grounded Theory: Strategies for Qualitative Research. Chicago: Aldine. Hartly, Matthew, Gopaul Bryan, Sagintayeva Aida, and Apergenova Renata. 2007. “Learning Autonomy: Higher Education Reform in Kazakhstan.” Higher Education 72(2): 313-331. Koch, Natalie. 2014. “The Shifting Geopolitics of Higher Education: Internationalizing Elite Universities in Kazakhstan, Saudi Arabia, and Beyond.” Geoforum 56: 46-54. Kyzykyeva, Almagul and Oskolkova, Anna. 2011. “Historical Aspects of Higher Education in the Republic of Kazakhstan.” The Kazakh-American Free University Academic Journal (3). Accessed November 15, 2019. http://www.kafu-academic-journal.info/journal/3/51/. Radice, Hugo. 2013. “How We Got Here: UK Higher Education Under Neoliberalism.” ACME: An International Journal for Critical Geographies 12(2): 407-18.
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Sagintayeva, Aida and Kurakbayev, Kairat. 2015. “Understanding the transition of public universities to institutional autonomy in Kazakhstan.” European Journal of Higher Education 5(2): 197-210. Saunders, Daniel. 2007. “The Impact of Neoliberalism on College Students.” Journal of College and Character 8(5): 1-10. Silova, Iveta. 2011. “Higher Education Reforms and Global Geopolitics: Shifting Cores and Peripheries in Russia, the Baltics, and Central Asia.” Russian Analytical Digest 97(30): 9-12. Strauss, Anselm and Corbin, Juliet. 1990. Basics of Qualitative Research: Grounded Theory and Techniques. California: SAGE. Tolymbek Almaz. 2006. “Public Policies in the Higher Education of Kazakhstan.” University of Toronto. Accessed November 25, 2019 https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1090393 Osipian, Ararat. 2018. “Kazakhstan’s Struggle to Modernize.” Inside Higher Ed. Accessed September 20, 2019 https://www.insidehighered.com/blogs/world-view/kazakhstan%E2%80%99s-struggle-modernize Wumajer, Yilamu. 2018. Neoliberalism and Post-Soviet Transition. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) 93 Purposeful Internationalization: A Common-Good Approach of Global Engagement
Santiago Castiello-Gutiérrez
University of Arizona, United States
Email: [email protected] Address: Center for the Study of Higher Education, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ., United States
Introduction
Within higher education, internationalization is commonly defined as a process that integrates “an international, intercultural, or global dimension into the purpose, functions and delivery of post-secondary education, in order to enhance the quality of education and research for all students and staff, and to make a meaningful contribution to society” (de Wit, Hunter, and Egron-Polak 2015, 29). Higher education institutions (HEIs) have altered the way they position themselves in the global landscape through their internationalization strategies (Stensaker et al. 2018). The current understanding of a successful internationalization model has been pushed globally toward mainstream structures that follow an Anglo-American model resulting in the establishment of a global educational regime (Zapp and Ramirez 2019) or imaginary (Stein et al. 2016). Under this imaginary, internationalization of higher education, specially at Anglo-American institutions, is not neutral and has the potential of “expanding American economic influence and cultural superiority abroad” (Suspitsyna 2015, 24). This model highlights the attraction of international students for revenue or prestige (Stein and Andreotti 2016), the establishment of a presence abroad to deliver education (Johnson 2017), and an overall self-presentation of universities abroad as “enterprises that will benefit (in revenues and prestige) from internationalization” (Rhoades et al. 2019, 525). This model of Anglo-American internationalization, has been described as ‘comprehensive’ or ‘pervasive’ (APLU 2017; Hudzik 2015; Olson, Green, and Hill 2005) given its embeddedness in all the substantive functions of HEIs. This comprehensiveness implies breadth, which although important, lacks (or at least omits to highlight) direction. Using de Wit’s et al (2015) aforementioned definition, it seems like the process of internationalization has been focusing more on its ‘functions and delivery’ than on its ‘purpose and meaningful contribution’. Beyond internationalization’s comprehensiveness, literature and practice need to focus on a common thread that aligns all those diverse international activities with the quintessence of each institution’s mission. When such leitmotif is also consciously oriented towards a greater common good, beyond the individual gains for the enablers and participants of internationalization programs, then the international strategy becomes more relevant to the institutional mission. I use the term purposeful internationalization to refer to the conscious alignment of an institution’s internationalization strategy with the common good component of its specific mission. The objective of this study is understanding whether or not, how, and to what extent, are some universities using their internationalization strategy as a means to pursue the higher purpose stated in their own mission. It will do so by analyzing how two HEIs in a country from the Global South (Mexico) are enacting purposeful internationalization strategies that contest the Anglo-American mainstream conception of internationalization. Is there a pattern among some HEIs that resembles or differs from such conception? Can market-like behaviors of internationalization coexist with the idea of seeking the greater common-good? To answer these salient questions, I am conducting an in-depth qualitative analysis of internationalization initiatives at two institutions in Mexico. One program related to an
94 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11(2019) institution’s strategy to position itself internationally through its physical presence abroad; and another based on an institution’s strategy to foster and develop student mobility as a means to instill values such as intercultural awareness.
Methods of Data Collection and Analysis
This study is framed as a multiple case study (Stake 2006) analyzing different internationalization strategies that two HEIs in Mexico implement, and how these contrast with the mainstream Anglo-American idea of successful internationalization. The design for this study was constructed borrowing from an institutional ethnography approach (Smith 2001). Therefore, the focus is not only on the policies/discourses, nor is it just in the actors, but rather in how the former are enacted in the everyday life by individuals and collectivities at the institution. Two cases were purposefully selected based on the following characteristics: 1) institutions that are recognized as national leaders in internationalization; 2) institutions with a program that clearly contrasts with the mainstream Anglo- America approach to internationalization; and 3) the selected programs must be related to the core functions of internationalization such as mobility, engagement/presence abroad, and international collaborations. Within these institutions, a purposeful selection of individuals, followed by a snowball sampling, was used as a sample for in-depth interviewing. The sample was comprised of people at top leadership positions (president, provosts), as well as from the internationalization office and the academy. Overall 20 individuals are being interviewed. The study also relies on other qualitative techniques of inquiry like observations and document analysis to contrast the institutions’ public self- presentation (Rhoades et al. 2019) with the day-to-day execution of their internationalization strategy. The framework for analyzing collected data was constructed based on Marginson and Rhoades’ (2002) glonacal agency heuristic. To address some of the heuristic’s shortcomings, the framework was expanded using an inhabited institutionalism approach (Hallett and Ventresca 2006) to understand how the glonacal environment, the organizations themselves and the people within them, can create an internationalization approach that might challenge the current global imaginary and its Anglo-American construct of internationalization. The study’s design is limited in several ways. First, regarding the sample size, these case studies do not represent a model for all non-Western countries to follow, it is not even a representation of Mexican internationalization. The main objective behind a small purposeful sample is to understand how and why do particular individuals or organizations behave, as opposed to understanding central tendencies (Palys 2018). Also, this study is limited since it contests a mainstream ‘Anglo-American’, ‘Westernized’, and ‘capitalistic’ approach toward the internationalization of higher education but it is framed from the perspective of a single country whose neoliberal policies and closeness to the US puts it in a not-so-deWesternized nor an ‘anti-capitalistic’ position. So, rather than exploring an internationalization approach that is fully ‘’à la Mexicana’, it only identifies practices that can successfully address some shortcomings of a more utilitarian approach like the ‘Anglo-American’ model of internationalization. These case studies were selected to showcase organizational attempts to define and uphold and institution’s common-good mission through its internationalization strategy and global engagement.
Significance and Implications
This study is significant since it contributes to the literature by means of showing alternative internationalization strategies that defy the mainstream Anglo-American imaginary. Particularly institutions in the Global South implement their strategies in contexts where internationalization is not necessarily a priority, thus, they face an uphill battle for resources and legitimacy. But still, institutions in this context are implementing successful strategies that bring benefits to the institutions themselves, the students and faculty inside them, and more important, the larger communities they
JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) 95 serve. These cases represent an example of how we can reimagine internationalization and reorient it toward a greater public good.
References
APLU. 2017. “Pervasive Internationalization: A Call for Renewed Leadership.” Washington, DC. http://www.aplu.org/library/pervasive-internationalization-a-call-for-renewed-leadership/file. Hallett, Tim, and Marc J. Ventresca. 2006. “Inhabited Institutions: Social Interactions and Organizational Forms in Gouldner’s Patterns of Industrial Bureaucracy.” Theory and Society 35 (2): 213–36. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11186-006-9003-z. Hudzik, John K. 2015. Comprehensive Internationalization: Institutional Pathways to Success. Abingdon, OX, UK: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group. Johnson, M. Amanda. 2017. “American University Branch Campuses Abroad: A Conceptual Model for Strategic Planning.” Educational Planning 24 (1): 23–31. Marginson, Simon, and Gary Rhoades. 2002. “Beyond National States, Markets, and Systems of Higher Education: A Glonacal Agency Heuristic.” Higher Education 43 (3): 281–309. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1014699605875. Olson, Christa Lee, Madeleine F Green, and Barbara A Hill. 2005. Building a Strategic Framework for Comprehensive Internationalization. American Council on Education. Washington, DC: American Council on Education. Palys, Ted. 2018. “Purposive Sampling.” In The SAGE Encyclopedia of Qualitative Research Methods, edited by Lisa M Given, 698–700. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications Inc. https://doi.org/http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781412963909. Rhoades, Gary, Santiago Castiello-Gutiérrez, Jenny J. Lee, Mahmoud Sayed Marei, and Leslie O’Toole. 2019. “Marketing to International Students: Presentation of University Self in Geopolitical Space.” The Review of Higher Education 43 (2): 519–51. https://doi.org/10.1353/rhe.2019.0109. Smith, Dorothy E. 2001. “Texts and the Ontology of Organizations and Institutions.” Studies in Cultures, Organizations & Societies 7 (2): 159–98. https://doi.org/10.1080/10245280108523557. Stake, Robert. 2006. Multiple Case Study Analysis. New York, NY: Guilford. Stein, Sharon, and Vanessa De Oliveira Andreotti. 2016. “Cash, Competition, or Charity: International Students and the Global Imaginary.” Higher Education 72 (2): 225–39. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-015-9949-8. Stein, Sharon, Vanessa De Oliveira Andreotti, Judy Bruce, and Rene Susa. 2016. “Towards Different Conversations about the Internationalization of Higher Education.” Comparative and International Education 45 (1): 1–18. Stensaker, Bjørn, Jenny J. Lee, Gary Rhoades, Sowmya Ghosh, Santiago Castiello-Gutiérrez, Hillary Vance, Alper Çalıkoğlu, et al. 2018. “Stratified University Strategies: The Shaping of Institutional Legitimacy in a Global Perspective.” The Journal of Higher Education 90 (4): 539–62. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221546.2018.1513306. Suspitsyna, Tatiana. 2015. “Cultural Hierarchies in the Discursive Representations of China in the Chronicle of Higher Education.” Critical Studies in Education 56 (1): 21–37. https://doi.org/10.1080/17508487.2015.971330. Wit, Hans de, Fiona Hunter, Laura Howard, and Eva Egron-Polak. 2015. Internationalisation of Higher Education. European Parliamant’s Committee on Culture and Education. https://doi.org/10.2861/6854. Zapp, Mike, and Francisco O. Ramirez. 2019. “Beyond Internationalisation and Isomorphism–the Construction of a Global Higher Education Regime.” Comparative Education 55 (4): 473–93. https://doi.org/10.1080/03050068.2019.1638103.
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At the Intersections: International and Multicultural Higher Education
Lauren K. Chow
Lesley University, United States
Email: [email protected] Address: Lesley University, Massachusetts, USA
Introduction
International education and multicultural education in the United States appear to have similar goals: educating students to appreciate differences across groups of people. However, further examination reveals that these two spheres not only frequently fail to overlap, but also sometimes compete on both practical and ideological levels (Olson, Evans, and Shoenberg 2007). The potential for partnership is great between international and multicultural education in higher education contexts due to shared goals. However, tension and gaps going back as far as the 1990s (Bennett and Bennett 1994; Cornwell and Stoddard 1999; Noronha 1992) and have diminished their efficacy in supporting the students and communities they purport to serve. The purpose of this study was to illuminate how the “similar goals and dueling agendas” (Bell 2013, 1) of US international and multicultural higher education currently operate. International education refers to the internationalization of a campus, including student mobility, curriculum, and co-curricular activities. Multicultural education refers to concerns of diversity, equity, and inclusion, and includes content integration, the process of knowledge construction, and prejudice reduction. The question guiding this study was: How do international and multicultural offices frame their work, and what does this language tell us about the intersections or divergences in their work to create an inclusive campus environment?
Literature Review
Collaborative intra-organizational partnerships have been studied as an effective strategy to combat external pressures (Kezar 2006). Much literature explored why tensions between international and multicultural education may exist and potential avenues for collaboration on a broad, theoretical level (Charles, Longerbeam, and Miller 2013; Olson, Evans, and Shoenberg 2007). Lee (2018) argued that “it is critical that campuses shift from a deficit model to one that focuses on its strengths and assets” (70). However, there lies a fine balance between shifting to an asset model and glossing over inequalities, playing into a dynamic wherein “multicultural educators accuse international educators of ignoring pressing social problems at home and avoiding difficult questions” (Olson, Evans, and Shoenberg 2007, 23). Aside from a longitudinal project by the American Council on Education (2013) and a white paper by Bell, Donaghue, and Gordon (2018), little research has systematically examined the practical realities of these intersections at higher education institutions. The higher education landscape has changed dramatically in the past decade with technological developments, soaring tuition costs amidst tightened budgets, and a contentious global political climate (Grawe 2018; Stein 2017), which has rendered older research less relevant.
Framework
JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) 97 This research was grounded by Kretzmann and McKnight’s (1996) assets-based community development theory. This approach was created in response to a needs-based or deficit-based model of community development that had been widely practiced until that point. This model has since been adapted to higher education contexts (Chávez and Longerbeam 2016; Lopez and Louis 2009). Rather than assessing the needs of a community by focusing on what is missing and seeking resources from outside sources, Kretzmann and McKnight’s (1996) assets-based community development theory methodology instead suggested empowerment through leveraging existing strengths within a community.
Methods
I employed content analysis methodology (Stemler 2001) to examine the language used in the webpages for international and multicultural offices of ten colleges/universities. The institutions selected were all four-year degree- granting, predominantly white, and located within the state of Massachusetts. They represented a variety of institutional types, size, and location for maximum variation sampling (Glesne 2016, 51) and each were assigned pseudonyms. In March 2019, I gathered data related to the institutions’ mission and values, and from offices that could be categorized as “international” or “multicultural.” Analysis included two rounds of thematic coding followed by a collapsing into a list of broader themes (Glesne 2016, 184). Asset themes were defined by language that framed an office’s work through a strengths-based lens that focused on positive aspects; deficit themes were defined by language that framed work through a needs-based lens that emphasized problems to be solved.
Findings
Ten preliminary themes emerged from my content analysis of the multicultural and international office websites. Six themes fell under an asset category: Adding perspectives to a campus community; Marketable skills and competitive advantages; Personal growth, Student success and retention; Opportunity, access, and representation; and Prestige. Four themes fell under a deficit category: Access, opportunity, and representation; Responsibility and compliance; Safety and protection; and Unwelcoming environment. The “asset” themes were reflected more in international office websites, and the “deficit” themes were reflected overwhelmingly more in multicultural office websites.
Discussion and Implications
The association of multicultural education with “deficit” and international education with “asset” aligns with Olson, Evans, and Schoenberg’s (2007) discussion of asset and deficit models when bridging the two areas. These authors highlighted the contrast in international education’s association with “fun” and “prestige” with the view of multicultural education as “necessary… but lacking in glamour” (30). This dichotomy surfaced in many ways throughout the six asset-based themes that were mostly found in international office websites and the four deficit-based themes that were overwhelmingly found in multicultural office websites. Data analysis also revealed four shared themes in how both office types framed their work. Adding perspectives; Opportunity, access, and representation; and Prestige were asset-based themes reflected by both office types; Safety and protection was the common theme from a deficit lens. Centering mutual learning outcomes around these themes could provide opportunities for collaboration and further dialogue. By understanding more about how these two areas described their work, the scholarly conversation about and between them can move towards creating a dialogue
98 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) between the two (Landorf 2013, 102). Partnerships can be mutually beneficial for serving their communities in the current higher education landscape (Kezar 2006). Future research might examine how the boundaries of “international” and “multicultural” offices are delineated: a challenge that emerged during data collection when different institutions defined these areas differently. Furthermore, this study employed content analysis to examine language used on public websites; however, many institutional activities are not reflected on websites. I am currently analyzing data from interviews I conducted with administrators in multicultural and international offices at the same institutions highlighted in this study, which will lead a more comprehensive analysis and further insights when the two sets of data are combined.
References
American Council on Education. 2013. “At Home in the World: Educating for Global Connections and Local Commitments.” At Home in the World. American Council on Education. http://www.acenet.edu/about- ace/special-initiatives/Pages/At-Home-in-the-World.aspx. Bell, Kathrina A. 2013. “Similar Goals and Dueling Agendas: Perceptions of Campus Internationalization and Equity Policy.” EdD diss., San Francisco State University. Bell, Kathrina, Jennifer Donaghue, & Andrew Gordon. 2018. Collaborative Leadership: Advancing Diversity, Equity, and Comprehensive Internationalization in Higher Education. Berkeley, CA: Diversity Abroad Network. https://cdn.ymaws.com/www.diversitynetwork.org/resource/resmgr/Advancing_Diversity,_Equity,.pdf. Bennett, Janet M., & Milton J. Bennett. 1994. “Multiculturalism and International Education: Domestic and International Differences.” In Learning Across Cultures, edited by Gary Althen, 145–165. Washington, DC: National Association of International Educators. Chávez, Alicia & Susan Longerbeam. 2016. Teaching Across Cultural Strengths: A Guide to Balancing Integrated and Individuated Cultural Frameworks in College Teaching. Sterling, VA: Stylus Publishing. Charles, Harvey, Susan Longerbeam, & Angela Miller. 2013. “Putting Old Tensions to Rest: Integrating Multicultural Education and Global Learning to Advance Student Development.” Journal of College and Character 14(1): 47- 56. Cornwell, Grant H. & Eve W. Stoddard. 1999. Globalizing Knowledge: Connecting International and Intercultural Studies. Washington, DC: Association of American Colleges and Universities. Cortés, Carlos E. 1998. “Global Education and Multicultural Education: Toward a 21st Century Intersection.” In Intersections: A Professional Development Project in Multicultural Education and Global Education, Asian and American Studies, edited by Leslie Swartz, Linda Warner, and David Grossman, 114–133. Boston: The Children’s Museum. Glesne, Corinne. 2016. Becoming Qualitative Researchers: An Introduction (5th Edition). Pearson. ISBN-13: 978- 0133859393 Grawe, Nathan. 2018. Demographics and the Demand for Higher Education. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press. Kezar, Adrianna. 2006. “Redesigning for Collaboration in Learning Initiatives: An Examination of Four Highly Collaborative Campuses.” The Journal of Higher Education 77(5): 804-838. Kretzmann, John & John P. McKnight. 1996. Assets‐Based Community Development. National Civic Review 85(4): 23-29. Landorf, Hillary. 2013. “Using the Dialectic of Social Justice to Enliven the Dialogue Between Global Education and Multicultural Education.” Journal of International Social Studies 3(2): 99-105.
JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) 99 Lopez, Shane J. & Michelle C. Louis. 2009. “The Principles of Strengths-Based Education.” Journal of College and Character 10(4): 1-8. Lee, Donna. 2018. “Closing the Gap and Exploring the Intersections Between Internationalization and Multiculturalism.” New Directions for Student Leadership (160): 63-73. Noronha, June. 1992. “International and Multicultural Education: Unrelated Adversaries or Successful Partners?” New Directions for Teaching and Learning 52: 53-59. Olson, Christa L., Rhodri Evans, & Robert F. Shoenberg. 2007. At Home in the World: Bridging the Gap Between Internationalization and Multicultural Education. Washington, DC: American Council on Education. Stein, Sharon. 2017. “Internationalization for an Uncertain Future: Tensions, Paradoxes, and Possibilities.” The Review of Higher Education 41(1): 3-32. doi:10.1353/rhe.2017.0031. Stemler, Steve. 2001. “An Overview of Content Analysis.” Practical Assessment, Research and Evaluation 7(17): 1-6.
100 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019)
International Student Mentor Development Study
Shasha Cui
University of Rochester, United States
Email: [email protected] Address: 60 Crittenden Blvd, Rochester, NY, USA
What is Being Studied?
With the growing number of international students, US higher education institutions have established peer mentor programs to assist first year international students’ successful transition to Western academic success, American life and enhance their satisfaction with cultural adjustment experience (Geelhoed, Abe, and Talbot 2003). Reviews of the past 30 years of literature on peer mentoring for first-year college students reveal a long list of benefits of peer mentor programs including the increase of retention rates, sense of belonging, and students successful transition to new academic and social environments (Beltman and Schaeben 2012; Colvin and Ashman 2010; Crisp and Cruz 2009; Gershenfeld 2014; Jacobi 1991; Terrion, Philion and Leonard 2007). Studies on international student peer mentor programs also confirm that these programs lead to positive impacts on first-year international mentees such as improving English language proficiency, making new friends, and attending social activities with people from other ethnic groups (Gresham and Clayton 2011; Woods, Poropat, Barker, Hills, Hibbins, and Borbasi 2013). Peer mentorship programs are often promoted as reciprocal, where both mentors and mentees could both benefit from learning and development experience (Colvin and Ashman 2010). However, the majority of research focus on the positive impact for mentees, while few (Haggard, Dougherty, Turban, and Wilbanks 2011; Heirdsfield, Walker, Walsh, and Wilss 2008) have focused on the experiences and outcomes for mentors. There is especially a dearth of research that investigates the international student peer mentors themselves and how their perceptions of their experiences being international peer mentors during the mentoring process.
How the research contributes to comparative and international higher education?
This research study is going to fill the gap and contribute to international higher education by focusing on what international student peer mentors learn from their mentoring experiences and how the experiences impact their personal and professional growth. This research paper focuses on those students who serve as mentors, instead of students who are being mentored. The research project specifically seeks to address the following questions: How do student mentors perceive and value the experiences of being peer mentors for international students? How does the international student peer mentor program contribute to mentors’ personal and professional development?
How it is Being Studied?
A case study research design will be selected for this research and guide research methods since case studies are based on an in-depth investigation of a single individual, group, or event-a phenomenon within its real-life context (Yin 2003). In this research, a case study is an ideal research strategy to identify how the experiences of international student mentors and their perceptions of being mentors for first-year international students. This case study will use multiple data including interviews and document review. Participants in the study will be the international student peer mentors 2019 cohort from the international peer mentor program at a four-year private,
JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) 101 nonprofit research institution located in the east coast. The total number is 27 including 19 females and 8 males. All student participants were enrolled in bachelor’s programs with five seniors, eight juniors, and fourteen sophomores. I will also conduct individual interviews as a primary data collection method to get more depth and details on international student peer mentors’ perceptions. Participants will complete a face-to-face, semi-structured interview and answer several open-ended questions. The researcher will ask follow-up questions based on their answers for helping clarification of their responses. The interview will begin with the purpose of the study, RSRB notification (how the interview will be used, how long the interview will take, confidentiality, and permission to audio-recorded), and participants’ demographic questions (gender, ethnicity, international student status, primary major and etc.) to create a rapport with the participants. There will be an opportunity for the participants to choose their pseudonym to feel more comfortable with the interview process (Rubin and Rubin 2011). Table 1 shows several interview questions as examples.
Table 1: International Student Mentors Interview Questions Examples Interview Questions Examples What are your reasons for being a mentor? How would you describe your experience with students from different cultural backgrounds?
Tell me about your relationship with your mentees?
Being a mentor has helped you gain/improve any skills? Tell me about what challenges you encountered? Any lesson learned?
In what way do you think being a mentor can help in your future career?
Has being a mentor been a worthwhile experience? If so, how? If not, why?
Reviewing existing documents is a commonly used data collection method in case study (Hancock and Algozzin 2006). Documents will include international peer mentors training materials, resources from the program website, and events reports that could support a better understanding of the program’ background information, and to enrich data collected through interviews (Hancock and Algozzin 2006). The subsequent data analysis includes transcribing the interviews; open/ line by line coding; creating codes and developing broader categories; and connecting codes to form final themes. An open coding approach will be used initially. In the open coding process, also known as initial or line-by-line coding, the researcher will read each line and identify words and phrases that capture meanings. In the second-round coding process, the researcher will analyze the list of initial codes to identify connections to build categories and then group codes together to form final themes. The coding process creates the categories reflecting the significant experiences and feelings of the interviewee. The researcher will be open to emerging codes during the analysis and to use codes to answer the research questions when developing themes (Saldaña 2013).
What the main take-away of the research will be?
The purpose of this study is to examine experiences as international student mentors, how the experiences impact their personal growth and professional development, and how their plans to apply the skills and knowledge they learned from the mentoring experience to their daily life and future career. In addition, since this research studies those
102 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) students' mentors not mentees, intentional efforts should be given to design and create more activities and workshops to help student reflect their peer mentoring experiences.
References
Beltman, Susan, and Marcel Schaeben. 2012. "Institution-Wide Peer Mentoring: Benefits for Mentors." The International Journal of the First Year in Higher Education 3(2): 157-173. Colvin, Janet W., and Marinda Ashman. 2010. "Roles, Risks, and Benefits of Peer Mentoring Relationships in Higher Education." Mentoring & Tutoring: Partnership in Learning 18(2): 121-134. Crisp, Gloria, and Irene Cruz. 2009. "Mentoring College Students: A Critical Review of the Literature Between 1990 and 2007." Research in Higher Education 50(6): 525-545. Geelhoed, Robyn J., Jin Abe, and Donna Talbot. 2003. "A Qualitative Investigation of US Students’ Experiences in an International Peer Program." Journal of College Student Development 44(1): 5-17. Gershenfeld, Susan. 2014. "A Review of Undergraduate Mentoring Programs." Review of Educational Research 84(3): 365‐391. Gresham, Ruth, and Veronica Clayton. 2011. "Community Connections: A Program to Enhance Domestic and International Students' Educational Experience.” Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management 33(4): 363- 374. Hancock, D., and Algozzine, R. 2017. Doing Case Study Research: A Practical Guide for Beginning Researchers (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Teachers College Press. Haggard, Dana L., Thomas W. Dougherty, Daniel B. Turban, and James E. Wilbanks. 2011. "Who Is a Mentor? A Review of Evolving Definitions and Implications for Research." Journal of Management 37(1): 280-304. Heirdsfield, Ann M., Sue Walker, Kerryann Walsh, and Lynn A. Wilss. 2008. "Peer Mentoring for First-Year Teacher Education Students: The Mentors' Experience." Mentoring & Tutoring: Partnership in Learning 16(2): 109-124. Jacobi, Maryann. 1991. "Mentoring and Undergraduate Academic Success: A Literature Review." Review of Educational Research 61(4): 505-532. Rubin, Herbert J., and Irene S. Rubin. 2011. Qualitative Interviewing: The Art of Hearing Data (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Saldaña, Johnny. (2013). The Coding Manual for Qualitative Researchers (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Terrion, Jenepher L., Ruth Philion, and Dominique Leonard. 2007. "An Evaluation of a College Peer-Mentoring Training Programme." International Journal of Evidence Based Coaching and Mentoring 5(1): 42-57. Woods, Peter, Arthur Poropat, Michelle Barker, Ruth Hills, Ray Hibbins, and Sally Borbasi. 2013. "Building Friendship Through a Cross-Cultural Mentoring Program." International Journal of Intercultural Relations 37(5): 523–535. Yin, Robert. 2014. Case Study Research: Design and Methods (5th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) 103 The Inevitability of Globalized International Higher Education
Ryan P. Deuel
McGill University, Canada
Email: [email protected].
Address: DISE, McGill University, 3700 McTavish Street, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
Introduction
In 2017, 5.3 million tertiary students crossed an international border to pursue an education, representing an increase of 152 percent from the 2.1 million students who pursued international education in 2001 (OECD 2019). In the U.S. alone, nearly 1.1 million international students attended American colleges and universities in 2017. Higher education as a result has become a vital American export, generating $45 billion in revenue, more than double the amount nine years ago (IIE 2019). While growth in global tertiary student mobility may be slowing, or even declining slightly in the U.S. (Fischer 2017; Larmer 2019), the global international education marketplace remains an impressive force in higher education. Internationalization has traditionally referred to the international activities of higher education institutions (HEIs) such as study abroad, area studies, and foreign languages (Altbach and Knight 2007). Globalization, meanwhile, is a discursive system driven by neoliberal ideals of market-driven policies implemented by governments and international capital (Olssen, Codd, and O’Neill 2004). A poststructural understanding of discourse allows for the analysis of how power is exercised and practiced in our society, and it allows for a historical examination of how individuals and collectives are shaped discursively through the ongoing production of truth (Foucault 1980). The relationship between the discourse of internationalization in higher education and the neoliberal discourse of globalization as a disciplining cultural and economic force in our society continues to be an important area of focus for educational studies (Knight 2003). It has prompted calls by scholars from a variety of academic disciplines for more elaborate approaches to understanding the impact and influence of globalization discourses and practices in contemporary international higher education (Marginson 2011). Framed around Foucault’s argument that we need a historical awareness of our present circumstances (Foucault 1982), my study develops a genealogy of internationalization at three tiers of analysis: at the macro level, where ‘globalization’ operates as a governing discourse within policies and practices of national and transnational governmental organizations; at the mezzo level, where ‘internationalization’ operates as a governing discourse among HEIs and professional higher education associations; and, at the micro level, where the discourses of globalization and internationalization work in concert to govern the conduct of international students.
Analytical Framework
I use governmentality to frame my exploration of these three levels of globalization and internationalization discourses. Governmentality, derived from Foucault’s work on liberalism, allows for an investigation of the routine and mundane techniques that are involved in the governing of every day economic and social life (Rose, O’Malley, and Valverde 2006). Governmentality studies allows the researcher to problematize and destabilize existing understandings, assumptions, and taken-for-granted truths (Bacchi and Goodwin 2016). It also allows researchers to conceive of government that originates outside the state-governmental apparatus. Thus, governmentality studies allows
104 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) for shifting policy analysis away from its focus on the centrality of the state and toward the conduct of individuals and/or collectives (Miller and Rose 1990). Governmentality has allowed me to conceptualize globalization as both a regime of truth and a normalizing discourse as it relates to the discourse of internationalization. It allows for a problematization of conventional readings of globalization as a ‘natural’ set of processes or a macro-level set of external forces, allowing the researcher to analyze how globalization has come to be seen as both a problem and a solution for nation-states, institutions, and individuals (Larner and Walters 2004).
Methods
At the macro level, I analyze the policies and discourses of intergovernmental organizations (IGOs), including legally binding international policy agreements, positioning papers, and reports generated by the OCED, World Bank, World Trade Organization, and UNESCO. Through an understanding of governmentality, I examine how IGOs have shaped educational governance policies to, one, shift education away from state control and into private interests, and two, to create a system where self-governing individuals and collectives act and behave in particular economic ways. At the mezzo level, I analyze the discourses reflected in positioning papers of prominent higher educational professional associations (HEPAs) from the late 1980s that first problematized international studies in U.S. higher education. My analysis concentrates on a series of surveys, reports, and working papers developed by the American Council on Education (ACE) and NAFSA between the period 1988 to 2017. Through an understanding of governmentality, I examine how ACE and NAFSA have come to shape and transform the discourse of internationalization in American higher education while also being shaped themselves by neoliberal discourses of globalization. At the micro tier, I draw upon various poststructural approaches in existing literature to develop a conceptual framework around governmentality for analyzing the discourses and practices that have contributed to international student mobility as a facet of internationalization and globalization and the imbalances often created as a result. While Foucault’s concept of power/knowledge may account for the power of discourse to “speak students into being” (Koehne 2006, 242), we should account for students to desire status, knowledge, and power in the development of their own subjectivities. Governmentality studies can provide a framework for examining existing studies and media reports for how the international student has “bought into” the neoliberal model of complete individualization as their best hope for educational achievement and economic success (Sidhu 2006).
Preliminary and Expected Findings
While international education has been around for decades and international scholarship has been around for centuries, what we are witnessing today is something different and something that did not happen naturally and without agents. It is not enough to say that internationalization is simply “swept up in globalization” (Marginson and van der Wende 2007). The discourse of internationalization and international higher education practices have been profoundly impacted and influenced by the discourses and practices of neoliberal globalization, which emphasize a departure from public good solutions to societal concerns in favor of private sector and market-driven approaches. This transformation in internationalization discourse has restructured power relations from formal to informal techniques of government, a “neoliberal governmentality” (Lemke 2002), where what was once understood as social now rests within the domain of self-governance (Hamann 2009). A genealogy of internationalization at these three different tiers of analysis helps to problematize higher education within the context of globalization, which, at the macro level, has rationalized a globally-structured agenda for market-driven, deregulated higher education (Shields 2013), and has allowed for its implementation to take place at both the institutional as well as the individual level.
JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) 105 Contribution to the Field
There exist continued calls to critically investigate the normalized visions, foci, goals, and strategies of internationalization in higher education (Altbach and Knight 2007; Shields 2013). There also exist legitimate humanitarian concerns related to international student mobility due to political volatility and changing priorities of national and regional governments (Kim 2009). By examining internationalization at these three levels of analysis—micro, mezzo, and macro—my study will help to better understand the operation of complex power relationships in international higher education. Creating a genealogical study of knowledge production, disciplining discourses, and governing practices that exist at the macro, mezzo, and micro levels of internationalization will challenge commonly held preconceptions within the field. It will also offer new ways of understanding international student subjectivity, the effects of privatization and marketization on HEIs, and the global forces and power imbalances that have come to shape today’s understandings of international education.
References
Altbach, Philip, and Jane Knight. 2007. “The Internationalization of Higher Education: Motivations and Realities.” Journal of Studies in International Education 11(3–4): 290–305. https://doi.org/10.1177/1028315307303542. Bacchi, Carol, and Susan Goodwin. 2016. Poststructural Policy Analysis - A Guide to Practice. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Fischer, Karin. 2017. “International-Student Enrollment Is Slowing — and It Isn’t All Donald Trump’s Fault.” The Chronicle of Higher Education, November 13, 2017. https://www.chronicle.com/article/International- Student/241737. Foucault, Michel. 1980. “Two Lectures.” In Power/Knowledge: Selected Interviews and Other Writings, 1972-1977, edited by Colin Gordon, 78–108. New York: Pantheon Books. ———. 1982. “The Subject and Power.” Critical Inquiry 8(4): 777–795. Hamann, Trent H. 2009. “Neoliberalism, Governmentality, and Ethics.” Foucault Studies 6: 37–59. https://doi.org/10.22439/fs.v0i0.2471. Institute for International Education. 2019. “Open Doors Report on International Educational Exchange.” Institute of International Education. https://www.iie.org/en/Research-and-Insights/Open-Doors/Open-Doors-2019-Media- Information. Kim, Terri. 2009. “Transnational Academic Mobility, Internationalization and Interculturality in Higher Education.” Intercultural Education 20(5): 395–405. https://doi.org/10.1080/14675980903371241. Knight, Jane. 2003. “Updating the Definition of Internationalization.” International Higher Education 33: 2–3. Koehne, Norma. 2006. “(Be)Coming, (Be)Longing: Ways in Which International Students Talk about Themselves.” Discourse: Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education 27(2): 241–57. https://doi.org/10.1080/01596300600676219. Larmer, Brook. 2019. “One of America’s Most Vital Exports, Education, Never Goes Abroad, but It Still Faces Threats.” The New York Times, January 3, 2019, sec. Magazine. https://www.nytimes.com/2019/01/03/magazine/one-of-americas-most-vital-exports-education-never-goes-abroad- but-it-still-faces-threats.html. Larner, Wendy, and William Walters. 2004. “Globalization as Governmentality.” Alternatives: Global, Local, Political 29(5): 495–514. https://doi.org/10.1177/030437540402900502.
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Lemke, Thomas. 2002. “Foucault, Governmentality, and Critique.” Rethinking Marxism 14(3): 49–64. https://doi.org/10.1080/089356902101242288. Marginson, Simon. 2011. “Higher Education and Public Good.” Higher Education Quarterly 65(4): 411–33. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2273.2011.00496.x. Marginson, Simon, and Marijk van der Wende. 2007. “Globalisation and Higher Education.” OECD. http://www.oecd.org/education/research/37552729.pdf. Miller, Peter, and Nikolas Rose. 1990. “Governing Economic Life.” Economy and Society 19(1): 1–31. https://doi.org/10.1080/03085149000000001. OECD. 2019. Education at a Glance 2019: OECD Indicators. Paris: OECD Publishing. https://www.oecd- ilibrary.org/content/publication/f8d7880d-en. Olssen, Mark, John A Codd, and Anne-Marie O’Neill. 2004. Education Policy: Globalization, Citizenship and Democracy. London: Sage. Rose, Nikolas, Pat O’Malley, and Mariana Valverde. 2006. “Governmentality.” Annual Review of Law and Social Science 2(1): 83–104. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.lawsocsci.2.081805.105900. Shields, Robin. 2013. “Globalization and International Student Mobility: A Network Analysis.” Comparative Education Review 57(4): 609–36. https://doi.org/10.1086/671752. Sidhu, Ravinder. 2006. Universities and Globalization. New York: Routledge.
JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) 107 Integrating International Graduate Students on Campus: The Perspectives of Student Affairs Professionals
Rachal Etshim
Western Michigan University, United States of America
Email: [email protected]. Address: 638 South Drake Road Apt V1, Kalamazoo, MI 49009
Introduction
Higher education institutions in the United States (US) recruit international students as part of their internationalization strategies. The overall number of international students enrolled in American universities and colleges between 2017 and 2018 increased by 1.5 percent compared to the previous year, totaling over 1 million international students (Institute of International Education 2018). Of this total, 382,983 are international graduate students. International graduate students are good resources for the internationalization and economy of higher education institutions in the US (Urban and Palmer 2014, 305-324) and, despite the reduction in the number of visas approved and job prospects, their numbers continue to grow (Almurideef 2016, 1-48). These students come from different countries, have different cultural backgrounds and needs, and face different challenges that student affairs professionals at host institutions must address to integrate them into campus (Harper and Hurtado 2007, 7-24; Lee and Rice 2007, 381-409). Moreover, the needs and challenges of international students differ depending on their level of studies, undergraduate vs. graduate (Rai 2002, 21-34). While student affairs professionals are often the first contacts for all international students, and they play a key role in the integration and development of international graduate students on campus (Brandenburg 2016, 15-17), most higher education institutions and their student affairs units today are not yet prepared to serve international graduate students (Arokiasamy 2011, 73-81; Burdzinski 2014, 1-137; Di Maria 2012, 1-228; Moswela and Mukhopadhyay 2011, 307-319; Yakaboski and Perozzi 2018, 21). The purpose of this study is to understand the perspectives of student affairs professional about their role in integrating international graduate students into campus and the policies, services, programs, and other elements they consider most helpful in integrating these students.
Methodology
For the purpose of this study, I will use a qualitative method. Creswell (2013, 15-42) defined qualitative research as a broad approach to the study of social phenomena. My goal is to understand perspectives of student affairs professionals about their role in integrating international graduate into campus, the policies, services, programs, and other elements these student affairs professionals consider most helpful in integrating these students. In order to get a deep understanding of those perspectives, I need to give voice to student affairs professionals, listen to their experiences and interpretation of events and activities related to the integration of international graduate students. A qualitative research study is the most suitable method to get an in-depth understanding of a social phenomenon to answer the research questions, and it relies on the direct experiences of human beings (Creswell and Poth 2017, 41; Marshall and Rossman 2016, 15).
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I will conduct an instrumental case study, which allows me to focus on an issue or a concern, such as the integration of international graduate students, and then selects one bounded case to illustrate this issue (Baxter 2008; Stake 2005, 544-559; Yazan, 2015, 134-152). The institution where I will conduct this study is located in the Midwestern United States and it is committed to internationalization. I will use a semi-structured interview to allow for questions that may provide further meaning from participants (Creswell 2013, 145). The interview protocol was tested with real participants to ensure that questions were appropriate and relevant. I will need 10-15 student affairs professionals and other support staff who have served or serve international graduate students. In addition to interviews, I will gather data from documentation, archival records, interviews, site observations, and physical artifacts (Yin 2009, 99-124). I will maintain document summary forms to help organize information obtained from documents. I will also conduct site observations to gather information and first-hand experience of the research setting, understand and capture the context within which student affairs professionals and international graduate students interact.
Data Analysis
I will use inductive thematic analysis to examine the perspectives of each participant. Inductive thematic analysis is a data analysis method that can be widely used across a range of epistemologies and research questions (King 2004, 257-270). It is a method for identifying, analyzing, organizing, describing, and reporting themes found within a data set (Braun and Clarke 2006). I will use the following steps to thematically analyze my data: familiarize myself with the data; generate codes; search for themes; reviews themes; define and name themes; and producing the report (Braun and Clarke 2006, 77-101).
Contribution of the Research to Comparative and International Higher Education
A need exists to gain the perspectives of the perspectives of student affairs professionals on integrating international graduate students into campus and the policies, services, programs, and other elements they consider most helpful in integrating these students. Other higher education institutions around the world that desire to enroll international graduate students may use the findings of this study to develop training for their student affairs professionals to meet the needs and challenges of this category of students. Researchers or practitioners interested in international students and student affairs may use the findings of this study as a baseline of information. Finally, this study will contribute to the limited body of research that address the roles of student affairs professionals in the internationalization of higher education.
The Main Take Away of the Research
The integration of international graduate students depends on student affairs professionals’ readiness to serve people from different socio-cultural backgrounds. Therefore, higher education institutions and specific student affairs’ units should provide continuous intercultural trainings to student affairs professionals so they can better serve the entire campus community and help the institution reach its internationalization goals.
References
Almurideef, Raja. 2016. “The challenges that international students face when integrating into.” PhD, Rowan University.
JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) 109 Arokiasamy, Anantha. 2011. “An analysis of globalization and higher education in Malaysia.” Australian Journal of Business and Management Research 1(9): 73-81. Baxter, Pamela, and Jack Susan. 2008. “Qualitative case study methodology: Study design and implementation for novice researchers.” The Qualitative Report 13(4): 544-559. Brandenburg, Uwe. 2016. “The value of administrative staff for internationalization.” International Higher Education 85: 15-17. doi:10.6017/ihe.2016.85.9239. Braun, Virginia, and Clarke Victoria. 2006. “Using thematic analysis in psychology.” Qualitative Research in Psychology 3(2): 77-101. http://dx.doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa Burdzinski, Donna. 2016. “Attitudes about Globalization, Internationalization, and The Role of Student Affairs Administrators in Internationalizing Florida’s Community and State Colleges.” PhD, University of South Florida. Creswell, John. 2013. Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches. 3rd edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Creswell, John, and Poth Cheryl. 2018. Qualitative inquiry & research design: Choosing among five approaches. 4th edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Di Maria, David. 2012. “Factors Affecting views of Campus Services for International Students Among Student Affairs Administrators at Five Public Universities in Ohio.” PhD, University of Minnesota. Harper, Shaun, and Hurtado Sylvia. 2007. “Nine themes in campus racial climates and implications for institutional transformation.” New Directions for Student Services 2007 (120): 7-24. https://doi.org/10.1002/ss.254 Institute of International Education. “Open doors report (USA).” Updated November 13, 2018. https://www.iie.org/Research-and-Insights/Open-Doors/Open-Doors-2018-Media-Information. Lee, Jenny, and Rice Charles. 2007. “Welcome to America? International student perceptions of discrimination.” Higher Education 53(3): 381-409. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-005-4508-3 Marshall, Catherine, and Rossman Gretchen. 2016. Designing qualitative research. 6th edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Moswela, Emmanuel, and Mukhopadhyay Sourav. 2010. “Asking for too much? The voices of students with disabilities in Botswana.” Disability and Society 26(3): 307-319. https://doi.org/10.1080/09687599.2011.560414 King, Nigel. 2004. “Using Templates in the Thematic Analysis of text.” In Essential Guide to Qualitative Methods in Organizational Research, edited by Cassell, Catherine, and Gillian Symon, 257-270. London, UK: Sage. Rai, Gauri. 2002. “Meeting the educational needs of international students: A perspective from U.S schools.” International Social Work 45(1): 21-34. https://doi.org/10.1177/0020872802045001312. Stake, Robert. 2005. “Qualitative Case Studies.” In The Sage Handbook of Qualitative Research, edited by Denzin, Norman, and Lincoln Yvonna, 443-466. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Urban, Ewa, and Palmer Bierlein. 2014. “International students as a resource for internationalization of higher education.” Journal of Studies in International Education 18(4): 305-324. https://doi.org/10.1177/1028315313511642. Yakaboski, Tamara, and Perozzi Brett. 2018. Internationalizing US Student Affairs Practice. New York: Routledge. Yazan, Bedrettin. 2015. “Three approaches to case study methods in education: Yin, Merriam, and Stake.” The Qualitative Report 20(2): 134-152. Yin, Robert. 2009. Case study research: Design and methods. 4th edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
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The Development of Students’ Understandings of Social Identity, Inequality, and Service During a Critical International Service-Learning Program in the Dominican Republic
Jeremy Gombin-Sperling
University of Maryland-College Park, United States
Email: [email protected] Address: University of Maryland-College Park, United States
Introduction
Since January 2018, my colleague, Jazmin Pichardo, and I have co-led a two-week, three-credit Winter term course for undergraduate university students to Santiago de Los Caballeros, Dominican Republic entitled “Global Service in the Dominican Republic and Critical Reflection on U.S. Identity.” This program brings together intergroup dialogue (IGD) and global service learning (GSL) in its pedagogy and practice. GSL works to enrich student learning through a critically-focused curriculum that uses structural analysis to look at the interconnected geopolitical histories of struggle and oppression that foster and reproduce global inequality (Hartman and Kiely 2014). Intergroup dialogue (IGD) cultivates critical conversations among students on issues of power, privilege, and oppression by reflecting on and discussing how social identities (e.g., race, gender, sexuality, ability, nationality, ability, etc.) impact our lived experiences and relationships with one another. This is done through facilitated dialogues carried out by trained co- facilitators of different social identities (Gurin, Nagda, and Zúñiga 2013). We implement IGD on our GSL program to support students in making sense of their in-country experiences, social identities, and their relationship to systems of inequality and oppression on a global scale. Although we have noted changes in how students discuss and write about service, inequality, and their social identities, we have yet to conduct a study that captures and analyzes these shifts. For my dissertation, I will conduct a critical case study with research support from Jazmin that will assess the meaning that students make of their experiences abroad on our January 2020 program.
Bringing Global Service Learning and Intergroup Dialogue Together
This research comes from identified gaps and emerging opportunities for scholarship on GSL and IGD. One of the primary critiques of dominant service learning programs in U.S. higher education is that programs fail to provide a structural analysis of social issues (Mitchell 2008). This failure often results in students identifying the community at fault for their struggles with inequality rather than the systems and structures in which they operate (Kiely 2005; Stoecker 2016). The growth of GSL programs in the international service learning realm has helped to interrupt that trend through its use of critical pedagogical practices and curriculum that center structural and historical analyses of social disparities (Oberhauser and Daniels 2017). At the same time, there is a growing need for programs to apply that same level of complexity to understanding how students of different social identities (e.g., race, gender, class, etc.) experience service learning courses. Critical service learning research has found that although students are able to articulate how inequality is reproduced, many, especially those carrying privileged identities and backgrounds, are resistant to see themselves as implicated in reproducing systems of inequality and oppression such as racism, sexism, and poverty (Endres and Gould 2009; Jones, LePeau, and Robbins 2013). Students in marginalized positions often
JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) 111 report feeling excluded on service programs due to program leaders either inadequately supporting their needs or not making room for discussion around issues of identity and power within the service group (Mitchell 2008). For these reasons, Green (2003) argues for a methodological and theoretical shift in our work:
We must begin theorizing how service-learning is experienced differently by those from different groups and look closely at the gaps between our theories of service-learning and our theories of subject position(s), of race, class, gender, [and] sexuality (276).
This is where the need to implement and conduct research on new modalities that center the exploration of social identity in GSL becomes critical, hence the focus and use of IGD on our program. The literature on IGD has shown that students of different social positions who complete IGD programs are better able to see how our identities mediate how we benefit from and/or are marginalized by oppressive systems, and how each of us has a relationship to these structures (Gurin, Nagda, and Zúñiga 2013). With the exception of a few research studies (see Rose and Bylander 2006), the majority of IGD programs and programs utilizing IGD pedagogy have taken place in the United States (Edwards 2017). By bringing IGD into our GSL course, we may be more able to foster critical learning that utilizes intergroup dynamics as a way to both understand structural inequality, and identify ways to combat it within the context of one’s social position and circumstances.
Research Overview
Research Question and Methods The primary research question of this study is: “How do students’ understanding of their social identities, the nature of social inequalities, and the impact of service on social inequalities change during a critical international service learning program in the Dominican Republic?” As a critical qualitative case study, I will utilize several related techniques for data collection and analysis. The first data source will be analysis of student reflection journals (Sturgill and Motley 2014). As in many service learning courses, our students submit critical reflection papers that track their experiences, observations, and self- reflections throughout the program, starting a few days before we depart and concluding with a final assignment due after we return to the United States. These reflections will serve as an ongoing way to track how student perspectives and ideas develop throughout their involvement in the service project and their participation in the dialogues. In addition, my co-instructor and I will maintain a collaborative journal to capture what we note in students and events throughout our time abroad. Not only does this journal allow us to track significant moments, but it also permits us to compare and contrast what we find salient considering our different social identities and positions – I as a white U.S. cisgender queer man, and she as an Afro-Dominicana U.S. cisgender heteroflexible woman. The last source will be interviews. One set of interviews are with students one month and three months out from the program’s end that intend to capture the students’ experiences and the program’s impact on them. The other set of interviews are with relevant colleagues, which includes the course founder, my co-instructor, Jazmin, and our colleagues in the Dominican Republic. The purpose of colleague interviews is primarily to build context around the history of the program (course founder interview), and to triangulate how my own observations and conclusions correspond with that of people who carry different identities and experiences from my own (co-instructor and Dominican colleagues). Collectively, this data will provide a robust foundation from which I can analyze and draw conclusions around the process of student learning and sense-making.
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Reflections on Research Methods As an emerging critical researcher in international and comparative higher education, it is important to me to think about how my social identities, my experiences of privilege, and my relationship to the research will impact the study (Khatri 2018; McCabe and Holmes 2009). First and foremost, I am a co-instructor of the course that I am researching. The power I hold in this role will influence how students respond to my questions and inquiries (Muhammad, Wallerstein, Sussman, Avila, Belone and Duran 2015). As a white cisgender man with a U.S. passport, I hold identities privileged by our systems on a global level due to histories of colonization, racism, sexism, and imperialism that are at play in my interactions with students and our colleagues in the Dominican Republic (Mayes 2014). I name these realities not for the sake of acknowledgement, but rather to recognize that whatever conclusions emerge from this research are not objective truth (Pillow 2003). My findings will reflect the power dynamics of my relationships with participants, and the context of the study itself. Nonetheless, I want to build trust, establish transparency, and encourage discussion on issues of power with my participants (Guillemin et al. 2016). In working towards these goals, I spoke with students about the research before the program, and continue to check in with them to see if they have any questions or concerns. Additionally, I will maintain communication with all participants throughout the research process by sharing updates on my progress. This will include sharing excerpts from my writing where they are cited or referenced (anonymously), requests for their feedback and ideas, and making myself available to talk with them as needed. While this does not eliminate power differentials, I hope it to mitigate them and allow participants to feel more a part of the research rather than an object of it.
Implications
I wish for this study to contribute to several facets of research in comparative and higher education. For one, my study could extend the already growing and evolving work in GSL. In addition, this dissertation expands the purview of intergroup dialogue research in higher education by seeing if IGD can support students in understanding systems of oppression and their relationship to them in transnational sociohistorical contexts. Finally, this research will assess whether or not our program and pedagogy is able to weaken the impact of oppressive ideologies and/or strengthen liberating ideologies that our students carry regarding identity, inequality and service (Hall, Slack, and Grossberg 2016; Kiely 2005). If shown to have that impact, the research and its findings will hopefully support other practitioners in the field by offering recommended practices for their own courses and a framework for conducting similar investigations.
References
Edwards, Sachi. 2017. “Intergroup Dialogue & Religious Identity: Attempting to Raise Awareness of Christian Privilege & Religious Oppression.” Multicultural Education 24 (2): 18–24. Endres, Danielle, and Mary Gould. 2009. “‘I Am Also in the Position to Use My Whiteness to Help Them Out’: The Communication of Whiteness in Service Learning.” Western Journal of Communication 73 (4): 418–36. https://doi.org/10.1080/10570310903279083. Green, Ann E. 2003. “Difficult Stories: Service-Learning, Race, Class, and Whiteness.” College Composition and Communication 55 (2): 276. https://doi.org/10.2307/3594218. Guillemin, Marilys, Lynn Gillam, Emma Barnard, Paul Stewart, Hannah Walker, and Doreen Rosenthal. 2016. “‘Doing Trust’.” Journal of Empirical Research on Human Research Ethics : JERHRE 11 (4): 370–81. https://doi.org/10.1177/1556264616668975.
JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) 113 Gurin, Patricia, Biren A. Nagda, and Ximena Zúñiga. 2013. Dialogue across Difference : Practice, Theory and Research on Intergroup Dialogue. New York: Russell Sage Foundation. Hall, Stuart, Jennifer Daryl Slack, and Lawrence Grossberg. 2016. Cultural Studies 1983 : A Theoretical History. 1 online resource (xiv, 218 pages) vols. Stuart Hall, Selected Writings. Durham [NC]: Duke University Press. http://www.dawsonera.com/depp/reader/protected/external/AbstractView/S9780822373650. Hartman, Eric, and Richard Kiely. 2014. “Pushing Boundaries: Introduction to the Global Service-Learning Special Section.” Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning 21 (1): 55–63. Jones, Susan Robb, Lucy A. LePeau, and Claire K. Robbins. 2013. “Exploring the Possibilities and Limitations of Service-Learning: A Critical Analysis of College Student Narratives About HIV/AIDS.” The Journal of Higher Education 84 (2): 213–38. https://doi.org/10.1353/jhe.2013.0010. Khatri, Rose. 2018. “Reflexivity, Positionality and Power in Cross-Cultural Participatory Action Research with Research Assistants in Rural Cambodia.” Educational Action Research 26 (2): 190–204. Kiely, Richard. 2005. “A Transformative Learning Model for Service-Learning: A Longitudinal Case Study.” Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning 12 (1): 5–22. Mayes, April J. 2014. The Mulatto Republic : Class, Race, and Dominican National Identity. Gainesville: University Press of Florida. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=nlebk&AN=581445&site=ehost-live. McCabe, Janet L., and Dave Holmes. 2009. “Reflexivity, Critical Qualitative Research and Emancipation: A Foucauldian Perspective.” Journal of Advanced Nursing 65 (7): 1518–26. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365- 2648.2009.04978.x. Mitchell, Tania D. 2008. “Traditional vs. Critical Service-Learning: Engaging the Literature to Differentiate Two Models.” Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning 14 (2): 50–65. Muhammad, Michael, Nina Wallerstein, Andrew L. Sussman, Magdalena Avila, Lorenda Belone, and Bonnie Duran. 2015. “Reflections on Researcher Identity and Power: The Impact of Positionality on Community Based Participatory Research (CBPR) Processes and Outcomes.” Critical Sociology 41 (7–8): 1045–63. Oberhauser, Ann M., and Rita Daniels. 2017. “Unpacking Global Service-Learning in Developing Contexts: A Case Study from Rural Tanzania.” Journal of Higher Education Outreach and Engagement 21 (4): 139–70. Pillow, Wanda. 2003. “Confession, Catharsis, or Cure? Rethinking the Uses of Reflexivity as Methodological Power in Qualitative Research.” International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education 16 (2): 175–96. https://doi.org/10.1080/0951839032000060635. Rose, Susan, and Joyce Bylander. 2006. “Border Crossings: Engaging Students in Diversity Work and Intergroup Relations.” Innovative Higher Education 31 (5): 251–64. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10755-006-9028-2. Stoecker, Randy. 2016. Liberating Service Learning and the Rest of Higher Education Civic Engagement. 1 online resource vols. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Temple University Press. http://public.eblib.com/choice/publicfullrecord.aspx?p=4543340. Sturgill, Amanda, and Phillip Motley. 2014. “Methods of Reflection about Service Learning: Guided vs. Free, Dialogic vs. Expressive, and Public vs. Private.” LEARNING INQUIRY 2: 14.
114 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) Development of Intercultural Competence as a Result of Internationalization-at- Home Initiatives in Japan's Top Global Universities
Ana Sofia Hofmeyr
Osaka University, Japan; Kansai University, Japan
Email: [email protected] Address: Faculty of Foreign Language Studies, Kansai University, 3 Chome-3-35 Yamatecho, Suita, Osaka 564-8680, Japan
Introduction
The internationalization of higher education institutions in the past three decades has grown parallel to an increasing need to foster interculturally competent graduates capable of addressing global challenges and advancing economic development (Deardorff and Jones 2012; Yamamoto 2018). In Japan, internationalization has been strongly encouraged, promoted, and funded by the government (Horie 2002; Yonezawa 2009). Through programs such as the “Global 30” and the “Top Global University Project”, internationalization has become intimately linked to the fostering of “global human resources” (CPHRGD 2011). While internationalization strategies in Japan have historically emphasized mobility programs (MEXT 2011; Burgess 2015), challenges posed mainly by financial reasons, safety concerns, and an inflexible job-hunting system (Bradford 2017) have led to a decrease in the number of Japanese students going abroad in mid- to long-term programs (JAOS 2018). Moreover, in recent years scholars worldwide have come to acknowledge that it is not mobility but significant intercultural experiences, either at home or abroad, that are fundamental to the development of intercultural competence (Fantini, Arias-Galicia and Guay 2001; Deardorff and Hunter 2006). One alternative strategy adopted by the Japanese government in an attempt to internationalize domestic campuses and provide such experiences is the large intake of international students (Kuwamura 2009), thus reaching a much larger number of domestic students than mobility programs. However, a misplaced emphasis on scores of international students rather than on meaningful interaction (Knight 2011) has impaired the success of internationalization-at-home strategies and led to missed opportunities for meaningful multicultural contact (Ward 2001; Deardorff and Hunter 2006; Morita 2012a). Intercultural initiatives that intentionally bring together domestic and international students emerge from previous research as fundamental to the development of intercultural competence by allowing students to actively and consciously be exposed to and engage with difference (Deardorff and Hunter 2006; Bennett 2009). Yet, not only do the concepts of global human resources and of intercultural competence remain unclear, to this date relatively few studies have been conducted on internationalization-at-home initiatives from the perspective of domestic students, including in Japan (Morita 2012a; Morita 2012b; Haswell 2014).
Research Focus and Methodology
In order to identify the potential effects of internationalization-at-home strategies on the development of intercultural competence in domestic students, three main research questions were identified: 1. What is intercultural competence in the Japanese higher education context? 2. Can internationalization-at-home generate intercultural competence in domestic students? 3. If internationalization-at-home is able to generate intercultural competence in domestic students, what are the circumstances for its production? JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) 115 To answer the first question, the researcher conducted an analysis of policy and promotional documents published by the Japanese government and by the 37 universities belonging to the Top Global University Project, considered leaders of internationalization in Japan, in order to identify the components of intercultural competence marketed as desirable products of internationalized education. The data collected was then converted into the theoretical framework of analysis. To answer the second and third questions, the researcher has opted to conduct an exploratory, longitudinal, mixed- methods study with over 150 first-year undergraduate students across a one-year period at two Top Global universities for three reasons. First, intercultural competence is widely regarded as an ongoing, lifelong process (Deardorff 2011), and should therefore be assessed over a period of time. Second, a multi-method approach which goes beyond indirect measures, such as self-report instruments, is generally considered a more valuable form of assessment (Deardorff 2009; Fantini 2009). Finally, first-year students will generally have had less contact with foreign cultures, thus allowing for better control of extraneous variables influencing the development of intercultural competence. A total of three surveys will be conducted – one at the beginning of the first semester, to establish an intercultural competence baseline, and two at the end of the first and second semesters respectively, to measure change. The surveys will account for different variables which will be used in correlation analysis, such as percentage of international students on campus, domestic students’ prior experience abroad, and intercultural program participation. The surveys will also include self-report questions on a 6-point Likert scale concerning intercultural attitudes, knowledge, and skills, as well as open-ended answers to critical incidents focused on intercultural interactions. The surveys will be administered to students who participate in intercultural initiatives alongside international students, such as buddy programs and culturally-mixed dormitories, as well as to a control group made of students who do not participate in either formal or informal intercultural interventions. Additionally, semi-structed interviews will be conducted with a limited number of participants to further investigate the factors and circumstances advancing or hindering the development of intercultural competence in domestic campuses.
Theoretical Framework
The assessment of intercultural competence has been thoroughly theorized and a wide range of assessment models have been developed (Spitzberg and Changnon 2009). However, few of these models are tailored to universities and their internationalization process, and even fewer take into consideration Eastern approaches to internationalization or globally competent graduates. It has also been pointed out that it is essential for the institutional context to be taken into consideration and that assessment should begin with a review of institutional mission statement and goals (Sternberger, Pysarchik, Yun, and Deardorff 2009; Deardorff and van Gaalen 2012). For these reasons, the researcher designed a theoretical framework of analysis that combines the components of intercultural competence identified in Deardorff’s delphi study of intercultural competence (Deardorff 2006), based on perceptions among scholars and educational stakeholders, with competencies identified by the Japanese government and Top Global universities, as central to the concept of global human resources in the Japanese higher education context (CPHRGD 2011; MEXT 2011; MEXT 2014; MEXT 2017). Deardorff’s model, despite being chiefly based on Western perceptions of intercultural competence, provides a clear framework of comparison through which shared components as well as idiosyncrasies belonging to Japanese higher education can be more easily identified. The 16 components of intercultural competence that were found to be pertinent in both Deardorff’s model and in the Japanese context were converted by the researcher into self-report statements assessed in a Likert scale as well as used as the basis to code the open-ended critical incident questions in the surveys.
Significance
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Reports have suggested that the number of Japanese going abroad in mid- to long-term programs is decreasing. Simultaneously, the number of incoming international students continues to increase (JASSO 2017). Internationalization-at-home thus emerges as a viable, more inclusive alternative to study abroad in the development of interculturally competent human resources. Through the assessment of the impact of at-home initiatives on domestic students over a one-year period, this research aims to identify the factors promoting and/or hindering the development of intercultural competence in domestic students. Ultimately, it is expected to provide a basis for the improvement of internationalization-at-home strategies, in general, and for the optimization of the impact of programs that promote meaningful interaction between international and domestic students, in particular.
References
Bennett, Janet M. 2009. "Cultivating Intercultural Competence." In The SAGE Handbook of Intercultural Competence, edited by Darla K. Deardorff, 121-140. Thousand Oaks: SAGE. Bradford, Annette. 2017. "Barriers to Japanese Student Mobility." The Bulletin of Arts and Sciences Meiji University [明治大学教養論集] 523: 99-118. Burgess, Chris. 2015. "To globalise or not to globalise? 'Inward-looking youth' as Scapegoats for Japan's Failure to Secure and Cultivate 'Global Human Resources'." Globalisation, Societies and Education 13(4): 487-507. Deardorff, Darla K. 2011. "Assessing Intercultural Competence." New Directions for Institutional Research 149: 65-79. Deardorff, Darla K. 2006. "Identification and Assessment of Intercultural Competence as a Student Outcome of Internationalization." Journal of Studies in International Education 10 (3): 241-266. Deardorff, Darla K. 2009. "Implementing Intercultural Competence Assessment." In The SAGE Handbook of Intercultural Competence, edited by Darla K. Deardorff, 477-491. Thousand Oaks: SAGE. Deardorff, Darla K, and Adinda van Gaalen. 2012. "Outcomes Assessment in the Internationalization of Higher Education." In The SAGE Handbook of International Higher Education, edited by Darla K Deardorff, Hans de Wit, John D Heyl, and Tony Adams, 167-190. SAGE. Deardorff, Darla K, and Elspeth Jones. 2012. "Intercultural Competence: An Emerging Focus in International Higher Education." In The SAGE Handbook of International Higher Education, edited by Darla K Deardorff, Hans de Wit, John D Heyl and Tony Adams, 283-303. SAGE. Deardorff, Darla K., and William Hunter. 2006. "Educating Global-Ready Graduates." International Educator 15(3): 72-83. Fantini, Alvino E. 2009. "Assessing Intercultural Competence: Issues and Tools." In The SAGE Handbook of Intercultural Competence, edited by Darla K. Deardorff, 456-476. Thousand Oaks: SAGE. Fantini, Alvino E., Fernando Arias-Galicia, and Daniel Guay. 2001. Globalization and 21st Century Competencies: Challenges for North American Higher Education. Boulder, Colorado: Western Interstate Commission for Higher Education. Haswell, Christopher G. 2014. “Issues related to the internationalizing of Japanese universities.” JALT2013 Conference Proceedings: 28-37. Horie, Miki. 2002. "The Internationalization of Higher Education in Japan in the 1990s: A Reconsideration." Higher Education 43: 65-84. JAOS. 2018. "JAOS 2017 Survey on the Number of Japanese Studying Abroad." https://www.jaos.or.jp/wp- content/uploads/2018/01/JAOS-Survey-2017_Number-of-Japanese-studying-abroad180124.pdf.
JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) 117 JASSO. 2017. "International Students in Japan 2017." http://www.jasso.go.jp/en/about/statistics/intl_student/data2017.html. Knight, Jane. 2011. "Five Myths about Internationalization." International Higher Education 62: 14-15. Kuwamura, Akira. 2009. "The Challenges of Increasing Capacity and Diversity in Japanese Higher Education Through Proactive Recruitment Strategies." Journal of Studies in International Education 13(2): 189-202. MEXT. 2011. "Project for Establishing University Network for Internationalization - Global 30 -." MEXT. 2014. "Selection for the FY 2014 Top Global University Project." MEXT. 2017. Top Global University Project. Accessed July 4, 2018. https://tgu.mext.go.jp/en/index.html. Morita, Liang. 2012a. “English and Intercultural Interaction in the Internationalisation of a Japanese University.” Journal of Intercultural Communication 30. Morita, Liang. 2012b. “Internationalisation and Intercultural Interaction at a Japanese University - A Continuing Inquiry.” Electronic Journal of Contemporary Japanese Studies 12(2). https://www.japanesestudies.org.uk/ejcjs/vol12/iss2/morita.html. Sternberger, Lee, Dawn Thorndike Pysarchik, Zee-Sun Yun, and Darla Deardorff. 2009. "Designing a Model for International Learning Assessment." Diversity and Democracy 12 (1). https://www.aacu.org/publications- research/periodicals/designing-model-international-learning-assessment. The Council on Promotion of Human Resource for Globalization Development (CPHRGD). 2011. "An Interim Report of The Council on Promotion of Human Resource for Gloabalization Development." http://www.kantei.go.jp/jp/singi/global/1206011interim_report.pdf. Ward, Colleen. 2001. The Impact of International Students on Domestic Students and Host Institutions. Wellington: New Zealand Ministry of Education. Yamamoto, Beverley Anne. 2018. "The Internationalization of Japanese Higher Education: Incremental Change in a Dynamic Global Environment." In Japanese Education in a Global Age: Sociological Reflections and Future Directions, edited by Akiyoshi Yonezawa, Yuto Kitamura, Beverley Yamamoto, and Tomoko Tokunaga, 221-239. Springer. Yonezawa, Akiyoshi. 2009. "The Internationalization of Japanese Higher Education: Policy Debates and Realities." Nagoya Journal of Higher Education 9: 199-218.
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Motivation Factors of International Students Studying Under the Trump Administration
Minghui Hou
Old Dominion University, United States
Email: [email protected] Address: Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Virginia, United States
Introduction
There have been a decreasing number of international students studying in the US since President Trump took office (Rodriguez, Chavez, and Klauber 2019). The Trump administration has created an unwelcoming environment (Rose-Redwood, 2017) due to the following immigration policies: Travel Bans, Hire American policies (Potti-Sherman 2018), and harsher restrictions on the unlawful presence (Galati 2018). Much of the research has been done on the motivations of international students to study abroad (Chirkov, Vansteenkiste, Tao, and Lynch 2007; Zhou 2015), such as the pursuit of academia, economic benefits, social factors, etc. (de Wit 2002; Khadria 2011; Li and Bray 2007). However, there are some gaps in the research literature. Push-pull factors between the host and home countries have been the primary motivations for international students studying abroad, but those factors do not consider these current “troubling and uncertain times” (Rose-Redwood and Rose-Redwood 2017, 1). Furthermore, although push-pull factors have some overlaps with expectancy–value theory, which is comprised of intrinsic interest (enjoyment), utility value (fulfillment of personal goals), attainment value (fulfillment of self-identity), and cost (drawbacks of engaging in a task), it does not address how each component of expectancy-value theory can impact a students’ decision to study in the US, particularly, the cost factors and the influence on a students’ decisions and motives. The research question is: What are some factors that might affect international student motivation to study and persist in the U.S. higher education under the Trump administration? What are the costs from the expectancy-value theoretical perspective for international students to study in the US higher education under the Trump administration?
Theoretical Framework
Expectancy-value theory (Wigfield and Eccles 2002) is used as a theoretical framework for understanding international students’ motivations in studying abroad to fill the gap of push-pull factors of international students studying overseas. Expectancy refers to one’s belief that individual will be successful at a given task, while value refers to the reason one engages in a given task (Barron and Hulleman 2014; Usher 2015). There are four major components of values: “attainment value or importance, intrinsic value, utility value, and cost” (Wigfield and Eccle 2002, 94). Attainment value refers to the importance of achievement in a task as it relates to identity (Wigfield and Ecces 2002). Students feel they can attain their goals through the sense of self-identity, or the perceptions of whom they believe themselves to be. International students choose to study abroad because of the fierce competition in their home countries (Altbach 2004). International students could know people from different countries, develop self-management skills, and develop social and cultural capital through studying in a foreign country to achieve their self-identity (Huang and Turner, 2018). It is important for international students to attain a foreign degree and improve their foreign
JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) 119 language skills to “develop a range of skills, knowledge, behaviors and attributes that enable them to success in life not just employment” (3). Intrinsic value is one’s inherent interest in perceiving the task at hand as interesting and enjoyable (Putwain, and et al. 2019). Students’ competence-related beliefs relate more positively with intrinsic value than with utilitarian value (Wigfield and Ecces 2002). International students have the desire to learn English as a second language in host countries and to improve their understanding of their host countries and cultures during the pursuit of qualifications and professional development (Li and Bray 2007). Utility refers to how one perceives the usefulness of a given task to the completion of a future goal. The push-pull factors concept (Altbach 2004; Mazzarol and Soutar 2002) has been widely used to motivate international students to study abroad. According to Altbach (2004), a primary reason for international students to study in the United States was that American employers were willing to hire qualified graduates due to the large and diverse economy. Many international students perceive higher education as a ladder to access to upper-middle social class (Li and Bray 2007) and tend to stay in the host country due to the high standard of living and better career prospects. Cost refers to the negative aspects of what the individual must give up for engaging in a given task. This includes stress, fear of failure, the amount of effort is needed to succeed, and lost opportunities (Wigfield and Ecces 2002). In order to study abroad, international students have to deal with issues, including but not limited to, language barriers, racial discrimination, and isolation from the local community, and unequal treatment (Nghia 2019). The language barrier could impact an international students’ assignment quality, give them difficulty in understanding lectures, and prevent them from making friends within the local community (Rodriguez, Chavez, and Klauber 2019).
Research Methods and Takeaways
There has been less empirical research done on the cost (from expectancy-value theory) of being an international student under the Trump administration (Pottie-Sherman 2018; Rose-Redwood and Rose-Redwood 2017). International students have to live in an unstable world, as no visa is certain. This can be seen playing out in the significant declines in the F-1 and the H-1B student visas. International students must face fewer available applications, higher refusal rates, and increasing difficulty in finding work in the United States after graduation (Schulmann and Le 2018). The fear of failing or having to quit from their academia is a concern for international students due to the current immigration policy. Fifteen in-depth semi-structured interviews were conducted to examine the motivation and experiences of international students studying in a public research university due to a large number of international students and convenience samples. The interviews were conducted in a flowing and informal conversation and lasted around 60 minutes, allowing for a natural conversation between the researcher and participants. This study provides insights into the potential factors that might shape international students’ motivation and experiences in studying in the US. Findings from this study can be used to refine the expectancy-value theory from a cultural lens. The study showed that institutions with insights into how to better support and react to international students’ needs and costs under the current presidential administration.
References
Altbach, Philip G. 2015. “Higher Education Crosses Borders: Can the United States Remain the Top Destination for Foreign Students?.” Change: the magazine of higher learning 36(2): 18–25. Barron, Kenneth E., and Chris S. Hulleman. 2015. “Expectancy-value-cost Model of Motivation.” Psychology 84: 261–271.
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Chirkov, Valery, Maarten Vansteenkiste, Ran Tao, and Martin Lynch. 2007. “The Role of Self-determined Motivation and Goals for Study Abroad in the Adaptation of International Students.” International Journal of Intercultural Relations 31(2): 199–222. De Wit, Hans. 2002. Internationalization of Higher education in the United States of America and Europe: A Historical, Comparative, and Conceptual Analysis. Greenwood Publishing Group. Galati, Matthew. 2018. “United States: USCIS Reverses Unlawful Presence Policy, Risking Draconian Consequences for Students, Exchange Visitors, and their Families.” Mondaq Business Briefing, May 14, 2018. LexisNexis Academic. Huang, Rong, & Turner, Rebecca. 2018. “International experience, universities support and graduate employability– perceptions of Chinese international students studying in UK universities.” Journal of Education and Work 31(2): 175–189. Khadria, Binod. 2011. “India Amidst a Global Competition for Its Talent: A Critical Perspective on Policy for Higher and University Education.” In Higher education in the Asia-Pacific, edited by Simon Marginson, Sarjit Kaur, Erlenawati Sawir, 395–412. Springer, Dordrecht. Li, Mei, and Mark Bray. “Cross-border Flows of Students for Higher Education: Push–pull Factors and Motivations of Mainland Chinese Students in Hong Kong and Macau.” Higher education 53(6): 791–818. Mazzarol, Tim, and Geoffrey N. Soutar. 2002. “ ‘Push-pull’ Factors Influencing International Student Destination Choice.” International Journal of Educational Management 16(2): 82–90. Nghia, Tran Le Huu. 2019. “Motivations for Studying Abroad and Immigration Intentions.” Journal of International Students 9(3): 758–776. Pottie-Sherman, Yolande. 2018. “Austerity Urbanism and the Promise of Immigrant-and Refugee-centered Urban Revitalization in the US Rust Belt.” Urban Geography 39(3): 438–457. Putwain, David W., Laura J. Nicholson, Reinhard Pekrun, Sandra Becker, and Wendy Symes. 2019. “Expectancy of Success, Attainment Value, Engagement, and Achievement: A Moderated Mediation Analysis.” Learning and Instruction 60: 117–125. Redden, Elizabeth, 2014. “Retaining international students post-graduation.” Inside Higher Ed. September 26, 2014. Rodríguez, Claudia, Camila Restrepo Chavez, and Courtenay Klauber. 2019. “International Graduate Student Challenges and Support.” International research and review 8(2): 49–64. Rose-Redwood, CindyAnn, and Reuben Rose-Redwood. 2017. “Rethinking the Politics of the International Student Experience in the Age of Trump.” Journal of International Students 7(3): I–IX. Usher, Ellen L. 2015. “Personal Capability Beliefs.” In Handbook of educational psychology, edited by LYN Corno, Eric M. Anderman, 146–159. New York: Routledge. Schulmann, Paul, and Cindy Le. 2018. “Report 10: Navigating a New Paradigm for International Student Recruitment.” World Education Services. Wigfield, Allan, and Jacquelynne S. Eccles. (Eds.). 2002. “Development of achievement motivation.” https://ebookcentral-proquest-com.proxy2.cl.msu.edu. Zhou, Ji. 2015. “International students’ motivation to pursue and complete a Ph. D. in the US.” Higher Education 69(5): 719–733.
JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) 121 A Language’s Demise Through a Curricular Evolution: A Preliminary Study
Ali Khalila* and Amany Salehb
Community College of Rhodes Island a*, United States Arkansas State Universityb, United States
*Coresponding author: Email: [email protected] Address: 1762 Old Louisquisset Pike, Lincoln, RI 02865
Introduction
Languages are unique. They are forces that surpass the demarcations of communication. Languages define cultures and preserve histories. Having identified the essence of languages, nations have dedicated a special niche for teaching their citizens the foundations of their native languages and asserting their pride in their cultural heritage and paving the way for a successful conservation of their people’s identity and future. Accordingly, the educational system in many countries became the bedrock of language preservation and the curriculum emerged to represent its spirit and modus operandi. However, the death of languages is an expression of a genuine reality. This phenomenon is a reflection of powerful forces that managed to erase languages that were endemic to certain regions. These forces include colonization and, currently, globalization. Unfortunately, instead of embracing its mission of language preservation, the power of the curriculum has become an accomplice in the process of erasing languages in many countries in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA). This phenomenological research aims to identify the impact of the curricular changes on language preservation in Lebanon, Egypt, and Morocco. This preliminary qualitative study seeks to analyze any potential patterns that may exist among the curricular changes in the Arab nations and to assess the impact of current curricular design on the native language of Arabic. The rationale is to understand how curricular progressivism affected the Arabic language and to assess its current status in the aforementioned nations. The authors of this study utilize Critical Social Theory (CST) in examining the impact of curricular factors on the Arabic language in the MENA region. CST was chosen because it offers an effective approach to the analysis of societal, cultural, and historical forces and their impact on educational outcomes (Leonardo, 2004). By using CST, the authors conducted a preliminary study in Lebanon to explore the factors impacting the Arabic language in the MENA region. The authors developed a conceptual framework to examine the impact of social, cultural, and curricular influences on the Arabic language (See Figure 1).
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Figure 1 Conceptual Framework
Colonization
Social Media
Globalization
Teaching methods
Nature of Curriculum
Attitudes
Policies
Regional dialects
Arabic Language
Methodology
Research methods included face-to-face and Skype interviews with Arabic language and education faculty members at the American University in Beirut, Lebanon. The interviews focused on eliciting faculty’s perceptions of the curricular changes and cultural factors that impacted the Arabic language in Lebanon. This preliminary study was conducted to identify the key factors involved in addressing this issue.
Preliminary Findings
The preliminary findings indicated that Arabic teaching methods and curricula contribute to the decline in the appeal of Arabic. The curricula are outdated and the teachers rely on memorization and archaic teaching methods.
JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) 123 Teachers emphasize the teaching of grammar, but not the conversational aspects of Arabic. They attribute this approach to the lack of in-depth research on effective Arabic teaching methods in colleges of education, as well as the lack of professional development for teachers of Arabic. Participants also indicated that almost 50 percent of children go to private schools in Lebanon, in which English or French is the language of the curriculum. Even in public schools, science and mathematics are offered in English or French. This practice makes students perceive Arabic as unsuitable for learning science and antithetical to modernization. Interviewees indicated that parents wanted their children to learn science and math in English to find jobs after graduation. One professor indicated that local dialects compliment the teaching of standard Arabic in schools and ease the learning of the language. However, another participant stated that the multiplicity of local dialects is confusing students and impeding learning Arabic. Unanimously, participants agreed that colonization had a negative impact on teaching Arabic; however, one stated that, “the English language has moved from colonization to globalization.” In addition, one professor pointed out that social media had adversely impacted using Arabic. By the end of the century, “more than half of the 7,000 world languages could vanish” (Al Jabry 2013). One of these languages could be Arabic. Many factors have corroded the Arabic language including colonization, globalization, antiquated teaching methods, outdated curricula, negative attitudes towards the language, curricular policies, and the numerous regional dialects. The impact of social media on students’ selection of English as the language of communication was an additional factor that participants highlighted in this study. Hossam Abouzahar (2018) stated that college educated Arabs view foreign languages as “more functional, prestigious, and likely to guarantee them a job.” Interestingly, participants reported that teachers prefer to teach in English or French rather than in Arabic because they find these two foreign languages to be easier in communication and instruction. The implications of this research indicate that higher education institutions must take an active role in enhancing the Arabic language through several venues. Firstly, they can declare Arabic as the medium for teaching in most colleges. Secondly, universities must increase the scientific input of the Arab region. If the Arab world makes significant scientific contributions, more research will be translated from Arabic to English or French, not vice versa. Thirdly, increasing the Arabic language’s presence on social media will aid in improving the language’s image. Modernizing the Arabic language curricula to increase its utilization will also improve students’ views regarding the vitality of Arabic in a global world. Fifthly, revamping the Arabic language teacher training programs and using research-based teaching methods will make students value and enjoy learning Arabic. The authors plan to expand this study to several countries in the MENA region—including Egypt and Morocco to examine the perceptions of Arabic language educators and education professors regarding the status of the language in their respective nations. The authors will elicit these educators’ views regarding the factors that impact Arabic teaching in their countries, as well as their recommendations to combat the problem.
References
Abouzahar, H. 2018. Standard Arabic is On the Decline: Here’s What’s Worrying About That. Atlantic Council. Al-Jabry, Shadiah Abdullah. 2013. “Alarm Bells Over Future of Arabic Language.” The National. https://www.thenational.ae/uae/heritage/alarm-bells-over-future-of-arabic-language-1.653146. Leonardo, Zeus. 2004. "Critical Social Theory and Transformative Knowledge: The Functions of Criticism in Quality Education.” Educational Researcher 33(6):11-18.
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Higher Education for Human Development: Perspectives from Tanzanian Universities
Bertha Kibona
University of the Free State, South Africa
Email:[email protected] Address: PO Box 339, Bloemfontein 9300, Republic of South Africa
Introduction
Higher education (HE) in Tanzania has expanded tremendously with an increase in the number of universities from one university in 1970 to 54 universities in 2018. Similarly, the number of students has increased by 108,607 in the past three years, with 286,577 graduates from 2009 to 2016 (Tanzania Commission for Universities 2018, 2019). These developments of the HE seem to aim predominantly at increasing economic competitiveness and opportunities. Sengiyumva (2010) proves that the government of Tanzania has expanded access to universities to train and produce graduates in the major professions for economic development. This argument aligns with Stuart’s statement that ‘policymakers across the world argue that increasing participation and students’ diversity in HE is vital to a country’s economic competitiveness’ (2012). This way of thinking has significant implications for the core functions of teaching and learning at universities. At issue is the commercialization and commodification of teaching and learning, which in return, results in profit generation and training students solely for employment purposes (Walker and Fongwa 2017). While this study acknowledges the importance of the economic benefits of HE, I argue for a more nuanced way of interpreting the value of HE that moves beyond economic imperatives to include the potential of HE in advancing the non-economic elements that are essential for individual and national advancement. This premise is based on the broader idea of HE contributing to human development (HD) (Boni and Walker 2016, 2013). Although these areas are foundational and attentive to individuals' actors and freedoms, they have not been compared to other settings such as Tanzania with a unique conflicting aspiration of building a hybrid socialist and capitalist economy (Tanzania Human Development Report 2014). Thus, there is a limited understanding of Tanzanian universities' potential to HD and the perspectives of students and graduates. Nevertheless, students and graduates are critical stakeholders of HE, and their numbers keep on increasing annually. This study, therefore, explores the main research questions; 1) What are Tanzanian students' and graduates' perspectives on how HE can promote HD, and 2) What are the implications of these perspectives for the public good role of HE? This study uses HD and the capability approach (CA) to explore how HE can contribute to HD and the public good. This framework defines development by focusing on human freedom in contract to a narrow view of national income or a rise in personal income (Sen 1999). Hence, the main objective in CA is to enlarge people’s freedom so they can achieve valuable beings and doings (Ibid). For example, this study seeks to understand the factors influencing the ability of students to decide on whether to join a university or not. Thus, this research focuses on what students are learning to be, to know, to do, and to value, with the effect on their wellbeing and the broader society (Boni and Walker 2016).
Methodology
JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) 125 This study used a mixed-method multiple case study design within a pragmatic approach. The choice of this design is steered by an argument that a pragmatic perspective acknowledges that neither qualitative nor quantitative methods on their own are sufficient adequately to address the research question (Johnson et al 2007). Two universities (private and public) were chosen to provide an extensive understanding of the conceptualization of the value of HE. There are three phases of data collection. Qualitative data (phase 1) was collected through eight semi-structured interviews with university administrators (1 Director of Undergraduate Studies and 3 Dean of Faculties (Law, Education, and Computer science) from both universities). Quantitative data (phase 2) was collected through questionnaires to all final year students. Another set of qualitative data (phase 3) was obtained through 6 focus-group interviews, three groups in each university, and 30 semi-structured interviews with graduates who completed their undergraduate education within four years ago (15 from each university, five from each of the three faculties).
Findings and discussion
The preliminary results add to the existing literature through previous research in other countries (Walker and McLean 2013) that HE is mainly defined under economic benefits. Therefore, while participants specified that HE in Tanzania has the potential to contribute to the economy of the country, through employment in different professionals, they also value the freedom to flourish in other facets of life, which exhibits a very sophisticated analysis of the purpose of HE for HD. In this way, universities should broaden students’ economic opportunities through entrepreneurship courses or transform their education curricula. The aim is to give students the right skills and competence for self-employment, self-reliance, and possible employment. HD and CA also give us a nuanced way of interpreting the broader purpose of HE through the expansion of capabilities such as affiliation, solidarity, and producing citizens who are active and committed to justice. Thus, it can be argued that universities have an essential role to advance values that are crucial for individual and societal wellbeing.
Conclusion
In brief, this study contributes to the debates, policies, and practices regarding the broader value of the university by encouraging universities in the direction of educating and producing holistic graduates for a flourishing economy and meaningful life for all. Through a critical analysis of theoretical and empirical data, the study contributes to knowledge on the social and multidimensional value of HE for individuals and a low-income country like Tanzania.
References
Boni, Alejandra and Des Gasper. 2012. "Rethinking the Quality of Universities: How Can Human Development Thinking Contribute?." Journal of Human Development and Capabilities 13(3): 451-470. Boni, Alejandra and Melanie Walker, eds. 2013. Human Development and Capabilities: Re-Imagining the University of the Twenty-First Century. Routledge. Boni, Alejandra and Melanie Walker. 2016. Universities and Global Human Development: Theoretical and Empirical Insights for Social Change. Routledge. Johnson, R. Burke, Anthony J. Onwuegbuzie, and Lisa A. Turner. 2007. "Toward a Definition of Mixed Methods Research." Journal of Mixed Methods Research 1(2): 112-133. Sen, Amartya. 1999. Development as Freedom. Oxford University Press. Sengiyumva, Gasirigwa. 2010. University of Dodoma: Embracing Knowledge for Country’s Development. Daily News. Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.
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Tanzania Commission for Universities (TCU). 2018. Higher Education Students, Admission, Enrolment and Graduation Statistics 2012/13-2017/18. Dar es Salaam. Tanzania Commission for Universities (TCU). 2019. Tanzania in Figures 2018. Dodoma. United Nations Development Program [UNDP]. 2014. Tanzania Human Development Report 2014. Dar es Salaam: UNDP and United Republic of Tanzania. Walker, Melanie and Monica McLean. 2013. Professional Education, Capabilities and the Public Good: The Role of Universities in Promoting Human Development. Routledge. Walker, Melanie, and Samuel Fongwa. 2017. Universities, Employability and Human Development. Springer.
JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) 127 Locally International: How Students at an American International Branch Campus in Singapore Negotiate the Spatial Dimensions of their Transnational Higher Education
Christopher William Kohler
University at Buffalo (SUNY), United States
Email: [email protected]. Address: 489 Baldy Hall, Buffalo, NY 14223, United States
The rapid proliferation of international branch campuses (IBCs) within the last couple of decades is a relatively new phenomenon (e.g. Altbach 2016; Becker 2009; Knight 2016; Wilkins, Balakrishnan and Huisman 2012; Wilkins and Huisman 2012). Empirical research is lacking when it comes to the social implications for both the institutions engaged in transnational higher education through the development of IBCs and the students participating in these degree programs. The domestic students studying at international branch campuses are both local and international, undertaking an international education without venturing overseas. How valuable is an international degree earned at home? How do the spatial dimensions of students’ engagement with their degree- granting institution affect them both during their degree program and after completion? Research suggests that the act of engaging in a mobile international education is essential to reap the rewards that come with an overseas education, such as intercultural competence, positionality in a global workforce, and foreign language immersion (e.g. Li and Bray 2007; Mazzarol and Soutar 2002). The purpose of this study is to understand how students who have studied and are currently studying at an IBC in Singapore narrate their experiences and expectations from transnational higher education, particularly focusing on the development and manifestation of institutional social capital and students’ ability to use this form of capital in their specific local context.
Theoretical Framework
The theoretical framework used in this study is guided by Agarwal and Winkler’s (1985) framework developed to explain international students’ motivation to leave their home countries and study in a host country. This framework explains the “push” effects motivating students to seek higher education opportunities outside of their home country and the “pull” effects drawing them to a particular host country. Without explicitly calling these factors “push” or “pull” they find that student demand for US higher education should directly vary with the perceived benefits of US higher education, the cost of higher education in the home country, and cost of education in a third country (p. 624-625). In their discussion of the “push-pull” framework, Mazzaroll and Soutar (2002) find four main “push” influences: perception that an overseas university is better than a local one, barriers to entry for local universities or lack of a desired degree program, a desire to gain a better understanding of the “West,” and an intention to migrate after graduation (p. 88). The “pull” factors discovered were the reputation of a particular host country, safety, family influence, cost, and local environment. This framework is used to study IBC “attractiveness” in other studies exploring student motivations (e.g. Wilkins and Huisman 2012; Yao and Garcia 2018).
Method and Preliminary Findings
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Through a pilot case study using semi-structured one-on-one interviews and focus group interactions with current students and alumni of an American IBC in Singapore, it was found that enrollment is mostly a feature of lack of access to one of the local universities, which hold the highest status in the Singapore context. However, for some students with an interest in pursuing jobs or graduate studies overseas, earning an American degree is seen as a way to enhance their career prospects. Several informants highlighted a perception that the US curriculum, more focused on the liberal arts and development of the “whole person,” is more desirable than a curriculum more in line with the Singapore education system, known for being hyper-competitive and tracks students early in their schooling. This change of pace from the typical was highlighted as a benefit of attending a US program. Informants suggested that Singapore’s education system was a reason for their inability to access a local higher education institution, as they did not cope well with the hyper-competitive, high-stakes characteristics of their earlier schooling. The development of a strong alumni group in Singapore was highlighted as a way to increase the value of the degree in the Singapore context. As the alumni group expands through more branch campus graduates, informants suggest that holders of the degree will be taken more seriously and will be considered the “real deal,” furthering the possibility of social mobility despite lack of access to an elite local university or other social capital through other networks. Students are able to leverage their connections to produce economic capital. Several of the alumni informants had expressed that they either obtained an employment position through a connection with a branch campus graduate or assisted another student with securing employment.
Discussion
The pilot data suggests that, at least in this specific context, there is spatial variation in institutional capacity to develop social capital between home campuses and branch campuses. However, there appears to be a sort of “grassroots” institutional social capital at work. Students have created a sort of “institution” themselves, through both being cheerleaders for the benefits of their education in their local context and being “examples” for each other in Singapore, as well as creating a strong alumni network and intentionally leveraging the connections made towards explicit economic capital gains. This “membership in a group” that provides members with “backing of the collectively-owned capital, a credential which entitles them to credit” (Bourdieu 1986) is taking place on the ground in Singapore and is being concertedly cultivated by graduates to further the value of their degree in their local context. In other words, this “grassroots” institutional social capital is tied to the “institution” of the American university, but with uniquely Singaporean characteristics being cultivated by the students and graduates. For my dissertation, I plan to expand this study to another non-American IBC in Southeast Asia to bring a comparative perspective to the data. Much empirical research on transnational higher education and IBCs is prescriptive and focused on administration. My research hopes to fill a gap in the literature on the students engaged in this form of transnational (non)mobility. Empirical research on the social implications of IBCs is essential to ensuring that institutions are properly serving their locally international students. Understanding who they are, what they seek to obtain from their experience, and how they are able to adequately leverage their degrees are important questions yet to be fully answered by the literature.
References
Altbach, Philip G. 2013. The International Imperative in Higher Education. Rotterdam: Sense Publishers.
JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) 129 Altbach, Philip G. 2016. Global Perspectives on Higher Education. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. Altbach, Philip G., Liz Reisberg, and Laura E. Rumbley. 2009. Trends in Global Higher Education: Tracking an Academic Revolution. Paris: UNESCO. Brinton, Mary C. 2000. “Social Capital in the Japanese Youth Labor Market: Labor Market Policy, Schools, and Norms.” Policy Sciences 33(3-4): 289-306. Becker, Rosa F. 2009. International Branch Campuses: Markets and Strategies. Boston: Observatory on Borderless Higher Education. Bourdieu, Pierre. 2011. “The Forms of Capital.” Cultural Theory: An Anthology. 81-93. Daquila, Teofilo C. 2013. "Internationalizing Higher Education in Singapore: Government Policies and the NUS Experience." Journal of Studies in International Education 17(5): 629-647. De Wit, Hans. 2002. Internationalization of Higher Education in the United States of America and Europe: A Historical, Comparative, and Conceptual Analysis. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Fang, Wenhong, and Shen Wang. 2014. “Chinese Students’ Choice of Transnational Higher Education in a Globalized Higher Education Market: A Case study of W University.” Journal of Studies in International Education 18(5): 475-494. Guruz, Kemal. 2011. Higher Education and International Student Mobility in the Global Knowledge Economy: Revised and Updated Second Edition. Albany, NY: SUNY Press. Healey, Nigel. 2015. “Managing International Branch Campuses: What Do We Know?” Higher Education Quarterly 69(4): 386-409. Kim, Jongyoung. 2011. “Aspiration for Global Cultural Capital in the Stratified Realm of Global Higher Education: Why do Korean Students Go to US Graduate Schools?.” British Journal of Sociology of Education 32(1): 109- 126. Knight, Jane, ed. 2013. International Education Hubs: Student, Talent, Knowledge-Innovation Models. Dordrecht: Springer Science and Business Media. Knight, Jane. 2014. “International Education Hubs: Collaboration for Competitiveness and Sustainability.” New Directions for Higher Education 168: 83-96. Lane, Jason E. 2011. “Global Expansion of International Branch Campuses: Managerial and Leadership Challenges.” New Directions for Higher Education 155: 5-17. Mazzarol, Tim, and Geoffrey N. Soutar. 2002. “‘Push-Pull’ Factors Influencing International Student Destination Choice.” International Journal of Educational Management 16(2): 82-90. McMahon, Mary E. 1992. “Higher Education in a World Market.” Higher Education 24(4): 465-482. Pyvis, David, and Anne Chapman. 2007. “Why University Students Choose an International Education: A Case Study in Malaysia.” International Journal of Educational Development 27(2): 235-246. Rogosic, Silvia, and Branislava Baranovic. 2016. “Social Capital and Educational Achievements: Coleman vs. Bourdieu.” CEPS Journal 6(2): 81-100. Stromquist, Nelly P. 2007. “Internationalization as a Response to Globalization: Radical Shifts in University Environments.” Higher Education 53(1): 81-105. Teichler, Ulrich. 2004. “The Changing Debate on Internationalisation of Higher Education.” Higher Education 48(1): 5-26. Tierney, William G. and Michael Lanford. 2014. “An Investigation of the Impact of International Branch Campuses on Organizational Culture.” Higher Education 70(2): 283–98. Waring, Peter. 2014. “Singapore's Global Schoolhouse Strategy: Retreat or Recalibration?” Studies in Higher Education 39(5): 874-884. Waters, Johanna L. 2007. “‘Roundabout Routes and Sanctuary Schools’: The Role of Situated Educational Practices and Habitus in the Creation of Transnational Professionals.” Global Networks 7(4): 477-497.
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Waters, Johanna, and Maggi Leung. 2013. “A Colourful University Life? Transnational Higher Education and the Spatial Dimensions of Institutional Social Capital in Hong Kong.” Population, Space and Place 19(2): 155- 167. Wilkins, Stephen, and Jeroen Huisman. 2011. “Student Recruitment at International Branch Campuses: Can They Compete in the Global Market?.” Journal of Studies in International Education 15(3): 299-316. Wilkins, Stephen, Melodena Stephens Balakrishnan, and Jeroen Huisman. 2012. “Student Choice in Higher Education: Motivations for Choosing to Study at an International Branch Campus.” Journal of Studies in International Education 16(5): 413-433. Wilkins, Stephen, and Jeroen Huisman. 2012. "The International Branch Campus as Transnational Strategy in Higher Education." Higher Education 64(5): 627-645. Wilkins, Stephen, and Jolanta Urbanovič. 2014. “English as the Lingua Franca in Transnational Higher Education: Motives and Prospects of Institutions that Teach in Languages Other Than English.” Journal of Studies in International Education 18(5): 405-425. Yao, Christina W., and Crystal E. Garcia. 2018. “International Students in their Own Country: Motivation of Vietnamese Graduate Students to Attend a Collaborative Transnational University.” FIRE: Forum for International Research in Education 4(2): 22-38.
JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) 131 Post-Degree Completion Plan of Chinese and Korean Graduate Students in STEM
Sujung Crystal Lee
Syracuse University, United States
Email: [email protected] Address: Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY, United States
Introduction
The number of international students attending US universities is trending upwards (IIE 2018). In 2018/2019, 1,095,299 international students are enrolled in the US higher education, and they constitute 5.5 percent of total number of enrollments. With rising presence of international students on campus, it is telling that almost half of the international student population is concentrated in STEM fields (IIE Open Doors 2012; Moglen 2017), with 21.4 percent in Engineering, 15.5 percent in Math and Science and 7.1 percent in Physical and Life Sciences. Equally significant are students who choose to leave the US after completing their degree. This phenomenon raises concerns in relation to the number of international students majoring in STEM fields, as these fields are closely tied to countries’ economic innovation and global competitiveness (Han, Stocking, Gebbie, and Appelbaum 2015). Hence, the literature in various areas has studied factors that contribute to students’ plans after completing their degrees. Han et al. (2015) stated that professional factors are the most important reason for staying in the US, while family is an important motivator to return to the home country. Hazen and Alberts (2006) emphasized cultural differences as the motivating factor for the migratory decision (Han et al. 2015). Finally, Zweig, Changgui, and Rosen (2004) believed personal prestige and preferential treatment to be crucial factors. This in-progress article analyzes multiple factors that contribute to international students’ migratory decisions. Chinese and Korean students are the focus of the study, as they comprise a preponderance of the international student population (Yan and Berliner 2011). Two questions will be answered: 1. What are the factors contributing to Chinese and Korean STEM graduate students’ migratory decision? 2. How do these factors intersect or differ across Chinese and Korean students?
Method
In this study, in-depth qualitative interviews are used to analyze Chinese and Korean STEM graduate students’ migratory decision. Six participants were selected using snowball sampling. They were current graduate students or recent graduates from private universities in upstate New York. They also pursued STEM degrees or wished to search for STEM-related job opportunities in future. Each participant was given a consent form and voluntarily participated in an hour-length interview. The six semi-structured interviews were conducted to understand the nuanced strategies in which these students create, recreate, and navigate their path after graduation. More interviews will be conducted in future. The demographics and majors of the interviewees are presented in Table 1.
132 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) Table 1: Demographics of interviewees
Chinese students Korean students
Tao (Male) Seungyeon (F) Civil engineering (PhD) Communication (PhD), Media psychology (MA)
Zhang (Male) Minjae (M) Environmental science (PhD) Architecture (MA)
Xu (Female) Young (M) Biology (MA) Chiropractic (DC)
Preliminary findings
Return Decision Preliminary findings suggest that all the Chinese interviewees wished to return to China, while the Koreans would have preferred to remain in the US. Tao, a doctoral candidate in civil engineering, expressed that his decision to return was natural by referring to the old Chinese proverb “Falling leaves return to their roots” (落叶归根 – luò yè guī gēn). For Tao, his period in the US is a transitory phase. Zhang, a Ph.D. candidate in environmental science, also expected to return to China. He believed that China has a larger job market, especially for young people who have studied abroad. The thriving economy and the greater number of opportunities available in China could be significant motivators to return. However, Zhang’s decision was not based solely on professional factors, as he stated, “There are more environmental problems in China, so I feel what I have learned can be better used in China […] I can really help my people there”. For Zhang, the practical application of his skills and degree is as important as portraying himself as a marketable employee on the job market. He desired to make a meaningful contribution to his field as well as to support the development of his home country. Motivators to Stay in the US Both the Chinese and Korean students emphasized freedom as one of advantages of residing in the US. Minjae, a master’s student in architecture, planned to work in US company to eventually obtain a green card or US citizenship. He aimed to remain in the US permanently so that he could ensure work–life balance and a high salary. He hesitated to leave the US due to the unpromising job market and inhumanely long working hours in Korea. Tao also believed that the individualistic culture in the US allows one to enjoy freedom in their own way. The apparent boundary between even close friends in the US is distinct from the collectivistic culture in China, where Tao constantly felt pressured by his family to get married. Questions about marriage from elders or family members were “embarrassing” to Tao, but the promise of greater freedom in the US does not offset the advantages of returning to China. Third Country as Another Option Despite the traditional view of migration as the mobility of people between the host and the home country, Seungyeon considered migration to a third country as another option. She is an expert in the utilization of big data in communication and has recently obtained her Ph.D. degree. During the daunting process of job hunting in US academia, she was offered the job of assistant professor at a prestigious Chinese university. During our first interview, Seungyeon announced that she had received the job offer, and at our follow-up interview, she indicated that she had
JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) 133 accepted the offer. She hesitated to leave the US due to the persistent gender discrimination in Korean academia. Most importantly, the Chinese university provided her with various incentives, including a research laboratory and guaranteed promotion, which differs from the competitive tenure procedure in the US and Korea. The Chinese university also reduced teaching loads and publication requirements to ease her adjustment in China. These incentives and the abundance of capital in Chinese academia attract international students regardless of their nationalities, thus international students are allowed to make diverse migratory choices, not being confined to a single country.
Discussion
Although the study is still in progress, the findings provide insight into the mechanisms of how both Chinese and Korean students make migratory decisions during the critical period of post-degree completion. The preliminary results suggest that although international students have been perceived as making choices based only on financial opportunity, diverse factors influence their decision. It is also crucial to conceptualize the migratory decision as more than a simple binary decision to return or stay. As shown in one of the interviews, the migratory decision is not confined to sending and receiving countries, but is extended to multiple destinations. The interviewees were also aware of their legal status and discussed their anxiety and the burden of obtaining a work visa, green card, or US citizenship. Aside from getting a job in competitive US academia, obtaining a visa is a common barrier for international students. The interviewees lamented their non-citizen status and discussed rumors of friends or acquaintances who had encountered visa issues or “spent so much time on paperwork and money to hire lawyers”. They expressed fear of the current political climate, which often delays the naturalization process. Even though they currently hold F-1 student visas, they already expressed exhaustion at the thought of the naturalization processes they would face in the future. International students confront multiple barriers due to their non-citizen status and legal constraints. However, as Minjae stated, they search for and redefine their own ways to live a “satisfactory and happy life”. Although the homogenization of the international student population precludes an understanding of the dynamic and mobile status of their migratory decisions, this study aims to provide a comparative study of two specific groups and their multifaceted decision-making processes. This paper will contribute to the narrative of international students as active agents who proactively negotiate and seek routes and resources (Gerlach 2015).
References
Gerlach, Peter Arno. 2015. “‘We’re All Horacians’: Listening to International Students at an American Liberal Arts College.” PhD diss., Syracuse University. https://surface.syr.edu/etd/210. Han, Xueying, Galen Stocking, Matthew A. Gebbie, and Richard P. Appelbaum. 2015. “Will They Stay or Will They Go? International Graduate Students and Their Decisions to Stay or Leave the U.S. upon Graduation” PLoS ONE 10 (3). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0118183. Hazen, Helen D. and Heike C. Alberts. 2006. “Visitors or Immigrants? International Students in the United States.” Population, Space and Place 12 (3): 201–16. https://doi-org.libezproxy2.syr.edu/10.1002/psp.409. Institute of International Education. 2018. “International Student Enrollment Trends, 1948/49- 2017/18.” Open Doors Report on International Education Exchange. http://www.iie.org/opendoors. Institute of International Education Open Doors. 2012. “Fast Facts.” http://www.iie.org. Luo, Yu-Ling and Wei-Jen Wang. 2002. “High-skill migration and Chinese Taipei's industrial development.” In International Mobility of the Highly Skilled, 253–69. Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development.
134 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) Moglen, Daniel. 2017. “International Graduate Students: Social Networks and Language Use.” Journal of International Students, Jonesboro 7 (1): 22–37. https://doi.org/10.32674/jis.v7i1.243. Yan, Kun and David C. Berliner. 2011. “Chinese International Students in the United States: Demographic Trends, Motivations, Acculturation Features and Adjustment Challenges.” Asia Pacific Education Review 12 (2): 173–184. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12564-010-9117-x. Zweig, David, Chen Changgui, and Stanley Rosen. 2004. “Globalization and Transnational Human Capital: Overseas and Returnee Scholars to China.” The China Quarterly 179: 735–57. https://doi- org.libezproxy2.syr.edu/10.1017/S0305741004000566.
JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) 135 Using Bourdieu’s Theory of Practice to Investigate the Experience of Ontario College Graduates Who Are Russian, Ukrainian, and Belarusian, and Seek Career Employment and Permanent Residency in Canada
Oleg Legusov
University of Toronto, Canada
Email: [email protected] Address: University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
Introduction
Governments in the developed countries are striving to attract more international students in the hope that many of them will stay in the country after graduation as skilled immigrants. In Canada, the Province of Ontario has two main types of publicly funded institution of higher education: the university and the college of applied arts and technology (CAAT). Twenty-four CAATs were founded in the late 1960s with a mandate to provide fast, inexpensive, practical education for local communities. It should be noted that these colleges differ from American colleges in that they produce job-ready graduates, rather than preparing students for further education on the university level. CAATs offer a wide range of vocational-certificate, diploma, and applied-degree programs that can provide international students with an expeditious way to immigrate. Small wonder that the number of international students at CAATs is growing rapidly. For most international graduates in Canada, the path to permanent residency, and eventually citizenship, first involves securing employment. Even though research on the labor-market outcomes of international graduates in Canada is advancing (Chira 2013; Bepple 2014; Morris-Lange and Brands 2015), it tends to emphasize university graduates. As a result, the numerous barriers faced by international CAAT graduates who seek jobs on their host country’s labor market, such as prejudice and discrimination based on ethnicity, gender, age, and immigration status, are still not well understood. This thesis helps address this knowledge gap by focusing on international CAAT graduates who enter the labor market, and make a new life, in Canada.
The Study
The thesis investigates the experiences of international CAAT graduates from three former Soviet republics – Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus – as they seek career employment and permanent residency in Canada. More specifically, it explores how such graduates acquire and use cultural and social capital to obtain employment commensurate with their credentials and to gain an understanding of Canada’s workplace culture.
Methodology
Qualitative sampling was used to select the participants, with the two main criteria being their gender and type of college credential. The participants were recruited from four of the five Greater Toronto Area (GTA) colleges. According to the Ontario Ministry of Training, Colleges and Universities, 72% of the international students in Ontario’s college system in 2012 attended the five CAATs in the GTA (Popovic 2013).
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Bourdieu’s Theory of Practice as a Theoretical Framework
Pierre Bourdieu’s (1977) theory of practice provides the theoretical framework for an analysis of the labor-market integration of 14 women and 16 men. The study examines the relationship between structure and agency, as well as the interplay of three elements of Bourdieu’s theory: field, capital, and habitus (Bourdieu 1993). In Bourdieu’s formulation, the job market is a field that job seekers try to enter and establish themselves on (Bourdieu 1966). To do so, they need to use, and enhance, their cultural and social capital. For international students, they enter a complex game whose rules they may not be familiar with, because they are newcomers to Canada. The main focus of the research is to determine the extent to which international college graduates succeed in using the social and cultural capital they acquired at home and in Canada to learn the rules of the game. The concepts of career habitus, career field, and career capital, as developed by Iellatchitch et al. (2003), are used to adapt Bourdieu’s theory to the research context.
Preliminary Findings
The preliminary findings, which are based on data collected from in-depth interviews and document analysis, reveal that the participants belong to three distinct age groups: “Teenagers”, or those who arrived in Canada shortly after graduating from high school; “Young Adults”, or those who were in their 20s and had further life experience when they arrived; and “Mature Adults”, or those who were over the age of 30 when they arrived, having left behind established lives.
Implications for Job Market Outcomes
Differing significantly in terms of career habitus and career capital, the members of the three age groups are likely to have different labor-market outcomes. Teenagers Group. The members of this group typically have highly educated parents who are successful business owners. In Bourdieusian terms, many of them have inherited the “right” type of career habitus. Furthermore, they possess cultural capital as a result of opportunities their parents gave them: they are well traveled, they attended elite schools, and they started learning English at an early age. Thus they are well equipped to succeed on the career field in their new country. Young Adults Group. The participants in this group could not leave their countries after high school for reasons such as financial constraints or compulsory military service. After high school, they remained in their home countries, spending three or four years engaged in various activities that had a strong influence on the formation of their career habitus and career capital. As a result, the members of this group are likely to face moderate challenges in the Canadian labor market. Mature Adults Group. The salient feature of this group is that, even though some of them were still young when the Soviet Union collapsed, socialism had a profound impact on the formation of their habitus in general and their career habitus in particular. Furthermore, their answers to the interview questions suggest that they are the group least inclined to embrace a neoliberal mindset. Thus, of the three groups, this one is likely to have the most difficulty adjusting to the Canadian labor market.
Contribution to Comparative and International Higher Education
JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) 137 This research is pertinent from theoretical and practical points of view. Given that the tendency of international CAAT graduates to seek employment and permanent residency in Canada is swiftly becoming a key component of governmental strategy to increase skilled-labor immigration, it is vital to understand how well the members of this population are able to achieve their aspirations. The comparative aspect of the study consists of an examination of the labor-market outcomes of international college graduates who come from the same part of the world, but belong to three decidedly distinct generations.
References
Bepple, Nancy. 2014. “International Students Strategies to Obtain Career-Related Work in Canada after Graduation.” Open Collections. University of British Columbia. https://open.library.ubc.ca/handle/2429/51566. Bourdieu, Pierre. 1966. “Champ Intellectuel Et Projet Créateur.” Les Temps Modernes 246: 865–906. Bourdieu, Pierre. 1977. Outline of a Theory of Practice. New York: Cambridge University Press. Bourdieu, Pierre, and Richard Nice. 1993. Sociology in Question. London: Sage. Chira, Sinziana, Pauline Gardiner Barber, & Chedly Belkhodja. 2013. “[PDF] Dreaming Big, Coming Up Short: The Challenging Realities of International Students and Graduates in Atlantic Canada - Semantic Scholar.” https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Dreaming-Big,-Coming-Up-Short:-The-challenging-of-Chira- Barber/5314c69a8cf709df 33e84102cdfcb75ccdcb8e22. Iellatchitch, Alexander, Wolfgang Mayrhofer, and Michael Meyer. 2003. “Career Fields: A Small Step towards a Grand Career Theory?” The International Journal of Human Resource Management 14 (5): 728–50. https://doi.org/10.1080/0958519032000080776. Morris-Lange, Simon, & Brands, Florinda. 2015. “Train and Retain. Career Support for International Students in Canada, Germany, the Netherlands and Sweden.” https://www.svr-migration.de/en/publications/train-and-retain/. Oreopoulos, Philip. 2011. “Why Do Skilled Immigrants Struggle in the Labor Market? A Field Experiment with Thirteen Thousand Resumes.” American Economic Journal: Economic Policy 3(4): 148–71. https://doi.org/10.1257/pol.3.4.148. Popovic, Tamara. 2013. “International Education in Ontario's Colleges.” Policy Paper. Toronto, Canada: College Student Alliance.
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A Phenomenological Study on Chinese Private College Students’ Experiences in Developing Intercultural Competence
Li Li
Attallah College of Educational Studies, Chapman University, United States & Sanda University, China
Email: [email protected] Address: One University Drive, Orange, CA92866, United States & Room 339, Building 10, 2727 Jinhai Road, Pudong, Shanghai 201209, China
Introduction
This research is a phenomenological study about six students’ experiences in learning English as a Foreign Language (EFL) in a private university in China and study abroad experiences in developing intercultural competence (IC). This paper consists of two parts. The first part introduces the research topic and purpose, research significance, and research questions. The second part discusses the research methodology and methods.
Topic and Purpose
With globalization and internationalization becoming the features of the 21st century, intercultural communicative competence has become one of the core elements (Byram 2008). The United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO 2013, p. 5) states that intercultural competence can be seen as part of a broad toolkit of worldviews, attitudes, and competencies that young people acquire for their lifelong journey. The Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) includes global competence as a new domain in 2018 (OECD PISA 2018). Academic exchange and cooperation between China and other countries have become more frequent, which requires China to cultivate more talents with a global vision and high-level intercultural competence. Chinese higher education has been entrusted with the responsibility of cultivating international talents to serve China’s international exchanges and cooperation worldwide. In the higher education sector of China, students of public and private institutions account for 77% and 23% of all college student population respectively (Ministry of Education of China 2018). Research on Chinese college students’ intercultural competence mainly focuses on the students in public institutions. However, private college students are an indispensable part of Chinese college students, whose intercultural competence is equally important. According to Hu’s (2010) study, China’s intercultural competence studies have long been limited to foreign language education. Retrieved from the database of China National Knowledge Infrastructure from 2003 to 2012, the total number of published papers on intercultural competence or intercultural communication competence was 6,942. 80% of which was composed of papers on developing intercultural competence through foreign language education. As a large portion of foreign language teachers in China have not received systematic methodological trainings to conduct empirical research yet, empirical studies on intercultural competence in China are scarce. Byram’s (1997) intercultural competence model provides a solid theoretical basis for improving intercultural competence through foreign language learning. Intercultural competence development has become one of the core components in China’s EFL education, according to three key policy documents about EFL education, issued by
JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) 139 Ministry of Education of China (CITE). They include College English Curriculum Requirements (2017), National English-Teaching Syllabus for English Majors in Colleges and Universities (2000), and National Standards for the Quality of Undergraduate Teaching of Foreign Language and Literature Majors (2018). To fill in the exsiting research gap of empirical studies on intercultural competence development of students in China’s private colleges and universities, I intend to use a phenomenological methodology to explore their EFL learning experiences in China and study abroad experiences in developing intercultural competence.
Significance of Study
This study will provide practical significance in two aspects for the private higher education institutions in China. First, if the findings provide evidence that overseas experiences can contribute to the improvement of students’ intercultural competence, policymakers may feel more confident in increasing investment in study abroad programs. If the findings do not support the positive influence of overseas experiences on students’ intercultural competence development, this study may provide policymakers with directions on how to adjust the existing programs to maximize the benefits of participants’ experiences. Second, this study can provide guidance for the improvement of EFL teaching and activities inside and outside classrooms to improve students’ intercultural competence level in China’s private colleges and universities.
Research Questions
Based on the research purpose, I will conduct a phenomenological study to address three questions: 1. What are the experiences of students with a high level of intercultural competence in EFL learning inside classrooms in China? 2. What are the experiences of students with a high level of intercultural competence in EFL activities outside classrooms in China? 3. What are the experiences of students in a study abroad program in the United States?
Methodology
I will use a phenomenological methodology for this study. In this part, I will present the rationale for using this methodology and a discussion of its elements, including site and sampling, data collection methods, and data analysis procedure.
Rationale In a phenomenological study, researchers focus on describing the commonalities that all participants have as they experience a phenomenon (CITE). This description consists of what they experience and how they experience the phenomenon (Moustakas 1994). The choice of research methodology is driven by the research purpose and questions. Given that my research focuses on studying the lived experiences of students with high level of intercultural competence in China and the United States, using a phenomenological design is most appropriate for this study. Site There will be two research sites for this study. One site is SD University (SD), a private university in Shanghai, China, and the other site will be LD University (LD), a public university in South Carolina, United States. Since 2013, SD and LD have established a partnership program to accept up to 10 students to study at SD or LD for one or two semester(s) every year. I will do the first investigation at SD in Spring 2020 and the second investigation at LD in Fall 2020.
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Sampling My whole research will use mixed methods, involving an intercultural competence survey at the beginning and end of the research, and conducting a qualitative inquiry on the same participants for two semesters between the two surveys. For this research proposal, I will focus on the qualitative methods. The participants for this study will be chosen through purposeful sampling. Data Collection Methods This study will conduct in-depth interviews and focus-group interviews to collect data. In-depth interviews will be used as the primary data collection method. Focu-group interviews will be used as the secondary method to validate findings from the in-depth interviews. Data Analysis Procedure The data analysis will start with organizing and coding the transcripts in an Excel spreadsheet, generating categories and themes, interrelating themes, and then interpreting the meaning of themes. I will write reflective memos to help understand how codes are grouped into categories and themes. I will follow the three steps proposed by Creswell (2007) to analyze the data.
Conclusion
In this paper, I present a phenomenological design to study on six Chinese private college students’ EFL learning experiences in China and study abroad experiences in developing intercultural competence. Based on the research purpose, three research questions are proposed accordingly. Phenomenology is selected as an appropriate methodology for this study. The paper elaborates some essential components of this phenomenological design at this proposal stage.
References
Byram, Michael. 2008. From Foreign Language Education to Education for Intercultural Citizenship: Essays and Reflections. London, England: Multilingual Matter. Creswell, John W. 2007. Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design: Choosing among Five Approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Hu, Wen Zhong. 2010. “View the Present Situation and Future of Intercultural Communication from the Perspective of Discipline Construction. (in Chinese.)” Journal of Foreign Languages 33(6): 28-32. Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China. 2000. “National English-Teaching Syllabus for English Majors in Colleges and Universities. (in Chinese.)” Beijing, China. Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China. 2017. “College English Curriculum Requirements. (in Chinese.)” Beijing, China. Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China. 2018. “National Standards for the Quality of Undergraduate Teaching of Foreign Language and Literature Majors. (in Chinese.)” Beijing, China. Ministry of Education of China. 2018. “Annual Publication of the Basic Situation of National Education Development. (in Chinese.)” Beijing, China. Moustakas, Clark E. 1994. Phenomenological Research Methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. OECD. 2018. “PISA.” https://www.oecd.org/pisa/pisa-2018-global-competence.htm. UNESCO. 2013. “Intercultural Competences, Conceptual and Operational Framework.” https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000219768.
JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) 141 Stepping Outside the American Study Abroad Bubble and Into a Spanish University Classroom
Mary K. MacKenty
Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Spain
Email: [email protected] Address: Madrid, Spain
Introduction
Every year thousands of American university students embark on the study abroad experience with expectations of meeting people from other cultures, learning a new language and traveling the world. Study abroad programs aim to facilitate these goals through offering opportunities to actively engage in the local culture. Interesting enough, although efforts are made at immersion through housing arrangements; living in host families, and extracurricular activities; internships, volunteering, buddy programs; the “study” aspect of study abroad most commonly remains through a US-run program instead of an academic institution of the host country, which would provide additional opportunities for contact with the local culture. My research focuses on the “direct enrollment” experience, that is, the experiences of those who study within the host country’s system. I explore how they perceive the local universities classes, strategies they evoke to adapt to the new culture of learning, and the relationships they develop with students and professors in the classroom. In order to obtain a well-rounded understanding of the local setting, I also explore the local students’ and professors’ perspectives on their own university and impact of exchange students on it. The aim is understand the direct enrollment experience from the students’ perspective in order to develop recommendations that support their adaptation to the local classroom, allowing them to have a truly enriching experience.
Literature Review
Traditionally, US study abroad research has focused on determining student learning outcomes; mainly language acquisition, intercultural communication competence and personal development (Sanz and Morales-Front 2018; Ogden 2015; Paige, Cohen & Shively 2004). There has been much debate as to whether direct enrollment or American study abroad centers (also known as island programs) better promote learning outcomes. On the one hand, evidence shows students in direct enrollment programs develop more host-national friendships (Hendrickson 2016) and maintain relationships longer after the program has ended (Norris and Dwyer 2005). However, research also demonstrates direct enrollment is not effective for all students since it fails to provide support to overcome academic and sociocultural challenges presented (Vande Berg 2007; Scally 2015). These weaknesses may explain the prevalence of “hybrid” programs that offer the support of American centers coupled with some local classes. An unfortunate consequence is that US programs inherently increase peer group contact, which can detract from the development of local relationships (Allen 2010; Pyper and Slagter 2015) and tend to shelter students from the foreign environment, creating “American bubbles” hence negating potential learning opportunities (Ogden 2008). While research has tried to quantify the impact of program type on learning outcomes (Terzuolo 2018; Vande Berg, Conner-Linton and Paige 2009), few examine the students’ experiences in local classrooms from their point of view. Three qualitative studies illustrate a similar pattern of how students’ negative perception of a host educational
142 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) setting can lead to disengagement from the class (Covert 2014; Goldoni 2009; Pellegrino-Aveni 2005; Bacon 2002). When expectations about learning are not met, it can result in misunderstandings which leave students with a negative view of the institution and its professors (Kinginger 2009). The present research considers direct enrollment in a university classroom as a potential environment for intercultural communication and language learning; but instead of attempting to measure learning outcomes and debating which program modality is “better”, it aims to gain a deeper understanding of students’ lived experiences and consequent process of learning.
Research Questions and Methodology
The research uses a qualitative approach from a social constructivist perspective which assumes each student constructs knowledge based on their individual experiences and social interactions in the classroom. Ethnography is both the method as well as the theoretical framework and it provides the appropriate tools to gather data and the analytic concepts to comprehend the students´ social experiences from their point of view. Specifically, this case study centers on the experiences of semester-long study abroad students from US universities in a large public university classroom in Spain. The objectives are: • To explore how students from US universities adapt to the social and academic culture within the Spanish university classroom. • To provide recommendations for study abroad students that would facilitate their academic and social adaption in the classroom. During the academic year of 2017/18, I observed and participated in the university culture through attending 90 classes across the five faculties, conducting semi-structured interviews with participants and having informal conversations on campus with administrators, professors and students. Participants include 50 students from US universities (beginning and end of semester interviews) and six study abroad program administrators. Student characteristics vary from intermediate Spanish to native speakers, from small liberal arts schools to large public US universities, and from direct enrollment programs to attending one course at the Spanish university. Additionally, the research includes interviews with 23 professors and five international relations administrators, as well as informal focus groups with 65 local students from the Spanish university. The interviews explored views on what is considered good teaching and learning methodology, cultural differences and similarities in the classroom, strategies for academic success, and facilitators and barriers to social integration for exchange students. As the data shows, I strove for maximum variation sampling resulting in a rich and varied data set. So far, I have transcribed the data using CHAT conventions that I will analyze qualitatively in Atlas.ti. While the formal analysis is still underway, some preliminary observations can be discussed.
Contributions to International Higher Education
Although this is a case study, and therefore some conclusions could be considered culture specific; the process of adaptation, how students make meaning of their experiences, cope with cultural difference, and relate to their non- national peers and professors can be applied to the broader field of international education. Additionally, the data contributes to understanding different “cultures of learning”, socially transmitted expectations, beliefs and values about how to learn, teach, interact within the classroom and what is acceptable as good work (Jin and Cortazzi 1998) from Spain and the United States. The results seek to develop recommendations that focus on cultural synergy; a two way acculturation process in which both local students and professors and international students learn about each other’s cultures and adapt to achieve mutual benefits (Andrade 2006; Jin and Cortazzi 1998; Ward, Bochner, and Furnham 2005).
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Conclusion
In the United States students generally rely on themselves to succeed academically and interactions with classmates are limited. The students follow the syllabus which outlines all requirements for the class. In Spain, study abroad students encounter a system in which expectations for deadlines, assignments and grades differ from what they are accustomed to. Spanish students generally rely on each other to pass classes and therefore value “compañerismo”, a relationship of solidarity and collaboration among classmates. Study abroad students that interact with their Spanish peers in the classroom are provided with insider information through what one student referred to as the “underground network”. This network shares class notes, tips about the professors, and even last years exams; information which can be key for exchange students to understand the professors’ expectations in the new academic culture. Preliminary results shed light on facilitators and barriers to social and academic integration in the classroom. They consist of personality factors and university and/or program structure. Facilitators include student’s priorities, whether meeting local students and learning Spanish was important to them; and extrovertism, not being shy about asking questions to students and professors. Universities factors include Spanish “compañerismo” as well as group projects that provide additional opportunities for contact. Personal barriers include students’ schedules, especially for those with the majority of classes downtown in American centers; travelling on weekends, resulting in less time and motivation to meet Spanish students; and the fear of being judged for having an accent or making a mistake in Spanish. Barriers at the university itself include the previously existing cliques in the classroom that intimidate study abroad students; expectations, that Spanish students would initiate first contact; and lecture classes, that do not provide opportunities to speak to classmates. Students who choose direct enrollment desire to explore the host culture in a more meaningful way. They seek the authentic experience of living as a college student in a foreign education system. Although adaptation and social integration in the classroom is limited for most students, it is impossible to deny students are learning through the mere experience. Perhaps it would be better to view direct enrollment study abroad as a period of discovery, confusion, excitement, frustration and cultural learning in which students learn to modify their ideas about what it means to learn in a university, accept one’s own limitations as a foreign student and grow from the experience in unexpected ways.
References
Allen, Heather. 2010. "Interactive Contact as Linguistic Affordance during Short-Term Study Abroad: Myth or Reality?." Frontiers: The Interdisciplinary Journal of Study Abroad 19: 1-26. Andrade, Maureen Snow. 2006. "International Students in English-Speaking Universities: Adjustment Factors." Journal of Research in International education 5(2): 131-154. Bacon, Susan M. 2002. "Learning the Rules: Language Development and Cultural Adjustment During Study Abroad." Foreign Language Annals 35(6): 637-646. Covert, Hannah H. 2014. "Stories of Personal Agency: Undergraduate Students’ Perceptions of Developing Intercultural Competence During a Semester Abroad in Chile." Journal of Studies in International Education 18(2): 162-179. Goldoni, Federica. 2009. "Ethnographic Interpretation of Cultural Immersion in Study Abroad Programs." PhD diss., University of Georgia. Hendrickson, Blake. 2016. "Comparing International Student Friendship Networks in Buenos Aires: Direct Enrollment Programs vs. Study Abroad Centers." Frontiers: The Interdisciplinary Journal of Study Abroad 27: 47-69. Jin, Lixian, & Martin Cortazzi. 1998. "Expectations and Questions in Intercultural Classrooms." Intercultural
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Communication Studies 7(2): 37-62. Kinginger, Celeste. 2009. Language Learning and Study Abroad: A Critical Reading of Research. London: Palgrave Macmillan UK. Norris, Emily Mohajeri, & Mary M. Dwyer. 2005. "Testing assumptions: The impact of two study abroad program models." Frontiers: The Interdisciplinary Journal of Study Abroad 11: 121-142. Ogden, Anthony. 2008. "The View from the Veranda: Understanding Today's Colonial Student." Frontiers: The Interdisciplinary Journal of Study Abroad 15: 35-55. Ogden, Anthony. 2015. "Toward a Research Agenda for US Education Abroad." E. Brewer (Series Ed.), in AIEA research agendas for the internationalization of higher education. Retrieved from http://www. aieaworld. org/assets/docs/research_agenda/ogden_2015. pdf. Paige, R. Michael, Andrew D. Cohen, & Rachel L. Shively. 2004. "Assessing the Impact of a Strategies-Based Curriculum on Language and Culture Learning Abroad." Frontiers: The Interdisciplinary Journal of Study Abroad 10: 253-276. Pellegrino, Valerie A. 1998. "Student Perspectives on Language Learning in a Study Abroad Context." Frontiers: The Interdisciplinary Journal of Study Abroad 4(2): 91-120. Pyper, Marcie J., & Cynthia Slagter. 2015. "Competing Priorities: Student Perceptions of Helps and Hindrances to Language Acquisition during Study Abroad." Frontiers: The Interdisciplinary Journal of Study Abroad 26: 83- 106. Sanz, Cristina, & Alfonso Morales-Front. 2018. “Introduction: Issues in Study Abroad Research and Practice.” In The Routledge Handbook of Study Abroad Research and Practice, edited by Cristina Sanz and Alfonso Morales-Front, 1-19. New York, NY: Routledge. Scally, Jayme. 2015. "Intercultural Competence Development in Three Different Study Abroad Program Types." Intercultural Communication Studies 24(2). Terzuolo, Eric R. 2018. "Intercultural Development in Study Abroad: Influence of Student and Program Characteristics." International Journal of Intercultural Relations 65: 86-95. Vande Berg, Michael. 2007. "Intervening in the Learning of US Students Abroad." Journal of Studies in International Education 11(3-4): 392-399. Vande Berg, Michael, Jeffery Connor-Linton, & Michael Paige. 2009. "The Georgetown Consortium Project: Interventions for Student Learning Abroad." Frontiers: The Interdisciplinary Journal of Study Abroad 18: 1-75. Ward, Colleen, Stephen Bochner, & Adrian Furnham. 2005. The Psychology of Culture Shock. New York: Routledge.
JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) 145 The Impact of Short-Term Study Abroad on Online Learners
Jennifer A. Malerich
Arizona State University, USA Universita Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Italy
Email: [email protected] Address: Fulton Center 300 E. University Dr. Suite 420 PO Box 877805 Tempe, Arizona 85287-7805 USA
Introduction
The goals of higher education internationalization are increasingly evidenced in institutional mission statements calling for global citizenship and intercultural competencies (Jackson 2008), and in quality discussions centered on developing global-ready graduates, prepared to be successful in increasingly global, interdependant, and technology focused workforce (Carey 2018; Roksa, Arum, and Cook 2016). This support competes with concurrent pressures of rising nationalism and a changing enrollment landscape. In the United States (US), not only did the overall higher education enrollment drop by one million learners between 2012 and 2016, increasing numbers of students are choosing to enroll online (Seaman, Allen, and Seaman 2018). Not just a US phenomenon, access, affordability and convenience are driving higher education enrollment from in-person immersion programs to online programs in markets such as the United Kingdom, India, China and across Africa (African Virtual University n.d.; Allen and Seaman 2017; Coleman 2014; Docebo 2017). As institutions turn to online learning, it is essential that this growing population is not left out of the benefits of internationalization. Truly comprehensive internationalization requires all students and all courses receive the benefits of actionable strategies (Hudzik 2011). Online learners are a less homogeneous population with regards to age, work experience, family status and educational motivations (Angelino, Williams, and Natvig 2007; Ke and Kwak 2013) than the typical 18-22 year old in-person immersion student population that has been historically studied in higher education at the bachelor degree level (Tinto 1975, 1993). Therefore, effective internationalization strategies may differ for this population. In terms of access to international skill building opportunities, online learners don’t come to a physical campus where they can be influenced by traditional internationalization strategies such as interacting with a community of diverse international students and faculty. Little research has been done on how to translate internationalization concepts into effective actions for this specific student population, which represents a growing number of students within undergraduate higher education in the US and around the world. Increasing numbers of Arizona State University (ASU) students, who were previously studying exclusively online, are choosing to participate in what in the US is a traditional internationalization activity, study abroad. ASU online students participating in study abroad rose from five students in 2009-2010 to over 350 students in 2018-2019, approximately 12 percent of the total study abroad population. Not to be conflated with online or virtual exchange, these students are choosing to leave the online learning environment for an in-person learning environment in another country. Anecdotal evidence (from interviews of returning online study abroad students at ASU) suggests online students who study abroad are seeking discipline specific knowledge and skills as well as an opportunity to interact with fellow learners and faculty in person during their study abroad programs. However, there is a gap in the literature regarding previous systematic research done to assess online learner’s motivations for, or professional and academic expectations of, the experience; nor the impact of their participation.
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Research Hypotheses & Methodology
Within this context, the hypotheses guiding my research are that, when compared to in-person immersion students who study abroad, online students who study abroad: • Hypothesis 1: differ across academic and demographic variables. • Hypothesis 2: have different motivations for, and expectations of, study abroad with regards to their academic and professional goals. • Hypothesis 3: experience different changes in beliefs, attitudes and values as a result of a study abroad experience. My research is grounded in both transformative and pragmatic philosophical worldviews. I am approaching this research from a position of wishing to both understand the social and historical contexts of the population studied and influence change. Three theoretical frameworks guide my literature review and study design. Global Learning, a multi-disciplinary approach to problem solving which approaches difference from an asset mentality (Donnelly-Smith 2009; Doscher and Landorf 2018), represents not only ASU’s mission of diversity and inclusion but also the intuition’s approach to academics. The Theory of Planned behavior suggests that an individual’s intention, or the indication of the amount of effort willing to be expended, directly affects how individuals form intentions as well as act (Petzold and Peter 2015; Ramakrishna, Sarkar, and Vijayaraman 2016). Equilintegration (EI) Theory, the foundation of the BEVI standardized assessment, attempts to explain how an individual’s unique beliefs, values and life experiences affect how and what they learn (Shealy 2016; Wandschneider et. al 2015). This mixed methods study incorporates both quantitative data and qualitative data collected through analysis of student academic and demographic variables, surveys, a standardized assessment, interviews and focus groups. The concurrent triangulation approach will be employed to confirm and corroborate findings between the quantitative and qualitative data (Creswell 2013). Participants comprise online (population = 195) and in-person (population = 1,142) students who studied abroad on short-term study abroad programs led by ASU faculty to an international location during the spring 2019 and summer 2019 terms.
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Data Collection Methodology Hypothesis Data Source Type Data Collection Method Pre-Program Data Collection ASU Office of Official data housed in University 1 Quantitative Institutional Analysis Student Information System of Record 2 Survey Quantitative Qualtrics Quantitative & 3 Assessment BEVI Assessment Qualitative Post-Program Data Collection 2 Survey Quantitative Qualtrics Quantitative & 3 Assessment BEVI Assessment Qualitative Semi-structured 2 & 3 Qualitative Zoom Interview 2 & 3 Focus Groups Qualitative Zoom
Implications
This study will contribute to the existing gap in knowledge regarding the growing number of online students who study abroad. This research will: • Contribute to research on overall academic and demographic differences between students who study online as compared to in-person. • Provide knowledge to educators regarding how study abroad experiences change online students’ beliefs, attitudes and values. • Identify motivations and expectations of online students with regards to study abroad and its impact on their personal and professional goals. • Raise the profile of the online student population within the context of the internationalization plans of higher education institutions. A complete review of the literature and data collected may also: • Suggest implications for study abroad program design specifically for online learners. • Suggest association between study abroad participation and retention/degree completion for online learners
148 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) References
African Virtual University. n.d. “AVU At a Glance.” Accessed January 22, 2018. http://www.avu.org/avuweb/en/avu- at-a-glance/. Allen, I. Elaine, and Jeff Seaman. 2017. “Digital Learning Compass Distance Education Enrollment Report 2017." Accessed August 01, 2017. https://onlinelearningconsortium.org/read/digital-learning-compass-distance- education-enrollment-report-2017. Angelino, Lorraine M, Frankie Keels Williams, and Deborah Natvig. 2007. “Strategies to Engage Online Students and Reduce Attrition Rates.” The Journal of Educators Online. 4(2): 1-14. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ907749.pdf. Carey, Shelley Johnson. 2018. “From the Editor | Association of American Colleges & Universities.” Peer Review 20(1): 1-3. https://www.aacu.org/peerreview/2018/Winter/editor. Coleman, Nancy. 2014. “Online Learning: The UK’s Scepticism Is Holding It Back.” The Guardian (blog). September 7, 2014. https://www.theguardian.com/higher-education-network/blog/2014/sep/07/online-learning-uk-scepticism- holding-it-back. Creswell, John W. 2013. Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Method Approaches. 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 227. Docebo. 2017. “ELearning Trends for 2018.” https://www.docebo.com/elearning-lms-resources/papers-researches/. Donnelly-Smith, Laura. 2009. “Global Learning through Short-Term Study Abroad | Association of American Colleges & Universities.” Peer Review 11(4). https://www.aacu.org/peerreview/2009/fall/donnelly-smith. Doscher, Stephanie, and Hilary Landorf. 2018. “Universal Global Learning, Inclusive Excellence, and Higher Education’s Greater Purposes | Association of American Colleges & Universities.” Peer Review 20(1): 4–7. https://www.aacu.org/peerreview/2018/Winter/FIU. Hudzik, John K. 2011. “Comprehensive Internationalization: From Concept to Action.” Washington, D.C.: NAFSA: Association of International Educators, 44. Jackson, Jane. 2008. “Globalization, Internationalization, and Short-Term Stays Abroad.” International Journal of Intercultural Relations 32(4): 349–58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2008.04.004. Ke, Fengfeng, and Dean Kwak. 2013. “Online Learning across Ethnicity and Age: A Study on Learning Interaction Participation, Perception, and Learning Satisfaction.” Computers and Education 61(1): 43–51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2012.09.003. Petzold, Knut, and Tamara Peter. 2015. “The Social Norm to Study Abroad: Determinants and Effects.” Higher Education 69(6): 885–900. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-014-9811-4. Ramakrishna, Hindupur, Avijit Sarkar, and Bindiganavale Vijayaraman. 2016. “Factors Affecting the Design of Short- Term Study-Abroad Programs: An Exploratory Study of Two Business Schools.” Journal of Teaching in International Business 27(2–3): 124–41. https://doi.org/10.1080/08975930.2016.1219296. Roksa, Josipa, Richard Arum, and Amanda Cook. 2016. “Defining and Assessing Learning in Higher Education.” In Improving Quality in American Higher Education: Learning Outcomes and Assessments for the 21st Century, edited by Richard Arum, Josipa Roksa, and Amanda Cook, 1–36. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Schnusenberg, Oliver, Pieter De Jong, and Lakshmi Goel. 2012. “Predicting Study Abroad Intentions Based on the Theory of Planned Behavior.” Decision Sciences Journal of Innovative Education 10(3): 337–361. https://onlinelibrary-wiley-com.ezproxy1.lib.asu.edu/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1540-4609.2012.00350.x. Seaman, Julia E, I Elaine Allen, and Jeff Seaman. 2018. “Grade Increase: Tracking Distance Education in the United States.” Accessed January 29, 2018. http://www.onlinelearningsurvey.com/highered.html. Shealy, Craig N. 2016. “Beliefs, Events and Values Inventory (BEVI).” In Making Sense of Beliefs and Values :
JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) 149 Theory, Research, and Practice, edited by Craig N. Shealy, 32:113–73. New York, NY: Spring Publishing Company, LLC. https://doi.org/10.1080/02667363.2016.1244925. Tinto, Vincent. 1975. “Dropout from Higher Education: A Theoretical Synthesis of Recent Research.” Review of Educational Research 45(1): 89–125. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543045001089. Tino, Vincent. 1993. Leaving College: Rethinking Causes and Cures of Student Attrition. 2nd ed. Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 296. Wandschneider, Elizabeth, Dawn T. Pysarchik, Lee G. Sternberger, Wenjuan Ma, Kris Acheson, Brad Baltensperger, and R. T. Good, et al. 2015. “The Forum BEVI Project: Applications and Implications for International, Multicultural, and Transformative Learning.” Frontiers: The Interdisciplinary Journal of Study Abroad 25: 150– 228. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1071299.
150 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) Filipino and American Teachers: Their Differences in Psychological Needs, Performance, and Culture
Mart Andrew S. Maravillas
The University of Southern Mississippi, United States
Email: [email protected] Address: 118 College Drive, #5057 Hattiesburg, 39401 Mississippi, U.S.A.
Background
Filipino teachers have pervaded in the American K-12 school system as cited by news agencies whose articles about teacher migration made a voluminous list (Los Angeles Times 2009; The Guardian 2018; New York Times 2018; The Sydney Morning Herald 2018). Filipino teachers are among the 19,300 teachers who are trained overseas (American Federation of Teachers or AFT 2009, p. 10). The U.S. State Department reports that the number of Filipino teachers in the United States has increased to almost forty times over a decade through the exchange visitor exchange program alone (Yan, Chiaramonte, and Lagamayo 2019). Despite this remarkable surge, scientific inquiries that study to international teachers, much less Filipino teachers, remain stagnated and are almost non-existent. Though there are a few studies that discuss international teachers’ challenges and difficulties which result to ineffective teaching, these accounts are somewhat dated and do not center on K-12 Filipino teachers (Dunn 2011; Finney, Torres, and Jurs 2002; Hutchinson 2005). This study focuses specifically on teachers who were born and who have had their teacher education in a higher education institution (HEI) in the Philippines and who are currently teaching in the United States as primary and secondary teachers. I refer to them as the Filipino international teachers. Throughout the United States are reports of severe teacher shortages, especially for teachers who specialize in special education, math, science, and English for bilingual learners (Stutcher, Darling-Hammond, and Carver-Thomas 2016, p. 11). One cause for this shortage is that some teachers are deemed to not be “fully-prepared” for the teaching profession and who leave the profession at rates “two or three times as high [than those teachers] who have had ‘comprehensive’ preparations, teachers with substandard credentials were inevitably hired by some school districts” (Stutcher et al. 2016, p. 4). As a result, many districts in the US employ qualified teachers from overseas through the issuance of work and exchange visitor visas, known as the H1-B and J-1 visas, respectively (AFT 2009, p. 10-13). Currently, through the J-1 visa program, at least five hundred primary and secondary public schools in almost 20 states have hired Filipino teachers who have satisfied the standards (academic degrees, professional experience, and teaching license) of the state in which they are working (AFT 2009, p. 12; Sarmiento 2019). It is not clear, however, if the Filipino international teachers’ psychological needs in terms of cultural preparation have been satisfied before arriving in the United States. Because the movement of teachers from abroad alleviates the US education crisis in terms of supply of educators (Startz 2017), the presence of overseas-trained teachers, especially the Filipinos, appears to persist in the future and may have an impact on the American youth. As such, it is therefore timely to more fully understand the needs of Filipino international teachers.
Literature Review
JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) 151 Gina Riley (2015, p.1) assessed “whether home schooled young adults’ needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness are better satisfied as compared to young adults who were not home schooled”. Like Riley’s, this study uses the self-determination theory as its lens when looking at the satisfaction of individuals’ basic psychological needs (BPNs). However, this current study focuses on the Filipino international teachers. Riley’s study focuses on intrinsic motivation as facilitated by satisfying one’s needs of competence, autonomy and relatedness (Riley 2015, p. 21). This current researcher centers on positive outcomes on performance satisfaction as an effect of satisfying those psychological needs. Education and Psychological Needs According to the self-determination theory (SDT), an individual has three basic psychological needs (BPNs). According to Ryan and Deci (2017), these are the needs for autonomy, competence and relatedness that must be satisfied first to achieve positive development and well-being, and better performance (Yang, Zhang, and Sheldon 2018, p. 96). One study found that, overall, these needs are highly satisfied among educated young adults regardless of whether they are home or traditionally schooled (Riley 2015, p. 14). However, different types of education and educational environment do not necessarily satisfy each need equally (Orsini, Binnie, and Tricio 2018, p. 5; Riley 2015, p. 15). Literature has not addressed whether education in different cultural settings satisfies learners’ BPNs equally and whether these needs are satisfied better with higher educational attainment level. Psychological Needs, Performance, and Well-being Several studies support the tenet of the SDT across cultures and life domains. In countries outside the United States, satisfaction of the BPNs are seen to promote better school performance outcomes among students in Portugal (Simeos and Alarcao 2014, p. 465) and in Spain (Carmona-Halty, Schaufell, Llorens, and Salanova 2019, p. 1). On work performance, fulfillment of BPN predicted Iranian employees’ work satisfaction and job performance (Arshadi 2010, p. 1266). Most of these studies, however, have been conducted based on self-report and within the participants’ cultural environment. Literature has not provided whether a change in cultural setting has a mechanism on the relationship between how much individuals have satisfied their psychological needs and how well they think they perform. Performance, Culture, and Psychological Needs Alyssa Hadley Dunn (2011) reported that among international teachers’ difficulties was dealing with culture shock (p. 1384). Culture shock (usually occurs when an individual makes a transition between two different cultural settings) was seen to have negative impacts on one’s happiness and satisfaction in life and on performance based on the recent literature review (Chen, Lin, and Sawangpattanakul 2011, p. 254; Yang et al. 2018, p. 95-96). Though their strongest suit is subject area content (Dunn 2011, p. 1400), international teachers find it challenging to convert this to effective teaching, perhaps, due to cultural differences. Filipinos are from a collectivist culture (Datu, Yuen, and Chen 2017, p.199). While they live and work in the United States, they are immersed in a culture opposite to theirs, an individualist culture (Fackrell, Galovan, Hill, and Holmes 2013, p.51; Gruber 2012, p.418). Individualist Americans tend to give more priority to their individual needs, goals, and preference while the collectivist Filipinos mostly prioritize those of others (Yang et al. 2018, p. 96). This transition to a different cultural setting may bring culture shock. It is necessary to determine how much culture shock the Filipino international teachers are experiencing and whether their culture shock affect their teaching performance.
Research Problem
Pursuant to Dunn’s recommendation (2011, p. 1402), this current study focuses on the Filipino teaching population in the United States, specifically in the K-12 education system. To address the gap in the literature, this study seeks to answer the following questions:
152 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) RQ1. Are there statistically significant differences between Filipino international teachers (overseas-trained) and American teachers (US-trained) in terms of their perceived a) psychological needs satisfaction, and b) performance satisfaction? RQ2. Are teachers’ BPNs equally satisfied regardless of which cultural settings they have had their teacher education? RQ3. Does higher educational attainment level correlate with higher BPNs satisfaction? RQ4. Among Filipino international teachers, does the fulfillment of their BPNs correlate with performance satisfaction? RQ5. Does Filipino international teachers’ experience of culture shock have a mediating or moderating effect on the relationship between the satisfaction of their BNP and performance satisfaction?
Methodology
This study is a quantitative comparison between Filipino international teachers and American teachers in terms of the levels of BPNs fulfillment and performance satisfaction. Among the Filipino international teachers, within-group analyses will be done regarding educational attainment and psychological needs satisfaction, and performance satisfaction and culture shock. Participants The targeted populations in this study are Filipino international teachers and American teachers. I will only recruit participants who are 18-30 years old and who have standard teaching license recognized by the United States. Since the exact number of Filipino international teachers cannot be ascertained and whose location cannot be easily identified, I intend to use non-probabilistic sampling technique. The questionnaires will be given to Filipino international teachers whom I know. I will ask them to refer another Filipino teacher and an American colleague in the same school. Through the snowball sampling techniques, I will gather volunteers in various school districts in different states in the US. Measures Higher education. The participants will be asked to indicate their highest educational attainment level and whether they have been educated in the Philippines or in the United States. Satisfaction of Psychological Needs. The 16-item Balanced Measure of Psychological Needs (BMPN) developed by Sheldon and Hilpert which has features where, when the need arises, separate analyses on autonomy, competence, and relatedness with respect to teacher education are possible (2012, p. 449). Separate analyses will allow the researcher to see how much higher education training impact the satisfaction of each psychological need. Culture Shock. The 12-item version of the culture shock questionnaire (CSQ) developed by Mumford will be used which was found to have the highest reliability among others (1998, p.153). Performance. The researcher did not find any universal instrument that measures teachers’ performance. The Teaching Satisfaction Scale cannot be employed here because it only measures how satisfying teaching is as perceived by teachers (Ho and Au 2006, p. 182). It does not measure how content teachers are with their performance. Therefore, in this study, each teacher will be asked to respond to this prompt, “Please rate how satisfied you currently are with your performance as a teacher.” This item was adapted by Nicholls, Polman, and Levy (2012, p. 266) when they asked athletes to rate how satisfied they were on their sporting performance. Data analysis To answer RQ1, a multivariate analysis of variance will be used to determine whether the (a) BPNs are equally satisfied and (b) levels performance satisfaction are equal between the two groups of teachers.
JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) 153 To answer RQ2 and RQ3, Pearson’s chi-square test of independent will be used to determine whether the level of satisfaction of BPNs is associated with (RQ2) the difference in HEI cultural setting and (RQ3) the educational attainment level. To answer RQ4, Pearson’s rho correlation will be used to determine the relationship between the Filipinos’ satisfaction of their BPNs and performance satisfaction. To answer RQ5, a linear regression analysis will be used to determine whether culture shock has a mechanism on the relationship between fulfillment of BPNs and performance satisfaction among Filipino international teachers.
Acknowledgement
The author acknowledges the encouragement and guidance provided by Dr. Thomas O’Brien and thanks to Dr. Maria Conti Maravillas, my wife, though had unloving comments, but still remains lovable.
References
American Federation of Teachers. 2009. "Importing Educators: Cases and Consequences of International Teacher Recruitment." 1-45. https://www.aft.org/sites/default/files/importingeducators_2009.pdf. Arshadi, Nasrin. 2010. "Basic Need Satisfaction, Work Motivation, and Job Performance in an Industrial Company in Iran." Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences 5: 1267-1272. Carmona-Halty, Marcos, Wilmar B. Schaufeli, Susana Llorens, & Marisa Salanova. 2019. "Satisfaction of Basic Psychological Needs Leads to Better Academic Performance via Increased Psychological Capital: A Three-Wave Longitudinal Study Among High School Students." Frontiers in Psychology 1(2113): 1-5. Chen, Angela Shin-yih, Yi chun-Lin, & Airin Sawangpattanakul. 2011. "The Relationship Between Cultural Intelligence and Performance with the Mediating Effect of Culture Shock: A Case From Philippine Laborers in Taiwan." International Journal of Intercultural Relations 35(2): 246-258. Datu, Jesus Alfonso D., Mantak Yuen, & Gaowei Chen. 2017. "Development and Validation of the Triarchic Model of Grit Scale (TMGS): Evidence From Filipino Undergraduate Students." Personality and Individual Differences 114: 198-205. Dunn, Alyssa Hadley. 2011. “Global Village Versus Culture Shock: The Recruitment and Preparation of Foreign Teachers for U.S. Urban Schools.” Urban Education 46(6): 1379-1410. Fackrell, Tamara, Adam M. Galovan, E. Jeffrey Hill, & Erin Kramer Holmes. 2013. "Work–Family Interface for Married Women: A Singapore and United States Cross-Cultural Comparison." Asia Pacific Journal of Human Resources 51(3): 347-363. Finney, Pamela, Torres, Jess, & Jurs, Stephen. 2002. “The South Carolina/Spain Visiting Teacher Program.” Clearing House 76(2): 94-97. Goldstein, Dana. "Teacher Pay Is So Low in Some U.S. School Districts That They’re Recruiting Overseas." The New York Times. May 2, 2018. https://www.nytimes.com/2018/05/02/us/arizona-teachers-philippines.html. Gruber, Craig. 2012. "Culture, Courage and Collectivism: An Insider’s Guide to Culture in American Schools." Culture and Psychology 18(3): 417-424. Ho, Chung-Lim & Wing-Tung Au. 2006. "Teaching Satisfaction Scale: Measuring Job Satisfaction of Teachers." Educational and Psychological Measurement 66(1): p.172-185. Hutchinson, Charles. 2005. “Teaching in America: A Cross-Cultural Guide for International Teachers and Their Employers.” Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer.
154 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) Milyavskaya, Marina, & Richard Koetner. 2011. "Psychological Needs, Motivation, and Well-Being: A Test of Self- Determination Theory Across Multiple Domains." Personality and Individual Differences 50(3): 387-391. Mumford, D. B. 1998. "The Measurement of Culture Shock." Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 33(4): 149-154. Nicholls, Adam R., Remco C.J. Polman, & Andrew R. Levy. 2012. "A Path Analysis of Stress Appraisals, Emotions, Coping, and Performance Satisfaction Among Athletes." Psychology of Sport and Exercise 13(3): 263-270. Olding, Rachel. "The Immigrant Teachers Coming to US Schools Under Trump's Nose." The Sydney Morning Herald. March 10, 2018. https://www.smh.com.au/world/north-america/the-immigrant-teachers-coming-to-us-schools- under-trump-s-nose-20180227-p4z1vd.html. Orsini, Cesar A., Vivian I. Binnie, & Jorge A. Tricio. 2018. "Motivational Profiles and Their Relationships with Basic Psychological Needs, Academic Performance, Study Strategies, Self-Esteem, and Vitality in Dental Students in Chile." Journal of Educational Evaluation for Health Professionals 15:11. Riley, Gina. 2015. "Differences in Competence, Autonomy, and Relatedness Between Home Educated and Traditionally Educated Young Adults." International Social Science Review 90(2): 1-27. Sheldon, Kennon M., & Jonathan C. Hilpert. 2012. "The Balanced Measure of Psychological Needs (BMPN) Scale: An Alternative Domain General Measure of Need Satisfaction." Motivation and Emotion 36(4): 439-451. Shogren, Karrie A., Jaehoon Lee, & Pavel Panko. 2017. "An Examination of the Relationship Between Postschool Outcomes and Autonomy, Psychological Empowerment, and Self-Realization" The Journal of Special Education 51(2): 115-124. Simeos, Francisco, & Madalena Alarcao. 2014. "Mentors and Teachers: Testing the Effectiveness of Simultaneous Roles on School Performance from a Basic Psychological Needs Perspective." Instructional Science 42(3): 465- 483. Startz, Dick. "Immigrant Teachers Play a Critical Role in American schools." Brookings. March 16, 2017. https://www.brookings.edu/blog/brown-center-chalkboard/2017/03/16/immigrant-teachers-play-a-critical-role-in- american-schools/. Sterling, Terry Greene, & Joffe-Block, Jude. "The Job Americans Won't Take: Arizona Looks to Philippines to Fill Teacher Shortage." The Guardian. September 5, 2018. https://www.theguardian.com/us- news/2018/sep/05/arizona-teachers-filipino-schools-low-pay. Sutcher, Leib, Darling-Hammond, Linda, & Carver-Thomas, Desiree. 2016. "A Coming Crisis in Teaching? Teacher Supply, Demand, and Shortages in the U.S." Learning Policy Institute. https://learningpolicyinstitute.org/sites/default/files/product-files/A_Coming_Crisis_in_Teaching_REPORT.pdf. Watanabe, Teresa. "Filipino Teachers Exchange Homeland for Jobs in America." Los Angeles Times. March 18, 2009. https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2009-mar-18-me-filipino18-story.html. Yan, Holly, Chiaramonte, Tiara, & Lagamayo, Anne. "Desperate to Fill Teacher Shortages, US Schools are Hiring Teachers from Overseas." CNN. October 6, 2019. https://cnnphilippines.com/world/2019/10/6/united-states- teacher-shortage-philippines.html?fbclid=IwAR0rrt6mAx- OB0qNxERjSyiYBz2yPmLlyx3uUWJUNHx_dJ1W80DagjgMofk?fbclid. Yang, Ying, Yixin Zhang, & Kennon M. Sheldon. 2018. "Self-Determined Motivation for Studying Abroad Predicts Lower Culture Shock and Greater Well-Being Among International Students: The Mediating Role of Basic Psychological Needs Satisfaction." International Journal of Intercultural Relations 63: 95-104.
JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) 155 Advising Experiences among First-year International Doctoral Students
Nina Marijanović* and Jungmin Lee
University of Kentucky, United States of America
*Corresponding author: Email: [email protected] Address: University of Kentucky, 131 Taylor Education Building, 597 S. Upper Street, Lexington, KY 40506
Introduction
A faculty advisor is one of the most important individuals a graduate student interacts within the course of doctoral study (Barnes and Austin 2009). Faculty advisors can influence the quality of students’ doctoral experiences and degree completion by providing academic support (Schlosser et al. 2010), transmitting discipline-specific knowledge (Noy and Ray 2012), and facilitating students’ socialization in the field and in graduate school (Barnes, Williams, and Austin 2010). In this study, we focus on advising experiences among first-year international doctoral students (IDS). Because these students tend to have limited social and support networks in the U.S., which can mediate the impact of the transition to a new cultural and educational setting, first-year IDS may rely even more on their faculty advisor to help them acclimate in order to be academically and interpersonally successful (Herman and Kombe 2019; Moglen 2017). More specifically, we explore if advising experiences differ by academic disciplines (i.e., hard v. soft sciences), and whether the method of advisee-advisor pairing (i.e., student selection v. assignment) affects their experience as has been noted in other research focusing on IDS’ overall satisfaction with their graduate programs (Allen and Smith 2008).
Methods
This study was conducted at a large research-intensive university located in a Southeastern state. We invited all first-year international doctoral students on campus to participate in our study by sending three separate recruitment emails through the international center. We interviewed all fifteen students who responded to the invitation email. Six additional students were recruited by word-of-mouth. Our final sample included 21 first-year international doctoral students enrolled in the university in the spring of 2018. The sample was well-balanced in terms of gender and academic disciplines, but more than a half of our students were from Asian countries, such as China, India, and South Korea. The remainder of the students were from countries in Latin America, Northern Africa, Western Europe, Eastern Europe, the Middle East, and Oceania. In the spring of 2018, we conducted one-on-one semi-structured interviews and each interview took about 45 to 90 minutes. All interviews were audio recorded and transcribed verbatim. We utilized Consensual Qualitative Research (CQR) method (Hill et al. 1997) to analyze our data. The CQR method was selected because of its focus of allowing words to describe a phenomenon, thereby presenting an opportunity to obtain awareness of the advising experience as it emerged from the observations rather than interpreting data within the confines of a theoretical framework. In the first round, all research team members open-coded the transcripts to identify some common themes and they reported back their findings. Then, the lead author of this study reread all the transcripts to identify passages related to advisors and advising experiences, and from there, categorized the identified passages into several themes. To improve trustworthiness, another research team member repeated the process. When there was a disagreement between members about coding or emergent themes, they discussed it until they reached an agreement.
156 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019)
Findings
Preliminary results demonstrated that the method of advisee-advisor matching mattered significantly in shaping a student’s perception of advising in the first year. Most students in the sample were temporarily assigned to the director of graduate studies (although this varied across academic disciplines). Despite this type of temporary type of placement, most students in our sample had positive experiences with their advisors describing them as nice, friendly, helpful, and intelligent. However, their interactions with advisors were largely formal and infrequent, focusing more on technical and professional aspects like coursework requirements and research interests, rather than on personal disclosure as we would find in more developed advisor-advisee relationships. However, despite temporary assignments being the norm among the first-years, we also found that the advisor-advisee interaction was more frequent among students in hard science majors than among those in soft sciences, as the former often worked in a lab with their advisors. In the soft sciences, advising experiences varied widely across individual students. Some students had very close and personal relationships with their advisors, while a few students had hostile relationships characterized by lack of support and belittlement. Students in the soft sciences reported greater confusion regarding who their advisor was and what the protocol was for securing a permanent advisor. This confusion proved to be even more detrimental for a couple of students who had negative advising experiences with their temporary advisors and who were unaware of protocols to be assigned a new advisor.
Contributions
Results from this study will contribute to the field of international higher education in the following two ways. First, our study adds to the literature focusing on international students by shedding light on nuanced advising experiences of first-year international doctoral students. Many studies in the area discuss psychological stress and adjustment issues of international students (e.g., Hirai, Frazier, and Syed 2015), but relatively little attention has been given to their relationship with advisors. Given the influence of faculty advisors in encouraging persistence with doctoral studies and their potential role in buffering the shocks associated with transitions, it is crucial to explore students’ experiences with their advisors. Secondly, based on the results, our study provides recommendations for faculty advisors and directors of graduate studies. As noted, faculty advisors can have an even greater influence on international doctoral students as these students often have limited networks in the U.S. However, due to the lack of systematic training and professional development in student advising, many faculty members are left to design their own advising approach based on their own experience, teaching and advising philosophy, and perceived needs of advisees (Bloom et al. 2007). Consequently, graduate student advising practices vary by disciplines, departments, and even among individual faculty members. Based on our findings, we will provide suggestions about how to improve and provide more systematic advising practices for international doctoral students so that their talents and skills are encouraged rather than lost to attrition.
References
Allen, Janine M., and Cathleen L. Smith. 2008. “Faculty and Student Perspectives on Advising: Implications for Student Dissatisfaction.” Journal of College Student Development 49(6): 609-624. https://doi.org.10.1353/csd.0.0042.
JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) 157 Barnes, Benita, and Ann Austin. 2009. “The Role of Doctoral Advisors: A Look at Advising from the Advisor’s Perspective.” Innovative Higher Education 33(5): 297-315. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10755-008-9084-x. Barnes, Benita, Elizabeth A. Williams, and Shuli A. Archer. 2010. “Characteristics That Matter Most: Doctoral Students’ Perceptions of Positive and Negative Advisor Attributes.” NACADA Journal 30(1): 34-46. https://doi.org/10.12930/0271-9517-30.1.34. Bloom, Jennifer, Amanda Propst-Cuevas, James W. Hall, and Christopher V. Evans. 2007. “Graduate Students’ Perceptions of Outstanding Graduate Advisor Characteristics.” NACADA Journal 27(2): 28-35. https://doi.org/10.12930/0271-9517-27.2.28. Herman, Chaya and Charity L.M. Kombe. 2018. “The Role of Social Networks in the Transitional Experiences of International African Doctoral Students at One University in South Africa.” Higher Education Research & Development 38(3): 508-521. https://doi.org/10.1080/07294360.2018.1556618. Hill, Clara, Barbara Thompson, and Elizabeth Williams. 1997. “A Guide to Conducting Consensual Qualitative Research.” Counseling Psychologist 25(4): 517-572. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0011000097254001. Hirai, Reiko, Patricia Frazier, and Moin Syed. 2015. “Psychological and SocioculturalAdjustment of First-year International Students: Trajectories and Predictors.” Journal of Counseling Psychology 62(3): 438-452. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/cou0000085. Moglen, Daniel. 2017. “International Graduate Students: Social Networks and Language Use.” Journal of International Students 7(1): 22-37. ERIC. Noy, Shiri and Reshawn Ray. 2012. “Graduate Students’ Perceptions of Their Advisors: Is There Systematic Disadvantage in Mentorship?” Journal of Higher Education 83(6): 876-914. https://doi.org10.1080/00221546.2012.11777273. Schlosser, Lewis Z., Heather Z. Lyons, Regine M. Talleyrand, Bryan S.K. Kim., and Brad W. Johnson. 2010. “Advisor-Advisee Relationships in Graduate Training Programs.” Journal of Career Development 38(1): 3-18. https://doi.org/10.1177/0894845309358887.
158 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) An Analysis of Disability Representation in African Higher Education Policies
Fadzayi M. Maruza
University of the Western Cape, Republic of South Africa
Email: [email protected] Address: University of the Western Cape, Robert Sobukwe Road, Belville, 7535, Republic of South Africa
Introduction
In order to enhance understanding of the gap between policies and practice the aim of this research is to examine how disability policies are framed at the institutional level in African universities. Due to a lack of current scholarly work, institutional actors struggle to understand the experiences of students with disabilities who are pursuing higher education credentials (Barnes and Mercer 2004; Liasidou 2013). Globally, the policy response towards individuals with disability have changed (Beauchamp-Pryor 2012) and this has been seen in the widening participation of people with disability in Higher Education (HE). While this momentum is a laudable goal, the enthusiasm for universities to foster access for people with disability has gotten ahead of their understanding of how institutional policies and practices in African countries might be broadly crafted to achieve more access and participation of students with disability in HE (Howell 2006; Chitaika 2010; Mutswangwa 2014; Mutanga 2017). These progressive steps need to be placed under scrutiny so that they shed light on the gap between policy and practice in HE (Macleod and Cebula 2009; Moriña Díez, López, and Molina 2015). A major characteristic of the current HE research and policy context is that there is so much policy lending and borrowing (Lomofsky and Lazarus 2001; Kristensen et al. 2006). While there is nothing inherently wrong with policy lending and borrowing, this research argues that there is a need to keep exploring more and nuanced ways to expand our understanding of the challenges facing African HE response to disability. The main question this research intends to answer is how is disability framed and implemented within current university policies at the University of Zimbabwe and the University of Cape Town? Thus, in answering the posed question, this research is engaging an approach to study policy issues on disability that will give an expansive but contextual approach relevant for Africa. To do this, the researchers are investigating the underlying assumptions about disability and how they influence the representation of students with disabilities in university policies. Such a study hopes to enhance understanding of policy and practice by looking into how disability is framed at the institutional level by comparing higher education systems in two African countries, namely South Africa and Zimbabwe. This study is at the point of unpacking how the representation of disability in university policies impacts actors (students, staff, faculty and others) in HE with disabilities.
Research Objectives
The main objectives of this research are (1) To explore how universities are defining, categorizing, and addressing disability in the policies; (2) to analyse the accomplishments of the policy representation of disability; and (3) to analyse the knowledge foundations that influenced the policy framing of disability.
Research Questions
JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) 159 The main research question for this study is to determine how student disability is represented within current university policies and practices at the University of Zimbabwe and the University of Cape Town. How is student disability represented within current university policies and practices at the University of Zimbabwe and the University of Cape Town? To illustrate the steps to be taken in the study to answer this research question, the following sub- questions were developed: 1. How are universities defining and categorising disability in their university policies? 2. How are universities specifically addressing issues surrounding disability in their policies? 3. What have universities accomplished as a result of this policy representation of student disability? 4. What and whose knowledge influenced the framing of the policy representation?
Conceptual Framework
To gird the process of answering the above research questions, the study is being guided by institutional logics as the theory buttressing two frameworks, namely: “What’s the problem represented to be” (WPR) and civic epistemology. Institutional logics are defined as socially-constructed sets of material practices, assumptions, values and beliefs that shape cognition and behaviour (Thornton, Ocasio, and Lounsbury 2012) and these logics guide institutions on how to act in particular situations. WPR is an approach to policy analysis developed by (Bacchi 1999). The framework claims that policies contain implicit representations of the 'problems' they appear to address. Bacchi (2009) notes that the questions in the framework allow for a critical engagement with a topic. Using WPR framework for this study will assist to subject disability representations in policies to critical scrutiny and unearth the underpinning notions. Civic epistemology framework will help in examining cultures and institutional practices that shape what kinds of knowledge count in policy processes and how this knowledge is evaluated (Jasanoff 2005). Miller (2005) notes that civic epistemologies are styles of knowledge making and thus have implications for how disability policies are constructed Miller (2005) and whose voice and assumptions are represented in policies.
Research Methodology
This research is a qualitative study utilizing a comparative design which is suitable for in-depth evaluation of complex issues (Creswell 2014). A cross-national comparative study will assist in examining institutional and contextual differences in how disability is represented in university policies in two different country contexts. The selected universities include the University of Zimbabwe established in 1952 and The University of Cape Town established in 1829. The two selected universities are the first and oldest universities in their countries. Both universities have colonial and apartheid historical legacies and as pioneering flagship institutions it will be interesting to reflectively critique disability policies at university level (Tight 2012; Teferra 2017). Comparing the disability policies of two universities in different countries will be particularly useful because our understanding of social phenomena can be enhanced when they are compared in relation to meaningfully contrasting situations Bryman (2004). It is also suitable for this study because the universities under study can better be understood within their historical, cultural, and social contexts rather than having a uniform study across all the two countries (Aggarwal and Gasskov 2013). Data is in the process of being collected using a policy analysis with documents being the main source of data, and they will be selected using purposive sampling to identify and interrogate the problem representations they contain. Documents that will be analyzed in this study include university policies, regulations annual reports and plans, white papers, policy manuals, websites, memoranda from meetings, mission statements, and strategic plans from each university. Interviews will also be used to allow for integration of political and social perspectives into one analysis (Creswell and Poth 2016). 5 University staff, eight students with and without disabilities for the interviews will be selected using purposive and snowballing sampling for two experts who contribute to disability policy framing in the
160 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) selected universities. Semi-structured interviews with administrative staff from the disability units, student affairs department staff, and experts who contributed to the framing of the disability policy will be used to gain opinion about working with university disability policies. Fifteen interviewees from each university and country context will participate in the study making the total number of interviewees for the study 30. Lastly, a comparison of Zimbabwe and South Africa will allow for enough variables to be constant so that interesting points of similarity, difference, and possible causality can be focused on and thoroughly explained (Paige 1999; Mahoney and Rueschemeyer 2003). Therefore, a comparative study design will help obtain an in-depth description of issues, challenges and proposals related to how disability is represented in policy framing (Yin 2014) in the selected universities in Zimbabwe and South Africa.
References
Aggarwal, Ashwani. and Vladimir Gasskov 2013. Comparative analysis of national skills development policies: A guide for policy maker. Pretoria: ILO. Bryman, Alan. 2004. Social research methods. 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ———.Conducting mixed methods research. 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Bacchi, Carol.1999. Women, Policy and Politics: The Construction of Policy Problems. London: SAGE. Bacchi, Carol.2009. Analysing policy: What has the problem represented to be? French’s Forest, NSW: Pearson Education. Barnes, Carol and Mercer, G. 2004. “Theorising and researching disability from a social model perspective”. In Implementing the Social Model of Disability: Theory and Research, edited by Barnes, C. and Mercer, G., 1-17. Leeds: The Disability Press. Beauchamp-Pryor, Karen. 2012. “From absent to active voices: Securing disability equality within higher education.” International Journal of Inclusive Education 16(3):283–295. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13603116.2010.489120 Chataika, Tsitsi. 2010. Inclusion of Disabled Students in Higher Education in Zimbabwe. In Cross-cultural Perspectives on Policy and Practice: decolonizing community contexts, edited by J. Lavia & M. Moore, 116-131. New York: Routledge. Creswell, John.W. 2014. Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. Washington D.C: Sage publications. Creswell, John.W and Cheryl N Poth. 2016. Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design. Singapore: Sage. Moriña Díez, Anabel, Gavaria R. López, and Victor M Molina. 2015. “Students with disabilities in higher education: A biographical-narrative approach to the role of lecturers.” Higher Education Research & Development 34(1): 147– 159. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07294360.2014.934329. Howell, Collen. 2006. Disabled students and higher education in South Africa. In Disability and social change, edited by B. Watermayer, L. Swartz, T. Lorenzo, M. Schneider, & M. Priestley, 164–178. Cape Town: Human Sciences Research Council Press. Jasanoff, Sheilla. 2005. Designs on Nature: Biotechnology Regulation in America and Europe. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Kristensen, Kistern. et al. 2006. “Opportunities for inclusion: the education of learners with special educational needs and disabilities in special schools in Uganda.” British Journal of Special Education 33(3):139–147. Lomofsky, Lilian and Sandy Lazarus. 2001. “South Africa: First steps in the development of an inclusive education system.” Cambridge Journal of Education 31(3): 303–317.
JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) 161 Liasidou, Anastasia. 2013. “Intersectional understandings of disability and implications for a social justice reform agenda in education policy and practice.” Disability & Society 28(3): 299-312. Macleod, Gale and K R Cebula 2009. “Experiences of disabled students in initial teacher education.” Cambridge Journal of Education 39(4):457–472. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03057640903352465. Mahoney, James and Rueschemeyer, Dietrich. 2003. Comparative Historical Analysis in the Social Sciences. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Miller, Clark. A. 2005. “New Civic Epistemologies of Quantification: Making Sense of Indicators of Local and Global Sustainability.” Science, Technology, and Human Values 30(3): 403–32. Mutanga, Oliver. 2017. “Inclusion of Students with Disabilities in South African Higher Education.” International Journal of Disability. Development and Education. Mutswanga, Peter. 2014. “An Exploration of the Inclusivity of Universities to People with Hearing Impairment in Zimbabwe.” The International Journal of Humanities & Social Studies 2(9): 322-330. Paige, Jeffery. 1999. “Conjuncture, Comparison, and Conditional Theory in Macrosocial Inquiry.” American Journal of Sociology 105(3): 781-800. Thornton, Patricia H; Wiliam Ocasio and Michael Lounsbury. 2012. The institutional logics perspective: A new approach to culture, structure, and process. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press on Demand. Teferra, Damtew. 2017. Flagship Universities in Africa. London. Palgrave Macmillan. Tight, Malcom. 2012. Researching Higher Education. 2. ed. Maidenhead: Open Univ. Press. Yin, Robert K. 2014. Case Study Research: Design and Methods. 5th ed. Thousand Oaks: SAGE.
162 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) Universities Going Global? Comparative Perspectives on the Internationalization of Postgraduate Education in Brazil and Finland
Bernardo Sfredo Miorando
Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
Email: [email protected] Address: Faculdade de Educação, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Avenida Paulo Gama, 110, Bairro Farroupilha, Porto Alegre (RS), Brazil
Introduction
Globalization has reshaped the life of peoples and institutions (Santos 2017). As important structures in society, universities have not stood averse to globalizing forces (Deem, Mok, and Lucas 2008; Douglass 2005; Leite and Genro 2012; Stromquist 2007). Since the 1990s, states have endorsed global market competition as an ordering principle for higher education dynamics. Universities keep on adapting their work to fit new agendas with which they now deal: they seem to be ‘going global’, as the state shifts the conceptions of what the ‘national task’ of universities would be. As postgraduate education is supposed to be the highest stage of schooling, training knowledge producers and academic leaders (Nerad 2010), it is important to understand how individuals dealing with it make sense of the institutional changes brought about by internationalization, as the shift towards foreign audiences in education and knowledge production demands the update of curriculum, management, evaluation and funding formulae. It is furthermore important to understand how this phenomenon affects very dissimilar national contexts, differentially positioned within the global field of higher education (Marginson 2008).
Problem statement
The research problem guiding my doctoral research is: How are individuals in Brazilian and Finnish contexts of postgraduate education processing changes in university as internationalization takes place? In order to study the national contexts of postgraduate education, I make use of the notion of ‘fields of social action’ (Bleiklie and Kogan 2006), considering national higher education systems are composed by a multiplicity of arenas which do not necessarily conform to the same social rules and values in their modes of operation. I work with three fields of social action: national policy, educational institution and academic work. I pursue the following specific questions: How can change associated to internationalization of higher education be identified in the different fields of social action? How can power associated to internationalization of higher education be identified in the different fields of social action? How is internationalization understood and practiced in the different fields of social action? How do individuals organize their political action to effect internationalization?
Theoretical background
JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) 163 The theoretical-conceptual framework is organized by the integration of the traditional higher education studies (Teichler 1996) and Brazilian social thought (Schwarcz and Botelho 2011) on university. This operation is conducted according to the critical paradigm (Kincheloe, McLaren, and Steinberg 2011). Universities are seen as institutions able to recontextualize international trends, for instance processing propositions elaborated from the Global North to meet the conditions of Global South (Leite 2010). They can both fight off and be vectors of dependency (Fernandes 1975; Ribeiro 1975; Vieira Pinto 1962). Internationalization of higher education is seen as a process associated to the broader phenomenon of globalization and as an asymmetrical process that concentrates power with the political coupling of ideology and technique (Halliday 2001; Santos 2017). Globalization entails diffusion of hegemony and promotion of an elite research university model for higher education (Hartmann 2014; Marginson and van der Wende 2007; Ordorika 2007; Robertson 2012). By resorting to critical internationalization studies (Leal, Oregioni, and Moraes 2018; Pashby and Andreotti 2016; Stein 2016, 2017; Vavrus and Pekol 2018), I consider how scholars who operate in international interfaces are affected by differential political dynamics.
Methodology
Adopting the perspective of comparative higher education (Kogan 1998; Marginson and Mollis 2001; Teichler 2014; Välimaa and Nokkala, 2014), this research is designed as a comparative case study (Bartlett and Vavrus 2017). It proceeds a horizontal comparison between Brazilian and Finnish experiences, and vertically concatenates the three fields of social action. The empirical material is comprised by semi-structured interviews with individuals working at each national context, drawing on the statements of policy-makers, institutional managers and professors and students to explore practices related to internationalization in each field of social action. Data is generated through qualitative content analysis (Saldaña 2009). The categories of change and power are sought throughout all interviews, allowing for subcategories to emerge.
Contributions to Comparative and International Higher Education
This research contributes to the field of comparative and international higher education by thematizing contexts of postgraduate education, a seldom explored topic in comparative education; and approaching two very dissimilar countries that are not usually compared: Brazil, in Global South, and Finland, in Global North. In terms of the theory activated to interpret data, the combination of critical internationalization studies and Brazilian social yields new perspectives on the political aspects of university change. The cases of Brazil and Finland were selected with the intention to provide contrast (Marginson and Mollis 2001), leading comparative and international higher education to problematize the political limits to internationalization imposed by the North-South divide. Besides the fact that both nations present divergent socio-geographical features, they have taken opposite positions in the global field of higher education. Brazilian policies have characterized a consumer role, while Finnish strategies design ‘education export’ as a goal for national development.
Main Results
The research will illuminate how internationalization of higher education progresses from the individual academic work to the institutions’ functioning. This transition is boosted by national government induction, but is affected by the different histories and social dynamics of the contexts under study. In Brazil, universities start to consolidate ad hoc internationalization processes into institutional strategies. Finnish universities experience a more comprehensive
164 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) internationalization, articulated to national policy guidelines and networks. The configuration of new thresholds of institutional internationality is operated by a rearrangement of individual’s categories of political action. The research aims to make a seemingly trivial, yet often understated point. Although the isomorphic forces of globalization exert a worldly pull towards a same model – that of the North American elite, ‘world-class’ research university –, universities race towards it from different starting points around the globe. Therefore, the societal context affects the institutional change brought about by internationalization. There are mismatches as to what universities are to accomplish with internationalization, and how to do that, both inside and among the fields of social action. However, the learning and the social capital resulting from internationalization experiences equip individuals with strategic skills to progress within the hierarchical scheme of institutions, strengthening their possibilities of entering arenas of decision where they can become agents of change. The structure of opportunities to do so is less unequal in Finland, where internationalization of higher education is more comprehensive, and there are more developed networks of institutions acting to achieve the goals of national and institutional strategies. In Brazil, postgraduate education is more dependent on steering by the state, and individuals and institutions face many challenges to go global – among them the difficulty to operate in English language. Overall, the change brought about by internationalization in universities relates to fundamental ethical-political tasks: the interaction with the Other and the structure of opportunities to participate in decision-making.
References
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JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) 167 Wide-Lens Angle: International Students' Constructions of Academic Support in a Selected South African University
Peace Ginika Nwokedi*
University of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa
Fumane Portia M.K. Khanare
University of the Free State, South Africa
*Corresponding Author: Email: [email protected] Address: University of KwaZulu-Natal, Edgewood campus South Africa.
Introduction
The increase in the number of students who drop out from South African universities are alarming. Heleta (2017) reports that tens of thousands of students leave the university every year without completing their degrees due to lack of academic support, financial constraint as well as workload, health issues, age, family background and lack of balance in study and life (Edwards 2016). Academic support is very vital and regarded as one of the major responsibilities of universities globally. In context, universities are obligated to ensure that all their students are academically supported (Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET) 2013). DHET (2013, p. 11) policy indicates that its main objective is to “improve and build appropriate diversity within the universities … and provide learning programmes, modes of learning, methods of teaching and assessment for diverse students’ bodies that would support flexibility and innovations.” Drawing from the above view, this paper explores international students’ constructions of academic support in a selected South African university and showcases their experiences in South African universities. The following question was used to conduct this study: What are the international students’ constructions of academic support in a South African university?
Definition of Academic support
The term ‘academic support’ is defined as an activity designed and developed to assist or help students succeed in their academics as well as contribute to students learning retention and attendance (Green and Milbourne 1998; US Department of Education 2018). Academic support could also be regarded as the diverse teaching and learning methods, resources and academic services provided by universities to support their students in achieving their learning goals. This implies that providing academic support could lower students university attritions rates (Edwards 2016), transform their lives (Heleta 2017) and create inclusive learning and social environment where international students could interact and engage meaningfully with their host, engage in collaborative learning and acquire intercultural experiences (Farnsworth 2018).
International Students Experiences
168 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) International students are a heterogeneous group of students with diverse identities, knowledge, ideas, attitude, perceptions and voices (Nwokedi 2015). A considerable body of literature reveals that their experiences in their host environment are complex. For instance, literature shows that international students experienced difficulties such as language barriers, exclusion, xenophobia, alienation, low self-esteem, cultural adjustment, isolation, emotional and accommodation issues, financial constraints, lack of academic support and exploitation (Bennett 2014; Maharaj, Perumal, and Perumal 2011; Majyambere 2012; O'Reilly, Hickey, and Lilly 2013, Rajpal 2012) which affected their growth, development and learning in their host environment. Other studies identified their positive experiences such as enhanced learning skills and knowledge, increased self-awareness, improved attitudes (Gu, Schweisfurth and Day, 2010), and academic support (Arkoudis and Tran 2010; Coller and Kuo 2014) which enabled them to function effectively within their host countries was identified too. Borg and Cefai (2014) argue that gaining academic support enables international students to adjust to their academic life easily and help them adapt to their host culture and environment (Wu, Garza, and Guzman 2015).The above literature reviewed shows the significance of this paper which aims to contribute to research on the complex nature of academic support in higher education, particularly, drawing from the voices of the existing international students at a selected university in South Africa.
Methodology
This study adopted a qualitative case study approach to understand the international students’ construction of academic support using flexible methods to generate data (Hogan, Dolan, and Donnelly 2009). Focused group discussion (Cohen, Manion, and Morrison 2011) and photovoice participatory method (Mitchell 2011) was used to generate data from 12 full time international students selected through a convenience and purposive sampling technique (Struwig and Stead 2013). The participants were selected based on their enrolment in the undergraduate and postgraduate programmes for more than 2 years and for living in the campus residence at the selected university in the KwaZulu-Natal province in 2019. The data for this paper was thematically analysed (Tesch 1990) and the issues of trustworthiness were ensured while ethics in research was also considered (Cohen, Manion, and Morrison 2011).
Findings and discussion
The main findings are illustrated under 3 broad themes.
Theme 1: Academics as source of support All the international students attributed their academic growth and development based on the support they get from their lecturers and supervisors. The participants see their supervisors as a source that they draw their learning experiences from. As they indicate them to be helpful and supportive to their studies. This is seen in the case of Zach when explaining his photograph:
JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) 169 “This picture depicts the kind of support and help I get from my supervisors and lecturers. It shows the amount of positive support my supervisors and lecturers give to me in order for me to learn here and overcome my challenges.
Figure 1 Books and academic materials
Some of the participants also identified that their lecturers’ and supervisors’ support has helped them in growing academically and achieving their academic goals. John a student from China indicated: “The support from my supervisor has brought me this far in achieving my academic goals” The findings above showed academics (lecturers/supervisors) supports the international students in their learning. Arkoudis and Tran (2010) pose that the support international students receive from their lecturers and supervisors is vital in helping them attain their academic goals.
Theme 2: Open learning spaces as a support system Another theme that emerged relates to the physical spaces and building such as library, conference and seminar rooms, research commons and LAN created for the students (local and international) in the university to use for their learning. This is illustrated in Figure 2, where one of the participants (Greg) took a picture of the computer room, normally known as ‘LAN’. “This picture depicts a collaborative work environment filled with computers and internet facilities. This facility provides an opportunity for me to meet other students to interact and relate together while sharing ideas relating to our research work”.
Figure 1 A collaborative work environment The findings depict that international students identified the open learning spaces as a conducive learning environment within the university that support their learning. Similarly, the findings of Campbell and Li (2008) showed that international students’ experience favourable learning environment which positively impact on their learning and allows collaborative learning (Farnsworth 2018).
Theme 3: The teaching and learning programmes
170 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) All the participating international students regarded the teaching and learning activities such as seminars, research cohorts, workshop and conferences organised for them by the university as a support to their learning. The participants view these teaching and learning programmes as a resource that they draw their learning experiences from as they indicate them to be helpful to their learning experiences. Linda stressed: “Programmes like research cohort, seminars, workshops, which I enjoyed in my cluster impacts positively towards my learning. As an international student, I learn how to share ideas and information’s together, support each other in our research work and do collaborative learning…which helped to develop my creative skills and ability to think critically while doing my studies on this campus”. Jane also alluded: “The support from this different teaching and learning programmes really helped me and has brought me this far in achieving my academic goals”.
The findings suggest that the above academic activities have a fundamental role to play in the international students’ learning. The teaching and learning programmes identified by the participant in this study created opportunity for them to share ideas, support each other and work together. Indeed, the findings are consistent with those of Campbell (2010) and Kelly (2010) that international students generated diverse perceptions and personal growth to become independent thinkers and change agents.
Conclusion
Significantly, the findings of this study revealed that the international students reported a slightly higher level of agency towards their academic activities. A possible explanation may be found in the support gotten from the academics, open learning spaces and the diverse set of university activities that international students’ access for support. This paper concludes that integrating photovoice into research with students enables them develop awareness of self and environment as well as enable critical dialogue amongst them using artefacts.
References
Arthur, Nancy and Natalee Popadiuk. 2013. “International Students’ Views of Relationship influence on Career Transitions." Journal of Educational and Social Research 3(7): 273-285. Borg, Claire and Carmel Cefai. 2014. "Stress, Health and Coping Among International Students at the University of Malta." 2nd Monograph in Resilience and Health. Msida: Centre for Resilience and Socio-Emotional Health, University of Malta, Malta. https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/1ce3/3ad619687c01e5cf0ffe9987b69626505486.pdf. Brown, Lorraine. and Jimmy Holloway. 2008. "The Adjustment Journey of International Postgraduate Students at an English University: An Ethnographic Study." Journal of Research in International Education 7(2): 232-249. Campbell, Anne. 2010. "Developing Generic Skills and Attributes of International Students: The (Ir) Relevance of the Australian University Experience." Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management 32(5): 487-497. Cohen, Louis, Lawrence Manion and Keith Morrison. 2011. Research Methods in Education. London: Routledge. Coller, Ryan and Alice Kuo. 2014. "Youth Development Through Mentorship: A Los Angeles School-Based Mentorship Program Among Latino Children." Journal of Community Health 39(2): 316-321. Edwards, Stephen. 2016. "School Dropout: A Global Issue. ‘ENGAGE’ The International Journal on Research and Practice of Students Engagement. http://www.dropoutprevention.org/engage-backup/global-dropout-issue/.
JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) 171 Gu, Qing, Michele Schweisfurth and Christopher Day. 2010. "Learning and growing in a ‘foreign’context: Intercultural experiences of international students." Compare 40(1): 7-23. Farnsworth, Brand. 2018. "Enhancing the Quality of the International Student Experience." Higher Education Today. https://www.higheredtoday.org/2018/07/02/enhancing-quality-international-student- experience/, 2018. Heleta, Savo. 2017. “How Strong Academic Support Can Change University Students’ Lives.” Sowetan live. https://www.sowetanlive.co.za/news/2017-03-03-how-strong- academic-support- can-change-university- students-lives/. Hogan, John, Paddy Dolan and Paul Donnelly. 2009. "Approaches to Qualitative Research: Theory and its Practical Application." Cork, Ireland: Oak Tree Press. Lillyman, Sue and Clare Bennett. 2014. "Providing a Positive Learning Experience for International Students Studying at UK Universities: A Literature Review." Journal of Research in International Education 13(1): 63-75. Kelly, Darren. 2010. "Student Learning in an International Setting." New Directions for Higher Education 2010(150): 97-107. Maharaj, Preesha, Rubeshan Perumal and Sadhasivan Perumal. 2011. "Perceptions of International Students on the Challenges of Diversity Management at a South African University." Alternation Special Edition 4(1): 203-227. Majyambere, Moise. 2012. "Information Needs and Information Seeking Behaviour of International Students at the University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg Campus." PhD diss., University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg. Mitchell, Claudia. 2011. Doing Visual Research. Los Angeles: Sage. Moores, Lisa. and Natalee Popadiuk. 2011. "Positive Aspects of International Student Transitions: A Qualitative Inquiry." Journal of College Student Development 52(3): 291-306. Nwokedi, P. 2015. “International Students Learning Experiences in a Selected South African University.” MEd diss. University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pinetown. O'Reilly, Aileen, Tina Hickey and Dermot Ryan. 2013. "Higher Education Professionals' Perspectives on International Student Experiences of Life and Learning in Ireland: A Qualitative Study." Irish Educational Studies 32(3): 355- 375. Pilote, A. and Asmaa Benabdeljali. 2007. "Supporting the Success of International Students in Canadian Universities." Higher Education Perspectives 3(2):24-46. Rajpal, Roseann. 2012. "Educational Journeys of International Postgraduate Students Studying at UKZN (University of KwaZulu-Natal): A Narrative Inquiry." PhD diss., University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban. South Africa DHET. 2013. "White Paper for Post-School Education and Training: Building an Expanded, Effective and Integrated Post-School System." Department of Higher Education and Training. Pretoria: Government Printers. Struwig, Fredrika and Graham Stead. 2013. Research: Planning, Designing and reporting. Cape Town: Pearson. Tesch Renata. 1990. “Qualitative Research”. New York: Falmer Press. U.S. Department of Education. 2019. Issue Brief: Academic Support Classes. https://www2.ed.gov/rschstat/eval/high- school/academic-support.pdf. Wu, Hsiao-ping, Esther Garza and Norma Guzman. 2015. "International Student’s Challenge and Adjustment to College." Education Research International (2015):1-9. https://www.hindawi.com/journals/edri/2015/202753/.
172 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INETNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019)
Internationalization of the curriculum in Japanese higher education: Strategies, pedagogies and practices in ‘international’ English-medium instruction classrooms
Leyla Radjaia* and Christopher D. Hammondb
aWaseda University, Japan; bUniversity of Oxford, United Kingdom
*Corresponding author: Email: [email protected] Address: Graduate School of Asia-Pacific Studies, Waseda University, Tokyo, Japan
Introduction
Internationalization of university curricula has received growing attention among scholars and policymakers who recognize the importance of providing international and intercultural opportunities to all students, not only those able to partake in education abroad. Much of the research in this area has been done in Anglosphere and European contexts (Leask 2017; Beelen and Jones 2015; Haigh 2002), with less scholarly attention given elsewhere. The present study focuses on Japan, analyzing the approaches taken to internationalize the curriculum in English- medium instruction (EMI) programs in Japanese universities. We seek to understand the experiences of educators and students involved in teaching and learning in these internationalized classroom contexts, with a view to contribute novel insights that can inform future policy and practice at internationalizing universities. The research questions guiding this mixed methods project are: What does internationalization of curriculum mean for educators in the Japanese university context? How do faculty members incorporate intercultural/global dimensions into curriculum design in their EMI programs? What factors do educators and students perceive to enable or block the internationalization of the curriculum in these programs?
Literature Review
Japan’s efforts to internationalize its higher education system since the early 1980s – mainly through recruiting international students, reforming administrative infrastructure, and promoting programs to nurture the global competencies of domestic students – have been widely documented in the literature (see Ota, 2018; Yonezawa & Yonezawa, 2016, for useful summaries). One of the approaches taken by many universities to accommodate the influx of international students and foster domestic ‘global talent’ has been to increase the number of EMI programs (Rose and McKinley 2017; Morizumi 2015). These EMI programs tend to attract students from diverse backgrounds, including domestic students who want to improve their English language skills, Japanese students who have returned from living abroad, and international students from around the world. However, simply adding diversity into university campuses and changing the language of instruction to the lingua franca of English does not automatically entail comprehensive 173 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INETNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) internationalization is occurring. In order to develop students’ intercultural awareness and achieve the government’s goal of producing ‘global human resources’ (Yonezawa 2014), concerted efforts must be made to incorporate and support this international diversity and adapt the curricula for the benefit of all learners. Indeed, while Japan’s many internationalization initiatives have led to increased numbers of non-native students and faculty on Japanese campuses, an overemphasis on recruitment and quantitative measures of ‘success’ has been criticized for neglecting the effective integration of international actors and facilitating meaningful qualitative reforms of Japanese higher education (Brotherhood, Hammond, and Kim 2019; Poole 2016; Ota 2018). For a comprehensive, integrative internationalization of higher education, as Leask (2009, p. 209) puts it, the curriculum needs to be internationalized: that is, a strategy to ‘incorporate international, intercultural, and/or global dimensions into the content of the curriculum as well as the learning outcomes, assessment tasks, teaching methods, and support services of a program of study’, is needed. The internationalization of curriculum has never been central to higher education policy discussions in Japan (Ota 2011), but now that many scholars realize the potential of EMI programs to yield new teaching methods (for example Kojima, 2019; Murata, Iino, & Konakahara, 2017), the topic has gained fresh importance and value. In the Japanese university context, using EMI is acknowledged as a step towards the internationalization of curriculum, but it is not considered sufficient to achieve intended intercultural outcomes (Ikeda 2016). Extant research on EMI in Japan has tended to be limited to small-scale institutional case studies (Iyobe, Brown, and Coulson 2011; Ikeda 2016), and focused on language usage and the linguistic capabilities of faculty members and students (Murata, Iino, and Konakahara 2017; Morizumi 2015). However, there is currently a gap in research that focuses on the different aspects of internationalization of curriculum beyond language, such as pedagogy, curricular content, and intercultural learning outcomes. There is also a need for research that investigates these programs on a larger scale that is more representative of Japanese higher education as a whole.
Methodology
To address these gaps, our study aims to understand the ways in which international and global elements are incorporated into the curriculum design in EMI programs at a range of internationalizing universities in Japan. We plan to conduct a mixed methods study that will seek to understand the experiences and challenges faced by educators and students involved in EMI programs at 20 Japanese universities. Institutions will be selected based on considerations of access, but we will aim to include a representative sample of national, public and private institutions and a range of academic disciplines and programs in our study. To address the research questions, we will employ parallel mixed data analysis (Teddlie and Tashakkori 2009). First, we will conduct document analysis, using program and policy documents related to the administration, curriculum, diploma and course syllabi of the case EMI programs to acquire basic information on program objectives and curriculum design. A survey will be conducted for the faculty members and students with a questionnaire adapted from Leask’s ‘Internationalization of the curriculum: blockers and enablers questionnaire’ (Leask 2015). The quantitative data collected from the case EMI programs from 20 universities will be statistically compared to identify the factors affecting the internationalization of curriculum. Follow up semi- structured interviews with participants will be conducted and analyzed thematically to gain a more nuanced qualitative understanding of the experiences of actors in internationalized classrooms. 174 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INETNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019)
The findings from these quantitative and qualitative approaches will be synthesized with the aim of gaining a robust understanding of the current situation and challenges of the internationalization of the curriculum in the Japanese university context. It is our hope that this research will contribute new and valuable insights to the field of comparative higher education and also have relevance for policymakers and educators at Japanese universities.
References
Beelen, Jos, and Elspeth Jones. 2015. “Redefining Internationalization at Home.” In The European Higher Education Area, edited by Adrian Curaj, Liviu Matei, Remus Pricopie, Jamil Salmi, and Peter Scott, 59–72. Springer. Brotherhood, Thomas, Christopher D. Hammond, and Yangson Kim. 2019. “Towards an Actor- Centered Typology of Internationalization: A Study of Junior International Faculty in Japanese Universities.” Higher Education. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-019-00420-5. Haigh, Martin J. 2002. “Internationalisation of the Curriculum : Designing Inclusive Education for a Small World.” Journal of Geography in Higher Education 8265 (May 2013): 37–41. Ikeda, Keiko. 2016. “Kansai Daigaku Ni Okeru Kokusai Kyouiku Karikyuramu Wo Ninau Kyoushokuin No FD/PD [Faculty/Professional Development Initiatives for International (English-Mediated) Curriculum at Kansai University].” Kansai University Journal of Higher Education 7: 115–19. Iyobe, Bethany, Howard Brown, and David Coulson. 2011. “Teaching Lab: Gearing up for English Medium Classes English-Medium Instruction in Japan View Project Supervisory Practices of English Undergraduate and Graduate Theses in Japan View Project.” In JALT 2011 Conference Proceedings. Tokyo: JALT. Kojima, Naoko. 2019. “English-Medium Instruction (EMI) Ni Motomerareteiru Kyouikujissen Oyobi Gakushukankyou [Pedagogical Practices and Learning Environment Needed in EMI: From the Motivational Perspectives of Japanese Students].” APU Journal of Language Research 4: 49–64. Leask, Betty. 2009. “Using Formal and Informal Curricula to Improve Interactions between Home and International Students.” In Journal of Studies in International Education. ———. 2015. Internationalizing the Curriculum. New York: Routledge. ———. 2017. “Bridging the Gap: Internationalizing University Curricula.” Journal of Studies in International Education 5 (2): 363–71. Morizumi, Fumi. 2015. “Nihon Ni Okeru EMI: Genjou to Kadai [EMI in Japan: Current Status and Its Implications].” Educational Studies, International Christian University 57: 119–28. Murata, Kumiko, Masakazu Iino, and Mayu Konakahara. 2017. “EMI Ni Okeru ‘kyoutsuugo to Shite No Eigo’ No Shiyou No Genjouhaaku to Ishikichousa Oyobi Eigo Kyouiku Eno Teigen [An Investigation into the Use of and Attitudes toward ELF (English as a Lingua Franca) in English-Medium Instruction (EMI) Classes].” Waseda Review of Education, 175 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INETNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) Waseda University 31 (1): 21–38. Ota, Hiroshi. 2011. “Daigaku Kokusaika No Doukou Oyobi Nihon No Genjou to Kadai: Higashi Ajia to No Hikaku Kara [University Internationalization Trends and Japanʼs Challenges and Prospects: An East Asian Comparative Study].” Journal of Multimedia Education Research 8 (1): S1–12. ———. 2018. “Internationalization of Higher Education : Global Trends and Japan ’ s Challenges.” Educational Studies in Japan: International Yearbook, no. 12: 91–105. Poole, Gregory S. 2016. “Administrative Practices as Institutional Identity: Bureaucratic Impediments to HE ‘Internationalisation’ Policy in Japan.” Comparative Education 52 (1): 62–77. https://doi.org/10.1080/03050068.2015.1125615. Rose, Heath, and Jim McKinley. 2017. “Japan’s English-Medium Instruction Initiatives and the Globalization of Higher Education.” Higher Education. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-017- 0125-1. Teddlie, Charles, and Abbas Tashakkori. 2009. Foundations of Mixed Methods Research: Integrating Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches in the Social and Behavioral Sciences. California: SAGE Publications Inc,. Yonezawa, Akiyoshi. 2014. “Japan’s Challenge of Fostering ‘Global Human Resources’: Policy Debates and Practices.” Japan Labor Review 11 (2): 37–52. Yonezawa, Yukiko, and Akiyoshi Yonezawa. 2016. “Internationalization of Higher Education as a Response to Globalization: Japan’s Policy Challenges since the 1980s.” In Creating Social Cohesion in an Interdependent World: Experiences of Australia and Japan, edited by Ernst Healy, Dharma Arunachalam, and Tetsuo Mizukami, 191–204. Palgrave Macmillan.
176 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) Learning From Those Who Have Done it Before' - Peer to Peer Employability Coaching and Mentoring: A Case Study of Bournemouth University in the UK
Vianna Renaud
Bournemouth University, United Kingdom
Email: [email protected] Address: Bournemouth University, Fern Barrow, Poole, Dorset, BH12 5BB, United Kingdom
Introduction
While in the US, undergraduate academic programs may have a component of an internship, in the United Kingdom there is often a mandatory work-based experience incorporated into the degree. Termed as a ‘sandwich placement’, this experience takes place during the third year of a four-year undergraduate course. This important provision in preparing students for employment is set against the backdrop of sector wide institutional pressures such as austerity in staff resourcing, frequent organisational restructures, and a decrease in student engagement. At the same time, the UK Teaching Excellence Framework (TEF) and the National Student Survey (NSS) feed into national league tables where all universities are ranked. Despite this, providing work placement opportunities for students has grown in popularity in the UK, with Bournemouth University having one of the largest number of placement students. Such placements may be a mandatory component of the degree programme (particularly in business, media and health disciplines) or optional. Bournemouth University has supported an increase in the number of students selecting programs through offering this additional opportunity to all students, to develop the knowledge and skills to prepare them for graduate employment. Preparation and support for placement students is provided by professional services staff and, to a lesser extent, academic staff. However, it has become clear over the past few years that post-placement students themselves have extensive knowledge and experience that they can (and do) share with other students, via formal activities such as guest lectures or less formally through social media discussions (e.g. on Facebook). To understand whether this ‘sharing’ could be harnessed more effectively, this current study seeks to explore the impact and effectiveness of peer- to-peer coaching and mentoring between undergraduate students with a required academic component of a sandwich placement. Currently at Bournemouth University, the Peer Assisted Learning (PAL) program has proven to be very popular with students as second year students support groups of first year students on various topics of university life. While similar peer-to-peer learning has been proven to improve the transition to university life and create greater confidence in students (Briggs, Clark and Hall 2012; Hughes and Smail 2015; Gale and Parker 2014), the particular focus on employability and the transition to the sandwich placement is less explored and understood. The research objectives stem from how a coaching and mentoring initiative can impact both first and final year placement students. For first year students, this is to explore their awareness of their own employability, their responsibility in the process, awareness of resources available to them both on and off campus, and any change in confidence and knowledge as a result of being coached and mentored by a peer over a period of time. For final year students, it is to explore how they can develop the coaching and mentoring skills that will enhance their employability when they graduate and what impact being a coach/mentor has had on their own development. These research objectives used Bournemouth University as a case study with a theoretical framework based upon Vygotsky’s (1978) ’Zones of Proximal Development, Kolb’s ‘Experiential Learning’ (1984), and Whitmore’s
JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) 177 Coaching for Performance’ (1984) to underpin the study. This framework encompasses how students learn from their peers (Vygotsky), how they learn from doing (Kolb), and how using coaching and mentoring principles can help in the articulation and reflection of this learning (Whitmore). Coaching has already proven to be a more cost-effective method of achieving retention of and completion gains for students when compared to previously studied interventions (Baker and Bettinger 2011). Whitmore’s GROW Model of Coaching is one of the most used coaching models globally and is already used within Bournemouth University to support students, so would be familiar to the sample group. Using this framework enables a range of issues to be explored simultaneously, supporting a more holistic understanding of the whole experience for all the students involved.
The project
Following a briefing to first and final year students in the Department of Marketing and Corporate Communications at Bournemouth University, 14 students came forward to volunteer; seven first year students on the common academic pathway and seven final year post-placement PR students, all of whom are required to complete a placement as part of their degree. They were randomly paired up, with each pair comprising an M-Coach (Mentoring Coach) and an M-Coachee (Mentoring Coachee). As part of the preparation for the study, the M-Coaches were supported to provide both coaching and mentoring, dependent on the conversational and developmental needs of the M-Coachee. Each pair was then prompted to meet up either virtually (via email or Skype) or face-to-face once a month over the next 6 months and were provided with questions and prompts around placements and employability to guide the discussion. Full ethical approval was provided before the commencement of the study. In using an interpretive case study framework, (Cohen, Manion and Morrison 2018), face-to-face semi structured interviews were held at three points during the project. The first interviews took place at the very beginning of the project, the second at the end, and the third three months following the programme end to establish ongoing impact. While it was possible to speak to all participants at the first stage, I was only able to speak to the five pairs that successfully completed the project at the second stage. For the third stage, evaluating the ongoing impact, this proved to be quite difficult given the geographical spread of both the newly finished final year students. This provided a holistic understanding of their expectations, experiences and the outcomes of the coaching and mentoring activities. Student feedback from the initial interviews was used in the development of the project, particularly in the number of intervention sessions, the timing of these interventions, content covered in the creation of session guidelines, and the timing of the interventions. Guidelines were provided to accompany each session highlighting services available to students on campus, both internal and external resources for placement search, tips for interviews, and how to stay positive in negative times. It was at this time that the GROW Coaching Model was introduced as a key method to help resilience and increase confidence in themselves. The rationale behind this project was to raise their awareness of the placement journey, resources available to them, and the one to one relationship to encourage greater confidence and ownership in their employability. Participants were also prompted to complete a short online survey following each intervention session to build up a timeline of their reactions and reflections to each session and to gauge how their knowledge, skills and confidence had increased incrementally over the course of the project. Additionally, one to one interviews are planned four months after the project finish date to evaluate the impact of the project on confidence, activities, aspirations and expertise upon graduation (M-Coaches) or commencement of Year 2 studies (M-Coachees). At the end of the six month period, the impact has been substantial for both participant groups, based on the verbal and survey data received to date. The M-Coaches reported that the development of the relationship with their M- Coachee will extend beyond the project and that they had gained a sense of pride in helping their younger peers, as well as feeling a greater sense of self-empowerment in their own abilities to support and mentor younger colleagues. The M-Coachees were the first amongst their peers to have work-focused LinkedIn accounts, to proactively get
178 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) involved on campus, and to investigate work experience opportunities for the future – having the confidence and knowledge to take on a much more proactive role at an early stage of their placement journey. All students have gained additional knowledge and skills that they will inform and support their placement or graduate employment opportunities. Perhaps one of the most interesting findings has been the relationships that have developed between the M-Coaches and M-Coachees. These seem to have enabled more meaningful conversations and exchanges than those they also have university staff in terms of discussing issues in a ‘freer’ and more egalitarian way.
Conclusion
The initial results suggest that an employability focused peer assisted learning program can create a lasting and positive impact on students. The participants have shown that they value this kind of peer relationship in addition to support from university staff, given the mandatory sandwich placement requirement. The results also suggest that an intervention that is focused around how students can learn from their peers, how they can learn from doing and how coaching and mentoring can encourage and support the reflection of this learning can be effective and impactful. Across the higher education sector, universities are looking for resource-efficient yet innovative and effective ways to support students going into and coming out of work placements. This small-scale study suggests that peer-to-peer student coaching and mentoring may be one such route to build the confidence and knowledge of those preparing for placement and develop coaching and mentoring skills for those about to go into employment.
References
ASET. 2019. Good Practice Guideline for Work Based and Placement Learning. https://www.asetonline.org/resources/aset-good-practice-guides/ Baker, Rachel & Bettinger, Eric. 2011. The Effects of Student Coaching in College: An Evaluation of a Randomized Experiment in Student Mentoring. Stanford University School of Education Presentation, March 7 2011. Barthorpe, Stephen, & Hall, Melanie. 2002. “A Collaborative Approach to Placement Preparation and Career Planning for University Students: A Case Study.” Journal of Vocational Education & Training 52(2):165-175. Briggs, Ann; Clark, Jill; & Hall, Ian. 2012. “Building Bridges: Understanding Student Transition to University.” Quality in Higher Education 18(1):3-21. Cabrera, Alberto; Nora, Amaury; Bernal, Elena; Terenzini, Patrick; & Pascarella, Ernest. 1998. Collaborative Learning: Preferences, Gains in Cognitive and Affective Outcomes, and Openness to Diversity Among College Students. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Association for the Study of Higher Education, Miami, FL. Capstick, Stuart, & Fleming, Hugh. 2003. The Learning Environment of Peer Assisted Learning. https://www1.bournemouth.ac.uk/sites/default/files/asset/document/capstick-fleming.pdf Christie, Hazel et al. 2008. “A Real Rollercoaster of Confidence and Emotions: Learning to Be a University Student.” Studies in Higher Education 33(5):567-581. Sohen, Louis; Manion, Lawrence; & Morrison, Keith. 2017. Research Methods in Education, 8th Edition. London: Routledge. Cunliffe, Ann. 2004. “On Becoming a Critically Reflexive Practitioner.” Journal of Management Education 28(4):407- 426 Gale, Trevor & Parker, Stephen. 2014. “Navigating Change: A Typology of Student Transition in Higher Education.” Studies in Higher Education 29(5): 734-753.
JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) 179 Herd, Ann. 2015. “The Case of ‘Not Enough Time’: using GROW and Motivational Interviewing Coaching Frameworks.” New Horizons in Adult Education & Human Resource Development 27(3): 46-49. Hrastinski, Stefan, & Stenbom, Stefan. 2013. “Student-Student Online Coaching: Conceptualizing an Emerging Learning Activity.” The Internet and Higher Education 16(1): 66-69 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.iheduc.2012.02.003 Hughes, Gareth, & Smail, Olivia. 2015. “Which Aspects of University Life are Most and Least Helpful in the Transition to HE? A Qualitative Snapshot of Student Perceptions.” Journal of Further and Higher Education 39(4):466-480. Johnson, David, & Johnson, Roger. 1994. Learning Together and Alone: Cooperative, Competitive, and Individualistic Learning (4th Ed.). Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ. Jones, Andrew. 2014. Coaching Versus Mentoring: What works best for teachers? Available at: http://www.theguardian.com/teacher-network/teacher-blog/2014/aug/05/coaching- mentoring-teachers- professional-development [Accessed 20th September 2019] Kolb, David. 1984. Experiential Learning: Experience as the Source of Learning & Development. London: Prentice Hall. Lee, Jongyeun, & Cramond, Bonnie. 1999. “The Positive Effects of Mentoring Economically Disadvantaged Students”. Professional School Counselling 2(3): 172-178. Michael, David, & Chen, Sandra. 2006. Serious Games: Games that educate, train and transform. Muska & Lipman / Premier – Trade. National Student Survey. 2019. ‘Why Take the Survey’. https://www.thestudentsurvey.com/. Neill, Neville, & Mulholland, Gwyneth. 2003. “Student Placement – Structure, Skills and E-Support.” Education and Training 45(2):89-99 . Pascarella, Ernest; Edison, Marcia; Nora, Amaury; Hagedorn, Linda; & Terenzini, Patrick. 1996. “Influences on Students’ Openness to Diversity and Challenge in the First Year of College.” Journal of Higher Education 67(2): 174–195. Ribbers, Anne, & Waringa, Alexander. 2015. A. E-Coaching: Theory and Practice for a New Online Approach to Coaching. New York: Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group. Slavin, Robert. 1983. Cooperative Learning, New York: Longman. Stavenga de Jong, Jose; Wierstra, Ronny; Hermanussen, Jose. 2006. “An Exploration of the Relationship between Academic and Experiential Learning Approaches in Vocational Education.” British Journal of Educational Psychology 76(1): 155-169. Teaching Excellence Framework. 2019. ’What is the TEF?’ https://www.officeforstudents.org.uk/advice-and- guidance/teaching/what-is-the- tef/. Topping, Keith. 2005. “Trends in Peer Learning.” Educational Psychology 25(6): 631-645. Trow, Martin. 2004. Reflections on the Transition from Elite to Mass to Universal Access: Forms and Phases of Higher Education in Modern Societies since WWII. International Handbook of Higher Education. UC Berkeley: Institute of Governmental Studies. Vygotsky, Lev. 1978. Mind in Society. London: Harvard University Press. Whitmore, John. 2002. Coaching for Performance: Growing Human Potential and Purpose – the Principles and Practice of Coaching and Leadership. London: Nicholas Brealey Publishing.
180 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) Emotions and Scientific Initiation Among Underprivileged High School Students in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Bruna Navarone Santos*
Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Brazil
Isabela Cabral Félix de Sousa
Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Brazil
*Corresponding author: Email: [email protected] Address: Scientific Initiation Laboratory in Basic Education (Lic-Provoc) Joaquim Venancio Poytechnic School of Health Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (Fiocruz), Manguinhos, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Introduction
Provoc-Fiocruz is the first non-formal proposal for scientific initiation in basic education in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. The program was established in 1986 at the Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (Fiocruz) and was specifically coordinated by Joaquim Venâncio Polytechnic School of Health (EPSJV) through a team of professionals at the Scientific Initiation Laboratory in Basic Education (Lic-Provoc). This team matches researchers with High School students so that they supervise the students in science practices and skills needed for them to advance to higher education. The research advisors who undertake High School students’ supervision on science activities work in the areas of Biological, Health, Human or Social Sciences in the realms of this foundation (de Sousa et al. 2008; Sousa and Filipecki 2009). The purpose of the research is to understand the emotions of students in the development of learning scientific research.
Investigating Youth Scientific Experience’s
Most Brazilian High Schools have not been socialized in the school realms with the codes, conventions, and skills required by scientific practices. Therefore, there is a great demand to teach the know-how of academic language, development of laboratory and research activities to this population. Previous researches have demonstrated the importance of the researcher-advisor relationship with High School students (Sousa and Filipecki 2009). They show how high school students can learn how to be mature and be responsible by expanding their interpersonal relationships through science initiation (Cabral Félix de Sousa 2013; Félix de Sousa and Filipecki 2017). Science initiation is an important characteristic for academic higher education in terms of professional choices and practices (de Sousa et al 2008; Santos et al. 2018a). Gender differences regarding diverse academic and professional choices and emotions have also been investigated (de Sousa et al. 2008; Santos et al. 2019). This research is intended to contribute to thinking about academic practices, such as scientific education, as relevant when taught in basic education and not only in higher education. Most alumni of Provoc-Fiocruz continue their studies towards undergraduate programs. When alumni were interviewed, they recognized the relevance of having been socialized with the skills and dispositions required for scientific practices as necessary for their academic choice and formation process in higher education (Cabral Félix de Sousa 2013; Sousa and Filipecki 2009). This study
JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) 181 wants to study if and how social class influences the process of science initiation in association with the expression of emotions that can be or not be intertwined with the construction of knowledge that result in academic and professional choices.
Sociology of Emotions
According to Émile Durkheim emotions are mediated by social norms, having the role of being aggregators of a given society (Fisher and Chon 1989). Emotions in a formative scientific process allow young people to understand the meanings of being a researcher (Meis 2000). This formative process can occur by understanding the contents and by being exposed to the judgment of others and by the questioning of beliefs (Rosiek 2003). Emotions, therefore, participate in the development of students’ scientific initiation and can mediate this process (Ovigli 2014).
Social Class and Brazilian Universities
Cultural capital unfolds into implicit and internalized values that define different performances in academic institutions according to social class (Bourdieu 1986, 2003). Despite Brazilian public policies’ attempts to diminish the educational gap among social classes in this century (Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics 2018), André Salata (2018) indicates that young people from Brazilian classes with the greatest accumulation of economic and cultural capital have had much more possibilities in accessing higher education. Moreover, the history of Brazilian students’ access to universities has been remarkably low compared to other nations (Organization for Economic Co- Operation and Development 2019).
Methodology
Discourse analysis will be used to analyze the semi-structured interviews that will be conducted with up to fifteen High School underprivileged students and fifteen researchers-advisors from Provoc-Fiocruz. The discourse analysis approach (Drid 2010) will take into account verbal and nonverbal signs to determine semantic complexity.
References
Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics. 2018. Summary of Social Indicators: An Analysis of the Living Conditions of the Brazilian Population. Rio de Janeiro: IBGE. https://biblioteca.ibge.gov.br/visualizacao/livros/liv101629.pdf. Bourdieu, Pierre. 1986. “The Forms of Capital.” In Cultural Theory: An Anthology, edited by Imre Szeman and Timothy Kaposy, 81–93. Wiley-Blackwell: Oxford. Bourdieu, Pierre. 2003. “Conservative School: Inequalities Against School and Culture.” In Education Writings: Pierre Bourdieu,translated by Aparecida Joly Gouveia, edited by Maria Alice Nogueira and Afrânio Catani, 41-64. Petrópolis: Vozes. Cabral Félix de Sousa, I. 2013. "Outcomes of a scientific nonformal educational initiative for youth in Rio de Janeiro." Cultural Studies of Science Education 8(1): 193-213. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11422-012-9431-1 . de Sousa, Isabela Cabral Félix, Cristiane Nogueira Braga, Telma de Mello Frutuoso, Cristina Ferreira Araripe, & Diego da Silva Vargas. 2008. "The Female Predominance of a Vocational and Scientific Education Programme for High School Students in Rio de Janeiro and Recife, Brazil." Convergence 41(2-3): 83-97.
182 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) Drid, Touria. 2010. “Discourse Analysis: Key Concepts and Perspectives.” Al Athar Journal 9: 20-25. Retrieved from: https://www.academia.edu/29803928/Discourse_Analysis_Key_Concepts_and_Perspectives. Félix de Sousa, Isabela Cabral, & Ana Tereza Pinto Filipecki. 2017. “Scientific Initiation of High School Students: a look at this Formation in a Brazilian Biomedical Research Institution.” Visioni Latinoamericane 17: 74-95. Retrieved from: https://www.arca.fiocruz.br/handle/icict/20534. Fisher, Gene. A., & Chon, Kyum Koo. 1989. “Durkheim and the social construction of emotions.” Social Psychology Quarterly 52(1): 1-9. https://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2786899. Meis, Leopoldo. 2000. "Chocolatology." In Science and Education: The Human-Technological Conflict, edited by Leopoldo Meis, 14-16. Rio de Janeiro: SENAC. Organization for Economic Co-Operation and Development. 2019. “Education at a Glance 2019: OECD Indicators”. Paris: OECD Publishing. Retrieved from: https://www.oecd.org/education/education-at-a- glance/EAG2019_CN_BRA.pdf. Ovigli, Daniel Fernando Boloventa. 2014. “Scientific Initiation in Basic Education: A More Than Necessary Activity.” Revista Brasileira de Iniciação Científica 1(1): 78-90. Retrieved from: https://periodicos.itp.ifsp.edu.br/index.php/IC/article/view/13/425. Rosiek, Jerry. 2014. “Emotional Scaffolding: An Exploration of the Teacher Knowledge at the Intersection of Student Emotion and the Subject Matter.” Journal of Teacher Education 54(5): 399-412. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0022487103257089. Salata, André. 2018. “Higher Education in Brazil of the Last Decades: Reduction in Inequalities.” Tempo Social 30(2): 219-253. https://doi.org/10.11606/0103-2070.ts.2018.125482. Santos, Bruna Navarone, Cristiane N. Braga, & Isabela C. F. de Sousa. 2018a. “Gender Inequalities and Emotions in the Choices of Young People of the Scientific Vocation Program of the Oswaldo Cruz Foundation.” Paper presented at Colóquio Internacional de Filosofia e Educação, State University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, 05 October 2018. Retrieved from: http://www.filoeduc.org/9cife/adm/trabalhos/diagramados/TR379.pdf. Santos, Bruna Navarone, Ana T. P. Filipecki, Cristiane N. Braga, & Isabela C. F. de Sousa. 2018b. “The Availability for Careers in the Biological Sciences and Health of Alumni of the Oswaldo Cruz Foundation's Scientific Vocation Program.” Cadernos de Gênero e Tecnologia 11(37): 27-39. https://doi.org/10.3895/cgt.v11n37.7564. Santos, Bruna Navarone, Cristiane N. Braga, Ana T. P. Filipecki, & Isabela C. F de Sousa. 2019. "Youths in Scientific Research: Gender and Emotions Experiences." Revista Brasileira de Iniciação Científica 6(7): 94-107. Retrieved from: https://periodicos.itp.ifsp.edu.br/index.php/IC/article/view/1147/1158. Sousa, Isabela Cabral Félix de, & Ana T. P. Filipecki. 2009. “Mentoring: The Relationship That Makes the Difference in Scientific Research Training for Youth.” IEEE Professional Communication Society Newsletter 53(7): 1-3. Retrieved from: https://www.arca.fiocruz.br/bitstream/icict/8945/2/pub17_mentoringtherelation.pdf.
JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) 183 An Investigation of Transition Experiences of Students with Visual Impairment in Public Universities in Ghana
Sandra Tsoenemawu Sikanku
University of Cape Coast, Ghana
Email: [email protected] Address: Cape Coast, Ghana
Introduction
Global concern in widening access for persons with disability including the visually impaired was pushed by the tenets stipulated in international conventions such as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) of 1948, the Salamanca Statement of 1994, the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRDP), adopted in 2006 and the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals 4 and 10. As a result, inclusive education has been widely accepted as a model for higher education provision (Maher 2009). Inclusion philosophies are experiencing a rapid growth worldwide. There are frameworks that supports the participation of students with disabilities in higher education. For instance, in Europe, this agenda is spearheaded by the European Disability Strategy 2010-2020 (European Commission 2010). This has led to most universities in the European countries to respond by offering structures to improve the learning of students with disabilities (Fernie and Henning 2006). The interventions have led to a surge in the enrolment of students with disabilities including students with visual impairment in universities. For instance, in 2004/5 students with disabilities represented 7.1% of the total student population in the United Kingdom. By 2013/14, they accounted for 11% of all full-time undergraduates (Riddell, n.d). Similarly, in Australia, higher education institutions are guided by the Disability Discrimination Act of 1992 to offer specialist disability services to meet their obligations to students with disability, as well as develop course and campus design measures to provide inclusive curriculum and building design to accommodate students with a variety of impairments (Cunninghame, Costello and Trinidad 2016). The proportion of higher education for students with disabilities including students with visual impairment has since increased from 4.4% in 2007, to 5.8% in 2014 (Koshy and Seymour 2015). Equally, Ghana, a signatory to all the above mentioned international conventions have domesticated these tenets in its 1992 Constitution, Persons with Disability Act 715, the Education Strategic Plan 2018- 2030, and the Education For All ( EFA) policy. The EFA policy requires all schools, including higher education institutions to adhere to the principle of universal design for learning (Ministry of Education, 2015). This seems to have led to a surge in the number of students with disabilities including those with visual impairment accessing public universities in Ghana. However, despite the upsurge in the enrolment figure, limited research exists on the experiences of students with disabilities enrolled in public universities in Ghana.
Literature review
Transition to university has become a topic of interest for policy makers and scholars around the world. This is because, student transition to university offers significant challenges to university stakeholders (Briggs, Clarke and Hall 2012). Transitions are part of everyone’s life while some can be predictable others are spontaneous. Conceptually, transition may mean different things to different people however, in education, transition is defined as the movement
184 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) of the individual from one position, stage, school or environment to another (Strnadova and Cumming 2014). Transition can be within school or out of school such as moving from secondary to postsecondary including universities. The transition to universities is a crucial process in the lives of young students who earnestly want to pursue higher education. However, many students including those with disabilities approach higher education with mixed feelings. Generally, while transition is perceived as stressful experience for all students, however, it is especially challenging for students with disabilities including those who are visually impaired (Benavente 2015). While most students succeed and thrive at the university, students who are visually impaired encounter numerous difficulties (Hewett, Graeme, and Keil 2014). This is because, disability makes transition a more challenging experience as student with disabilities would have to adapt to their new environment. Georgallis (2015), is of the view that this low level of entry to post-secondary education among this student cohort is not about their ability, but is a result of a dearth of learning opportunity and supports. It appears the difficulties students with disabilities encounter are likely to increases as the students realizes that, the personal support they had in secondary school varies from the one at the university. Evidence shows that, the dropout rate of students with disabilities is almost double as compared with their peers who are non-disabled and that they are less likely to graduate because they are unable to access educational facilities (Bardin and Lewi, 2008; Benavente 2015; Cobb, Simple, Alwell and Johns 2006). Literature suggests that student with disability transitions in higher education is underpinned by a lack of clarity and agreement as to what is meant by ‘transition’ and by a lack of theorizing around transition to allow higher education practitioners to move beyond description and evaluation towards explanation and evidence-based intervention (O’Donnell, Kean and Stevens 2016). Though many higher education institutions are in compliance with disability laws, students with disabilities including the visually impaired may still be experiencing ableism in diverse ways through the culture competence of universities. Cultural competence in regard to the ways in which universities seek to respond to meet the needs of students with disabilities including those with visual impairment. Basically, culture competence is an on-going process which is essentially a set of congruent behaviors, attitudes and policies that align in a system of agency or profession to work effectively in cross culture situations (Cross 1989). Universities have pivotal roles to play in facilitating effective transitions for students including those with disabilities (Ebersold 2011; Mc Guckin, Shevlin, Bell, and Devecchi 2013). This can be achieved through the development of policies to serve as blue prints in providing special education and it related services to students with disability. This is important for the success of students with disabilities in universities. In order to ensure that students with disabilities are not at a substantial disadvantage compared to their non-disabled peers, higher education institutions are required by law to make anticipatory reasonable adjustments for each student with disability through transition plans. However, it is not clearly defined what these reasonable adjustments should be but may include, access to adaptive technology (Hutcheon and Wolbring, 2012; Redpath, Kearney, Nicholl, Mulvenna, Wallace, and Martin 2013) or adjustments in relation to teaching, learning and assessment (Redpath et al. 2013; Riddell and Weedon 2014; Smith 2010). These adjustments should be specific to each individual student need and requirements of the programme (Elcock 2014). Taylor, Baskett, and Wren (2010) are of the view that, the importance of ensuring that these adjustments are in place prior to the student commencing their course of study is very imperative. It is however, uncertain if these provision are adhered to in Ghanaian public universities. It is clear from the literature that most studies on transition on students with visual impairment are well documented from developed countries (Benavente 2015; Hewett, Graeme and Sue 2014). It appears very little is known from low-income developing countries like Ghana. Compared to low incidence disability such as visual impairment, Georgallis (2015), is of the view that students with high incidence disability such as those with learning disabilities are also experiencing an increase in the number of students entering into higher education including universities. Conner (2012) reported the number of students with learning disabilities has tripled in the last 30 years. Despite legislation mandating transition services for students with disabilities, Hawbaker (2003), is of the view that a contradiction exist between rhetoric and action. Students with
JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) 185 learning disabilities also face daunting challenges in education when leaving high school to enter universities heightening the need for an investigation into the experiences of students with visual impairment in public universities in Ghana.
Theoretical Perspective
The Self-determination theory which was developed by Deci and Ryan (2000) will be used to unpack the lived experiences of students with disabilities in public universities in Ghana. Self-determination theory proposes that satisfaction of the basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness is necessary for effective internalization and for psychological growth, integrity, and well-being. Wehman (2011) is of the view that “Self- Determination skills are necessary for transition planning to succeed” This makes this theory suitable for this study.
Research Methodology
This study will be guided by the philosophical assumption of constructivism which will adopt a qualitative research inquiry that seeks in-depth understanding of social phenomenon within their natural setting. This approach will emphasize words rather than quantification in the collection and analysis of data (Bryman 2012). Qualitative methodology will enable an examination of the actors’ experiences through their own narration. The objective of the study is to understand the transition experiences of students with visual impairment about this phenomenon using a case study design. Research design A research design is a type of inquiry within qualitative approaches that provide specific direction for procedures in a research. It is called a strategy of inquiry by other scholars (Denzin and Lincoln 2011). The research design that will be used to study the impact of the delivery of ODL on students with visual impairment in University of Ghana, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, University of Cape Coast and the University of Education, Winneba will be a multiple case study. According to Yin (2018), a case study as an empirical method, investigates a contemporary phenomenon (the “case”) in depth and within its real-world context, especially when the boundaries between phenomenon and the context may not be clearly evident. Sampling and Sample technique Purposive sampling will be employed to select the universities as well as the participants to be involved in this study. This involves identifying and selecting individuals or groups of individuals that are especially knowledgeable about or experienced with a phenomenon of interest (Creswell, Plano, and Clark 2011). A sample of four Heads of Disability Support Centres, 4 Heads of Student Support Centres, and all Students with visual impairment in the case universities namely: University of Cape Coast, University of Education, Winneba, University of Ghana and Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology will be used for the studies. Data collection methods Data collection is important to enhance the trustworthiness of the findings (Ary, Jacobs, Sorensen and Walker 2014). In this study, dual data collection techniques such as semi-structured interview and document analysis and will be employed in this study. The nature of this study suggests that we recognize the voices of principal agents in the study and in this case, students with visual impairment transition in Ghanaian public universities in the form of interview. Interview is a conversation between two or more parties with the specific goal to obtain information from the respondents (Herman-Kinney, and Verschaeve 2003). The use of semi-structured interview to collect data for this study is consistent with qualitative methodology which seeks to uncover and describe the understanding with key informants share about a situation (Burns, 1996). Through the use of semi-structured interview voices of students with visual impairment in public universities will share their transition experiences. In addition to semi-structured interview,
186 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) data will be collected from documents. Cohen et al (2011) refers to a document as a record of an event or process. In this study, relevant document from the universities such as admission register, disability policy documents, frameworks among others will be analysed. Entering the Research Site According to Ary, Jacobs Sorensen and Walker (2014) ethical consideration is important issue for qualitative researchers in order to gain access to the research site. Therefore prior to conducting the research, permission will be sought from the “gatekeeper” within the university. These are individuals within the organisation who not only support the proposed research but will allow access to particular groups in this case, students with visual impairment. I will seek permission and official consent of the Vice Chancellors of the 4 public universities and Heads of the Resource Centre in Ghana by writing to them. The content of the letter will include the nature of the research, the envisaged timescale for the work and any plans that have been made to anonymise and safeguard the data.
Ethics
I will officially write to seek ethics approval from the Ethics Committee of my university to warrant the study. All the participants of this study will be written to in order to seek their consent to participate in this study. The nature and purpose of the study, the risk and benefits associated with this study, their right to participate and withdraw at any time, the methods that will be used to collect the data, how confidentiality and anonymity of the data will be guaranteed and how data will be stored and used will be made known to the research participant. Finally, in terms of reciprocation, a written report presenting the findings of the research will be presented to the case universities involved or disseminated at various conference forums.
References
Ary, Donald, Jacobs, Lucy Cheser, Sorensen, Christine, K. & Walker, David, A. 2014. Introduction To Research in Education. New York: Wadsworth: Cengage Learning. Association on Higher Education and Disability. 2015. Supporting Accommodation Requests: Guidance on Documentation Practices. http://ahead.org/resources/documentation-guidance. Bardin, Julie, A., & Lewis, Sandra. 2008. "A Survey of Academic Engagement of Students with Visual Impairments in General Education Classes. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness 102 (8): 472-483. Benavente, Pacheco, Edgar. 2015. Vision Impairment and Transition to University Education. Vision Impairment and Transition to University Education: The role of ICTs. Unpublished PhD thesis submitted to the Victoria University of Wellington. Briggs, Ann, R. Clark, Jill, & Hall, Ian. 2012. "Building Bridges: Understanding Student Transition to University." Quality in Higher Education 18(1): 3-21. Bryman, Alan. 2012. Social Research Methods. (4th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Cobb, Brain. Sample, Pat. L., Alwell, Morgen, & Johns, Nikole. R. 2006. "Cognitive-Behavioral Interventions, Dropout, and Youth with Disabilities: A Systematic Review.” Remedial and Special Education 27(5):259-275. Cohen, Louis., Manion, Lawrence, & Morrison, Keith. 2011. Research Methods in Education. London: Routlage. Connor, David. J., 2012. "Helping Students with Disabilities Transition to College." Teaching Exceptional Children 44(5): 16-25. Cresswell, John, W. & Plano Clark, Vick. L. 2011. Designing and Conducting Mixed Method Research (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publication.
JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) 187 Cunninghame, Ian., Costello, Diane., & Trinidad, Sue. 2016. Issues and Trends for Students With Disabilities. Perth: Curtin University. Cross, Terry., Bazron, Barbara. J. Dennis, Kari. W. and Isaacs, Mareasa. R. 1989. Towards A Culturally Competent System of Care, Volume I. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Child Development Center, CASSP Technical Assistance Center. Deci, Edward. L,.& Ryan, Richard, M. 2000. “Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivations: Classic Definitions and New Directions.” Contemporary Educational Psychology 25(1): 54-67. Denzin, Norman. K., & Lincoln, Yvonna. S. 2011. Handbook of Qualitative Research. Thousand Oaks: Sage. Hawbaker, Becky. 2003. Students-led IEP Meetings: Planning and Implementation Strategies. Teaching Exceptional Children 3 (5): 22-27. Ebersold, Serge. 2012. Transitions to Tertiary Education and Work for Youth with Disabilities: Education and Training Policy. Paris: OECD Publishing. Elcock, Karen. 2014. "Supporting Students with Disabilities: Good Progress, But Must Try Harder." British Journal of Nursing 23(13):758. European Commission. 2019. European Disability Strategy 2010-2020. Brussels: European Commission. Fernie, Todd, & Henning, Marcus. 2006. “From a Disabling World to a New Vision.” In Towards Inclusive Learning in Higher Education: developing curricula for disabled students, edited by M. Adams& S. Brown, 23-31. Oxon: Routledge. Georgallis, Christine, H. 2015. Transition Programming for Students with Learning Disabilities from High School to College. PhD thesis dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Special Education Walden University. Government of Ghana. 2006. Persons with Disability Act, Act 715. Accra: Government of Ghana. Herman-Kinney, Nancy, & Verschaeve, Joseph. 2013. “Methods of Symbolic Interactionism.” In Handbook of Symbolic Interactionism, edited by L. Reynolds and N. Herman-Kinney, 213-52. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press. Hewett, Racheal., Douglas, Graeme., & Keil, Sue. 2014. "Post-16 Transition Experience of Visually Impaired Young People in England and Wales: Early Findings From a Longitudinal Study." British Journal of Visual Impairment 32(3): 211-222. Hewett, Racheal, Keil, Sue., & Douglas, Graeme. 2015. Experiences of Blind and Partially Sighted Young People as They Make the Transition into Higher Education. Visual Impairment Centre for Teaching and Research, University of Birmingham. Hutcheon, Emily J. & Wolbring, Gregor. 2015. "Voices of “Disabled” Post-Secondary Students: Examining Higher Education “Disability” Policy Using an Ableism Lens." Journal of Diversity in Higher Education 5(1), 39–49. Kimball, Ezekiel. W., Wells, Ryan. S., Ostiguy, Benjamin. J., Manly, Cathriene. A., & Lauterbach, Alexanra. A., 2016. “Students Without Disabilities in Higher Education: A Review of the Literature and An Agenda for Future Eesearch”. In Higher Education: Handbook of Theory and Research, 91-156. Springer International Publishing. Koshy, Paul,& Seymour, Richard. (2015). Student Equity Performance in Australian Higher Education (2007 - 2014). Perth: National Centre for Student Equity in Higher. Maher, Marguerite. I. 2009. "Information and Advocacy: Forgotten Components in the Strategies for Achieving Inclusive Education in South Africa?" Africa Education Review 6(1): 19-36. Mc Guckin, Cornor. Shevlin, Micheal. Bell, Sheena, & Devecchi, Cristina. 2013. Moving to Further and Higher Education: An Exploration of the Experiences of Students with Special Educational Needs. Dublin: NCSE. Ministry of Education. 2015. Inclusive Policy. Accra: Ministry of Education. O'Donnell, Victoria. L., Kean, Marcella, & Stevens, Gemma. 2017. Students Transition in Higher Education: Concepts, Theories and Practices. The Higher Education Academy.
188 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) Redpath, Jennifer., Kearney, Patricia, Nicholl, Peter., Mulvenna, Maurice., Wallace, Johnathan, & Martin, Suzanne. 2013. "A Qualitative Study of the Lived Experiences of Disabled Post-Transition Students in Higher Education Institutions in Northern Ireland." Studies in Higher Education 38(9):1334–1350. Riddell, Sheila. (n.d). The Inclusion of Disabled Students in Higher Education in Europe: Progress and Challenges. Edinburgh: University of Edinburgh. Riddell, Sheila, & Weedon, Elisabet. 2014. "Disabled Students in Higher Education: Discourses of Disability and the Negotiation of Identity." International Journal of Educational Research 63: 38–46. Smith, Maria. 2010. "Lecturers’ Attitudes to Inclusive Teaching Practice at a UK University: Will Staff “Resistance” Hinder Implementation?" Tertiary Education and Management 16(3): 211–227. Strnadova, Iva, & Cumming, Therese. M. 2014. "The Importance of Quality Transition Processes for Students with Disabilities Across Settings: Learning from the Current Situation in New South Wales." Australian Journal of Education 58(3):318–336. Taylor, Mark, Baskett, Mike, & Wren, Cris. 2010. "Managing the Transition to University for Disabled Students." Journal of Education and Training 52(2):165–175. The Constitution of Ghana. 1992. Accra: Government of Ghana. UNESCO. (1994). "The Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action on Special Needs." Journal of Visual Impairment 32 (3): 211-222. Wehman, Paul. 2011. Essentials of Transition Planning. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes, p.6. Yin, Robert. K. 2018. Case Study Research and Applications Design and Methods (6th ed.). Thousand Oaks, United States: Sage Publication Inc.
JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) 189 Capabilities for Media Graduate Employability: A Case Study of Private Higher Education in South Africa
Fenella Somerville
University of the Free State, South Africa
Email: [email protected] Address: SARCHi Chair in Higher Education and Human Development, University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, 9301, South Africa
Introduction
Very high levels of youth and graduate unemployment are a concern in South Africa. The national unemployment rate has risen to 29 percent, up from 21.5 percent in 2008 (StatsSA 2019) and currently ranking amongst the highest in the world. A dominant discourse of employability in the context of a global knowledge economy draws a direct link between education, employment, and economic growth (Brown 2003). Accordingly, higher education plays an instrumental role in producing graduates as human capital whose value lies in increasing productivity for economic gain (Becker 1962; Schultz 1962). The importance of a job in enabling a better future has driven increased demand for higher education, fueled by high expectations of the potential of a qualification to realize students’ aspirations. However, when graduates enter the labor market, they face barriers grounded on influences beyond the control of higher education. Rapidly-evolving technology is transforming and impacting on all industries. The amalgamation of the media and technology industries is leading to redundancy and restructuring on the one hand, and creative, new work opportunities on the other (World Economic Forum, 2016). As a result, higher education faces a daunting challenge preparing graduates for this disrupted and disrupting market.
The Quest
This study challenges our understanding of employability and the reliance on higher education to prepare graduates to meet employers’ needs. Private higher education in South Africa is a relatively small, yet diverse sector. Institutions range in size, form, and target constituency, but they are all predominantly commercial entities that deliver vocational and practical programs at the undergraduate level (Levy 2003). Employment is important for the livelihood and well-being of graduates and their families. But is this responsibility solely that of higher education? And what happens in a constrained economy when the supply of graduates exceeds employers’ demands or their budgets? The capability approach prioritizes the needs of people over the economy (Sen 1999), and I use it as an evaluative framework to understand the range of realities of media graduates’ journeys in the workplace and the factors that differentially enable or constrain their careers and life paths.
The Methodology
Using a mixed methods sequential exploratory design within a transformative paradigm, the project explores the employment experiences of media graduates from three private higher education institutions in South Africa. The qualitative phase of the study comprised individual, semi-structured interviews conducted with twenty-one media graduates, four key informants from the institutions, and six media employers. These interviews produced in-depth perspectives on graduate transition and participation in the current media work space. The rich qualitative data
190 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) underpinned the quantitative phase, which took the form of an electronic survey conducted with 2,746 media graduates. The survey produced a wider profile of private higher education media graduates and a broader understanding of their values, opportunities, and well-being as media practitioners.
The Contribution
Globalization and the commodification of knowledge have prioritized employability as a function of higher education worldwide (Tomlinson 2012). Nations compete for global standing, yet local education systems face pressures particular to their socio-economic, political, and historic contexts. Higher education serves a purpose beyond preparing graduates as labor, with ethical and moral obligations to individuals as well as to society (Boni and Walker 2016; McCowan 2015). Much of the research on employability and higher education has emerged from public universities (Walter and Fongwa 2017; Tomlinson 2012). Based on the different stakeholder perspectives and the actual experiences of graduates, this small-scale study provides insight into the role of private higher education in the realization of media graduate employability and well-being. The value of this study lies in presenting a perspective from the global South and the specific context of private higher education in South Africa.
The Main Take-Away
The data shows that graduates feel the practical and industry-relevant programs delivered by private institutions prepared them well enough to function in the dynamic field of media. Institutions provide graduates with skills, knowledge, and ready access to industry networks. Yet, employment outcomes are not the same for all the graduates, and even skilled and agile candidates from reputable institutions may not find employment. Employers in media organizations indicate that they no longer expect fully work-ready graduates as they increasingly try just to keep up with the rapid changes in digital technology. This study prompts new understandings of the meaning of employability beyond individually embodied attributes to meet employers’ needs. Employability depends to a great extent on the ability of agentic and adaptable individuals to be able to establish connections and collaborate with existing structures in order to find employment or to create new opportunities that help shape the evolving work space.
References
Becker, Gary S. 1962. “Investment in Human Capital: A Theoretical Analysis.” Journal of Political Economy 70(5): Investment in Human Beings: 9–49. https://www.jstor.org/stable/i304799. Boni, Alejandra, and Melanie Walker. 2016. Universities and Global Human Development: Theoretical and Empirical Insights for Social Change. London: Routledge. Brown, Phillip. 2003. “The Opportunity Trap: Education and Employment in a Global Economy.” European Educational Research Journal 2(1): 141–179. doi:10.2304/eerj.2003.2.1.4. Levy, Daniel C. 2003. “Profits and Practicality: How South Africa Epitomizes the Global Surge in Commercial Private Higher Education.” PROPHE Working paper (2). http://www.albany.edu/~prophe/. McCowan, Tristan. 2015. “Should Universities Promote Employability?” Theory and Research in Education 13(3): 267–285. doi:10.1177/1477878515598060. Sen, Amartya. 1999. Development as Freedom. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Schultz, Theodore W. 1961. “Investment in Human Capital.” The American Economic Review 51(1): 1-17. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1818907.
JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) 191 StatsSA. 2019. Quarterly Labour Force Survey. Quarter 2. Pretoria: Statistics South Africa. http://www.statssa.gov.za/?page_id=1854&PPN=P0211. Tomlinson, Michael. 2012. “Graduate Employability: A Review of Conceptual and Empirical Themes.” Higher Education Policy 25: 407–431. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1057/hep.2011.26. Walker, Melanie, and Samuel Fongwa. 2017. Universities, Employability and Human Development. London: Palgrave Macmillan. World Economic Forum. 2016. “Digital Transformation of Industries: Media, Entertainment and Information.” WEF White Paper. http://reports.weforum.org/digital-transformation/media/.
192 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) Bumping into the Glass Ceiling: Exploring Women's Experiences Seeking Positional Leadership Roles Within the Student Affairs Profession in South Africa
Jamie Storeya,*
aCentral Michigan University, United States
*Corresponding author: Email: [email protected]. Address: Central Michigan University, Michigan, United States
Introduction
Women in South Africa are not attaining positional leadership roles within student affairs at an equitable rate as their male counterparts (Person, Saunders, and Oganesian 2014; White, Bagilhole, and Riordan 2012). Student affairs in South Africa is a relatively new, burgeoning field in need of diverse, qualified professionals and effective leadership (Schreiber, Moja, and Luescher 2016; Selznick 2013). Women educators in South Africa face difficult challenges in a male-dominated environment. Despite various efforts to advance women within South African educational administration, gender biases and structural barriers exist, preventing women from progressing into leadership roles at an equitable rate (Person, Saunders, and Oganesian 2014). While women’s experiences seeking leadership roles have been explored, few research studies focus on women seeking student affairs leadership roles in South Africa.
Problem Statement
The purpose of this phenomenological study is to explore the meaning women ascribe to the experience of seeking formal leadership positions within the field of student affairs in South Africa. Formal leadership positions are defined as directors, executive directors, deans, deputy vice chancellors, or vice chancellors. The overarching question guiding this study is: What is the lived experience of student affairs women professionals in South Africa who seek formal leadership positions? Further, I am considering two sub-questions throughout the study: 1. What meaning do student affairs women professionals make of the experience of seeking formal leadership positions in South Africa? 2. How do these women navigate work and family balance conflict while seeking formal leadership positions in student affairs in South Africa?
Literature Review
Research shows a considerable disparity between the number of women in the student affairs profession overall and the percentage who secure positional leadership roles (Bichsel and McChesney 2017; White, Bagilhole, and Riordan 2012). The incongruence among women professionals securing leadership positions at South African universities is no different (Mayer, Oosthuizen, and Surtee, 2017; Person, Saunders, and Oganesian 2014). As African institutions of higher education become more accessible, the need for skilled professionals increases. In turn, the demand for student affairs leaders reflective of the increasingly diverse student population intensifies and necessitates a review of equity among senior management positions (Schreiber, Moja, and Luescher 2016; Selznick 2013).
JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) 193 While women are gaining ground in attaining leadership roles within higher education, there is little debate that barriers continue to prevent career advancement (Airini et al. 2011). Research indicates many factors impact women’s movement into leadership roles (Diehl 2014). Stereotypes assuming women are less effective leaders than men continue to exist (Person, Saunders, and Oganesian 2014). Women are more likely than men to experience scrutinized credentials and skepticism concerning leadership (Hannum et al. 2015). Men often exclude women from networking, support systems, mentorship, and career advancement opportunities due to homosociability (Airini et al. 2011; Baltodano et al. 2012; White, Bagilhole, and Riordan 2012). As men continue to have stronger representation within higher education networks, they continue to influence hiring procedures and recruitment practices making it difficult for women to advance into leadership positions (Shepherd 2017). Further, some research suggests that barriers at the societal and institutional level influence women’s personal decision-making surrounding leadership aspirations (Airini et al. 2011; Diehl 2014). In South African society, women have been viewed as responsible for domestic roles and unable to devote time and energy to leadership positions within educational administration (Person, Saunders, and Oganesian 2014). According to some research, women consider the anticipation of conflicts between work and family and the lack of societal, institutional, and familial support when making decisions about leadership aspirations (Coyle et al. 2015; Ganginis Del Pino et al. 2013; Savela, and O’Brien 2016). By exploring women’s experiences seeking positional leadership within the student affairs profession in South Africa, it is possible to achieve a stronger understanding of the barriers impeding desired career trajectory. Using a phenomenological study explored through a feminist perspective centers women’s attitudes surrounding the essence of seeking positional leadership roles. At its core, “feminist research is centrally defined by questions originating from a women’s perspective” (Broido and Manning, 2002, p. 442). The feminist perspective emphasizes how individuals’ experiences are influenced by gender within social and cultural contexts (Jones, Torres, and Arminio 2014). Further, feminist theory situates women’s experiences into a broader, shared context which is consistent with the phenomenological research goal of defining a shared essence (Butler 1988).
Methods
Participants in the study identify as women student affairs professionals, 18+ years of age, who have sought or are seeking leadership positions in South Africa. According to Love (2003), student affairs consists of administrative functions outside the classroom within higher education. Invitations to participate in interviews were sent to women at all levels of the organization at five universities in South Africa, and I will select five who volunteer and identify with the criteria. I am conducting in-depth, semi-structured interviews using open-ended questions that encourage participants to describe the meaning they make about experiences. All interviews will be audio recorded and transcribed. I will practice epoché, by reflecting on assumptions, judgments, and understandings of myself and the phenomenon (Creswell and Poth 2018). The data will be analyzed and contextualized within literature surrounding gendered leadership within student affairs in South Africa as well the United States. I will analyze the interviews by reviewing significant statements, constructing overarching themes, and creating a composition descriptive of the phenomenon.
Conclusion
The phenomenological study gives voice to women’s personal narratives and experiences seeking progression into leadership positions in South Africa. Further, women’s experiences seeking leadership within student affairs in South Africa will be contextualized and compared to women’s experiences within the United States using the current literature base. In this way, the study fills a gap in research and literature. The study will inform higher education
194 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) policy and women’s leadership development programs. Finally, leaders understanding gender inequities can create environments that support women’s desired career aspirations and aim to increase gender parity.
References
Airini, Sunny Collings, Lindsey Conner, Kathryn Mcpherson, Brenda Midson, & Cheryl Wilson. 2011. “Learning to Be Leaders in Higher Education: What Helps or Hinders Women’s Advancement as Leaders in Universities.” Educational Management Administration & Leadership 39 (1): 44–62. https://doi.org/10.1177/1741143210383896. Baltodano, Josefina Castillo, Susan Carlson, Leah Witcher Jackson, & Wanda Mitchell. 2012. “Networking to Leadership in Higher Education.” Advances in Developing Human Resources 14 (1): 62–78. https://doi.org/10.1177/1523422311428926. Bichsel, Jacqueline, & Jasper McChesney. 2017. “The Gender Pay Gap and the Representation of Women in Higher Education.” CUPA, https://www.cupahr.org/surveys/publications/research-briefs/. Broido, Ellen, & Kathleen Manning. 2002. “Philosophical Foundations and Current Theoretical Perspectives in Qualitative Research.” Journal of College Student Development 43 (4): 434–45. Butler, Judith. 1988. “Performative Acts and Gender Constitution: An Essay in Phenomenology and Feminist Theory.” Theatre Journal 40 (4): 519–31. https://doi.org/10.2307/3207893. Coyle, Emily F., Elizabeth Van Leer, Kingsley M. Schroeder, & Megan Fulcher. 2015. “Planning to Have It All: Emerging Adults’ Expectations of Future Work-Family Conflict.” Sex Roles 72: 547–57. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-015-0492-y. Creswell, John W., & Cheryl N. Poth. 2018. Qualitative Inquiry & Research Design: Choosing among Five Approaches. Los Angeles: SAGE Publications. Diehl, Amy. 2014. “Making Meaning of Barriers and Adversity: Experiences of Women Leaders in Higher Education.” Advancing Women in Leadership 34: 54–63. Ganginis Del Pino, Heather V., Karen M. Obrien, Ethan Mereish, & Matthew J. Miller. 2013. “‘Leaving before She Leaves’: Considering Future Family When Making Career Plans.” Journal of Counseling Psychology 60 (3): 462– 70. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032651. Hannum, Kelly, Shannon Muhly, Pamela Shockley-Zalabak, & Judith White. 2015. “Women Leaders within Higher Education in the United States: Supports, Barriers, and Experiences of Being a Senior Leader.” Advancing Women in Leadership 35: 65–75. Jones, Susan R., Vasti Torres, and Jan L. Arminio. 2014. Negotiating the Complexities of Qualitative Research in Higher Education: Fundamental Elements and Issues. New York, NY: Routledge. Love, Patrick. 2003. “Considering a Career in Student Affairs.” ACPA. http://www.myacpa.org/considering-career- student-affairs. Mayer, Claude-Helene, Rudolf M. Oosthuizen, & Sabie Surtee. 2017. “Emotional Intelligence in South African Women Leaders in Higher Education.” SA Journal of Industrial Psychology 43: 1-12. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajip.v43i0.1405. Person, Dawn, Katherine Saunders, & Kristina Oganesian. 2014. “Building South African Women’s Leadership: A Cohort Model for the PhD in Student Affairs.” Journal of Student Affairs in Africa 2 (1): 9–22. https://doi.org/10.14426/jsaa.v2i1.47. Savela, Alexandra E., & Karen M. O’Brien. 2016. “Predicting College Women’s Career Plans.” Journal of Career Development 43 (4): 335–48. https://doi.org.10.1177/0894845315602118.
JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) 195 Selznick, Benjamin. 2013. “A Proposed Model for the Continued Professionalisation of Student Affairs in Africa.” Journal of Student Affairs in Africa 1 (1): 11–22. https://doi.org/10.14426/jsaa.v1i1-2.35. Schreiber, Birgit, Teboho Moja, & Theirry M. Luescher. 2016. “Student Affairs in Complex Contexts.” Journal of Student Affairs in Africa 4 (2): v-viii. https://doi.org/10.14426/jsaa.v4i2.1526. Shepherd, Sue. 2017. “Why Are There so Few Female Leaders in Higher Education.” Management in Education 31 (2): 82–7. https://doi.org/10.1177/0892020617696631. White, Kate, Barbara Bagilhole, & Sarah Riordan. 2012. “The Gendered Shaping of University Leadership in Australia, South Africa and the United Kingdom.” Higher Education Quarterly 66 (3): 293–307. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2273.2012.00523.x.
196 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) Accreditation and Anticipatory Socialization to Doctoral Education in Kosovo
Nicholas Robert Stroup
University of Iowa, United States
Email: [email protected] Address: Center for Research on Undergraduate Education, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa, United States
Introduction
In 2013, controversial accreditation regulations effectively mandated that Kosovo universities employ three PhD holders in every academic program to maintain accreditation (Kosovo Accreditation Agency [KAA] 2018; Ministry of Education Science and Technology [MEST] 2013; National Qualification Authority 2016). This requirement is difficult for higher education institutions (HEIs) to fulfill for two reasons. First, only about 70 students begin PhDs in Kosovo annually (MEST 2019). Second, undergraduate enrollment at Kosovo’s universities has increased since the country’s independence in 2008 (Danuza, Mehmeti, and Saqipi 2016), driving greater demand for PhD holders to teach across the disciplines. With only 0.1 percent of GDP allotted for scientific research (Muja 2015), initiatives to increase capacity for doctoral education must be strategically tied to national priorities. To help HEI leaders make strategic decisions to expand doctoral education in Kosovo, the research questions for this study are: RQ1: What factors related to accreditation and legitimacy affect the delivery of doctoral education in Kosovo? RQ2: How do these decisions affect the socialization of doctoral students?
Accreditation and Legitimacy
Despite legitimation efforts like the three-PhD accreditation rule, HEIs in Kosovo face scrutiny degree quality from supranational and national levels. At the supranational level, the European Quality Assurance Register for Higher Education (EQAR) accepted KAA as a registered agency in 2015, certifying KAA as a legitimate accreditor of degree programs in Europe. Three years later, following controversial education MEST actions affecting KAA (Limani 2017), EQAR removed KAA from the registry (Baliu 2019; EQAR 2018), leaving Kosovo’s university graduates with credentials unrecognized throughout Europe. Supranational legitimacy aside, the within-country legitimacy of credentials in Kosovo remain constantly debated. In 2019, nearly half of Kosovo’s public universities lost KAA accreditation for all their programs (KAA 2019), which followed disaccreditation of dozens of around the country mere months before (Ademaj 2019). When the legitimacy of a credential is questionable - as codified by accreditation - prospective students cannot accurately assess the value of the programs they foresee themselves pursuing.
Anticipatory Graduate Student Socialization
Foreseeing what doctoral study entails is what Weidman, Twale, and Stein (2001) term anticipatory socialization. In anticipatory socialization, newcomers to doctoral study develop notional understandings about what doctoral pursuits will entail, relying upon idealized portrayals (12). Moreover, graduate socialization consists of dual processes of approaching graduate study and approaching a professional field (Golde 1998). The scarcity of terminal degree holders in Kosovo means prospective students have few embodied guideposts to help develop realistic expectations for
JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) 197 their doctoral experience or their transition to professional life. As such, their anticipatory socialization may be idealistic, rather than well-informed.
Data Collection
To approach the two research questions, I implemented a QUAL+quan simultaneous design (Morse 1991). This approach situates doctoral socialization within the context of national attempts to increase capacity and meet accreditation demands for qualified academic staff. For the qualitative component, I implemented a basic qualitative study design (Merriam and Tisdell 2016) using semi-structured interviews with doctoral students in Kosovo, asking questions about why participants chose to pursue doctorates, perceptions of available choices in approaching doctoral study, and whether they believed their options were high-quality. Since data suggest mismatch between graduate programs and national needs in Kosovo (Muja 2015), I also asked about how doctoral students perceived this popular discourse in their decision to pursue a degree. Several public-access digital repositories contribute quantitative data for this study. I collected labor market data from the Kosovo Agency of Statistics (2019) and staff and student headcount data about accredited public and private HEIs from 2002-2019 MEST reports (2019). Additionally, I used reports from the Organization for Improving the Quality of Education (ORCA), an education watchdog organization, to study academic staff members’ credentials and outlets for their scholarly publications (ORCA 2019).
Preliminary Findings
Initial findings complicate perceptions of education-workforce mismatch when considering the role of accreditation. Related to RQ1, national and supranational accreditation and legitimacy concerns drove heightened scrutiny over the delivery of doctoral degrees and publications of doctoral students. As for RQ2, doctoral socialization in Kosovo is characterized by (1) barriers to pursuing academic and professional interests and (2) overlapping pressures of internationalization, funding, and identity. Those barriers and overlapping pressures affect student decisions about pursuing a doctorate in a climate where accreditation and legitimacy are constantly debated.
This study was partially funded by the University of Iowa Stanley Graduate Award for International Research (https:// international.uiowa.edu/students/awards/ stanley).
References
Ademaj, Liridona. 2019. “University of Prishtina’s Suspended Accreditation Programs.” Prishtina Insight. February 6, 2019. https://prishtinainsight.com/university -of-prishtinas-suspended-accreditation-programs/. Baliu, Doruntina. 2019. “Kosovo Accreditation Agency Axed from European Network Organization.” Prishtina Insight. October 3, 2019. https://prishtinainsight.com/kosovo-accreditation-agency-axed-from-european-network- organization/. Danuza, Teuta, Fortuna Mehmeti, & Blerim Saqipi. 2016. “EQF Referencing Report of the Kosovo National Qualifications Framework.” Accessed May 24, 2019. https://akkks.rks-gov.net/uploads/kosovo _eqf_referencing_report_2016.pdf . EQAR. 2018. “Exclusion of the Kosovo Accreditation Agency (KAA) from the Register.” Accessed October 10, 2019. https://backend.deqar.eu/reports/EQAR/ 2018- 02_Exclusion_Decision_C22_KAA .pdf.
198 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) Golde, Chris M. 1998. "Beginning Graduate School: Explaining First‐Year Doctoral Attrition." New Directions for Higher Education 1998(101): 55-64. Kosovo Accreditation Agency. 2018. “Accreditation Manual.” Accessed October 10, 2019. http://www.akreditimi- ks.org/new/index.php/en/2015-08-31-11-59-45/guidelines-for-experts-new. Kosovo Accreditation Agency. 2019. “List of AY 2019 Accredited Programs.” Accessed October 10, 2019. http:// akreditimi-ks.org/docs/Downloads/ Accreditation/kshc20092019/kshc20092019.pdf. Kosovo Agency of Statistics. 2019. “Labour Market” Accessed December 1, 2019. http://ask.rks-gov.net/sq/agjencia- e-statistikave-te-kosoves/sociale/tregu-i-punes. Limani, Lura. 2017. “Education Minister Fires Accreditation Agency Board Upon Haradinaj’s Request.” Prishtina Insight. September 26, 2017. https:// prishtinainsight.com/education-minister-fires-board-accreditation-agency- upon-haradinajs-request/. National Qualification Authority. 2016. “EQF Referencing Report of the Kosovo National Qualification Framework for General Education, VET, and Higher Education.” Accessed December 1, 2019. https://akkks.rks- gov.net/uploads/kosovo _eqf_referencing_report_2016.pdf. Merriam, Sharan B., & Elizabeth J. Tisdell. 2016. Qualitative Research: A Guide to Design and Implementation. New York: John Wiley & Sons. Ministry of Education Science and Technology. 2013. “Administrative Instruction: No. 0212013 for Accreditation of Higher Education Institutions in the Republic of Kosova” Accessed December 1, 2019. https://masht.rks- gov.net/uploads/ 2016/01/02-2013-ua-mbi-akreditimin-e-institucioneve.pdf Ministry of Education Science and Technology. 2019. “Statistikat.” Accessed December 1, 2019. https://masht.rks- gov.net/en/statistikat. Morse, Janice M. 1991. "Approaches to Qualitative-Quantitative Methodological Triangulation." Nursing research 40(2): 120-123. Muja, Armend. 2015. “Evaluation Report: Kosovo Education Strategic Plan 2011-2016.” Accessed May 24, 2019. http://masht.rks-gov.net/uploads/2016/02/raport-vleresimi-psak-2011-2016-eng-web.pdf. ORCA. 2019. “Publikimet.” Accessed October 10, 2019. http://orca-ks.org/sq/ publikimet/. Weidman, John, Darla Twale, & Elizabeth Stein. 2001. “Socialization of Graduate and Professional Students in Higher Education: A Perilous Passage?” ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Report 28 (3).
JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) 199 Translation as Charitable Currency: Exploring Linguistic Philanthropy from International Students and Alumni
Z.W. Taylor
The University of Texas at Austin, United States of America
Email: [email protected] Address: The University of Texas at Austin, College of Education, 1912 Speedway, Stop D5000, Austin, TX 78712
Introduction
Decades of extant research has suggested that higher education—in the United States (US) and beyond—has becoming increasingly internationalized, meaning that students have chosen to leave their home countries in pursuit of higher education (Altbach and Knight 2007). However, the bulk of research on the international student experience has overwhelmingly focused on why international students choose to leave home (Beech 2015), how international students choose institutions of higher education (Mazzarol and Soutar 2002), and international students’ experiences within institutions of higher education (Mamiseishvili 2012). As a critical source of institutional health—in both fiscal and cultural terms—alumni giving is an important area of scholarship that has been understudied among international education scholars, even though the impact of international students on their host countries and institutions has been well documented. In short, little is known about how international alumni are asked to give back to their alma mater. Of the few studies somewhat related to international student philanthropy, researchers have primarily focused on alumni giving from international universities in non-US countries, such as Azerbaijan (Abbasov and Drezner 2018), international alumni from specific countries, such as China (Tsunoda 2013), and how U.S. institutions and other elite international institutions could adopt philanthropic strategies from universities in other countries (Johnstone 2004; Warren and Bell 2014). Drezner’s (2013) edited book titled, Expanding the Donor Base in Higher Education: Engaging Non-Traditional Donors, touched upon alumni giving from African American alumni, Latina/o alumni, and Chinese American alumni, but did not explicitly explore international student giving and whether international students have been asked by their alma mater to provide money, service, or another form of cultural capital, such as facilitating internships or job placement. Only Coleman’s (1997) essay touched upon international student philanthropy to U.S. institutions, briefly stating that international alumni from U.S. institutions “can be a source of referrals for additional students as well as for gifts and donations to the university” (Coleman 1997, 52). No studies have explored how U.S. institutions solicit philanthropic gifts from their international students and international alumni from diverse countries. More specifically, no research has investigated what these international students and alumni are asked to give, whether it be a monetary gift, referrals to jobs or internships, or what my study proposes to investigate: linguistic philanthropy. Although higher education has continued to internationalize, the language of international higher education has remained predominantly English, as recent studies have found that over 90% of US institutions provide international admissions materials in English-only (Taylor 2018) and rarely provide translated content of any kind for international students (Taylor and Bicak 2019). It is therefore remarkable that higher education has continued to internationalize despite the considerable language barriers facing some international students seeking access to institutions of higher education beyond their home country. Coupling the importance of alumni giving and the dominance of Anglocentric communication in international higher education, I propose to research English-language learning international alumni from predominantly English institutions of higher education to answer the following research questions:
200 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) 1.) How do English-language learning international alumni view alumni giving and philanthropy? 2.) How have U.S. institutions solicited charitable donations from English-language learning international alumni and what specific donations have been solicited? 3.) How do English-language learning international alumni perceive linguistic philanthropy and are they willing to provide this form of philanthropy to their alma mater in lieu of more traditional forms of alumni giving, such as monetary gifts?
Proposed Methodology
To explore how international alumni from predominantly English institutions of higher education view alumni giving, I have been networking with international offices nestled within institutions of higher education across the United States, including in states with large international student populations, such as Texas, California, New York, and Florida. Utilizing in-depth focus groups (or one-on-one interviews, if feasible), I want to investigate how institutions of higher education engage with English-language learning international alumni and how these alumni are specifically asked to contribute to their alma mater in the form of philanthropy. As a result, I plan to first use convenience sampling methods to arrange conversations with as many international alumni as possible, prioritizing international alumni who are bilingual, instead of international alumni who may only speak English, such as international alumni from England or other predominantly English-speaking countries. I will also need to be sensitive to the fact that international alumni from US institutions are far from a homogenous population, and thus, hold incredibly diverse linguistic identities and likely had incredibly diverse postsecondary experiences while studying at their alma mater. In addition, international students often pay much more tuition than domestic students, and therefore, these students may view philanthropy differently than domestic students. To optimize generalizability, I will attempt to recruit the largest and most diverse pool of international alumni for this project, appropriately reflecting the diverse identities and experiences of these people. During the interviews and/or focus groups, I plan to ask questions related to alumni giving and international alumni perceptions of philanthropy. These questions may include, “How do you feel toward giving back to your alma mater?” and “How has your alma mater engaged with you in terms of alumni giving and/or philanthropy?” Building from their responses, I will explicitly explore my notion of linguistic philanthropy, asking the international alumni “Has your alma mater asked you to translate admissions and onboarding communication for English-language learning international students (linguistic philanthropy)?” If these alumni have been asked, I would probe by inquiring, “What specific linguistic labor has your alma mater asked you to perform?” If not, I would investigate further by asking, “Would you be interested in providing your alma mater with culturally responsive and native translations of this communication (e.g., a Tagalog speaker translating English to Tagalog for prospective international students from the Philippines) in lieu of monetary giving?” I will hypothesize that many institutions of higher education view their English-language learning international alumni as sources of financial resources and not as sources of valuable community cultural wealth and linguistic capital. In short, I do not believe U.S. institutions of higher education recruit linguistic philanthropy, nor do I believe international alumni would be opposed to providing linguistic philanthropy in lieu of more traditional forms of alumni giving, such as Coleman’s “referrals for additional students as well as for gifts and donations to the university” (Coleman 1997, 52). As a result, I will adopt a critical lens while examining how institutions of higher education extract labor or financial resources from their international alumni, paying close attention to whether this labor or these financial resources perpetuates Anglocentrism so pervasive within institutions of higher education in the United States.
Impact on Comparative and International Higher Education
JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) 201
Many English-language learning international alumni may have made considerable economic sacrifices in order to attend a US institution of higher education. Moreover, international students often face considerable hurdles toward financing their postsecondary studies, including no access to US federal student aid, typically routine and long-distance travel, unfavorable exchange rates, and other financial barriers. Upon graduation, if these alumni are asked to continue to contribute to the financial health of the institution instead of sharing their culture—and their linguistic capital through linguistic philanthropy—with their institution, these alumni could feel disenfranchised by a predominantly English-speaking education system in the United States. In lieu of a financial contribution that may fund a student scholarship or capital project, international alumni could make everlasting gifts to their alma mater in the form of translation of international student-focused communication. To slow the effects of academic capitalism and the positioning of students as consumers and sources of income (Slaughter and Rhoades 2004), linguistic capital and philanthropy must be viewed as a contribution to an institution of higher education, thus opening the door to higher education for future generations of English-language learning international students.
Main Takeaway and Conclusion
If higher education is to continue its internationalization in the future, I firmly believe that polylingual student- focused communication is the path forward. Although machine translation and artificial intelligence technologies have emerged in recent years, these machines have been found to be only somewhat accurate and not nearly as reliable as native translations (Ducar and Schocket 2018; Taylor 2018). Yet, the linguistic capital of international students and alumni has been present for generations: US institutions must begin to value this capital, and thus, the culture of their international students and alumni. To become more inclusive and supportive of international students and international alumni, US institutions of higher education ought to embrace this linguistic capital as they should, slowly dismantling an Anglocentric system of education and being. Ideally, this research will give voice to international alumni, so that they may give their alma maters a polylingual voice to speak with people in any language.
References
Abbasov, Abbas, and Noah D. Drezner. 2018. "Exploring Educational Philanthropy in Azerbaijan: Charitable Giving Behaviors among the University Alumni." Journal of Comparative & International Higher Education 10(1): 2-12. https://www.ojed.org/index.php/jcihe/article/view/902. Altbach, P. G., and J. Knight. 2007. "The Internationalization of Higher Education: Motivations and Realities." Journal of Studies in International Education 11 (3-4): 290-305. https://doi.org/10.1177/1028315307303542. Beech, S. E. 2015. "International Student Mobility: The Role of Social Networks." Social & Cultural Geography 16 (3): 332-50. https://doi.org/10.1080/14649365.2014.983961. Coleman, Susan. 1997. "International Students in the Classroom: A Resource and an Opportunity." International Education 26 (2): 52-62. https://search.proquest.com/docview/1311667224. Drezner, Noah D., ed. 2013. Expanding the Donor Base in Higher Education: Engaging Non-Traditional Donors. New York, NY: Routledge. Ducar, C., and D. H. Schocket. 2018. "Machine Translation and the L2 Classroom: Pedagogical Solutions for Making Peace with Google translate." Foreign Language Annals 51 (4): 779-95. https://doi.org/10.1111/flan.12366. Johnstone, D. Bruce. 2004. "University Revenue Diversification through Philanthropy: International Perspectives." Speech transcript, International Conference on Higher Education, Luxembourg City, Luxembourg.
202 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) Mamiseishvili, K. 2012. "International Student Persistence in U.S. Postsecondary Institutions." Higher Education 64 (1): 1-17. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-011-9477-0. Mazzarol, T., and G. Soutar. 2002. "'Push‐pull' Factors Influencing International Student Destination Choice." International Journal of Educational Management 16 (2): 82-90. https://doi.org/10.1108/09513540210418403. Slaughter, S., and G. Rhoades. 2004. Academic Capitalism and the New Economy: Markets, State, and Higher Education. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins. Taylor, Z. W. 2018. "Intelligibility is Equity: Can International Students Read Undergraduate Admissions Materials?" Higher Education Quarterly 72 (2): 160-69. https://doi.org/10.1111/hequ.12155. Taylor, Z. W., and I. Bicak. 2019. "International, Inaccessible, and Incomplete: A Texas Case Study of International Student Websites.” Journal of International Students 9 (4): 1009-1014. https://doi.org/10.32674 Tsunoda, Kozue. 2013. "Chinese American Philanthropy: Cultural Contexts Behind Major Gifts in Higher Education." In Expanding the Donor Base in Higher Education: Engaging Non-Traditional Donors, edited by Noah D. Drezner, 40-58. New York, NY: Routledge. Warren, Adam, and Morag Bell. 2014. "Knowledge Nodes and International Networks of Connection: Representations of Private Philanthropy by Elite Higher Education Institutions." Social & Cultural Geography 15 (1): 49-72. https://doi.org/10.1080/14649365.2013.862845.
JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) 203 Balance of Power: The Governance Structure of International Branch Campus in China
Yanhao Wang
Seton Hall University, United States
Email: [email protected]. Address: Seton Hall University, NJ, United States
Introduction
An international branch campus is an “off-shore operation of a higher education institution which is operated by the institution or through a joint-venture in which the institution is a partner and is in the name of the foreign institution” (Verbik 2007). Branch campuses in China, recently, have become a heated topic, not only because China is one of the most important receiving countries and holds more than 40 branch campuses (Cross-Border Education Research Team 2017), but also because some studies or news are concerning about the academic freedom or autonomy at those institutions (Altbach 2013; Redden 2019). One important feature of branch campuses in China is that they are mandated by China government to collaborate with local institutions (Huang 2008). Scholars have agreed that the organizational structures and relationships between partners contribute to the sustainability or academic freedom of branch campuses (Altbach 2013; Borgos 2016; Franklin and Alzouebi 2014). The relationship between the home campuses and local partners (local universities or government), therefore, appears as an important issue. This research studies three Sino-US branch campuses: New York University (NYU)-Shanghai, Duke-Kunshan University (DKU), and Wenzhou-Kean University (WKU). NYU-Shanghai cooperates with East China Normal University and the Shanghai government. DKU works with Wuhan University and the Kushan local government. WKU collaborates with Wenzhou University but also gets supports from the Chinese Central government. The three branch campuses were established after 2012 when the Ministry of Education of China published new policies to standardize international cooperation, so they could reflect the current trends and policies. In this research, I am examining the governing boards and senior leaderships of these universities to study the authorities and roles of different partners and how the universities balance the power of home campuses and local partners. The primary method I am using is qualitative document analysis (Bowen 2009), which is popular in organization or higher education analysis (Al Khafaji 2018; Hou et al. 2018; O'Donnell 2016; Owen 2014). The main sources of my data are official websites and faculty handbooks, from which I will acquire the basic design of the boards or senior leaderships, the responsibilities of different positions, and the background of the leaders. I also am using complementary resources like government policies, news reports and interviews for more information or evaluation from relevant people, such as the president of NYU Shanghai, the chancellor of DKU, and the Minister of Education of China. Bacharach and Lawler’s (1980) modes are applied to identify the power holders and based on the results, I will first describe the structures, such as the design of positions, to see how they reflect the cooperation or balance of power between home and local institutions. Then I will analyze the appointment of the power holders to see if they represent American home universities or Chinese partners. Next, I will compare these three institutions in order to find and explain the common features and differences. Finally, I will conclude and evaluate the campuses’ strategies to balance the powers and meet to local requirements. 204 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) Currently, I already completed analyzing DKU and am now working on analyzing NYU-Shanghai and WKU. Two distinctive facts could be found from DKU: first, the local government plays an important role in its senior leadership and the board of trustees. Second, DKU highlights its relationship with government so it has a vice chancellor of government relations. The development plan of Kunshan local government may contribute to these features. Additionally, both DKU and NYU-Shanghai keep a balanced proportion of Chinese and American leaders in their senior leaderships and oversighting boards, while WKU has only two leaders appointed by Kean University and five senior leaders of Chinese background. The reasons and effects of these different types of leadership will be a part of this research. Although international campus in China has received attention and several scholars examined governance of these institutions (Helms 2008) or strategy (Shams and Huisman 2012), few researches focus on the power balance of various partners. This research, therefore, could provide fresh data and conclusion for the research of international higher education. The main takeaway will include a description and evaluation of different strategies to balance the powers of home campuses and local partners, which could be helpful to understand how host countries’ policies could affect foreign institutions’ organization and what structures could be adopted to facilitate the development of international campus. It also helps both host and home countries to rethink then develop their strategies. The results, enhancing the transparency of higher education, could even be used by students choose the institution to attend.
References
Al Khafaji, Nicole. 2018. "International Branch Campuses: A Qualitative Study of Cross-Cultural Training." PhD diss., Northcentral University. Altbach, Philip G. 2013. "Is There a Future for Branch Campuses?" In The International Imperative in Higher Education, 101-106. Rotterdam: Sense Publishers. Bacharach, Samuel B., and Edward J. Lawler. 1980. Power and politics in organizations. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Borgos, Jill. 2016. "Addressing Sustainable International Branch Campus Development Through an Organizational Structure Lens: A Comparative Analysis of China, Qatar, and the United Arab Emirates." Chinese Education & Society 49(4-5): 271-287. https://doi.org/10.1080/10611932.2016.1237849. Bowen, Glenn A. 2009. "Document Analysis as a Qualitative Research Method." Qualitative Research Journal 9(2): 27-40. https://doi.org/10.3316/QRJ0902027. Cross-Border Education Research Team. 2017. "Branch Campus Listing." C-BERT. http://cbert.org/resources- data/branch-campus/. Franklin, Angela. and Alzouebi, Khadeegha. 2014. "Sustainability of International Branch Campuses in the United Arab Emirates: A Vision for the Future." The Journal of General Education 63(2): 121-137. https://doi.org/10.1353/jge.2014.0019. Helms, Robin Matross. 2008. "Transnational Education in China: Key Challenges, Critical Issues and Strategies for Success." Observatory on Borderless Higher Education. Hou, Angela Yung-Chi, Christopher Hill, Karen Hui Jung Chen, and Sandy Tsai. 2018. "A Comparative Study of International Branch Campuses in Malaysia, Singapore, China, and South Korea: Regulation, Governance, and Quality Assurance." Asia Pacific Education Review 19(4): 543-555. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12564-018-9550-9. Huang, Futao. 2007. "Internationalization of Higher Education in the Developing and Emerging Countries: A Focus on Transnational Higher Education in Asia." Journal of Studies in International Education 11(3-4): 421-432. https://doi.org/10.1177/1028315307303919.
JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) 205 O'Donnell, Victoria Louise. 2016. "Organisational Change and Development Towards Inclusive Higher Education." Journal of Applied Research in Higher Education 8(1): 101-118. https://doi.org/10.1108/JARHE-04-2014-0051. Owen, Gregory T. 2014. "Qualitative Methods in Higher Education Policy Analysis: Using Interviews and Document Analysis." The Qualitative Report 19(26): 1-19. http://www.nova.edu/ssss/QR/QR19/owen52.pdf. Redden, Elizabeth. 2019. “Wesleyan Won't Pursue China Campus.” Inside Higher Ed, October 25, 2019. https://www.insidehighered.com/quicktakes/2019/10/25/wesleyan-wont-pursue-china-campus. Shams, Farshid, and Jeroen Huisman. 2012. "Managing Offshore Branch Campuses: An Analytical Framework for Institutional Strategies." Journal of Studies in International Education 16(2): 106-127. https://doi.org/10.1177/1028315311413470. Verbik, Line. 2007. "The International Branch Campus: Models and Trends." International Higher Education 46: 14- 15. Wilkins, Stephen, and Jeroen Huisman. 2012. "The International Branch Campus as Transnational Strategy in Higher Education." Higher Education 64(5): 627-645. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-012-9516-5.
206 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) Engaging with higher education back home: Experiences of African academic diaspora in the US
Ayenachew A. Woldegiyorgis
Boston College, USA
Email: [email protected] Address: Boston College, 140 Commonwealth Avenue, Chestnut Hill, MA 02467
Introduction
The phenomenon of continued outflow of highly educated individuals from developing countries, dubbed as ‘brain drain’, created winners and losers in the global competition for skilled manpower, and exacerbated the knowledge divide between rich and poor countries. Africa is among the regions seriously affected by such outflow of skilled citizens taking away the most talented from its limited pool of human capital. In response, as national governments and their development partners focus on initiatives of ‘diaspora engagement’ (Mangala 2017; Meyer et al 1997), specific types of diaspora – such as the academic diaspora – are receiving particular attention. Focusing on what Koser (2003) dubbed as ‘the new African diaspora’ – formed by immigration in the post-colonial Africa – academic diaspora is conceived as constituting specifically those in the academic career, which is in turn understood as a subset of the broader skilled, scientific or intellectual diaspora. As Zeleza (2013, p. 4) noted, the African academic diaspora “constitutes the sharp edge of Africa’s unusually high rates of skilled labor migration, the highest in the world for a region with the world’s lowest stock of skilled workers”. Meanwhile, African higher education institutions are positioned in the periphery of the global knowledge system (Goujon, Haller and Kmet 2017), among other things due to the constant outflow of qualified academics. Positive developments towards filling this gap, which come both from reform agendas within the continent as well as the increasingly shifting interest from the rest of the world (Singh 2011; Teferra 2010) are challenged by the realities of limited capacity. This puts the African academic diaspora in a uniquely important position to not only mediate the relationship between Africa and the advanced higher education systems they belong to, towards bridging the center–periphery divide (Welch and Zhang 2008), but also to supplement the capacity gaps in the African higher education. The scholastic visibility and political capital of the academic diaspora is an indispensable resource (Teferra 2003) in the aspiration of African higher education to ascend in the global knowledge system. Diasporas also have much stronger leverage to raise resources for academic and research activities from western sources (Zeleza 2013).
Framing the research methods
In spite of the recognition for the importance of the engagement of African academic diaspora with institutions back home, there is very limited research examining what such engagements look like, what factors help their success, or what sort of dynamics and challenges they have to deal with. Employing phenomenological research methods (Moustakas 1994) in the broader sense, this study uses data from in-depth interviews to explore the transnational engagement of African born academics in US institutions, through their own experiences. Following Vagle's (2018) invitation for phenomenological researchers to build on, stretch, or draw from aspects of established approaches, this
JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) 207 research considers other supplementary sources of data, including interviews with officials of universities in Africa, officials and experts form agencies responsible for diaspora engagement, leaders of diaspora organizations and networks, review of reports and other documents from concerned organizations and so on.
Theoretical foundation
Theoretically the research is informed by Bourdieu’s (1977) Theory of Practice. The African academic diaspora are understood to operate in an environment of multiple and complex constituents which they have to engage and negotiate with. As academics of color, they have to work through the complex systemic and individual challenges of the racialized American academy. As immigrants, they have to make social adjustments while they face challenges of legal requirements, more so today than before. Meanwhile they have to find their positions in society through negotiating their relationships with the native-born American society as well as diasporas of different origins. As emigrants, they have to live with the straining demands from home, ranging from the more personal expectation for material and moral support to the more abstract burden of having to defend Africa (Zeleza 2004). Theory of Practice offers an integrative framework that connects the individual and the social, and the agential and the structural. With its broad view and through its elements – habitus, field and capital – theory of practice affords the space for a phenomenological inquiry into the complex multifactor experiences of the African academic diaspora in the US in their transnational engagement with higher education in Africa.
Significance of the study
The research unravels how African born academics in the US make sense of their engagement with institutions back home. Doing so it provides an understanding on a dimension of international higher education rarely discussed in the literature. It provides critical strategic input for both US and African institutions on how they can make use of the potential of the African academic diaspora in bridging their transnational partnerships, and more broadly in their internationalization and global engagement agendas.
References
Bourdieu, Pierre. 1977. Outline of a theory of practice (R. Nice, Trans.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Goujon, Anne, Max Haller, and Bernadette Müller Kmet. 2017. Introduction to Higher Education in Africa: Challenges for Development, Mobility and Cooperation, viii-xv. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Koser, Khalid. 2003. "New African diasporas: an introduction." In New African Diasporas, edited by Khalid Koser, 21-36. Routledge. Mangala, Jack. 2017. “Engaging diasporas in development: Contours and outcomes of international policymaking.” In Africa and Its Global Diaspora: The Policy and Politics of Emigration, edited by Jack Mangala, 3-37. Cham: Springer. Meyer, Jean-Baptiste, Jorge Charum, Dora Bernal, Jacques Gaillard, José Granés, John Leon, Alvaro Montenegro et al. 1997. "Turning brain drain into brain gain: the Colombian experience of the diaspora option." Science, technology and Society 2(2): 285-315. Moustakas, Clark. 1994. Phenomenological research methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage publications. Singh, Mala. 2011. "Equity and quality in the revitalisation of African higher education: Trends and challenges." Research in Comparative and International Education 6(4): 348-365.
208 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) Teferra, Damtew. 2003. “Unleashing the forces of the diaspora: Capitalizing on brain drain in the era of information and communication technologies.” In Diasporas Scientifiques/Scientific Diasporas Part II, edited by Meyer, J. B., R. Barré, V. Hernandez, and D. Vinck, 226-243. Paris: IRD Editions. Teferra, Damtew. 2010. “Deploying Africa’s intellectual diaspora: Potentials, challenges and strategies.” In Higher education and globalization: Challenges, threats and opportunities for Africa, edited by Damtew Teferra and H. Grejin, 89-100. Maastricht: MUNDO. Vagle, Mark. 2018. Crafting phenomenological research (2nd Ed.). New York and London: Routledge. Welch, Anthony, and Zhang Zhen. 2008. "Higher education and global talent flows: Brain drain, overseas Chinese intellectuals, and diasporic knowledge networks." Higher Education Policy 21(4): 519-537. Zeleza, Paul. 2004. "The African academic diaspora in the United States and Africa: The challenges of productive engagement." Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East 24(1): 261-275. Zeleza, Paul. 2013. Engagements between African diaspora academics in the US and Canada and African institutions of higher education: Perspectives from North America and Africa. New York: Carnegie Corporation of New York.
JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) 209 The Expanding Use of the English Language for Research and its Implications for Higher Education Institutions and Researchers: A Case Study of Three African Flagship Universities
Addisalem Tebikew Yallew
University of the Western Cape, South Africa
Email: [email protected] / [email protected] Address: University of the Western Cape, Cape Town, South Africa
Introduction
The knowledge era has made universities one of the central institutions for the production of new knowledge (Altbach 2009; Douglass 2016; Salmi 2009). In line with this development, many African universities, that were often regarded as teaching-learning laden, (Atuahene 2011; Mavhunga 2017), are now reorienting their missions to embrace research intensiveness as one of their aspirations. This research focuses on the use of the English language for research in selected African flagship universities in Ethiopia, Mozambique and South Africa. The research is conducted against a backdrop where questions related to research productivity are becoming more central not only to higher education institutions but to higher education research pertaining to the continent (see Andoh 2017, Atuahene 2011; Cloete, Bunting, and Maassen 2015; van Schalkwyk and Cloete 2019).
Problem Statement
Language as a means of communication and organizing thought is an essential aspect of the quality of education and the production and archiving of knowledge (Brumfit 2004; Teferra 2003). Underscoring the need for establishing a research language in higher education, Absalom (2004, 123) states "Without language/s, education could not exist." In the contemporary world of globalization and internationalization of higher education and that of the knowledge economy, studying aspects related to language could also be deemed of paramount significance since these developments are highly language-intensive activities (Saarinen 2017). In the multicultural and multilingual African contexts, questions are being raised in recent scholarship about indigenizing and Africanizing knowledge and ‘the language question’ raised in this research has added relevance (Alexander 2003; Mazrui 2003; Mbembe 2016). As indicated in the introductory section, this research mainly focuses on the role that the English language plays as a medium of research for two main reasons. Firstly, among the three functions of language in higher education (i.e., language as a medium for teaching and learning, as a means of research and archiving knowledge, and as an object of theoretical study according to Brumfit’s (2004) typology), it is worth noting that the role that the English language plays as a medium of research has not been prominent in comparative and international higher education research. Stressing the need for more investigations into the implications of using the language for research, Kuteeva and Mauranen (2014, 1) state that this particular function of the language is ‘a surprisingly under-explored’ topic. The second reason for conducting this study is related to the observation that the lack of scholarly engagement on the topic seems to be even more pronounced in African contexts. Literature on language in African higher education settings manifests an overwhelming focus on approaching language from a teaching and learning vantage point (see for example Alexander 2003; Bamgbose 2004; Bogale 2009; Brock-Utne 2002; Brock-Utne and Holmarsdottir 2004;
210 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) Mazrui 2003; Negash 2011; Rubagumya 1991; Webb 2006) rendering this research-function focused take on English language a relatively unexplored terrain. In line with the argument made by Teferra (2003), this research is, therefore, an attempt to bring what Mazrui (2003) phrased as the 'language question' to the forefront of discussions related to intellectual production on the African continent. Teferra (2003) argues that exploring the implications of using European languages such as English in African higher education is ‘one of those hidden yet subversive’ elements in the continent’s higher education systems, and should be studied, problematized upgraded as one of the significant variables having possible implications for quality of education and research.
Research Questions
The main research question of the study, therefore, is: What are the implications of the expanding use of English for research in the selected African flagship universities? The specific research questions are: • What would the expanding use of the language for research in the contexts being studied mean in terms of quality, quantity and relevance of research produced? • What are (if any) the implications of the current distribution of English language capital on other forms of research-related economic and social capital? • What would the increasing use of English in African higher education systems mean for rethinking higher education through initiates such as Africanizing and decolonizing research?
Theoretical Framework
Bourdieu's theory of capital, primarily cultural and linguistic capital (Bourdieu 1991), and theories on language and decolonization are used to inform the research. The conceptualization and interplay between these perspectives is expected to give a more comprehensive analysis for understanding the implications of the role that the English language plays in promoting or hampering research productivity in the selected flagship universities. This research will try to take a language perspective on decolonizing research capitalizing on the works of scholars such as (Alexander 2003, 2000; Fanon 1963; Hountondji 1995, 2005; Mazrui 2003; Mbembe 2016; Wa Thiongo 1986). In doing so, however, an attempt to come up with a more nuanced analysis of English in African higher education as it will be made considering both colonial legacies and contemporary socio-political and cultural contextual issues as Pennycook (2000) underscores.
Methodology
To address these research questions, an in-depth interview-based multiple-case study research design is adopted consulting the works of (e.g. Gerring 2006; Stake 2013; Yin 2014). Based on Creswell (2007), the researcher selected the case study universities due to the quality of the sites in informing an understanding of the phenomenon the research questions are trying to address. As the research focuses on responding to the questions from the perspective of university leaders and researchers in the selected universities, a combination of purposive and snowball sampling techniques are used to recruit participants for the study. The university leaders are purposefully selected considering their roles and responsibilities and participation in designing and implementing strategies and policies concerning research and language policy and planning. Based on the Biglan (1973) model of disciplinary classifications the researches that are included in the study are selected from hard and soft sciences. This approach is preferred over a
JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION 11 (2019) 211 more convenient snowball sampling, for as Kuteeva and Airey (2014) argue there might be disciplinary dimensions to the choice of English as a medium of research.
Acknowledgement The researcher would like to acknowledge the Carnegie Foundation of New York for funding this study.
References
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