Rail Transport in the World's Major Cities

Feature Evolution of Urban Railways (part 2)

Rail Transport in The World’s Major Cities

Takao Okamoto and Norihisa Tadakoshi

Many of the world’s large cities grew in development, particularly with regard to American city; and Hong Kong, Seoul and conjunction with railways, and today, the following: Tokyo representing Asian cities. large cities cannot depend only on motor • The correlation between railways and vehicles for transportation. With worries urban growth over global environmental issues, public • The location of terminals for intercity London transportation systems are increasingly and intra-city transport seen as an important way to expand and • Examination of various public transit Located in southeast England near the revitalize large cities, while consuming systems, including non-infrastructure mouth of the River Thames, London less energy and other resources. • Strategic planning of rail networks expanded during the Industrial Revolution This article looks at public transportation based on urban development trends (1760–1850) and secured its dominance systems in some major cities of the world and future models as the heart of the British Empire during and identifies similarities and differences The cities selected for this comparative the Victorian era (1837–1901). It’s in areas such as history of development, study are: London as the first city to adapt population grew from about 500,000 in railway networks, and method of rail technology to public transport; Paris, the 17th century to 4.5 million by the end operation. Our aim is to explore the future Berlin and Moscow as three major of the 19th century. The modern relationship between urban and transport European cities; New York as a North- metropolis of Greater London consists of

The London Railway Network

King’s Cross/St.Pancras Paddington LCY Victoria Waterloo LHR R. Thames

0 5 10 km

: Former British Rail Network : London Underground : Docklands Light Railway : Greater London limits

4 Japan Railway & Transport Review 25 • October 2000 Copyright © 2000 EJRCF. All rights reserved. the central city and suburbs. This managing and operating subways, buses, conurbation is surrounded by a ‘green and trams in 1933, and the entire system Paris belt.’ Greater London covers a total area was nationalized during WWII. Control of 1578 km2 and has a population of 6.85 was transferred to the City of London Paris has a metropolitan population of 11 million. The industrial structure is shifting (Greater London Council or GLC) in 1970 million while 2.17 million people live steadily from a traditional reliance on and then back to the national government within the central city area of 105 km2. manufacturing and trade, toward sectors in 1984, when the bus component was Paris is a truly cosmopolitan city, hosting such as finance and tourism. subsequently privatized. The present some 20 million tourists and business London was the world’s first city to build zone-based fare structure was introduced travellers every year, half of whom are a public transport system, starting with in 1981. international visitors. The city layout, with intercity rail links in the mid-19th century, Total passenger-km have been rising many roads radiating out from a central but railway construction within the built- gradually since the introduction of the hub, was designed by Baron Haussmann up city was banned in 1859, so terminals zone-based fare system, although this is in the mid-19th century during the reign were located on the city outskirts. Many thought to be due more to chronic road of Napoleon III (1852–70). entrepreneurs had a keen interest in congestion and the resulting In France, the ratio of passenger car use to railways, and their railway construction disillusionment with cars, as well as to public transport use is a high 2:1 and mass efforts eventually led to the city being new demand accompanying transit systems are rarely profitable. This is encircled by more than ten terminals at redevelopment of the centre core area. true even in Greater Paris. To ensure the city edge. This configuration remains Recent projects include the Jubilee Line viability, Syndicat des Transports Parisiens even today although the city has spread extension (opened in 1999) and the (STP, a body under direct control of the further out past the terminals. Docklands Light Railway, designed to national government) was established to Britain’s trunk railway network was serve the redeveloped docklands. The coordinate operations, fares and subsidies nationalized in the 1940s and then government provides funds for between the various public transport privatized in 1996 in a bid to improve construction of new lines like these, and operators. STP brokers agreements on the operating efficiency and services. The for maintenance and improvement of extent to which each transport provider ownership of infrastructure has been existing lines, but funding levels vary operates on tracks owned by the national separated from railway operations, with according to the government’s budget. railway, Société Nationale des Chemins de 25 different operating companies Operating expenses are not subsidized. Fer Francais (SNCF) and the subway responsible for running the various Recent years have seen increasing operator Régie Autonome des Transports passenger lines. concern about aging subway lines and Parisiens (RATP). The network in London consists of former stations, and deteriorating services. In The Paris subway (Metro) was opened in British Rail suburban lines, and 12 subway fiscal 1998, the reliability indicator for 1900 and currently has 14 lines totalling lines (tubes), with a total length of 391 subways (the percentage of subway trains 209 km with 297 stations. The Réseau km, and also extensive bus services. The in service) was 94%, meaning that one in Express Régional (RER) composed of five ridership breakdown in 1997 was: buses every 16 trains was cancelled. This poor additional subway lines is run jointly by 53%; subways 34%; and railways 12%. showing is believed to be the result of SNCF and RATP. Paris has six intercity London’s subway—the first in the world— excessive emphasis on profits, and has terminals (including some for the high- began as a privately-operated, horse- become a focus of concern for the subway speed TGV) that connect to the Metro for drawn service in 1863, and steadily system, particularly in light of the need to travel in the city centre. expanded with more lines and fund upgrade programmes, and the The line configuration has changed in electrification. Most lines in the centre question of privatization. accordance with the growth patterns. Five were completed by the early 20th century. A new Greater London Authority (GLA) new satellite towns built on the outskirts The fact that the original facilities have was established in May 2000 around the of the city grew considerably between changed little to this day is testimony to time Ken Livingstone was elected the first 1990 and 1996 and boosted demand for the foresight of the original planners. Mayor of London. He has control over transport into the city centre. New RER The operations of London’s transport London’s transport and his policies are lines crisscrossing the city were built to system have undergone many changes. awaited with interest. serve this demand and it is said that their One entity (London Passenger Transport layout was partially modelled on Tokyo’s Board) was given responsibility for through operations between subways and

suburban railways (JRTR 23, pp. 36–41). transportation tax on companies (based The national government’s 1994 amended In addition, STP monitors investment on the number of employees) to keep both urban development plan for Greater Paris plans and determines the amount of types of fares low. STP distributes specifically limits the size of the subsidies for unprofitable lines and revenues from the transportation tax metropolitan area and places increased discount fare programmes. The national between SNCF, RATP, RER and private bus emphasis on environmental protection. and local governments split their companies according to a set ratio. The plan estimated the total population contributions 7:3. Investment in rail Although originally introduced to cover of Greater Paris at 11.8 million, including transport is generally 80% publicly funded revenue shortfalls caused by discounted 5.8 million workers, but made no with the remainder being financed by the commuter tickets, the transportation tax provision for new transport lines except private operator. now also represents a valuable source of for two previously planned lines—the Fares within Greater Paris use a zone funds for capital investment. Weekly and Météor (No. 14 subway line) opened in system while the Metro uses a flat rate fare. monthly Carte Orange cards are sold at 1998, and the EOLE (RER-E) opened in Intercity fares use a taper system. Paris, discounts of up to 50% that are valid on 1999. like other large cities in France, levies a all public transport within the city. Today, the streets of Paris remain largely

The Paris Railway Network

Orry-la-Ville

Cergy- St. Christophe

D R E Cergy- Montigny- R Pontoise Beauchàmp Roissy CDG La Seine aéroport Mitry- B

R Claye E

R R B RE R

E R Argenteuil R E R C LRT A

R Villiers-sur-Marne E R Le Plessis-Trévise

Versailles C RER C

St. Quentin- R

R en-Yvelines R

R Robinson A ER D 0 5 10 km E R Choisy-le-Roi St. Quentin- C en-Yvelines R ER C Massy- Boissy Palaiseau ORL St-Léger : Metro ( : Météor) R E R C |||||||||| New section St. Rémy- RER B : RER ( : built for EOLE ) les Chevreuse : SNCF Savigny- sur-Orge

6 Japan Railway & Transport Review 25 • October 2000 Copyright © 2000 EJRCF. All rights reserved. Public transport in Berlin is supplied by four operators: the S-Bahn railway, a subsidiary of German Railways (DBAG), linking the city centre and suburbs; the U-Bahn subway network in built-up parts of the city; trams mainly in the former East Berlin; and buses. About 2.4 million people use Berlin’s railway network each day (including medium-distance passengers). The public transport system is rated quite highly by users, because it covers most parts of the city, transport information services are well integrated, the fare structure is simple, and the trains are clean and not crowded. In Berlin (and other major German cities), the S-Bahn, U-Bahn, trams and buses are all members of the Verkehrsverbund (transit union) serving the specific metropolitan region. This body Unmanned trains at station on Paris Metro Line No. 14 Météor (EJRCF) administers a common fare pricing as they were laid out by Baron Haussmann separated by the Berlin Wall from 1961. system, and shortfalls are made up from with little new development other than German reunification in 1990 saw East funds provided by the federal and state some major projects on the Left Bank, on and West Berlin rejoined as a city state governments. New railway construction land formerly used by SNCF, and in the within the Federal Republic of Germany. in urban areas is funded almost entirely Bercy district. There are also plans to Berlin finally became the capital both in from the public purse mainly using federal improve transport access by extending name and fact with the 1999 relocation subsidies financed by a fuel tax, and state subway lines and adding RER facilities, of the President’s office and various government subsidies. and to relocate important institutions like branches of government from Bonn. Berlin’s S-Bahn consists of 15 lines the Ministry of Finance and the A number of places around the city are totalling 324 km with 163 stations. It Bibliotheque nationale (National Library) being redeveloped to create a more carries over 770,000 passengers each day. in a bid to revitalize local areas. uniform urban structure. They include The main S-Bahn lines form a so-called RATP has recently introduced light rail Pottsdam Platz, other areas near the ‘Dog’s Nose’ loop (Ringbahn) and an transit (LRT) systems providing a former Berlin Wall, and land formerly elevated section (Stadtbahn) cuts east– convenient mode of transport (LRT) that owned by the military. Central Berlin has west through the city centre. links up with subway stations in Saint a population of 3.47 million in an area of The U-Bahn carries a large proportion Denis and La Défense. (Paris abandoned 890 km2, while the greater metropolitan (1.1 million passengers each day) of its original tramways in 1937 because they area has a population of 4.30 million in Berlin’s traffic on 9 lines totalling 143 km caused traffic congestion.) an area of 7340 km2. with 169 stations. Important future Berlin’s railway system was developed additions to the network include the U7 quite early and a modern network of some line extension to Berlin’s new international Berlin 300 km was already in place by the 1930s. airport, and the U5 line extension to However, the network was extensively Lehrter, to meet new demand as Berlin began developing as the capital of damaged during WWII and then cut in government functions are transferred from the Deutsche Reich (German Empire half by the Berlin Wall (see article by Bonn to Berlin. 1871–1918) in the second half of the 19th Thomas Fabian in this issue of JRTR). After Before WWII, Berlin had eight terminals century. The city was divided in 1945 the fall of the Wall, the former connections serving the nation’s trunk railway network. following defeat in WWII and the east and have been restored and the network is The completion of an elevated line west halves of the city were completely being rapidly upgraded. through the city in 1882 linked these

stations to provide through services to a central station in the heart of the city. (This unusual approach for a European city is said to have served as a model for Japanese railway engineers when they constructed an elevated line to link Shimbashi to Ueno via Tokyo Station.) The re-establishment of Berlin as the German capital has prompted a flurry of railway development intended to provide better high-speed access from different parts of the country. A new north–south underground line is under construction and the existing east–west line is being upgraded. Berlin’s new central station is being built at the intersection (Lehrter Bahnhof) of the two lines. The current Berlin master plan is designed to produce a compact rather than sprawling city, through ‘decentralized concentration’ with the neighbouring state Berlin S-Bahn’s Ostkreuz Station where Ringbahn loop crosses over east–west Stadtbahn. (EJRCF) of Brandenburg. This compact metropolis will have a number of core areas centred on nodes serving a radial transport The Berlin Railway Network network extending to the suburbs.

S8 S1 Moscow S4 S2 Situated in the centre of the Russian Plain, Moscow has an area of 1059 km2 and a U8 U6 population of 8.37 million. Although St. TXL Petersburg was the capital during part of U2 S7 U7 U9 U5 the Czarist era, Moscow has always been

S5 Lehrter a dynamic city and it is now the hub of U2 S4 U5 S5 nation’s political and economic activity

U1 Ostkreuz Westkreuz where industry and a skilled labour force U4 U8 are concentrated. U9 U1 S3 Given the very low rate of private vehicle THF U6 S8 S2 ownership compared to other industrialized U7 S1 nations and the almost total absence of well- S7 S9 S6 maintained expressways between major cities, the public transport system fulfills an important role in transporting people within : S-Bahn JFX cities and to suburbs. : U-Bahn : Proposed Moscow has nine terminals for railway : Berlin City limits 0 5 10 km services to suburbs and distant cities. Most are located on the subway loop line. There are no direct railway services into the city

8 Japan Railway & Transport Review 25 • October 2000 Copyright © 2000 EJRCF. All rights reserved. The Moscow Railway Network centre, so passengers must change to the subway or take another form of transport. 9 Moscow’s main public transport modes are subways, trolley buses, ordinary buses, and trams. The first subway line was 2 opened in 1935 and was quickly followed 6 by a succession of new routes and branch lines. The Stalinist regime saw the subway system as a symbol of prestige, so subway Savelovsky 4 1 3 stations (or ‘palaces’) were designed with Rizhsky considerable grandeur. Subway Byelorussky Yaroslavsky construction continued during WWII Leningradsky Kazansky 8 when the stations were used as air-raid 5 Kursky shelters; further expansion took place in 7 the postwar period. The present subway Kievsky Paveletsky network consists of 11 lines totalling 262 4 km with 160 stations and carries 8.88 10 million passengers each day. Part of the subway network is a loop line with a radius of about 2 to 3 km from the 9 11 city centre. Radial lines crisscross the area 1 enclosed by a loop road encircling the city 6 at a radius of about 15 km. The subway 2 : Suburban or intercity railway fare is fixed irrespective of distance : Underground railway travelled or number of changes. Entry is : Proposed by jetton (coin) or card. : Moscow City limits

Intercity and suburban train services in 0 5 10 km Russia are operated by the Ministry of Railways at the federal level through 19 regional railway bureaus. The federal government covers all deficits in intercity services—fares contribute only around refurbishment, and introduction of Until the early 19th century, New York 40% of revenue and the remaining 60% operation control systems. consisted of a mixed residential and shortfall is received as subsidies from the Construction of 45 km of new subway business district in south Manhattan. As national government. In the case of lines was planned at one stage; extension the area became more business-oriented suburban rail services, 17% of operating of Line 10 was completed in 1997, and from the mid-19th century, people moved expenses are provided by the regional the Line 2 extension is presently under their homes toward the north of the island railway bureaus with the remaining 83% construction. However, construction of or to Brooklyn, the Bronx, and Queens. subsidized by regional governments. new Line 12 has been abandoned. Public transport played a prominent role The Moscow subway system is operated in New York’s development, first by horse- by the municipal government and fares drawn cart, then by horse-drawn railways, are kept low to make transport affordable New York then elevated railway lines, and then to all. As a result, fare revenues only cover subways. 30% of operating costs (1995 figures), and New York has a population of 7.34 million Most public transport in New York is the government subsidizes the shortfall. in an area of 833 km2. The city is divided controlled and operated by the The federal government provides the into five districts, and is centred around Metropolitan Transportation Authority municipal government with subsidies for Manhattan. Greater New York covers a (MTA), a body of the state government. development projects such as new line much larger area, including the northern part The MTA is responsible for New York City construction, station construction and of neighbouring New Jersey, and Long Island. Transit, which operates public transport

The New York Railway Network

e in L Yonkers m e rl a H Mt. Vernon e in d L a o y lr e i Long Island Sound ll a a R V h k rt c o a N c - s o r P t e M A T M New Jersey State Bronx

Hudson River

Manhattan ch Nassau nBra n t Was hingto Por Penn St. ad sit il Ro New ran GCT d Ra J ersey T Islan Hoboken ong Queens TA L Path M P Jersey ath City East River Newark

JFK L o n g

a c Brooklyn h

Jamaica Bay B r

n c

Staten Island h

ay ilw a R d 0 5 10 km n a Isl ten ta A S MT : Commuter or intercity railway : Subway : New York City limits

within the city, and Long Island Rail Road construction. A number of new commuter subway system consists of 25 lines (LIRR) and Metro-North Rail Road, which railways serving areas beyond the city stretching 389 km with 468 stations. The operate commuter rail services to the were developed around this time. Penn daily ridership is 3.1 million. suburbs. The MTA operates alongside Station (opened in 1910) and Grand Commuter rail fares are tapered, while the other bodies such as the Port Authority Central Terminal (GCT, opened in 1913) subways and buses charge a flat rate of Trans Hudson and New Jersey Transit. provide direct connections for commuters $1.50. The relatively recent pre-paid Metro New York’s first subway opened in 1904. from the suburbs to the city centre. Card enables passengers to switch between Originally built and run by a private New York’s subway network can be subways and buses much more easily than operator, the Interborough Rapid Transit broadly divided into three groups linking before. Notable features of the New York Company (IRT), it ran into financial Manhattan with the Bronx, the downtown subway system include 24-hour operations difficulties and was purchased by the City area with Brooklyn, and mid-town with and quadrupling of some lines. of New York in 1940. Since then, all Queens. Nearly all the subway lines pass Since 1940, New York’s population has subways have been run by the municipal in a dense formation through the city’s remained relatively stable at under 8 government. The city’s population grew central district (south of Central Park). million, but the surrounding areas have from about 4.8 million to 7.5 million Many stations serve multiple lines—42nd grown. Many of the new population between 1910 and 1940. Most of the new Street, for example, even has a shuttle centres do not have good access by public residents lived in ‘subway suburbs’ located service from GCT in the east to Times transport into the city centre. The MTA is 6.5 to 19 km from the city centre and Square in the west, and functions as a attempting to address this problem by developed as a result of new subway line giant interchange node. At present, the extending the LIRR to Grand Central

10 Japan Railway & Transport Review 25 • October 2000 Copyright © 2000 EJRCF. All rights reserved. Terminal, and by driving a new tunnel million people each day on trains that are of new towns along the route. Originally under the Hudson River. often very crowded. The northwest part owned by the Hong Kong government and New York is more reliant on public of the New Territories also has a 23-km now run by the Kowloon–Canton Railway transport than any other city in the USA, Light Rail Transit (LRT) service, while a 16- Corporation (KCRC), the 34-km line and continuing high levels of investment km network of double-decker trams dating carries 740,000 passengers each day. are required each year to provide good from 1904 on Hong Kong Island is useful The Hong Kong administration provides services. Operating revenues cover 65% for short trips around the island. funding for line works, although the of funding requirements and the shortfall The subway system consists of two lines amount varies annually. The individual is obtained as federal and state from Kowloon Peninsula under Victoria railway operators have different fares government subsidies. However, funding Harbour, and one line running east–west structures, as in Japan, but the fares are for future network expansion and across Hong Kong Island. The three lines lower. Services on all lines are frequent operation of existing lines is a major are operated by the Mass Transit Railway and operate from the early hours until late problem for the MTA. Corporation (MTRC) subway authority, at night. Public transport in Hong Kong which also runs the Airport Express and provides a fairly high level of service, is involved in real estate development although rush-hour overcrowding is a Hong Kong along railway routes. There is talk of problem in some sections. privatizing the MTRC at some stage. Under the latest revisions to its broad After a long period as a British colony, The Kowloon–Canton Railway was strategic land usage programme called the Hong Kong was returned to the People’s originally built in 1910 to provide trunk Territorial Development Strategy (TDS), Republic of China in July 1997 and now services between Kowloon and Canton. the Hong Kong administration plans to enjoys a high degree of autonomy as the In 1983, the route was double-tracked and finish construction of a new airport Hong Kong Special Administrative electrified as far as Lo Wu, to provide an (already partially completed), a new Region. Hong Kong covers a total area of intra-city commuter service for residents container terminal, and other port facilities 1080 km2 and has a population of 6.5 million. Hong Kong Island is home to 3.5 The Hong Kong Railway Network million people and another 1.9 million live in Kowloon and the New Territories. The older districts facing Victoria Harbour house some 4 million residents on just Lo Wu 20% of Hong Kong’s total land space. This represents a population density of about 250 people per hectare, one of the highest in the world. Large ‘new towns’ are being New Territories built in the New Territories in the northern LRT West Rail part of the Kowloon Peninsula. KCR

Hong Kong has a very high concentration Tuen Mun Tsuen Wan Line Kowloon of commercial activities and the rapid railway network plays a vital role in Kwun Tong Line facilitating movement within the old district, and from the new towns to the HKA Airport Express city centre. Rapid rail accounts for 62% Island Line of all journeys between Kowloon Lantau Island Victoria Peninsula and Hong Kong Island. Harbor Rail services are provided by the Mass Hong Kong Island Transit Railway (MTR), the Airport Express (built in conjunction with the new Hong : KCR / LRT Kong International Airport and run by : MTR and Airport Express 0 5 10 km : Proposed MTR), and the Kowloon–Canton Railway (KCR). These three networks carry 2.2

by 2011. The TDS also proposes section joined the Korean National city. Line 5 runs from Kimpo Airport to reclaiming land from the western side of Railroad (KNR) network, which was under the city centre. Line 6 and part of Line 7 Kowloon Peninsula, pursuing another the jurisdiction of the National Railroad are still under construction. landfill and development project around Administration. Seoul has two terminals Subway construction and operations are the former Kai Tak airport site, developing for intercity rail services, Seoul Station and divided between two public bodies: the new towns in the New Territories, and Chongnyangni Station. Seoul Station is Seoul Metropolitan Subway Corporation, constructing a border crossing transport the largest due to the greater number of which manages lines 1 to 4, and the Seoul axis on both sides of the Pearl River. lines terminating there. Chongnyangni is Metropolitan Rapid Transit Corporation, The administration is presently the terminus for several lines to the which manages lines 5 to 8. The Seoul considering a Second Railway southeast and northeast. Seoul Station is Metropolitan Rapid Transit Corporation Development Strategy, and two priority served by subway lines 1 and 4, and operates each of its Automatic Train rail projects are being built as part of the Chongnyangni Station by subway Line 1. Operation device (ATO) equipped trains TDS. The first is the West Rail route, The main modes of public transport in with only one driver and no conductors currently under construction by KCRC and Seoul are buses and the subway (37% and to improve cost effectiveness. It has also due for completion in 2003. This line will 30% of total capacity, respectively, in promoted construction of small-cross- head north from Kowloon beyond the 1995). Work began on the subway Line section tunnels to cut construction costs. west bank of the Kowloon Peninsula to 1 in 1971, 3 years after the tram system The subway network receives subsidies the northwest region of the New was closed and services began in 1974. from a transportation tax system funded Territories. The other line, which MTRC The subway network now has 7 lines mainly by a fuel tax but operating losses is about to begin building, is a branch totalling 217 km with 197 stations. Lines are reported each year. The municipal extension to the subway following the 1 to 5 cover the city while lines 7 and 8 government is obliged to inject additional eastern edge of the Kowloon Peninsula. serve the suburbs. Trains on Line 2, a loop funds and issue subway bonds to make line, take about 80 minutes to circle the up the shortfall. The subway system is

Seoul The Seoul Railway Network

Situated in the middle of the Korean

Peninsula and bisected by the Hangang 7 River, Seoul has a population of 10.23 million (about 25% of the national total) in an area of 605 km2. The city and its

neighbouring areas are the economic 4 engine of South Korea and contribute 6 about 25% of the nation’s GDP. The city 3 6 suffered enormously during the Korean 1 War (1950–53) but subsequently Chongnyangni

rebounded in a period of rapid economic 8 SEL Seoul 5 5 growth. The 1988 Korean Olympics 2 boosted the economy further and provided an impetus for expansion of the subway system and construction of many 4 7 8 high-rise buildings, completing the 3 transformation of Seoul into a modern city. 2 South Korea’s first railway was the : Suburban or intercity railway Kyongin Railroad between Inchon and : Underground railway Seoul, which opened in 1899. With the : Proposed 0 5 10 km partitioning of the Korean Peninsula into : Seoul City limits North and South after the Korean War, the line was cut in two and the southern

12 Japan Railway & Transport Review 25 • October 2000 Copyright © 2000 EJRCF. All rights reserved. exempt from taxes on real estate crowded being Line 2 at 237%. Trains construction of new lines. acquisition and registration, and does not on lines 1 to 5 in the city centre run every In addition to new lines already under pay corporate income, town planning or 2.5 to 3 minutes during rush hours (except construction, the authorities plan to build business taxes. the Line 2 branch line). another four lines (lines 9 to 12), and to A single fare structure applies to the 7 Seoul’s rapidly increasing population has extend Line 3. When completed in 2005, subway lines and the Korean National caused a range of problems in housing, this new construction will add 120 km to Railroad (KNR) services in the employment, the environment, and road the subway network, boosting the metropolitan area and the same ticket can congestion. In 1996, the city authorities capacity by 50%, and helping to alleviate be used for travel on both. The city is produced a comprehensive transportation traffic congestion. divided into 7 zones, with fares set at 500 strategy calling for reduced car usage, Won within one zone and 600 Won when increased use of public transport, and crossing to another zone. The minimum elimination of some factors that tend to Tokyo fare covers travel from the city centre to impede traffic. Strategies designed to most of the main stations in the city. boost subway ridership include discount Tokyo and its surrounding metropolitan The average overcrowding rate for all 7 fares during off-peak periods, events in area is located on the Kanto Plain in the subway lines is 207% with the most stations, new bicycle parking, and centre of the Pacific coast of Honshu, the

The Tokyo Railway Network

Tohoku Shinkansen Line

e in L

T b

o o

b Saitama J u

I Prefecture s

i L i

T e o Line b ino u sh T sa o u jo M L i ne

M it NRT a Lin e

l e i ise a i r Seibu Shinjuku Li e Lin o ne n e Li n u o Chuo Line So b

M M

a run a ouchi Line To

m Tokyo zai Line a

T Ke io ine Yamanashi L Chiba e Prefecture in Chiba Prefecture yu L Monorail dak O

e in L HND o k o

y o T Tokyo Bay

Kanagawa Prefecture ine e L in n L se an u

nk y

i k

h i : JR Line

S e ido K ka To : Other private company line : Subway a in Lin e o M id Tok a : Monorail or new transit system

0 5 10 km

main Japanese island. Originally known and operate subway lines. The Tokyo governments also equally share part of the as Edo, the city saw substantial Metropolitan Government (TMG) began interest charges above 5% on new- development from the early 17th century subway operations in 1958, and construction loans taken out by private as the seat of government of the Tokugawa eventually completed four lines totalling railway companies. Shogunate (1603–1867) which excavated 80 km, including the Asakusa and Mita canals, dug moats, and reclaimed land. lines. New sections including the Oedo Edo soon became the political, economic Line will bring the total length of lines Comparison of Transit Systems and cultural centre of Japan with a operated by the Tokyo Metropolitan population of around 1.1 million. The Government to 109 km. Of the 8 cities described above, Tokyo’s Meiji Restoration in 1868 marked the More through operations linking subways, population of roughly 8 million in its beginning of the modernization of Tokyo. JNR lines (before privatization), JR East 23 wards (central Tokyo) is third after Tokyo’s population rose steadily as it lines (after JNR privatization), and private Seoul and Moscow. However Greater developed into a modern city and reached railways have been established since the Tokyo including Yokohama, Kawasaki 7.35 million in 1940. The effects of WWII 1960s in order to minimize the and other neighbouring cities has a brought a temporary drop to around 5 inconvenience for commuters changing population of about 33 million, far million in 1947 but the population soared trains and to reduce station congestion. more than any other city. According to 11.41 million by 1970. The population The resulting improvements have to our estimate, Greater New York has of Tokyo’s 23 wards has remained fairly encouraged further outward expansion of only 60% of Greater Tokyo’s stable since 1970 but the population of residential housing into more remote population, Paris around 30%, and the surrounding prefectures has exploded. urban areas. other cities even less. The first railway line in Japan between Recent developments include new Both Tokyo and New York have Shimbashi and Yokohama opened in 1872 monorails, rail-airport links, and light rail separate business and residential and was soon followed by massive services to newly developed urban areas districts that are dependent on rapid expansion of government and private as described in previous issues of JRTR. suburban rail services. By contrast, the railways as described in A History of Long-distance intercity services provided other cities have interlocking business Japanese Railways 1872–1999 published by the Tokaido, Hokuriku, Tohoku, and and residential districts, with public by EJRCF. Joetsu shinkansen lines all terminate at transport networks primarily serving the Electric tramways were introduced to Tokyo Station. built-up urban area (notwithstanding Tokyo in 1903 when the first service ran Tokyo’s railway operators, including JR the presence of some lines extending between Shimbashi and Shinagawa on East and various private companies each into suburbs). Berlin is currently in the rails previously used by a horse-drawn have different fare structures, making for process of developing a high-density tramway. The tram network expanded an unwieldy ticket system and higher rail network for both the city and steadily to a total length of 193 km and costs. Subway travellers are similarly surroundings, but at the moment, the served as an important form of city inconvenienced by the fact that the two public transport network mainly serves transport. However, trams caused road subway operators (TRTA and TMG) have the city area. congestion when motor cars appeared in exclusive fare systems, although there are In cities such as London, Paris, Moscow greater numbers in the 1960s and the tram some discount tickets. Morning and and Berlin, where intercity rail services network was almost completely evening rush hour services on all lines still were established early, the major dismantled by the late 1960s, leaving the remain heavily congested. terminals are located at what was the single 12-km Arakawa Line running on a Tokyo’s public transport system is still in city’s edge at the time of construction. reserved right-of-way. need of more new lines and an integrated (London actually banned railway The first 2-km subway (now part of the fare structure in order to improve construction within the central city in Ginza Line) was opened in 1927 between convenience and help relieve congestion. 1846.) Although some cities Ueno and Asakusa, and the Teito Rapid Around 50% of subway construction costs subsequently either allowed trains Transit Authority (TRTA) built and now are subsidized by roughly equal through the centre or built radial lines operates a 172-km network of 8 subway contributions from the national and local linked by loop lines serving the suburbs, lines. As Japan entered the rapid governments, which have recently the ‘bicycle wheel’ configuration is still economic growth period in the 1960s, introduced low-interest and interest-free found in most major cities today. There other bodies were encouraged to build loan schemes. The national and local are exceptions—Berlin built lines

14 Japan Railway & Transport Review 25 • October 2000 Copyright © 2000 EJRCF. All rights reserved. traversing the city, and Tokyo, although through route passing under water. and Tokyo 12, and Moscow 11. London, late in embracing railways, was quick to Similarly, Hong Kong has an intercity line Moscow, and Seoul also have subway appreciate the need for lines traversing to the city at the tip of the land, providing loop lines, with Tokyo due to follow suit the city in different directions and later integrated land and sea transport. in 2000. Notwithstanding some brought the shinkansen (Bullet Train) Although trams were once an integral differences in coverage, subways play a services right to the city centre. Berlin is part of inner city transport they became very important role in inner-city transport. currently extending its intercity lines to impractical when conflicts arose with Meanwhile, cities such as London, Paris, the city centre and beyond as part of the road traffic patterns and also had limited Berlin, and Hong Kong are developing process of relocating government capacity. This prompted construction of new and improved light-rail systems functions to the new capital. urban subway systems, starting with similar to trams, providing inner-city The geographical location of a city London in 1863, Paris in 1900, and services that appeal to local residents. generally affects the development of its Moscow in 1935. In many cities, the In Tokyo, postwar development of the rail network—generally a radial pattern subway networks expanded as the cities subway network included through is favoured. Exceptions are New York grew, extending outward into the operations with existing private and and Hong Kong, which have peninsular suburbs. Almost all the cities described national suburban lines, permitting shapes. New York has two intercity here have extensive subway networks— direct connections to the city centre services and the east–west service is a New York has 25 lines, Paris 14, London from up to 50 km away. Meanwhile,

Rail Transport in Eight Major Cities of World

London Paris Berlin Moscow New York Hong Kong Seoul Tokyo Metropolitan Zone Greater London Ile de France Berlin and Greater New York Tokyo and Brandenburg incl. north 3 neighbouring New Jersey and prefecture Long Island Area (km2) 1578 12000 7340 - 26329 - - 13494 Population (1000) 6850 11000 4300 - 19880 - - 32570 Inner City 13 central boroughs City of Paris City of Berlin New York City 23 wards Area (km2) 311 105 890 1059 833 1080 605 621 Population (1000) 2500 2170 3470 8370 7340 6500 10230 7970 Subway system RATP Métro U-Bahn including TRTA and TMG Airport Express Began operation (Year) 1863 1900 1902 1935 1904 1979 1974 1927 Number of lines 12 14 9 11 25 4 7 12 Total length (km) 391 209 143 262 389 77 217 252 Number of stations 272 297 169 160 468 51 197 237 Passengers (1000/day) 2500 3200 1100 8880 3100 2200 3800 7240 Passenger density (1000/km/day) 6.4 15.4 7.7 33.9 8.0 28.6 17.5 28.7 Fare system Zone based Flat rate Zone based Flat rate Flat rate Distance based Zone based Distance based Other urban railways Former British SNCF's suburban S-Bahn services Russian State Commuter railways Kowloon-Canton Korean National JR East, eight Rail network services and run on German Railway suburban linking Manhattan Railway's Railroad's major and some run by private Regional Express Railway (DBAG) services and suburbs commuter services suburban services smaller private operators Network (RER) run suburban network railways, Yokohama by SNCF and RATP municipal subway Intercity railways 13 terminals; 6 terminals; 3 terminals; 9 terminals; 2 terminals 1 terminal 2 terminals 7 terminals incl. not centrally not centrally axial not centrally those of private located located configuration located interurban lines; axial and non-centralized Data year 1998 1999 Population, 1995; Population, 1995; 1997 1998 Population, 1995; Population, 1995; ridership, 1998 ridership, 1996 ridership, 1993 ridership, 1997; line length, 2000

subway construction is clearly Subway Systems in Eight Major Cities separated from subway operations by funding the construction costs largely (or wholly) from the public purse. This 1000 4.00 approach is based on the notion that 900 3.50 urban railways, like roads, are an 800 3.00 important part of a city’s infrastructure 700 and that their construction is therefore 2.50 600 a government responsibility. Railways 500 2.00 also represent a more environmentally- friendly mode of transport and are likely 400 1.50 to gain favour. 300 1.00 In Paris, 80% of public transport 200 0.50 investment is publicly funded primarily 100 from the transportation tax levied on 0 0.00 employers. In Berlin, urban railway London Paris Berlin Moscow New York Hong Kong Seoul Tokyo development is almost totally publicly funded with contributions from both the Total length of subway lines (km) Subway passenger density (10,000/km/day) federal government (through a fuel tax) Subway passengers (10,000/day) and local government. The operating revenue shortfall is also subsidized by both government levels. Investment in Tokyo’s public transport some national lines into the centre were by the Metropolitan Transport Authority; receives different types of assistance, quadrupled to boost carrying capacity. Hong Kong by the government Mass reflecting the variety of different These improvements encouraged Transit Railway Corporation; Seoul by operators and conditions. Assistance further development in the city centre, two government bodies; and Tokyo by the includes subway construction and generated new demand. Teito Rapid Transit Authority and the subsidies, low-interest and interest-free In Berlin, the resurrection of the former Tokyo Metropolitan Government. government loans to transport pre-Cold War network and construction National railways (or their successors or operators, subsidization of interest of several new lines will boost direct affiliated bodies) also play important roles payments by private railways, and services on both the U-Bahn and S- in providing transport in London, Paris, subsidies for new transport systems Bahn from all sides into the city centre. Berlin, Seoul, Hong Kong and Tokyo. funded by fuel taxes. In Paris, six subway lines are linked to Underground railway construction is Tokyo and Hong Kong are the only SNCF lines to provide direct express very expensive and new lines must cities where fares are based on subway services to the city centre. often be built deeper underground at distance. All the other cities have zone- Seoul, meanwhile, has created direct even greater cost. However, to attract based fare structures, with fare revenues services from the suburbs to the centre passengers, fares for new lines must be divided between the different operators. in much the same way as Tokyo by kept at a reasonable level or on a par However, many cities use distance- connecting some subway lines to with fares for previously constructed based fares for travel to the suburbs. suburban KNR lines. lines, bus services and other transport In terms of both transport volume and All subway systems described in this modes. Consequently, it is virtually density, Tokyo is reliant on its railways. article are operated either by government impossible to recover the full cost of It is also the only city where transport or public bodies established and funded inner-city railway construction from operators essentially function by government. The London and Paris fare revenues alone. independently of government subways are run by public corporations; Funding the tremendous construction assistance (except for construction the Moscow subway by the city costs is therefore a major issue. One subsidies). The subsidies for operating authorities; the Berlin subway by the solution that has become increasingly costs in Western countries do not government Transport Bureau; New York popular is vertical separation in which encourage transport providers to make

16 Japan Railway & Transport Review 25 • October 2000 Copyright © 2000 EJRCF. All rights reserved. operations more efficient and One should also consider the manner in intercity and intra-city networks to include profitable. There are fears that such which intra-city and intercity transport rail-air links as well. subsidies can cause national and local networks mesh within the context of the Ultimately, urban transport systems must government expenditures to balloon overall transport system. Many European function in a manner that attracts out of control and the Tokyo cities are developing flexible connections passengers. This year will see the approach—expecting railway operators between their subway network and their completion of Tokyo’s first subway loop and to manage their own operating major rail terminals (which lead to other lines now under construction will finances—certainly has advantages. different destinations from the old city improve services further within a few years. The experiences of Paris, Berlin, Hong boundaries). On the other hand, Berlin, But there is still work to be done, Kong, and Tokyo clearly indicate the Tokyo and New York have integrated their particularly in areas, such as relieving importance of linking expansion of the services by linking intercity and intra-city congestion, linking lines to provide through urban rail network to strategic development lines. The latter approach is more services, providing services commensurate planning for the city as a whole. Urban convenient for travellers, but imposes a with fare levels, and embracing barrier-free railways encourage intensive development greater burden on the city centre, design principles. I around stations, and are very important as requiring development of sub-terminals a tool to reduce dependency on cars and and other solutions. On another front, protect the urban environment. most cities have recently integrated

Further Reading General • Paris toshikotsu no henkan to genjo (The • Development of the New York City Rail System, • Sekai no daitoshi (Major Cities of the World), Evolution and Status of Paris Transport Systems), Peter Derrick, JRTR 23, pp 14–21. Tokyo Metropolitan Government, 1997. Bureau of Transport Economy. Hong Kong • Shogaikoku ni okeru testsudoseibi hosaku ni Berlin • Asia no tetsudo (Railways in Asia), Yoshii Shoten, kansuru chosa hokokusho (A Report on Railway • Deutz ni okeru shutokino iten no jokyo (The 1990. Development Policy in Different Countries), Current Situation as Germany Transfers • Hong Kong—toshi no bijion (Hong Kong—Urban Railway Development Foundation, March 1992. Government Functions), Metropolitan Areas Vision), Hinge Marketing Ltd., 1995. • Shuyokoku un’yu jijo chosa hokokusho (A Report Development Bureau of the National Land • Mass Transit Railway Corporation homepage on Transportation in Major Countries), Japan Agency. (http://www.mtrcorp.com). Transport Economics Research Center, March • Das Zielnetz 2000, Land Brandenburg, 1994. • Kowloon–Canton Railway Corporation (KCRC) 1998. • Verkehrsentwicklungs—Planung für die Region homepage (http://www.kcrc.com). • Jane’s Urban Transport Systems, 1998–99. Berlin, March 1993. Seoul London • Verkehr in Berlin, Senatsnerwaltung für • Kankoku no tetsudo (Railways in the Republic • Annual Report 1998–1999, London Regional Verkehrund Betriebe, Berlin, 1995. of Korea), Toshihide Yamada, Japan Travel Transport, 1999. Moscow Bureau, January 1998. • Transport in London (1999), Department of the • Tokyoto toshigyosei chosadan hokokusho • The Seoul Subway, Hansol telecom homepage Environment, Transport and the Regions, 1999. (Mosukuwa) (Report on the Administration of (http://www.websubway.co.kr). • London—A History, Francis Sheppard, Oxford Metropolitan Regions (Moscow)), Tokyo Tokyo University Press, 1998. Metropolitan Government, March 1993. • Bureau of Transportation, Tokyo Metropolitan Paris New York Government homepage (http://www. • La vie du rail et des transports, MATRA. • Metropolitan Transportation Authority (http:// kotsu.metro.tokyo.jp). • La RATP aujourd’hui, La RATP en chiffres. www.mta.nyc.ny.us). • Teito Rapid Transit Authority (http://www. • Evolution demographique des secteurs de villes • Port Authority of New York and New Jersey tokyometro.go.jp). nouvelles, INSEE. homepage (http://www.panynj.gov).

Takao Okamoto Norihisa Tadakoshi

Dr Okamoto is Advisor to the Technology Center of the Metropolitan Mr Tadakoshi is Director of Urban Development Planning Division in Expressway. He graduated in civil engineering from the University of the Bureau of City Planning of the Tokyo Metropolitan Government. Tokyo in 1957 and joined Tokyo Metropolitan Government, where he He graduated in civil engineering from the University of Tokyo in served as Director General of City Planning Bureau and Chief of 1972. He has held positions as Manager of the Transport Planning Engineering. He later served as Vice President of the Metropolitan Section of the Bureau of City Planning, and as Director of the Technical Expressway Public Corporation. Department of Tama Monorail Company.