Ethiopian Journal of Environmental Studies & Management 7(5): 508 – 519, 2014 ISSN:1998-0507 doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/ejesm.v7i5.5 Submitted: May 17, 2014 Accepted: August 06, 2014

OVERCOMING ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES IN THE CEMENT MANUFACTURING SECTOR THROUGHCLEANER PRODUCTION. A CASE OF SINO COMPANY,

KUSENA, W., MARAMBANYIKA, T. AND MASWOSWERE, P. Midlands State University, P Bag 9055, Gweru, Zimbabwe

Abstract The paper investigated the extent to which Sino Zimbabwe Cement Company (SZCC) implemented Cleaner Production (CP) options to deal with high emissions and waste emanating from its operations. Research data was collected through questionnaires, interviews, direct observations and document analysis. Two sets of questionnaires were prepared targeting workers and the local community who were direct recipients of pollutants. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with key informants such as the Production Manager, the Human Resource Manager, the Finance Manager, Engineering Manager, the Health and Safety Officer and the District Environmental Management Agency Officer. Research findings revealed a reduction in dust emissions, volume of discharged effluent, residuals of oil contaminants and energy consumption. However, solid waste generation and its subsequent disposal remains a problem. Whilst adoption of CP can be viewed as a panacea to most environmental challenges faced by the organization, more investment is required towards elimination of some sources and cause of waste and emissions generation.

Key Words : Waste, Emissions, Cleaner production, Cement production, Legislation.

Introduction performance of industry. Cleaner production The need to promote a vibrant and (CP) is one of the universally implemented sustainable industrial sector has continued to strategies. It is also an integral component of be a major concern as the world positions international conventions and protocols such itself towards a green economy in the post as the Kyoto Protocol and United Nations Rio+20 period. The apprehension is centered Framework Convention to Climate Change on the prospects that a sustainable industrial aimed at stabilization of greenhouse gases. sector will enable present generation to CP options developed by United Nations safeguard the earth’s life support system on Environment Programme (UNEP) have been which the welfare of the current and future widely implemented across the globe. The generations depends (Griggs et al ., 2013). primary goal of CP is pollution prevention by However, various industrial operations have eliminating or reducing waste or emissions been blamed for significant pollution to the generating streams/processes in industrial detriment of the environment in most operations while increasing the countries (Chenje, 2002; Egbon, 2004; organization’s profit margin. Studies carried Johnson, 2005; Marambanyika and Mutekwa, out in Asia showed that CP resulted in a 50- 2009). In response, international, regional 70% reduction in emissions, water discharge and national policies and strategies were and solid waste generation over a short developed to improve the environmental payback period ranging from less than a year *Corresponding Author: Kusena, W. Email: [email protected] 508

Overcoming Environmental Challenges in the Cement Manufacturing ...... KUSENA et al. to 3 years (El-kholy, 2011). In Eastern despite the pressing need to move from this Europe, CP projects reduced carbon dioxide costly methodology. emissions by 52,500 tonnes and sulphur In Zimbabwe, the need for CP adoption dioxide emissions by 1,916 tonnes from 1998 has been increased by the stringent to 1999 (Johnson, 2005). All these scenarios provisions of the Environmental point towards a reduction in pollution levels, Management Act (Chapter 20:27). Sino hence lessening of the impact of industrial Zimbabwe Cement Company (SZCC) has not operations on environmental integrity. been spared from these legal requirements as Projects and programmes related to CP high pollution levels from their operations have been initiated in Zimbabwe with the resulted in closure of the company by the assistance of international organizations government’s regulatory authority, the through information exchange and capacity Environmental Management Agency in 2009. building (UNEP 2004). In Kenya, the The company was implicated for causing Chandaria Industries Limited in Nairobi water pollution, producing higher than through CP greatly improved the company’s normal dust emissions from its factory, operations as evidenced by cost reduction, discharging raw sewage and used oil directly efficient resources use and improved into River and the surrounding environmental performance at large, thereby environment, posing significant risk to creating a significant contribution towards humans, livestock, flora and fauna (Manyaza, sustainable development by greening its 2009; Kusena et al ., 2012 ). The mounting operations (Johnson, 2005). However, it was environmental challenges coerced the noted that most of the CP programmes were company to implement CP in order to short lived as they were donor-funded and improve its environmental performance. The even some projects in Zimbabwe were not paper examined the extent to which CP spared (Mbowa, 2002; Chidavaenzi, 2011). improved SZCC’s environmental This explains why over a decade, 2000-2011, performance. Zimbabwe only had 42 companies which had Objectives of the Study adopted CP (Chidavaenzi, 2011). Therefore, General Objective some scholars argued that for CP initiatives • To assess the effectiveness of cleaner to be successful, they must be locally production options in minimizing initiated and implemented (Madzinga, 2000; environmental pollution from Sino King, 2003). Zimbabwe Cement Company (SZCC). Successful CP implementation can be Specific Objectives hindered by lack of top management • To establish trends in performance of commitment, lack of effective regulatory selected environmental parameters before pressure, appropriate market incentives and and after implementation of cleaner absence of cleaner production technologies production options. (Mbowa, 2002; Chidavaenzi, 2011; UNEP, • To assess the usefulness of each cleaner 2004; Berkel, 1999). Moreover, most production option adopted. companies in Zimbabwe still lack adequate • To establish the challenges encountered awareness and understanding of the CP in the implementation of cleaner concept, thereby making its implementation production options. low if not impossible (Dandira et al ., 2012). In turn, most industries still rely on ‘end of pipe’ approaches in waste management

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Methods and Materials seasons, cold and dry winter and hot and wet Study Area summer. The area has a mean annual rainfall Sino-Zimbabwe Cement Company of 852 mm and mean temperature of 16°C (SZCC) is a cement manufacturing company. (Kusena et al ., 2008). The organization is It is situated in Lalapanzi, Indiva farm about located in the catchment area of Kwekwe 42 kilometers to the east of Gweru City, the River, a major tributary of provincial capital of Midlands (Figure 1). which drains into River. SZCC is The company started its operations in 2001. surrounded by new resettlements in which Other than servicing the local market, SCZZ farmers grow crops and keep livestock. The produces approximately 900 tonnes of resettlement area is serviced by SZCC clinic cement per week for export to the for most of its health needs. The community Democratic Republic of Congo and Zambia. immensely benefited from SZCC as the The company is located at an altitude of company constructed a secondary school and 1280m above sea level. The soils are deep a police base. SZCC also distribute cement in red clay and well adapted for crop production batches to the locals in order to improve (Chigerwe, 2003). SZCC area falls under sanitation through Blair toilets construction tropical savanna climate with two distinctive for every household.

Figure 1: Location of Sino Zimbabwe Cement Company (Kusena et al ., 2012)

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Data Collection targeted for questionnaires in order to gather Both quantitative and qualitative data was their views on level of pollution over the collected to determine the level of CP years. Key informants including the implementation at Sino Zimbabwe Cement organization’s Finance Manager, Production Company. About 72 workers were selected Manager, Safety, Health and Environment for questionnaires through stratified random (SHE) Officer, Engineering Manager, Human sampling (Table 1). Workers participation resources Manager and the District was meant to gauge their knowledge on CP Environmental Management Agency Officer implementation and impacts. All household were purposively selected for semi-structured heads (17) with homesteads located within interviews. 5km radius of the company were also

Table 1: Distribution of workers selected for questionnaires Department Number of workers Sample size (21% of workers population) Laboratory 24 5 Quarry 38 8 Stores 24 5 Security 20 4 Transport 10 2 Production 48 10 Warehouse 25 5 Landscaping 10 3 Marketing 6 1 Human Resource 8 2 Raw materials 30 6 Finance 23 5 Engineering 74 16 Total 340 72

The finance manager was selected organization. Lastly, document analysis because a number of CP options’ based on company’s environmental records effectiveness rely more on capital injection. and EMA reports was done, again to The production manager was targeted to ascertain environmental performance of the reveal information on level of production company since it started operations. before and after CP implementation. The Data Analysis engineering manager’s expertise was also Quantitative data from closed ended critical in determination and implementation questions in questionnaires were analysed in of CP options. Human resources manager the form of descriptive statistics whereby gave information on labour turnover, they were coded into percentages of appreciation of CP initiatives and provision respondents. Qualitative data gathered of incentives meant to curtail human-centred through interviews and questionnaires were shortcomings. District EMA officer provided organised into sub-themes for discussion important information on the environmental under appropriate sub-headings. Quantitative performance of the organization prior to and data from company records on the during the adoption of CP options. Direct organization’s environmental performance observations were made on the state of the were analysed against environmental legal environment within and around the benchmarks. Some of the quantitative data

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Ethiopian Journal of Environmental Studies and Management Vol. 7 no.5 2014 results were presented in the form of tables women were therefore employed in the stores and graphs. department, as secretaries and in managerial positions. About 76.4% of these workers had Results and Discussion worked for the company for a period of at Socio-economic Status of Respondents least five years, a period long enough for the The findings indicated that 77.8% of the workers to develop a full understanding of workers were males and 22.2% were females the processes of the company (Table 2). The (Table 2). This was due to the fact that work findings indicated that SZCC had a stable in the cement industry is ordinarily laborious workforce which is a prerequisite to hence fewer women were accommodated in successful implementation of innovations the production processes. A relatively few (Hamed, 2002).

Table 2: Socio-demographic information of respondents Variable Attributes Responses Frequency Percentage Gender Male 56 77.8 Female 16 22.2 Education Primary 7 9.7 Secondary 52 72.2 Tertiary 13 18.1 Trained for the job Trained 46 63.9 Not trained 26 36.1 Period of service ≤1 3 4.2 2-4 14 19.4 5-7 27 37.5 8-11 18 25 ≥12 10 13.9

The success of projects sometimes Performance of environmental Parameters depends on the level of education and skills in Response to CP Options of the workers (Table 2). The findings Dust Emissions revealed that all workers were literate, with The major sources of dust were quarrying only 9.7% have obtained primary education and cement production processes. Dust and the rest had at least a secondary emission was high prior CP adoption. This education qualification. It was also indicated was confirmed by all key informants, 90% of that 63.9% of the workers were trained and workers and all surrounding households. The skilled for the jobs they were doing and only level of dust emission was attributed to 36.1% were untrained. Thus SZCC had a inadequacy and ineffectiveness of existing stable and skilled workforce which made dust reduction mechanisms. Prior to CP them capable to understand the magnitude of implementation , there were only six environmental problems from their electronic precipitators (EP) which were organization. Besides recruiting qualified inadequate to trap all the dust. The dust workers, SZCC conducted worker training collectors were worn out, thus could not programmes to ensure that the workers effectively deal with emissions problem. The attained the prerequisite qualifications and plant also experienced several dust leakages skills. along the production line due to broken pipes.

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After the introduction of CP project, dust housekeeping and to a lesser extent better was reduced. This was attributed to increased processes control. number of electronic precipitators from 6 to Chimneys Smoke Quality 10, maintenance and introduction of more Before CP implementation, chimney dust collectors and introduction of water emissions were in the red band as specified in spray to wash down dust from the electronic Statutory Instrument (SI) 72 of 2009, EMA precipitators (EPs). Moreover, dust emissions (Atmospheric Pollution Control) Regulations from raw material storage were reduced by (Chapter 20:27). This entails that the increased frequency of cleaning, restoring of company’s emissions were above 120mg/m 3 3 order in stocking of material and elimination and 150mg/m for sulphur dioxide (SO 2) and of manual off-loading. About 76% of the nitrogen dioxide (NO 2) respectively. surrounding households indicated that dust Nonetheless, after CP, these parameters decreased although slight deposits could be conformed to the blue category noticed on vegetation, especially grass and specifications, implying that there was ‘no buildings. Most of the current dust was environmental hazard’ anymore due to emanating from limestone carriers. It was remediation process brought about by CP observed that the carriers were not covered options towards emissions reduction with the when moving limestone from the quarry site exception of smoke density (Table 3). The to the plant. Basically, reduction in dust change was largely attributed to better emissions was largely attributed to good process control and equipment modification.

Table 3: Average air quality measurements from chimneys for period before and during CP implementation Period Parameters Chimney Height

NO 2 SO 2 Particulate Smoke Density (%) Matter (µm) Before CP 153 52 112 20 25m implementation During CP 71 43 39 20 25m implementation

Waste Oil Generation Some of the recovered oil together with used Prior to CP implementation, the oil was sold to petroleum companies for organization had no strategies in place to deal recycling. Although off-site recycling is not with oil leakages, spillages and disposal. As CP, in this case a useful by-product was a result, used oil or wastewater contaminated recovered; hence pollution to the with oil was disposed into the surrounding environment was reduced. However, oil environment where it would eventually find leaks were observed from the separation tank, its way into the terrestrial and aquatic indicating that pollution was not ecosystems, especially Kwekwe river. wholesomely eliminated. However, the company built an oil separator Moreover, routine maintenance of tank, whereby all wastewater with oil equipment and machinery using oil was contaminants was captured. Since oil is less enforced so as to minimize oil leakages, dense than water, oil accumulating on-top of including that from trucks. Therefore, all the water was removed using a valve on the respondents indicated that wastewater from tank side close to the top of the tank. The the organization had improved in terms of recovered oil was used to heat the coal mill. colour and odour. No traces of oil were still

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Ethiopian Journal of Environmental Studies and Management Vol. 7 no.5 2014 visible in the wastewater like in the past. The from pipes were effectively monitored with improvement was attributed to the company’s the participation of all workers. Immediate significant investment in the SHE department and regular maintenance was instituted by the which has been instrumental in engineering department. The organization implementation of the CP project. In brief, now recycles water from the cooling plant good housekeeping, on-site recycling and and cleaning. production of a useful by-product were key Moreover, floor washing was reduced to CP options towards reduction of waste oil. twice per week. Overflows from water sprays Wastewater Generation used to suppress dust from chimneys were In the pre-CP adoption period, the channeled to collection ponds and recycled. volume of wastewater was high as indicated Some of the recycled water was used to clean by 80% of the workers and the company limestone before grinding to avoid choking records. The problem was attributed to water the shoot. On-site recycling has resulted in a leakages from pumps, pipes; high volume decrease in both water abstracted for these from cooling processes and daily floor activities and volume of wastewater cleaning. After adoption of CP, leakages discharged (Figure 2).

Figure 2: Average wastewater discharge between January and September 2012

Figure 2 show that effluent discharge in effluent quality. EMA also monitored January 2012 was 119m 3/hour. It was then industrial effluent through SI 6 of 2007, reduced to as low as 60m 3/hour between July Environmental Management (Effluent and and September 2012. The set target for the Solid Waste Disposal) and SI 4 of 2011, volume of effluent was 40m 3/hour by the end Environmental and Natural Resources of 2012. If the current trend continued to Management (Effluent and Solid Waste improve as in Figure 2, the target was likely Management)(Amendment) Regulations to be achieved. Therefore, CP options such as (Chapter 20:27). In the period before CP good housekeeping and on-site recycling implementation, overall effluent quality significantly reduced the volume of parameters were in the red category wastewater. compared to the blue category during CP Effluent Quality implementation (Table 4). However, it is Other than volume of wastewater, the important to note that even during CP organization was also concerned with implementation total dissolved solids (TDS)

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Overcoming Environmental Challenges in the Cement Manufacturing ...... KUSENA et al. was in the green category and conductivity Improvement in effluent quality was was in the yellow category, meaning achieved through good housekeeping and something was supposed to be done to adherence to operational procedures. improve performance in that regard.

Table 4: Comparison of effluent quality parameters before and during CP implementation Period Parameters EMA Classification pH TDS TSS Conductivity Chemical Oxygen Demand Before CP 8.3 270 147 1130 178 Red implementation During CP 7.8 564 28 1530 39.9 Blue implementation

The water quality in Kwekwe River after increased its production when the country receiving discharge from SZCC has introduced stable multi-currency regime in improved to environmentally safe level as order to recover from a decade of ecomonic indicated by EMA standards. This means that meltdown characterised by hyperinflation aquatic life was likely to flourish in the river (Figure 3). What was interesting in the because of the reduction in this point source trends of energy use was that energy water pollution. consumption was high when production was Steam Leakage low in 2009 compared to 2012 when it was Prior to CP implementation, steam high. This was attributed to level of leakages were common due to lack of consciousness in the organization on the need maintenance and worn out pipes. This to cut costs of production in order to increase directly increased the amount of steam the company’s profit margin. consumed and raw material required for its The SHE department came up with daily generation like coal and water. Therefore the cost-cutting measures for power consumption cost of steam production was relatively high as from 2011. The reduction in power compared to the current period whereby consumption was achieved by installing steam leakages were attended to regularly. transparent sheets in some areas like mill All steam leakages were now reported to both house, bagging room and the great cooler to the SHE and engineering departments for avoid use of lights during the day. Thus most prompt attendance. Therefore, good lights were switched off during the day. housekeeping had in this case assisted the During the night, lights in unoccupied offices organization to deal with steam loss at low were switched off as well. Many old pumps cost since monitoring was done by were replaced by new technologies which employees in various departments where this were more efficient and power saving. Many particular resource was required. Effective vessels and steam pipes were wrapped to participation of workers was enhanced by reduce heat loss. Therefore, a combination of SHE campaigns conducted. good housekeeping practices, equipment Energy Consumption modification and technology change assisted Generally, energy consumption has been in reduction of energy consumption. on a decline since 2009 when the company

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Figure 3: Energy consumption trends before and during CP implementation. *Information for year 2012 ends in September.

Solid Waste Generation substances being emitted into the Solid waste generated at the organization atmosphere, thereby underming global efforts include cement, broken cement bags, plastics, to stablise greenhouse gases. Both livestock falling limestone from conveyor belts, and people had unrestricted entry to the leftover food from canteen and other raw dumpsite. This was in contravention with the material used in cement production. About legal requirement that the company was 70% of community members indicated that supposed to have a lined landfill to avoid there was no meaningful reduction in solid leachates. At the sametime, access by both waste especially broken cement bags, plastics people and livestock was supposed to be and food (Plate 1). The aforementioned solid restricted as some waste could be hazardous. waste was dumped in a partially fenced open In brief, CP options were failing to reduce or space and was periodically burned. eliminate the sources and causes of this solid Incineration resulted in unknown chemical waste, meaning more attention was required.

Goat feeding on waste from SZCC dumpsite

Piles of broken cement empty bags

Plate 1: Dumping site

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There was also poor storage of raw the most ideal option to deal with waste materials such as gypsum, coal and generation at this source. limestone. These were heaped on open Challenges Encountered in the spaces which were not lined, a situation Implementation of CP Options at SZCC likely to cause underground water pollution Although the organization has been through leachates. However, cement reducing waste and emissions generation, leakages were reduced by proper monitoring pace of meeting their objectives and targets and regular mantainance of the production was compromised by a number of equipment. The introduction of CP almost challenges. The major problem was eliminated disposal of expired raw materials. inadequate finance as assistance from This was credited to the use of ‘first-in-first government and donor community was not out principle’ in which raw materials that forthcoming; hence the company resorted to came in first were used until they were low cost options some of which were not finished before bringing in new stuff. After very effective. Mbowa (2002), UNEP CP implementation, falling limestone rocks (2004) and Nalukole (2000) also indicated from tipping trucks began to be recovered lack of funding for CP investments as a regularly. limiting factor to success of CP projects in Moreover, blockage of shoot during developing countries. At present, the limestone grinding was reduced. Limestone company was using 6 instead of 14 was now washed before grinding and the limestone carriers. These were poorly quantity of raw materials fed into the system serviced as there was no time for their per given time was effectively regulated. maintenance due to pressing demand of their Lubricants were also introduced in order to services. Material spillages from conveyor run the grinding process efficiently, though belt buckets were to be reduced through use in smaller amounts than before. Therefore, of sensors to detect and prevent bucket shoot operators confirmed that it was now overfilling. This was not easy to achieve, possible to go for a week or two without the because the company did not have enough shoot being blocked. In this case waste from money to buy the required number of shoot blockage was minimized through sensors to detect all overfills. Due to this better process control. challenge, spillages could not be completely Clinker Falls avoided. Absence of competent manpower Conveyor belts were modified to prevent to install air bag dust collectors on chimneys clinker falls. About 70% of the workers was also a major challenge faced by SZCC. indicated a reduction in clinker falls since The company bought air bag dust collectors modification of the conveyor belts. from China but they could not be installed However, the remaining workers indicated due to lack of internal technical competency. that the changes to the conveyor belts The company ultimately hired technicians compromised their strength. The frequency from China to install air bag dust collectors of breakdown on modified belts was on the chimneys. This augments findings by comparably higher than old ones. Sensors on Mourand (2011) that enforcement of CP the belts were now fewer and failed to options is hampered by lack of specialists. effectively detect bucket overfills on time. Workers complained that the new types of Conclusion belts were also difficult to work with as Generally, the company managed to compared to the old type. Therefore, reduce both emissions and waste generation equipment modification could not have been after the adoption of CP options towards the

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Ethiopian Journal of Environmental Studies and Management Vol. 7 no.5 2014 end of 2011. The organization improved on Chigerwe, F. (2003). The natural farming the quality of air and effluent as they were regions of Zimbabwe, soils, rainfall now largely within the legal limits not and vegetation. Harare: Longman. detrimental to ecological integrity. Dust Dandira, V., Mugwindiri, K. and Chikuku, emissions which were one major T. (2012). A Cleaner Production environmental aspect from the company Exercise of A Leather Manufacturing were significantly reduced to the delight of Company: A Zimbabwean Experience , the local community. However, solid waste International Journal of Scientific & disposal and smoke density remains on the Technology Research, 1(11): 1-5. high side. The level of success depends to a Egbon, (2004). Technical assistance for larger extent on availability of finance and cleaner production: Clean production- technical expertise. environmental and economic perspectives . London: Arnold. Recommendations El-kholy, F. (2011). Cleaner production • The organization must reduce generation global status 2011. Accessed on 16 of solid waste such as broken cement June 2012, bags and plastics and oil contamination http://www.mindfully.org/Sustainabilit from the source. y/Cleaner-Production . • Limestone cleaning bay must be lined to Griggs, D., Stafford-Smith, M., Gaffney, O., avoid mudding of cleaned limestone Rockstrom, J., Ohman, M.C., before grinding as this increase water Shyamsundar, P., Steffen, W., Glaser, abstraction and wastage. G., Kanie, M. and Noble, I. (2013). • The organization must thoroughly assess Sustainable Development Goals for the feasibility of CP options to avoid people and Planet. Nature, 495: 305- adoption of options with less impact, 307. like in the case of conveyor belts Hamed, M.M. (2002). Outline of a national modification. strategy for cleaner production. A case • The dumpsite must be lined to avoid ofEypt. http://www.unep.fr/shared/publ leachates and protected to avoid entry of ications/other/WEBx0072xPA/manual people and livestock. _cdrom/CPlinks/pdfs/egypt.pdf Johnson, R. (2005). Theory of science and References research methodology. Stockholm: Berkel, D. (1999). Major constraints to Royal Institute of Technology. successful implementation of cleaner King, P. (2003). Guidelines for policy technologies to Slovak industry: integration and strategic and action Cleaner technologies and cleaner planning for the promotion of cleaner products for sustainable development. production. Philippines: Asian Rutledge, London. Development. Chenje, V. (2002). Cleaner production views Kusena, W., Shoko, K. and Marambanyika, and issues in Zimbabwe. Harare: T. (2012). Socio-economic impacts of Government press. cement production at Sino-Zimbabwe Chidavaenzi, D. (2011). Zimbabwean on Hozheri community, Gweru, national cleaner production center Zimbabwe . Journal of Sustainable roles and responsibilities. Harare: Development in Africa, 14(8): 94-103. Government press. http://www.jsd-

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