\J z :c V\
0 u V\ w z :::> The city of Alexandria and surrounding area as seen from the NASA Space Shuttle in March 1 990. The Eastern and Wes tern Harbours are clearly visible in the centre of the image, as well as the dark surface of Lake Mariout immediately to the south. With respect to the pollution of coastal waters, a plume of suspended matter from the Mex pump station is clearly visible arcing eastward from El Mex Bay towards the Qait Bey area. Also worthy of note is the impact of the El Tabya pump station on the waters of Abu Qir Bay on the right side of the image (see the article in this volume by Y. Halim and F. Abou Shouk). Photo: NASA Coastal management sourcebooks 2
Underwater archaeology and coastal management In this. s.eries:
1.. Coping with bea~h erosion,
i ! \ I,
'•' { Coastal management sourcebooks 2
UNDERWATER ARCHAEOLOGY AND COASTAL MANAGEMENT
!Focus on Alexandria
Edited by Mostafa Hassan Mostafa Nicolas Grimal Douglas Nakashima
UNESCO PUBLISHING The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this document do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the UNESCO Secretariat concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of their authorities, or concerning the delimitation of their frontiers or boundaries. The ideas and opinions expressed are those of the contributors to this report and do not necessarily represent the views of the Organization.
Cover photos: Stephane Compoint/CORBIS SYGMA Cover design: Jean-Francis Cheriez Layout: Claude Vacheret
ISBN 92-3-103730-7
Published in 2000 by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization 7, place de Fontenoy, 75352 Paris 07 SP
Printed by Corlet, Imprimeur, S.A., 14110 Conde-sur-Noireau N° d'Imprimeur: 44292 - Depot legal: avril 2000
© UNESCO 2000 Printed in France Acknowledgements
he Alexandria project brings together We are grateful to the Library of the Ta number of cooperating institutions Municipality of Rouen, the Regenstein in Egypt. Figuring among the key partners Library of the University of Chicago and the are the University of Alexandria, the Supreme Ecole des Ponts in Paris, for providing photos Council of Antiquities (SCA) and the of the Jondet maps included in Plates 1-3. Governorate of Alexandria. Within UNESCO, J. Becton contributed to the scanning and it involves colleagues in the Cairo Office, editing of these images under the guidance and in the Divisions of Cultural Heritage, of N. Tongring. The Supreme Council of Water Sciences and Earth Sciences, who Antiquities and the Marine Policy Center collaborate on the Coastal Regions and Small of the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution Islands platform. supported these specific contributions. With respect to the international workshop Thanks are also due to: the Institut Fran9ais of which this publication is an outcome, d' Archeologie Orientate and the Centre particular recognition is due to the University d'Etudes Alexandrines for their professional for its lead role in the organization and advice and assistance; S. Compoint/Corbis hosting of the event, and special thanks are Sygma, for providing the underwater images expressed to the workshop's Steering appearing on the cover and in Part 2; Committee, the University's Department and L. Menanteau, CNRS researcher at the of Oceanography of the Faculty of Sciences, University of Nantes, France, for locating the and SCA's Department of Submarine NASA satellite image appearing on the inside Archaeology. The contribution and assistance front cover. of the following entities in Egypt are acknowledged: the Ministry of Tourism, the Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency, the Italian Embassy in Cairo and Consulate in Alexandria, the French Consulate in Alexandria, the Institut Europeen d' Archeologie Sous-marine of the Hilti Foundation, and the Association of Businessmen in Alexandria. Appreciation is also expressed to the Egyptian Permanent Delegation for their steady support. This volume could not have been produced without the dedicated efforts of many individuals. Special acknowledgement is given to: S. Morcos, for the initial proposal to launch this endeavour, as well as for the constructive ideas and key illustrations that he contributed, and H. Awad, for his major role in preparing the workshop and forging links among people and institutions. Preface
mn recent decades, calls for interdisciplinary known experts from various disciplines who Mapproaches to contemporary problems have were asked to bring their knowledge and been salient - and often central - in the expertise to bear on the wide-ranging conclusions of an ever-increasing number of considerations at hand. As such, it provides conventions, agreements and workshops. much useful food for thought for coastal Multi-sectoral from its birth a half-century managers who are confronted with the task of ago, the United Nations Educational, finding an equitable balance between the Scientific and Cultural Organization preservation of underwater archaeological launched, in l 996, an endeavour entitled heritage and the pursuit of sustainable coastal Environment and Development in Coastal development. Regions and in Small Islands (CSI) to serve As the second contribution to the UNESCO as a platform for developing intersectoral series entitled Coastal Management solutions to the dilemma facing coastal Sourcebooks, this volume offers further countries. insights into managing and developing coastal A poignant problem for societies, of late, is regions and small islands in environmentally how to go about protecting one of humanity's sound, socially equitable and culturally most valued resources: the world's appropriate ways. archaeological patrimony. One reservoir of such treasures - the coastal sea - has been increasingly explored in recent years. The DIRK G. TROOST submarine nature of this long-inaccessible Chief, UNESCO-CSI reservoir, distinguishing it from the more easily surveyed and exploitable terrestrial heritage, presents unique problems necessitating special approaches. This need is all the more urgent in view of the impacts, on the coasts, of advanced development technology and in particular, the advent and easy availability of modem diving equipment. The coastal waters of the Mediterranean constitute some of the planet's richest areas in terms of abundance in archaeological relics. In recent years, the city of Alexandria, Egypt, has captured public attention owing to the underwater discoveries of what are believed to be the remains of the Alexandria lighthouse and Cleopatra's palace. To further explore and develop techniques and strategies in pursuit of integrated approaches to coastal management, the University of Alexandria, the Supreme Council of Antiquities and UNESCO co-sponsored an intersectoral workshop in Alexandria (April l 997). The present volume contains the edited papers from this workshop. It conveys the information, views and analyses of well- Table of Contents
Foreword 11
Introduction - Alexandria in an evolving context 13
ALEXANDRIA IN EARLY TIMES: HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES
The greatest emporium in the inhabited world (Mostafa El-Abbadi) 17
The two ports of Alexandria: plans and maps from the 14th century to the time of Mohamed Ali (Harry E. Tzalas) 22
2 UNDERWATER ARCHAEOLOGY ALONG THE ALEXANDRIAN COAST
Early discoveries of submarine archaeological sites in Alexandria (Selim A. Morcos) 33
Kamel Abul-Saadat: a pioneer in Alexandrian underwater archaeology (Hala Halim) 46
Underwater archaeological investigations of the ancient Pharos (Jean-Yves Empereur) 54
Underwater archaeological survey of Alexandria's Eastern Harbour (Franck Goddio) 60
3 SUBMERGED HERITAGE SITES AROUND THE MEDITERRANEAN BASIN
From Byblos to Pharos: some archaeological considerations (Honor Frost) 64
The Port of Sabratha, Libya (Nicola Bonacasa) 69
The ancient port of war, Thasos, Greece (Angeliki Simossi) 74
Underwater archaeology in Greece (Dimitris Kazianis) 78
Modem development and ancient maritime sites along the Tyrrhenian coast (Enrico Felici) 81
4 REMOTE-SENSING AND ARCHAEOLOGY
Remote-sensing tools for archaeology (Farouk El-Baz) 89
Remote imaging of submerged man-made structures (H. Arnold Carr) 96
Proposed survey of Alexandria harbours by a sonar sub-bottom profiler (Nils Tongring and Neal W. Driscoll) 102 5 CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES FOR UNDERWATER ARTEFACTS
Conservation of marine artefacts: examples from INA-Egypt projects (Howard Wellman) 106
Protection of shipwrecks: the experience of the Spanish National Maritime Archaeological Museum (Ivan Negueruela) 111
Data management in underwater archaeology (Vincenzo Sommella) 117
6 LEGAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR SUBMARINE HER ITAGE SITES
Conventions and Jaws related to submarine archaeological sites in the Mediterranean (Vincent Negri) 122
Legal principles for protecting underwater cultural heritage (Lynde! V. Prott) 130
7 POLLUTION AND EROSION IMPACTS ON COASTAL HERITAGE
Human impacts on Alexandria's marine environment (Youssef Halim and Fatma Abou Shouk) 137
Environmental concerns in Alexandrian underwater archaeology (Ossama M. T. Aboul Dahab) 140
Currents and their variability in Eastern Harbour and Qait Bey areas (Ahmed Abdel Hamid EJ-Gindy) 144
Wave propagation and sedimentation at the Pharos site (Denis Aelbrecht, J.-M. Menon and Eric Peltier) 147
Coastal processes and proposed protection works along the Alexandrian coastline (Alfy Morcos Fanos and Omran El Sayed Frihy) 159
8 INTEGRATED MANAGEMENT OF COASTAL HERITAGE
Need for a coastal management plan: the Alexandria case (lbtehal Y. El-Bastawissi) 164
In the same boat and learning the ropes: an Alexandria/Boston comparison (Victor T . Mastone) 179
Urban design and eco-tourism: the Alexandria Comprehensive Master Plan (Mohsen Zahran) 185
RECOMMENDATIONS 191
CONTRIBUTORS 195 Foreword
lexandria - city of 2,000 years, city of • The investigation of the underwater AAlexander the Great, Cleopatra, the artefacts in the Eastern Harbour of Ptolomies, Romans, Copts, Arabs, as well as Alexandria, which started five years ago. the disembarkment of Napoleon, defeat of the Discovered were some three thousand pieces, British, departure of King Farouk, of which about thirty have been lifted from nationalization of the Suez Canal, residence the water. This area is considered to be one of cosmopolitans and the inspiration of artists of the most fascinating underwater sites in the and writers such as Durell, Kharat, Mostaki, world. We are witnessing the uncovering of Wanli ... Alexandria - city of the Seventh the monumental ancient Lighthouse of Wonder of the World, the Lighthouse, city of Alexandria. the Biblioteca Alexandrina, Pompey's Pillar, • The Qabbari catacombs, accidentally Roman Theater, Qait Bey Fortress ... found during the construction of a bridge Founded by Alexander the Great in 330 BC, which is to help solve the problem of Alexandria extended to six kilometres along congested cargo transport out of the harbour the seashore at the time of the Ptolomies and area to the Cairo-Alexandria highway. These had shrunk to only three kilometres by the catacombs are considered the largest of their time Napoleon arrived in 1798. kind in the Mediterranean region. In the nineteenth century the small city W ith these three important events, it has regained its role and became, under become obvious that Alexandria is in urgent Mohamed Ali, the commercial harbour of need of master planning in order to guarantee Egypt. Mohamed Ali constructed the the preservation of its cultural heritage and to Mahmoudia Canal that supplied Alexandria assure, at the same time, its social and with fresh water from the Nile. Abbas Pasha economic development. added the railway line between Cairo and In order to put Alexandria back on Egypt's Alexandria. Over the last two centuries, cultural and tourist map, efforts are currently Alexandria's limits have expanded to enclose being applied towards the preservation of the twenty-five kilometres of coastline. newly discovered sites, be they underwater or The demographic development of above ground; however, the future trend Alexandria along the last two centuries is a should be towards achieving a master plan for phenomenon in itself. Upon the arrival of the city with the twin objectives of Napoleon in 1798, Alexandria had only preservation and development. This will 8,000 inhabitants. Since the time of mean that efforts henceforth can not be Mohamed Ali, the city's population has narrowly specialized or restricted to one increased by leaps and bounds - reaching discipline, but must be multi-sectoral. Viable 60,000 in 1840; 140,000 in 1848; 270,000 in solutions to the problems will require the 1874; 300,000 at the end of the nineteenth collaboration of archaeologists, century; and today 4.5 million inhabitants environmentalists, sociologists as well as crowd the city's streets. specialists from a series of other fields of In the last decade, Alexandria has witnessed culture, education and the natural and social three major archaeological events: sciences. The revival of the Alexandria Library, a UNESCO project that was launched by what is known as the Aswan Declaration, attested to by many sovereigns and heads of States, FATH! SALEH such as Presidents Mubarak and Mitterand. Former Ambassador Extra Plenipotentiary The library will be inaugurated in 2000. Permanent Delegate of Egypt to UNESCO
Coastal management sourcebooks 2 11 Introduction ADexa1nHdD"oa on a111 ev0Dvn1r11g C4lllrnitext
oday, with a disproportionately large CITIES OF A LEXANDRIA IN CONFLICT Tpercentage of the world's population crowded into the narrow strip of land that Since its construction in the late I 5th Century borders the sea, coastal regions have become by a Mameluk sultan, the Qait Bey Citadel arenas of intense competition. Port has guarded the outer arm of Alexandria's development competes with seafront housing East.em Harbour. Today, it has become an projects, industrial pollution threatens Egy)ptian landmark of national significance. artisanal fisheries, coastal wetlands are filled Ove1r the years, however, the waves of the in for urban expansion, sand mining Mediterranean Sea have continually gnawed accelerates the erosion of tourist beaches and at its northeastem perimeter and erosion has undermines seaside structures ... , these are but become an ever-present threat to the integrity a sampling of the everyday conflicts which of the site. In the early 1990s, the responsible characterise coastal regions the world over. national authority, the Supreme Council of From this point of view, Alexandria is no Antiquities (SCA), decided that remedial exception. During recent decades its mea:sures must be taken to safeguard the population has soared due to a steady rural Citadel. exodus to this urban centre. Its tourist Operations began in 1993 and some 180 beaches, favoured destinations for Egyptians cement blocks, each weighing several tons, in summer, are threatened by the untreated were deposited on the sea floor along the wastewater generated by the ever-increasing vulnerable northeastem perimeter of the site. urban populace. The pollution problem is These efforts to protect the Citadel from the further exacerbated by Alexandria's industrial onslaught of the sea, however, had an sector, one of Egypt's largest. unforeseen impact upon another But that which sets Alexandria apart from archaeological site of significance. Hidden most other coastal cities, is not so much beneath the waves and partly buried under conflicts over contemporary uses of coastal bottom sediments were the ruins of the resources, but rather conflicts between the Alexandria Lighthouse, one of the seven city which is Alexandria today and the city, wonders of the Ancient World. Unwittingly, or more precisely cities, which Alexandria the cement sea wall was being raised on the has been in the past. For through the vestiges of Alexandria's Pharos. centuries, Alexandria has been home to many It was only by chance that a film crew illustrious peoples and cultures and they have shooting underwater footage discovered that all left their traces. As Alexandria struggles to the cement blocks were saving one heritage renew its urban core, to resolve problems of site at the expense of another. The alarm was traffic, to restore housing for a burgeoning rapidly raised and in response to a strong population, to put some order into the urban public outcry, the SCA eventually halted the sprawl ... , everywhere it is confronted and dumping of blocks and launched an confounded by the archaeological remains of evaluation of the underwater site. For this its remarkable past. undertaking, the SCA called upon the Institut At the origin of the present volume is a Frarn~ais d'Archeologie Orientale (IFAO) and seemingly banal attempt to deal with coastal in particular, the skills and knowledge of erosion. The construction of a mere sea wall Dr. Jean-Yves Empereur, Director of the has triggered passionate debates over how Centtre d'Etudes Alexandrines (CEA). best to manage Alexandria's cultural past in This: survey work underlined the perplexing the face of contemporary urban and industrial nature of the present coastal management realities. dilemma. Two important cultural heritage
Coastal management sourcebooks 2 13 sites are situated side by side. The Qait Bey process. In other words, to develop a global Citadel is threatened by encroaching coastal understanding of the problem and set into erosion. But remedial measures to protect the place an integrated management strategy for Citadel have proven detrimental to the Alexandria's natural and cultural heritage, adjacent underwater Phares site. What can be one cannot do without an intersectoral group done? Must one site be sacrificed in order to of experts, stakeholders and decision-makers. conserve the other? Or can a solution be found which conserves both sites? BUILDING BLOCKS FOR AN ENVIRONMENTAL, SOCIAL AND CULTURAL INTEGRATED APPROACHES FOR MASTER PLAN FOR ALEXANDRIA MANAGING COMPLEX COASTAL PROBLEMS This volume brings together the contributions The bio-physical and socio-cultural of twenty-seven experts from a wide range of complexity of coastal environments have disciplines and fields. While the juxtaposition brought integrated and intersectoral of these seemingly disparate and unrelated approaches to managing coastal problems to themes and issues is unusual and even the fore. Recognizing the multiple facets of somewhat unsettling, recognition of the vital the Citadel-Phares dilemma, the University of role that each of these contributions has to Alexandria, the SCA and UNESCO jointly play is an essential first step towards an organized an intersectoral workshop on integrated and comprehensive solution for Submarine Archaeology and Coastal Alexandria. Today, Alexandria is rising to the Management, which took place in Alexandria challenge of weaving these multiple strands from 7-1 I April 1997. A comprehensive into a unified vision of the problem and its understanding of the problem was of the solutions. essence. Archaeological experts shared their The volume opens in Part I with two insights on current challenges and historical contributions that impress upon the methodological innovations in the rapidly reader the enduring significance of evolving discipline of underwater heritage Alexandria as a strategic trade centre in the conservation. Geologists and oceanographers eastern Mediterranean. M. El-Abbadi offered their understandings of ocean current provides a rich account of the military, patterns, sediment transport, erosion political, economical and even meteorological processes and their impacts on coastal dynamics that shaped Alexandria's destiny as archaeological sites. Coastal engineers 'the greatest emporium of the inhabited provided expert advice on alternative world'. To continue this saga, H. Tzalas measures for mitigating coastal erosion. guides the reader through a fascinating series But this interdisciplinary array still only of ancient plans and maps of the two ports of addressed part of the many-dimensioned Alexandria. The nine maps reproduced in this problem. Alexandria's cultural heritage is volume extend over a period of 400 years. menaced not only by erosion, but also by the From history, the theme shifts in Part 2 to city's heavily polluted coastal waters and the archaeology or more specifically the history incessant pressures generated by a rapidly of underwater archaeological discoveries off growing metropolis. The dismal condition of Alexandria's shores. S. Morcos provides a coastal waters defaces the underwater personal and passionate account of early archaeological sites, precluding their archaeological discoveries, including that of development for tourism. Furthermore, the Bonaparte's fleet in Abu Qir Bay, Jondet's heightened acidity of polluted waters investigations of Alexandria's ancient augments their corrosive capacity, Western Harbour, and Abul-Saadat's accelerating erosion of the largely calcareous exceptional archaeological finds in the coastline. Wastewater management must be Eastern Harbour area. The intriguing life part of any long-term solution and these and story of Kamel Abul-Saadat, Egypt's first and other interventions must be co-ordinated self-made underwater archaeologist, is through a comprehensive urban planning revealed through the excellent investigative
14 Coastal management sourcebooks 2 work of H. Halim. These early archaeological be applied in Alexandria's harbours to help campaigns have opened the way for current resolve some of its persistent archaeological investigations of the Pharos site under the mysteries. But the management of underwater direction of J.-Y. Empereur, who offers the cultural heritage requires not only an reader an overview of discoveries made to appreciation of the diverse nature of date. Archaeological findings beneath the underwater sites, and of novel techniques for waters of Alexandria's Eastern Harbour are their discovery and interpretation. The reported upon by F. Goddio. conservation of artefacts found underwater Underwater archaeological sites present (Part 5) necessitates the development of unique challenges for cullUral heritage specialized techniques for ex situ interpretation and conservation. Many preservation, as described by H. Wellman, countries around the Mediterranean basin are and even more challenging procedures for in struggling to come to terms with this situ protection against vandals and pirates, as relatively new field. In Part 3, Alexandria's proposed by I. Negueruela. V. Sommella underwater archaeological discoveries are set tackles the thorny, but inevitable challenge of in the context of the Mediterranean seascape. managing the complex data sets generated by H. Frost stimulates the reader's imagination submarine archaeological research. with her account of early predecessors to the As underwater sites occur below the high tide Pharos lighthouse at Byblos and Ugarit, mark, their legal status requires clarification where stone anchors set at the lighthouse base in order to provide a sound basis for their and fires set on the roof, offered symbolic protection from plundering. In Part 6, and material guidance to bring ships to safe V. Negri provides the reader with an anchor. Like Alexandria, other ancient ports assessment of conventions and laws in the have been the object of archaeological Mediterranean region, while L. Prott, from investigation. N. Bonacasa reports on findings UNESCO's Cultural Heritage Division, at the port of Sabratha in Libya, and examines international instruments that may A. Simossi describes the configuration of the be effectively brought to bear, in conjunction port of Thasos in Greece. D. Kazianis, while with national legislation, to protect providing an inventory of underwater Alexandria's offshore heritage. discoveries in Greece, offers insights into the In Part 7, the reader's attention is turned to threats posed to underwater cultural heritage environmental considerations that must figure by smugglers, fishing and harbour in an integrated management plan for the construction, as well as the role of coastal heritage sites of Alexandria. The conscientious individuals in reporting problem of land-based sources of marine underwater discoveries. In a richly-illustrated pollution and their impact on offshore contribution, E. Felici provides an important archaeological sites is described by Y. Halim inventory of underwater sites along the Italian and F. Abou Shouk, as well as 0 . About coast of the Tyrrhenian Sea, including Dahab. A. El-Gindy assesses ocean current detailed analyses of ancient harbour patterns in the Eastern Harbour and Qait Bey construction techniques. areas, and their impacts on the circulation of Special techniques in archaeological research polluted waters. D. Aelbrecht, J.-M. Menon and conservation are presented in Parts 4 and E. Peltier present the results of a detailed and 5. Remote-sensing is one valuable tool modelling study of wave propagation and with growing application in archaeological sedimentation in the Qait Bey area, under investigation and conservation. F. El-Baz different wind and wave regimes, as well as provides an overview of the current state-of with different dispositions of a hypothetical the-art with a focus upon applications in sea wall. Finally, A. Fanos and 0. Frihy egyptology. H. Carr demonstrates the abilities provide a review of coastal processes of side-scan sonar for locating and imaging, influencing shoreline change along with remarkable definition, submerged man Alexandria's shorefront. made objects. N. Tongring and N. Driscoll go The volume closes with the topic of on to propose how sonar remote-sensing can integrated coastal and urban planning in
Coastal management sourcebooks 2 15 Part 8. I. El-Bastawissi argues the case for conservation and development options for the establishing a coastal management plan for underwater archaeological sites of Alexandria. V. Mastone presents the Alexandria. In consultation with relevant management policy established for national experts and authorities, its was underwater sites in the Boston (USA) area, recommended to develop the Qait Bey, and from which some lessons learned can be eventually the Eastern Harbour sites as applied to the Alexandria case. To conclude, underwater museums and to consider their M. Zaharan presents the existing urban nomination for World Heritage Status. Water Master Plan for Alexandria which grapples pollution, however, continued to be identified with the many challenging problems of as a major obstacle to the realisation of these population growth, pollution, housing, goals. cultural heritage protection and tourism For this reason, UNESCO also drew its development. International Hydrological Programme (IHP) into the project. Co-operating once more with STEPS FORWARD the SCA, experts missions focusing on the problem of wastewater management were United by their shared concern for the sent to evaluate the situation in Alexandria in conservation of the Citadel and Pharos sites, December 1998 and January-February 1999. the Workshop participants combined their Egyptian and Dutch experts collaborated in diverse and distinct sets of knowledge, the formulation of recommendations that experience and expertise, and provided the identify steps towards a comprehensive Egyptian Authorities with a comprehensive solution to this major problem. Continuing set of recommendations. Currently being co-operation with The Netherlands has since translated into action, these recommendations led to a follow-up mission in November 1999 point the way towards a long-term and involving a social scientist and a water integrated solution to Alexandria's coastal engineer, who will bring their findings before problems (cf. p. 191). an international conference to be held in The To initiate and guide this process, several Netherlands in 2000 to strengthen missions of international and national experts intersectoral approaches to water resources have been launched during the period 1997 to management. 1999. The SCA and UNESCO (in particular As this book goes to print, progress continues its Cairo Office, the Divisions of Cultural to be made towards a strengthened dialogue Heritage, of Earth Sciences and the Coasts amongst decision-makers, stakeholders and and Small Islands platform) with the support experts. While their viewpoints and of Electricite de France, jointly organized a understandings may differ, they nevertheless mission of international experts from France, converge upon a common integrated solution Germany and Italy in September 1997, to that will allow the city of Alexandria today to examine the Qait Bey Citadel site and consult live alongside and in accord with its with national experts from the University of illustrious past. Alexandria, the Governorate of Alexandria, the IFAO/CEA and other relevant bodies. The D OUGLAS NAKASHIMA mission identified a course of action whereby UNESCO-CS I measures can be taken to protect the Citadel from erosion, without impinging upon the Pharos underwater site. Actions are now underway to stabilize the Citadel and gradually remove the submerged breakwater that defaces the Pharos site. In September 1998, a second mission of international experts from Australia and Turkey was sponsored by the SCA and UNESCO. Its mandate focused upon
16 Coastal management sourcebooks 2 The greatest emporium 11 in the inhabited world ,..l>
"')( l> z 0 :a l> z
MOSTAFA EL-ABBADI causeway, and that of Eunostos to the west. "'"l> University of Alexandria Within the latter, close to the Heptastadium, a =r- structure known as the Kiboros (box) was < carved out. Reaching south to lake Mariout through a navigable canal, it functioned as a ['."ounded in 332-331 BC, Alexandria was lock to connect the open sea with the lake. In r primarily intended to be a new port for its turn, the lake was connected to the Nile by Egypt. Up to the time of Alexander the Great canals. In this way, an extra harbour was (Pella, 356 BC - Babylone, 323 BC), Egypt established on the Jake-side of Alexandria.[3] lacked permanent, suitable harbours on its Through this complex system of harbours and northern coast, as those landing-places located canals, maritime shipping at Alexandria was at the mouth of some branches of the Delta linked to the inland waterways of Egypt, (best known of which were the ones at thereby greatly increasing the possibilities of Canopus and Pelusium) were of a temporary transport and trade. nature. They were at the mercy of the Nile During Alexander's lifetime, several flood and of its annual silt deposits, and every developments took place which confirmed the few years they had to be rebuilt where the silt function of Alexandria as a trade centre. From had accumulated. The only permanent harbour the very beginning, Alexander instructed his that Egypt could boast of on the Mediterranean finance minister, Cleomenes of Naukratis, to was the one on the island of Pharos, which had transfer to it the emporium (trade-centre) of no direct access to the mainland.[ 1] Canopus (present-day Abu Qir).[4] Alexander, it is true, was no sailor, but he was Cleomenes took full advantage of his an extremely shrewd leader who consulted important position and established a with experts on practical matters with which monopoly of international trade in grain he was not familiar. He therefore set up a throughout the Mediterranean with Alexandria committee to advise him on the choice of an as his base. In addition, he provided the city appropriate site for his new city. Among his with a mint as early as 326 BC. Thus the advisers were: Cleomenes of Naukratis, the position of Alexandria as an international prominent businessman and engineer; trading centre was assured.[5] Under the Deinokrates of Rhodes, the famous civic Ptolemies, the city's commercial significance engineer; Numenius, the stone-mason and his advanced by leaps and bounds and foreign brother Hyponomos.[2] With their expertise merchants and businessmen began to frequent and thorough knowledge of the geographical it in increasing numbers. A papyrus, dated layout as well as of the climatic and marine conditions (namely the western and northern [ 1] Hecateus ofAbdera, apud Diod.1.31; winds and the west-to-east sea current), they Eratosthenes, apud Strabo 17.1.19. wisely chose a site west of the Delta. The [2} According to Ps. Call. it was on the advice of obvious suggestion was made, furthermore, to Hyponomos that a network of channels and drains build a causeway (later on known as the running into the sea were constructed. 'Such Heptastadium) to connect the island of Pharos canals are called Hypo11omos after him.' [ 3 j Strabo, 17.1. 7. with the mainland at Rakotis. In this way, two [4} Ps. Arist. Oec. 11.33 c. harbours were created at the same time, the [5} M. El-Abbadi, 'Cleomenes', Bull. Fae. of Ans, main Portus Magnus to the east of the Alexandria 17 ( 1964) 65-85 (in Arabic).
Coastal management sourcebooks 2 17 1 October 258 BC, has preserved a prostagma looked upon the prosperity of independent (royal ordinance) of Ptolemy II Philadelphus Rhodes with disfavour, but not wishing to (308-246 BC, Reign 285-246) establishing resort to the use of force against that powerful control on foreign currency entering the distant island, Rome launched a policy of country, which ordained that 'all foreign economic blockades by inducing other merchants were required to exchange their countries to switch their routes and agencies gold and silver for new Ptolemaic silver coins, from Rhodes to the nearby poor island of in order to make their purchases in Alexandria Delos. Under Roman pressure, Alexandrian and the rest of the country.' Furthermore, in merchants were accordingly forced to move the same document, we find a certain their depots and agencies and there is ample Demetrios, who was in charge of the evidence from the second century BC to Alexandrian mint, complaining of the testify to the close trade connections between :c difficulties the mint faced to cope with the Alexandria and Delos. Significant in this exchanges required.[6] It is obvious that the respect is a dedicatory inscription which was amount of foreign gold and silver brought in set up in Delos by 'the chiefs of the union of exceeded the capacity of the Alexandria mint. Alexandrian merchants.• [ 10] This situation reflects the great foreign A further development occurred in the demand on the supplies of the markets in direction of the Red Sea and the Indian Alexandria and Egypt around the middle of Ocean. With the growing awareness in Rome the third century BC. of the possibilities of an oriental and southern During the following (second) century BC, the trade in incense, spices, aromatics, precious <( Ptolemaic dynasty gradually grew weaker and stones (and later on in silk), Roman cc: Q increasingly came under the sway of Rome. businessmen sought to invest more in this line z Paradoxically, this political development of commerce via Alexandria. Consequently, <( ....)( reflected favourably on business life in as accumulating evidence demonstrate, more ..i Alexandria. Names of Alexandrian merchants capital was pumped into its market. < were found in inscriptions from different parts A papyrus[ 11] of the middle of the second of the Mediterranean; a fact which testifies to century BC informs us that there was in the wide range of their trading activities which Alexandria, an international company for the took them as far as the northern coast of the importation of aromata from the 'incense Black Sea.[7] Yet their trade had to follow bearing land', an area south of the Red Sea lines favoured by Rome and this can be traced known in ancient Egypt as Punt (present day in two different areas: the eastern Somaliland). It is a maritime loan contract in Mediterranean and the Red Sea. which twelve names have partially survived In the eastern Mediterranean, the island of representing the different parties to the Rhodes had developed during the fourth and agreement: a creditor, a banker, five debtors third centuries BC into a powerful commercial and five guarantors. Among these twelve state, due to its position at the crossroads of the principal sea routes in that area. It [6} P. Cairo Zenon 59021. cf. Cl. Preaux, continued to maintain, with Alexandria, strong Economie Royale des Lagides, 27l, n.2. ties of friendship and mutual commercial [7} Rev. Et. Gr. 52 ( 1939) p. 483 no. 235 from interest both under Cleomenes of Naukratis, Callatis (NW of the Black Sea); B.C.H.5 ( 1881) whose offices in Rhodes played a vital role in p. 461, I (Delos); Durrbach, Choix Ins. Delos 108 the operation of his trade network,[8] as well ( 127- 116 BC). Also cf. P. Roussel, Delos Colonie Athenienne (Paris 1916), pp. 92-3. as under the early Ptolemies in the third [8} [Demosthenes} 56. 7 ff. century BC.[9] However, this situation [9] Diod. 20.81,4; cf. F. W. Walbank, Hellenistic changed drastically with the sudden rise of World, Harvard U. Press (1981) p. 101. it was the Rome as the dominant Mediterranean power, Rhodians who in 304 BC glorified Ptolemy 1 as a after her victory over Hannibal in the west in Saviour God, Soter, Diod. 20.100,4; Paus. 1.8.6. On Amphorae of Rhodes found in Egypt, cf. C. C. 202 BC. It was then that Rome adopted a Edgar, Annales des Services. 22 ( 1922) 6. policy of expansion and supremacy over the [JO] Durrbach, Chaix, 108 (127-116 BC). East. In application of this new policy, Rome [ 11} Sammelbuch 7169.
18 Coastal management sourcebooks 2 persons, we fi nd at least seven different civic 'the residents from Italy' in about 59 BC who, 11 affiliations, from Rome, Carthage, Messalia according to Diodorus, seem to have been (= Massalia), Elea, Thessalonica and engaged in business transactions.[ 16] >r m Macedonia. The others bear regular Greek The date 116 BC of these Latin inscriptions is x )> names. It is significant that the one Roman, of special interest because it coincides with an z whose name is Gnaeus, was the banker through event of global signifi cance, namely the 0 ::a whose bank the transaction was managed. discovery of the monsoon winds in the Indian )> Interest in the importation of 'precious stones, Ocean by Alexandrian navigators. The story of z frankincense and other magnificent objects' is the discovery was reported by Poseidonius ,,, reported in an inscription dated 130 BC.[ 12] (c.130-51 BC) and later recorded by Strabo )> ::a Other inscriptions from Delos of the second (2.33. 4-5). We are told that a shipwrecked r half of the second century BC, illustrate that Indian sailor was discovered, half-dead, by < Romans and Italians were already firmly coast guards on the Red Sea, and was brought established in Alexandria and not in small to the King. To gain favour, the Indian numbers. In one example, a dedication was promised to guide any of the King's navigators made by 'Italians at Alexandria' (Alexandreae on a voyage to India. Eudoxus of Cyzicus, an ltalicei).[ 13] In another we find Roman ship adventurous Greek seaman employed by owners and merchants expressing, in a votive Ptolemy VIII for navigation up the Nile, was dedication to Apollo, their gratitude on the appointed to that mission. Poseidonius reports occasion of the recapture of Alexandria by two direct journeys to India. The first in King Ptolemy Euergetes II (127 BC).[14] I 18 BC, guided by the Indian sailor, proved This class of Romans and Italians was not successful when Eudoxus returned wi th a confined to Alexandria, as we find evidence cargo of aromatics and precious stones. The of their presence as far south as the island of second, under the sole guidance of Eudoxus, Philae (near Aswan). A small group of Latin occurred in 116 BC, just after the death of inscriptions lately discovered on that island Ptolemy VIII and during the reign of Cleopatra attest to this fact.[ 15] Four names have III, his wife and queen. survived: O ur main source for this story is Strabo who is a) Gaius Acutius (written in Latin and Greek), very sceptical about it. He goes so far as to who proudly adds 'hoe venit primus' ('came accuse Poesidonius of either inventing it here first') wholly himself or of being over-credulous in b) M(arcus) Claudius Varus accepting it on hearsay. He is particularly c) Sp(urius) Varaeus N(umeri) f(ilius) suspicious of the role played by the Indian d) M(arcus) Ti..trius N(umeri) f(i lius) I sailor. Nevertheless, modem scholarship has Graicanus /Nucrinus considered the facts of Eudoxus' two voyages (The first three visitors wrote down the date of seriously.[ 17] They fit in well with the their visit according to the Roman calendar [= 26 August 116 BC]. {12) Ditte11berger, 0.G.l.S. 132. No further information is given about their { 13] Du rrbach, Choix, I 07. persons or the purpose of their visit. The fact [ 14) Op. cit. 105--0. that Ptolemy vm had died only a couple of { 15) A. Roccati, Nuove epigraji grechi e /arine da months earlier on 28 June 116 BC, may lead file, Homage Verma~eren Ill.. pp. 988-96, esp. one to suspect a political connection. But the 994 ff 11os. 5--0 = Annee Epigraphique ( 1977) period of less than two months does not allow 838-9; and Suppleme/lfum Epigraphicum Graecum, 28, no. 1485. enough time for the Senate to have reacted, / 16] Diod. /.83, 8- 9; for this imerpretotion of tire followed by a journey from Rome to text see E. van't Dack, 'Les relatio11s entre /'Egypte Alexandria and from thence up the Nile to Ptolemaique et/'l talie ', Egypt and the Hellenistic Philae. There is no indication whatsoever to World, Studia Hellenistica 27 (Louvain 1983) suggest that these persons had any specific 383~06, esp. 393--0. [ 17] J. Thiel, Eudoxus of Cyzucm (Groningen political or military assignment of any sort. It is 1966) passim, W. Otto & H. Bengtson, Zur more probable, like the other examples above, Geschichte des Niederganges des Ptolemiierreiches that they were on a business trip to Egypt, like (Munchen 1938) 1- 22.
Coastol management sourcebooks 2 19 conditions then prevailing in the Indian Ocean, the secret of the Monsoon winds, would ,,, where Alexandrian merchants controlled sea therefore have been very much in demand. w borne trade in the Red Sea, Nabataeans and > The discovery of the monsoon winds and their South Arabians controlled overland caravan use in navigation by Alexandrian sailors, had trade across Arabia. Indian and South Arabian a very marked effect on the Egyptian merchants kept strict and complete control of scene.[21) Not long after Eudoxus, a new commerce in the Indian Ocean. This delicate important office was created for the first time balance was maintained and jealously guarded in the Egyptian administration, that of throughout the third and second centuries BC 'commander of the Red and Indian Seas', very by the South Arabians whose country profited probably under Ptolemy XII, nicknamed and prospered as the main entrepot centre for Auletes (80-51 BC).(22] The creation of such the north-south trade. It was in Eudaemon an office implies that the utilization of the Arabia (Arabia Felix) that Alexandrian monsoons led to a marked increase in the merchants could barter their wares with their regular commercial transactions with India. It Indian counterparts as well as purchase equally is also perhaps not entirely irrelevant that in precious South Arabian goods. This 55 BC, the Senate decided to send Gabinius at commercial set up is reflected in a statement by the head of a Roman army to restore Auletes Diodorus about the 'prosperous islands near to his throne and remain in Alexandria for the Eudaemon Arabia which were visited by sailors protection of the king against possible future from every port and especially from Potana, the revolts.[23] We can easily detect behind this city which Alexander founded on the lndus drastic step, considerable Roman assets at risk river.' [ 18) A more direct description of the in the case of sudden undesirable internal situation is found in the late but important text changes in Alexandria. This should warn us known as 'The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea' against accepting at face value Strabo's often by an unknown author. In it we read that quoted remark that it was only under 'the 'Eudaemon Arabia (Aden, is meant here) was diligent Roman administration that Egypt's once before a fully-fledged city, when vessels commerce with India and Troglodyte was from India did not go to Egypt and those of increased to so great an extent. In earlier Egypt did not dare sail to places further on, but times, not so many as twenty vessels would came only this far.' [ 19) Any attempts by have dared to traverse the Red Sea far enough Alexandrian ships to sail beyond Eudaemon to get a peep outside the straits (Bab-el Arabia were strongly discouraged; if they did Mandab), but at the present time, even large sail, it was by laboriously hugging the coasts fleets are dispatched as far as India and the and in the words of Periplus, 'sailing round the extremities of Aethiopia, from which the most bays'.[20) valuable cargoes are brought to Egypt and This was the situation until Roman financiers thence sent forth again to other regions.' [24] entered the Alexandrian money market This is clearly an overstatement, intended as a towards the middle of the 2nd century BC as demonstrated earlier. The ensuing rise of demand for oriental and southern goods in the [18] Diod. 3.47.9. Mediterranean markets, whetted the appetite [19] l. Casson, ed. The Periplus Maris Erythraei of Alexandrian merchants to increase their (Princeton 1989) 26. lines 26-32. share in the north-south trade. They realized [20] Op. cit. 57; also see editor's introd. & comm. p. 71-2. that their only chance lay in bypassing the [21] I hereby ignore the seemingly fictitious Arabian ports and in breaking directly across character of Hippalus, who was assumed by the ocean to the rich Indian market. Ptolemy Periplus (57) to have been a later discoverer of the VIII, friend of Rome as was his wife after monsoons; the same assumption was made by him, demonstrated personal interest and Pliny, H.N. 6.26; and Cl. Ptol.. Geogr. 4.7.41. [22] Sammelbuch, 8036, Coptos (variously dated involvement in the project which indicated the 1101/09 BC or 7413 BC; and no. 2264 (78 BC); great hopes all parties in Alexandria attached Inscriptions Philae, 52 (62 BC) {as n. 15}. to the success of the venture. The expertise of [23] Caesar, BC. 3. 110. an Indian pilot with a thorough knowledge of [24] Strabo, 17.1.13.
20 Coastal management sourcebooks 2 compliment to the new Roman harbours, and to commerce by land, because 1 the river easily conveys and brings together administration, considering that Aelius > Gallus, the prefect of Egypt, was Strabo's everything into a place so situated, the I"" personal friend at whose house he stayed as a greatest emporium in the inhabited "')<: ;p guest for five years (25-20 BC). Strabo's world.'[25] Admittedly, Egypt's Indian trade z 0 statement stands in sharp contrast to the continued to flourish more and more in = earlier data of the above mentioned Roman times as the result of other drastic > inscriptions and to the more matter-of-fact developments. For it is apparent that the same z statement of the later author of the Periplus Roman economic interests that had urged ,,, (c. 40 AD), who rightly perceived that the Ptolemaic oriental trade to establish direct sea ;p ;!l great change in the modes of navigation and connections with India by circumnavigating I"" < the vast expansion of trade were the direct Eudaemon Arabia, continued to motivate result of the discovery of the Monsoon winds, Augustus' foreign policy in that region. at least half a century before Augustus Soon after the annexation of Egypt, the conquered Egypt. Strabo himself witnessed Emperor Augustus (Rome 63 BC - Nole the flourishing state of Alexandria only five 14 AD) in 26 BC commissioned his prefect in years after the Roman conquest, and very Egypt, Aelius Gallus, to invade southern shrewdly observed the acti ve trade that went Arabia by land.[26) This land onslaught through its several harbours. He says, caused considerable damage to the Sabaeans 'Among the happy advantages of the city, the as far as Ma'ereb, but did not entirely cripple greatest is the fact that this is the only place the commercial activity of the Arabian ports in all Aegypt which is by nature well situated on the ocean. Not satisfied with this result, in with reference to both things, both to AD I Augustus launched another devastating commerce by sea, on account of the good attack - this time by sea - which resulted, in the words of Periplus, 'in sacking Eudaemon Arabia' which declined into, 'a mere village {25} ibid after having been a fully fledged city Figure 1. {26} Strabo, 16.4.23-4. (polis)' .[27] Now that Eudaemon Arabia Egyptian-Indian [27} Periplus, 26; Pliny, H.N. 6.32, 160 & trade routes in 12.30,55; Also cf H. MacAdam, 'Strabo, Pliny and (Aden) was out of action, Alexandrian sailors Ptolemy ofAlexandria', in: Arabie Pre-Islamique of the Roman period experienced unrivalled Hellenistic and (Strasbourg 1989) 289-320. dominance of the sea route to India. Roman times.
Coastal management sourcebooks 2 21 11 The two ports of Alexandria PBains and maps from the 14th ceirntutry to the time of Mohamed AU
HARRY E. TZALAS eastern end of the island of Pharos. It became Hellenic Institute for the Preservation for many centuries the landmark for of Nautical Tradition, Athens Alexandria and its ports.[2] The Pharos remained standing, although in a derelict condition, until the 14th century when it was destroyed by a tremendous earthquake. Some Early history of the ports of hundred years later, on its site and using its Alexandria remains, the fortress of Qait Bey was erected.[3] That fortress continued to be \ A !fhen referring to the ports of Alexandria called Pharos by travellers of medieval and ,., V we should bear in mind that one or later times; the smaller fortification at the more prehistoric havens existed on Pharos other end of the Eastern Port on the tip of island[ I] before the time of Alexander the ancient Cape Lochias was known as the Great. Ra-Kedet, or Rhakotis as the Greeks Pharillon. Old maps, plans and charts refer to called it, was a port known in Homeric times these names, although sometimes there is a and had maritime contacts with the confusion between the two. Phoenicians, the Cretans and the Aegeans. The commercial importance of Alexandria Future underwater research, as well as new and its ports is obvious; one has only to look evidence from excavations on the mainland, at an ancient map of the then known world. It may prove that this port was more important stands at a crucial location, linking the three than is usually thought. continents on which Alexander was forming It is at this ideal location on the sea lane his Empire. The ports of Alexandria could between East and West that Alexander also communicate with the rest of Egypt decided to establish his new capital in 332-331 BC, 'cruv8i::crµro 'tlVt TI)<; oA.ri<; Y11c;', as a connecting point of all the earth. The [ 1] Jondet, G. Les Ports Antiques de Pharos. Bulletin de la Societe d' Archeologie d' Alexandrie ambitious project carried out by Dinocrates I 3. Alexandria ( 1910) and Les Ports submerges de comprised the connection of the island of l'ancienne lie de Pharos. Memoire de la Societe Pharos to the mainland with a seven-stadium Sultanieh de Geographie d'Egypte. lnstitut [I stadium ~ 186 m] dike, the Heptastadion, Franfais d'Archeologie Orientate du Caire, Cairo resulting in the creation of two ports. The (1916). Eastern, or Megas Limin, later called the Old [2] The underwater archaeological survey of the Centre d'Etudes Alexandrines in the vicinity of the Port, and the Western, or Eunostos, the 'Port Qait Bey fortress, now in progress under the of Safe Return'. The choice of two ports - direction of Dr J.-Y. Empereur, has confirmed which were inter-communicating in antiquity beyond any reasonable doubt the location of the - depending on weather conditions and wind Pharos. direction, was beneficial and added to the [3} Circa 1480 is usually given as the date for the construction of Qait Bey fortress, but since the safety of anchorage or berthing. view ofAlexandria in the Codex Urbinate of 1472 A monumental lighthouse, the very first shows the fortress, it can be assumed that its structure of this type, attaining a colossal construction started at the beginning ofthe 1470s height of over 100 m, was erected at the or in the late 1460s.
22 Coastal management sourcebooks 2 through the Nile canal[4]. Besides buildings were destroyed. Blood often flowed 1 controlling the Mediterranean trade, in the streets of Alexandria. Alexandria became an important A lthough greatly exaggerated, the report of >,.. transhipment centre, since goods arriving Amr lbn el Ass to the Caliph after taking "')C l> from the Far East via the Red Sea could be Alexandria in 641 leaves no doubt that the z carried forward by caravan and fluvial city was magnificent, extensive, with 0 ::0 transport to Alexandria. From there, cargoes impressive buildings. It is probably then that l> were loaded onto merchantmen destined for the land on both sides of the Heptastadium - the markets of the West. dike started silting up and two distinct ports z m The ports of Alexandria flourished during the were formed. l> Hellenistic and the Roman periods up to the Under the rule of the Ommeyads of ;:o,.. last decade of the 4th century AD. Damascus in 658, and of the Abbasides after < Notwithstanding the supremacy of Rome and 750, Alexandria, although gradually losing its later of Constantinople, Alexandria remained importance, was still a trade centre and the a major trade centre. Certainly the city second city of Egypt after Fostat. The suffered greatly, as did its ports, from the shrinking of the city is however obviou!> and continual uprisings of the Alexandrians we know that, in response, Ahmed Ibn - "'-I against their Roman rulers. Troubles started Touloum decided in 875 to reduce the walled 0 with the war of Caesar when the Egyptian periphery. (The reign of the Fatimides started = f"I fleet was set on fire, damaging the port and in 969 AD.) ,..l> numerous buildings, among which, the During the two centuries of the Crusades[6], ~ famous Library. But destruction was even the ports of Alexandria were often attacked "';:o greater in the centuries to follow under Trajan by Christian fleets. The Normans attacked in "'~ (98 AD), Caracalla (215 AD), Claudius 1153 and 1155, and Amary, the Latin King of "'f"I (269 AD), Aurelian (273 AD), and Diocletjan Jerusalem, took the city in 1165, holding it -I (295-296 AD), to mention only the most for only 75 days. The Normans landed again ,.,< severe. In fact the decline of the city began at Pharos in 1174. The ports of Alexandria "' with its sacking by Caracalla. were quite busy during the reign of the At the end of the reign of the Lagides, as Touloumides and the Ayyoubides of Salah-el Diodorus states[5], Alexandria had a Din (868-1 171) and retained some of their population of 300,000 citizens. If we bear in importance as trading centres, but also as mind that only the Greeks were considered to naval bases. be citizens, then with the addition of the local W e know that, during the crusades and populations of Jews, Levantines and a notwithstanding repeated papal interdictions, multitude of slaves, its population can well be trade between the Islamic World and the estimated at one million souls, making Christian States continued and Alexandria Alexandria the largest city in the world. had its share in the traffic. But social unrest was not the only cause of There are reports from Christian spies of the the gradual decline of Alexandria. Natural 13th and 14th centuries giving information on disasters during the 3rd and 4th centuries AD the fortifications of the town and its ports.[7) greatly affected the city and its port They confirmed that the fortifications were installations, as terrible earthquakes often strong and that attack would be difficult. In followed by tidal waves and a lowering of the sea level, devastated the region. During the period that follows, called Late [4] The Kadiga or Kadig of the Arab period. Roman, Christian or Byzantine, Alexandria {5] Diodonis Siculus. Biblioteca Historica XVI/, maintained its relative importance, and its 52, 2. Loeb Classical library, Vol. 12 ( 1933-63). ports received a large number of trading {6] 1095to1291. vessels as well as warships. Not a period of [7J La Devise des Chem ins de Babilone and R~lation d' Orient de Hayton. cf Etienne Combes. peace, the city at the end of the 4th and the Alexandrie au Moyen Age. Le sac de la vil/e par beginning of the 5th century was tom by Pierre ler de Lusignan en 1365. Cahiers religious dissidence of such violence that d' Alexandrie. Alexandria ( 1964).
Coastal management sourcebooks 2 23 fact, the Sultan Baybars, aware of the danger Plans and maps of Alexandria that such attacks presented, had the walls repaired in 1265. That is when Alexandria In spite of the fact that the Mediterranean Sea became a base for the Arab fleet that at that time was infested with pirate ships - threatened the Byzantines in the Eastern Christian and Islamic - and that the plague of Mediterranean. In the Chanson de Roland[8], piracy continued until the end of the l 9th Alexandria is mentioned as the base for the century, there is a gradual increase in the Islamic fleet ' ... de venir le secourir a number of Christian travellers calling at Saragosse. A Alexandrie ou ii y a un port sur Alexandria on board European vessels. From la mer ii a dispose toute sa flotte .. .'. the middle of the l 4th century, the visits of The year 1365 is marked by a catastrophe: these travellers are documented by their travel the fleet of the Latin King of Cyprus, Pierre I diaries, which provide valuable information of Lusignan, anchored off Alexandria, on the trade and the movement in the ports. attacked and pillaged the town and withdrew M ost of these travellers were pilgrims, Figure 1. View after setting the town on fire.[9] A few years merchants, diplomats and scientists, and have of Alexandria in later, a disastrous earthquake brought down left valuable observations as well as a number the 15th century, the remains of the Pharos and transformed the of maps, plans and illustrations of Alexandria annexed with others morphology of the coastline by land and its ports. to the Codex subsidence and raising the sea level. P rior to the view of Alexandria that is Urbinate in Under the Circassian Mameluks ( 1382-1517) depicted in the Codex Urbinate made for Ugo the Vatican Library; Qait Bey built the fortress[ 10] that bears his Comminelli in 1472[ 11] (Fig. I), all the i.e., Codex Latinus de name and which could, at the same time, earlier representations were schematic and do Tolomeo. The Codex protect both ports, the Western, which was not provide reliable information on the was drafted for Ugo exclusively reserved to Islamic vessels, and appearance of the town and of its ports.[12] Comminelli de the Old Eastern Port, which was open only to So the plan of Comminelli is, as far as we Maceriis in 1472. Christian ships. know, the very first panoramic depiction we have of the town and its ports. It should however be stressed that all the early plans, although extremely useful for the .. ,,... "~....,... , .--r-.-----:r;: . -j ...... understanding of the medieval topography of the town, were often much influenced by the artist's imagination. It was also customary to copy previous plans and maps, with additions.
{8] Etienne Combes, supra cit {9] Etienne Combes, supra cit. [JO] Built probably between 1470 and 1480. [ 11] Codice Urbinate 277, Biblioteca Vaticana, cf Gaston Jondet, Atlas Historique de Ja Ville et des Ports d' Alexandrie, pl. I. Societe Sultanieh de Geographie d'Egypte, Cairo ( 1921 ). [ 12) The ancient panoramas ofAlexandria are very scarce; only the following views are attributable to Alexandria: the sarcophagos of Julius Philosyriusfrom Ostia, 3rd-4th c. AD, cf Ch. Picard, Bulletin de Correspondance Hellenique, 76 ( 1952), p. 92, fig. 14; a mosaic of the 5th-6th c. AD from Sepphoris; cf Biblical Archaeological Review, vol. 18, no. 6 ( 1992); and another from Jerash ofea. 530 AD; cf Ch. Picard, Bulletin de Correspondance Hellenique, 76. ( 1952); and perhaps a representation made of opus sectilefrom Kenchreai, near Corinth, 4th c. AD; cf L. Ibrahim, Kenchreai Eastern Port of Corinth, vol. Vil, Leiden ( 1972).
24 Coastal management sourcebooks 2 Figure 2. 'Vray por- 11 traict de la ville > d'A/exandrie en ,,,,... Egypte', 1548. )C l> By Pierre Belon du z Mans. 0 :ill -l> z ""l> =,... < --l ~ ..,.,,, :t ..,. -4 0 :ill "l>,... -a,,, :II There are some 70 plans and charts showing W e know of two variations of the plan of ..,...., Alexandria and its ports from the mid-l 4th to Alexandria made in 1472 for Ugo ,,, the mid-19th century. Most of these early Comminelli de Maceriis.[ 13) Both show the "-4 maps are distorted and exaggerated. Some are two ports with few differences in the < ,,,..,. the result of earlier works by persons who depiction. It should be noted, however, that had never set foot on Alexandria's soil. In the fortress at the eastern extremity of the spite of their inaccuracies, these maps and Pharos is differently represented on each of plans, supplemented by the narratives of the versions both of which show the newly travellers, are precious documents that built Qait Bey fortress. It is also worth noting deserve close investigation. They are valuable that a multitude of rocks practically block the for the study of Alexandria's old ports and entrance to the Eastern Port and that the can contribute to a better understanding of its Pharillon had not yet been built. There is also medieval and post-medieval topography and a strange elongated island with houses in the importance. port itself. The Eunostos has two rocks at its entrance with a tower on a third. The two ports are separated by what is depicted as an [ 13] One in the Vatican Library (Codice Urbinate isthmus. The city walls and the gates are most 277), the other in the Bibliotheque Nationale, impressive. Paris. The 1548 plan by Pierre Belon du Mans[ 14] I 14] Pierre Belon du Mans, Les Observations de (Fig. 2) is the very first 'real portrait of plusieures singlularitez et choses memorables, Alexandria', as its title says. The two ports trouvees en Egypte. Paris ( 1554) and Jnstitut are well delimited. The Western Port is called Fran~ais d'Archeologie Orientate du Caire. Cairo ( 1970). Plan in: G. Jondet, supra cit., pl. IJ. 'Porto Vechio'; the Eastern Port, with its two [ J5] Abraham Ortelius, Theatrum orbis terrarum, facing forts - the 'Pharus' and the 'Casteleto' tabulis aliquot novis vitaque auctoris illustratum, - is called the Garophalo. This plan has often Antwerp ( 1570). Jn: G. Jondet, Atlas Historique. been copied with minor changes. supra cit, pl. lll. The Atlas of Abraham Ortelli[ 15) of 1570 [/6] Alexandria Braun & Hogenburg (1573), British Library Maps, C.7. d.i. (i) No. 56. In: contains a map of Egypt with a more detailed J. Janssoni, Civitates orbis terrarum, Amsterdam plan of the wider region of Alexandria ( 1657). In: G. Jondet, supra cit. pl. V. showing the town with its two ports.
Coastal management sourcebooks 2 25 11 Figure 3. 'Ancienne Veue d'Alexandrie'. Variation of the Braun-Hogenburg plan from an unidentified French book.
> ..I C:: <:: w z
Braun-Hogenburg's map of 1573[16] is the comprises an enclosed area, an arsenal, first grand panorama of Alexandria, depicting surrounded by fortified walls and a closed the city with its extended walls and impressive entrance.[ 18] Vessels of the western type are buildings. We can reasonably suppose that shown in the Eastern Port. The presence of a most of these buildings are the result of the variety of eastern and western ships, seventeen artist's imagination.(17] The two ports on this in all, of all sizes, makes this plan an interesting map are interesting notwithstanding the errors document for the study of various types of sea and confusions - Pharillon is called Pharus; craft of that period. The tower on the top of Qait Bey, Garophalo - which certainly Korn el Nadoura hill marked as 'Castelle noue' Figure 4. indicates errors in the copying of an earlier or new castle, is also depicted. This was the 'Plan de la ville map. The Western Port, exclusively allocated lookout and the semaphore tower that regulated d'Alexandrie', 1585. to Islamic vessels, shows in fact two such oared the traffic in both ports. It remained in use until By H. von Bretten. ships manoeuvering; the inner part of this port the middle of the 20th century. Braun-Hogenburg's plan is included in the famous Atlas of Jansson.[ 19] It seems that this work has been the preferred source and, as a result, repeatedly copied, with small or major changes, in the illustrations of various books and atlases. We have counted seven versions used to illustrate Dutch, English,
[ 17] This panorama is a combination ofbuildings and ruins existing at the time it was drawn and ancient constructions known to have existed in antiquity rendered as imagined by the artist with additions by the successive copyists. See variation in G. Jondet, supra cit, pl. Vil. [ 18] The closed inner port is an invention ofthe artist in his attempt to represent the ancient port of Kibotos. [ 19] See note 17.
26 Coastal management sourcebooks 2 Figure 5. Plan of 11 Alexandria. From
the Archivo General >r- m de Simancas. >< l> z 0 ::0 -);> z
"'l> ,..::0 < -l -s: m \II ::c \II -I 0 ::0,., l> r- "l:I m ::0 \II ~ German, French (Fig. 3) and Latin books. shown south of Qait Bey. This small jetty is m ('\ It is interesting to see the different types of in fact repeatedly depicted on nearly all maps -I -< ships that are shown on these plans as well as up to the end of the 19th century. m the differences introduced by the artists in The map attached to the documents E 11 02-36 "" depicting known monuments, as the Qait Bey and El 103-34 of the Archivo General de fortress, the Pharillon, the Obelisks, the Simancas[22] (Fig. 5), made before 1605 by a Column of Diocletian.(20] spy working for the King of the Two Sicilies, Heberer von Bretten's plan[21] (Fig. 4), is an extremely interesting document. drawn in 1585, shows both ports with a Unpublished to-date, it is presented for the panorama of Alexandria. There is a ship in first time. This plan accompanies manuscripts the Western Port, one approaching the composed of letters exchanged between the Eastern Port and a third doubling Cape Marques de Santa Cruz and the King Lochias. Three fortresses are depicted: one is proposing the organization of an attack on on an islet at the entrance to the Eastern Port, Alexandria by an armada composed of ships marked Pharos, and the other two are Qait from Christian states aiming at looting the Bey and the Pharillon. The 'Porta Marina' cargo of the 'Caravana', the Turkish fleet, leads to the Eunostos; a wooden wharf is and taking some 2,000 slaves. This attack was never carried out. The importance of this plan lies in the fact that it was made not by an [20) Known as Pompey's pillar. author concerned with the illustration of his [21] Voyage en Egypte de M. von Bretten, book, as so often was the case, but by a spy - I 585- 1586. lnstitut Fran~ais d'Archeologie Orientate du Caire ( 1976). perhaps an architect, or an officer in disguise [22) A detailed study and translation from Spanish - who was solely concerned with drawing to French of the manuscripts El 102-36 and El 103- what he saw without any exaggeration, 34 of the Archivo General de Simanca has been enhancement or embellishment. The plan was presented by the author as an appendix to his to be used for a landing operation or, if Memoire Le Tombeau d' Alexandre le Grand, la necessary, for a bombardment of the town legende et les faits historiques at the Ecole des Hautes Erudes en Sciences Sociales, Paris, and is from the ships of the invading armada, so it expected to be published in 1999. had to be clear and accurate. The ports are
Coastal management sourcebooks 2 27 shown with the batteries of the two fortresses pilots, Christian Melchien[25] and Antoine closing the entrance of the Eastern Port. Qait Massy[26], drew two different charts of the Bey fort called 'gran fariglion' and the fort on two ports giving detailed soundings of the Cape Lochias marked 'fariglion piccolo' are area. It seems that the French had a particular well drawn. The walls are also carefully and continued interest in the cartography of shown. There are landmarks for recognition: the ports of Alexandria during the 17th, 18th eventual targets to be gunned, and others, as and 19th centuries, as is shown by the 'plan churches and the 'Fondica de francesi', to be et elevations de la rade d'Alexandrie' made avoided. Three Islamic galleys are shown at by Marquese de la Garde[27] in 1713. Other anchor, stem to shore, in the Eunostos, while charts made by French cartographers[28] five three-masted and two-masted vessels, as followed. This is not surprising, since most of well as three rowing tenders, are anchored in the visitors were French (Table I). the Eastern Port. Korn el Nadura, marked as In 1731, the Russian monk Vassili Barkij[29] ' Monte de guardia', is correctly portrayed. drew a bird's eye panoramic view of The text of the missives with the report on the Alexandria and its ports giving important eye proposed operation gives a good description of witness details (Fig. 6). The two ports are the situation of the city and port fortifications. represented extending on both sides of the old > ... These are described as weak. The main target Heptastadion where a densely built new a:
[23] Journal des Voyages de M. de Monconys. Lyon ( J665). Jn: G. Jondet, supra cit, pl. VJ. [24} Jn: G. Jondet, supra cit., pl. VIII. [25} In: G. Jondet, supra cit., pl. IX. [26} In: G. Jondet, supra cit, pl. X. [27) In: G. Jondet, supra cit, pl. XI. [28] Reference is made to plans and charts reproduced in G. Jondet, Atlas Historique. [29) Voyage de Basile Grigorovitch-Barski-Plaka Alba, 1723- J747, aux Ueux Saints etc., St. Petersbourg (J778). In: Oleg V. Volkoff, Voyageurs russes en Egypte. lnstitut Fran9ais d'Archeologie Orientate du Caire, Cairo ( J972), and La peregrination de Vassili Barkij. Societl Orthodoxe de Palestine. N. Barzoukov, St. Petersbourg (1885-87). [30] Bonamy, Description de la ville d' Alexandrie, telle qu'elle etoit au temps de Strabon. Paris ( J73J ).
28 Coastal management sourcebooks 2 In 1738, the Danish Captain Frederick Figure 7. 11 Norden[3 l] drew a reliable plan of the 'New F. L. Norden's chart of (},_,.,,. ,,t -~Ian cb,/~Orl n"!tj:/v{t,zrzn,kl:-· > Port of Alexandria' with methodical Jt(J...t'. (1,;f- ..... --t.1-· ••• ...... '--' ,,,_,...., .. "-+ · ~ , the New Port of r J., "'~ m soundings and a general view of the old and I _, Alexandria, 1738. )( l> the new town with the two ports (Fig. 7). z Both plans were used by the Russian 0 :0 Archemandrite Constandios[32] who visited l> Alexandria at the end of the l 8th century and z wrote a book on Ancient and Modern m Alexandria in 1803. On these plans, the notes p ::a were transliterated into Russian. r < Richard Pococke illustrates his Description of the East[33] with a plan drawn in 1743. It shows both of Alexandria's ports with soundings and a detailed description of the topography. The 'Plan d' Alexandrie' of Bourguignon d' Anville[34], drawn in 1766, was used by Bonaparte during his landing at Alexandria in 1798. Soundings are meticulously recorded. A detail worth noting is the rock called 'le Diamant' precisely shown at the north-east tip of Qait Bey. This islet, noted also on other plans and drawings, which could be seen just and the location of the wharf is noted on one rising above water level, has today of the plans with the mention 'caricator'. That disappeared into the sea. This dramatic jetty must have existed since medieval times, change cannot be attributed to a gradual rise and until the end of the l 9th century was the in the level of the Mediterranean Sea but usual landing and e'1lbarkation pier for must be due to a geological disturbance. Such passengers as well ~s being the loading and phenomena periodically occur in the area. unloading point of the Eastern Port. Large Savary's plan of 1785[35] is mainly based on vessels that could not approach in the the work of d' Anville. shallows, remained lsafely at anchor while In 1795, Allezard drew two charts of the their goods and passengers where transhipped ports, one of which is shown in Figure 8.[36] on tenders or barges. Pharos and Pharillon are schematically drawn Table I. The number o; travel writers visiting Alexandria from the mid-lth century to the end of the 18th century, by nationality. [31] Frederick Norden, Travels in Egypt and Nubia London ( 1757). TRA VEL LERS;AUTHORS V I S I TING AL EXANDRIA [32} Archemandrite Constandios, Ancient ! z Alexandria (in Russian and Greek). Moscow ( 1803). z < J: z [33] Richard Pococke, A Description of the East. > ~ J: Vl J: z J: J: z :'.!: z :::i 0 < Vl J: J: J: Vl j::: < < _, vol. 1. Observations on Egypt ( 1743), plan in "" u Vl Vl ~ I- z ::E ::::; u I- v; I- :::i z I- u z "" < :..: ~ 1 \) ::::; UJ Vl J: z UJ 0 z Vl I- G. fonder, supra cit., pl. XIV. UJ < UJ z "" z :::i ~ 0 N ... u < :::i :::i !:::: 0 [34] 1.-8. Bourguignon d'Anville, Memoire sur u ::i u..."" ~ l lJ w Cl V') c.. \.) V') V') Cl 0:: <( ....J I- l'Egypte ancienne et moderne. Paris (1766), plan VII 1 I I 2 in G. Jondet, supra cit., pl. XV. VIII I 0 [35] Claude E. Savary, Lettres sur l'Egypte. Paris IX 1 ( 1785) and Paris ( 1798), plan in G. fonder. supra X-Xlll 0 cit.. pl. XVI. XIV 2 2 1 8 [36] In: Nouveau recueil des plans des ports et xv 2 ~ I 1 1 8 rades de la Mediterranee par les meilleurs auteurs. XVI 9 7 3 1 ! 1 24 A Genes, chez Yves Granier, lmprimeur ( 1838). XVll 2 16 4 3 6 11 1 39 pl. 65 and 65a. British library Maps C. 27.b.5 XVlll 23 7 5 1 1 1 37 3 54 241 14 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 2 1 119 pl. 65-9540352 and C. 27.c.19 pl. 65-9540352. 9
Coastal management sourcebooks 2 29 'U Figure 8. 'A/exandrie, l.IJ""' > Barbarie: 7795. I- Chart by Allezard. ...,v r:.. V'I ...0: ~ .... et: \,)
0:: ...0 II> :I:
""'W.I ::!: I- ....> a: ci: Id.I -z et: The French Expedition of Bonaparte French Department of Charts are based on a: Q comprised no less than 122 artists and these early plans. z scholars in various fields who produced the The charts of Captain W. H. Smyth in < >( well known monumental work Description de 1833- 1843[40], le Capitaine Le Saulnier de "'.... l'Egypte.[37] Our knowledge of Alexandria, Vauhello in 1834[41], Lieutenant-Colonel E . c:l: as of the rest of Egypt, greatly benefited from Napier in 1841 [42), of the Spanish Admiralty this detailed and profusely illustrated in 1857[43] (based on the work of Masell) and description of sites and monuments. the 'Nouveau projet des travaux du Port' by The mapping of the ports reveals the increased Linant de Bellefonds[44] in 1869 are only a naval traffic, and the multitude of cartographic few of the modem attempts at charting the port documents that follow the French and English of Alexandria and its approaches. presence in Alexandria after 1800 denotes the In 1870, the Frenchmen Malaval and gradual rise of Alexandria as a commercial Jondet[45] completed a scholarly work Le Port centre. Some good charts were made by d'Alexandrie that included methodical Captain Thomas Walsh in 1802[38], George Viscount Valentia in 1806[39], as well as by [37] Description de l'Egypte. 19 vols., Paris other map-makers. ( 1809-1824); Monuments of Egypt The In the 1830s, Alexandria started developing as Napoleonic edition, Princeton ( 1987) and a modem city and the importance of its Description de l'Egypte. Reimpression des Western Port gradually increased. Maritime planches des vols. I ~ IV. Bibliotheque de /'Image traffic boomed. An ever increasing number of ( 1993). Plans reproduced in G. Jondet, supra cit., vessels unloaded in the Western Port - which pls. XVI/, XVJ/l, XIX, XX, XXI, XXll, XX.111. [38] G. Jondet, supra cit., pl. XXVll. Mohamed Ali had opened to ships of all flags - [39] G. Jondet, supra cit., pl. XXVJ/l. the necessary materials, specialized technicians [40] G. Jondet, supra cit, pl. XXXI. and labourers for the grandiose urbanization [41] G. Jondet, supra cit., pl. XXXII. projects of the Khedive. There was a need for [42] G. Jondet, supra cit., pl. XXXJ/l. proper charts for the navigation in the often [43] Piano del Puerto de Alejandrfa levantado en treacherous shallows of the Western Port, and I 857 bajo la direcci6n de! Commander A. L. Mansell. Madrid ( 1869). British and French captains competed in the [44] In: G. Jondet, supra cit, pl. XL/. production of modem charts. Still today, the [45] Maiava/ et Jondet, Port d' Alexandrie. Cairo charts of the British Admiralty and of the (1912).
30 Coastal management sourcebooks 2 soundings of the Eastern Port. Gaston The activity of! 1l Jondet[46], in 1898 and 1911-1915, surveyed Alexandria's ports the undeiwater area around the island of Pharos and its ancient submerged ports. Also to be An exhaustive studylof the commercial acknowledged is the great importance of the activities of the port :of Alexandria from the work Survey ofEgypt and Gaston Jondet's beginning of the Islamic period to modem monumental publication Atlas Historique de la times has never been attempted. A multitude Ville et des Ports d'Alexandrie[47] which of data exists and cah be found in the diaries assembles all the plans and maps of Alexandria of travellers. Such a study would provide a known to have existed at that time. beneficial addition to our knowledge of During the second half of the l 9th century, seafaring and trade in the Mediterranean. however, there is also an attempt at There are indications that allow us to cartography related to the topography of reasonably suppose that the ports of Ancient Alexandria and its ports. Alexandria never stopped being active, in Archaelogists and historians of the l 9th and contrast with numerpus other ancient 20th centuries are greatly indebted to harbours which, in the late antiquity and the Mahmoud Bey el Falaki who, in 1865-66, Middle Ages, were abandoned. Of the three drafted two maps of Alexandria and its ancient ports of Piraeus, only Kantharos surroundings (Fig. 9) and, in 1872, published retained some maritime activity during the his Memoire sur !'Antique Alexandrie, ses Middle Ages, while the renowned Zea and Faubourgs et Environs.[48] Although 130 Mounichia were totally forgotten. years have elapsed, many scholars continue to There was certainly agradual decline of draw upon El Falaki's work. Alexandria, starting in late-Roman times and W e can conclude that the maps and plans of Alexandria are closely related to the use of its [46] See note 1. ports. Since the great majority of western [47] Fijiy-four plans and charts.from 1472 to 1920 travellers, and merchants in particular, arrived with accompanying te~ts are reproduced in the in Alexandria by ship, their presence in the Atlas Historique of G<1s1on Jondet. [48] Mahmoud Bey et.Pataki, Memoire sur town denoted the traffic in its ports, I' Antique Alexandrie, ses faubourgs et environs. particularly the Eastern Port which was Copenhague ( 1872) and in: G. Jondet, supra cit., reserved for Christian vessels. pls. XXXVl, XXXV/J and XXXVlll.
Figure 9. 'Carte de /'Antique Alexandrie et de ses Faubourgs'. By Mahmoud Bey et Fa/aki.
Coastal management sourcebooks 2 31 11 culminating in the 15th century when the new I 8th century, there are thirty-seven travel sea route via the Cape of Good Hope accounts (Table I). delivered a serious blow to Alexandria's Taking into consideration the fact that we limit maritime activities. Nevertheless, the traffic this list to European authors, we must assume of its ports, although greatly diminished, that it refers to only a very small percentage of never ceased. those travellers who visited Alexandria. These In accordance with Ashtor[49), we may note travel accounts shed light on the traffic of the that, even at its nadir, the Christian vessels ports where the corning and going of ships continued to use the port of Alexandria. In must have been continual. 1400, twelve vessels were registered as An indication of trading activity in the ports is calling at its port: 1 Venetian, 6 Genoese, provided by the installation of the fondiques for 2 Catalan, I Florentine, I Neapolitan, the Christians in the centre of the walled town, 2 Anconan. In 140 I, there were 21 calls, 9 in for the accommodation of travellers and the 1402, 9 the following year, 13 in 1404; in deposition of their merchandise, as well as the 1405, the number increased to 23; twenty-two presence of consular authorities for European years later, in 1427, the number was 12, and states and of a customs service. in 1435, there were 14 entries (Table II). W e may assume that the above-mentioned It is our belief that the presence of authors of figures include only a portion of the number travel accounts provides a good indication of of western ships that entered the port of the activity of a port. Accordingly a list has Alexandria, and we may suppose that the been compiled showing the numbers of such number of Islamic vessels coming from the authors who visited Alexandria, arriving or East and from North African ports, calling at leaving by ship (Table I). There are, of the Western Port, was also important. course, limitations as regards this list. The The revival of the port of Alexandria started main period of interest is the time between between 1818 and 1824. An important factor the fall of Alexandria to Amr Ibn el Ass and was the reopening of the Nile canal which, as the arrival of the Bonaparte Expedition. in ancient times, allowed communication During the 7th century, two authors briefly between Alexandria and the towns of the Nile mentioned Alexandria, but only one did so Delta, Cairo and Upper Egypt. during the 9th century. After a gap between Some figures are worth noting[50): in 1816, the I Oth and I 3th centuries, there were eight 296 merchant vessels flying the Austrian, travel accounts for the I 4th century, another English, French, Swedish or Sardinian flag, eight for the following hundred years. During called at the port of Alexandria. In 1822, this the 16th century, the number increased to number had more than tripled. There were twenty-four and, for the 17th century, there is 900 calls of vessels flying the flags just the impressive number of thirty-nine. For the mentioned, plus others flying the Spanish, Danish, Russian or Dutch flag and 28 ships of unidentified registry. The total annual number Table II. The number of Christian vessels registered as calling at increased to 1,012 and 1,290 calls in 1823 Alexandria from 1400 to 1435 AD (L. Ashtor). and 1824, respectively.[50] Further research is necessary. It is hoped that < studies will be undertaken by the new z w u < V'I w w ::::> z w V'I V'I < z w generation of students at the University of < _, w ::::> < w N u u _,> w u I- _, 0 0 z 0 < w I- _, ::::> z I- w w 0. 0. Q u 0 Alexandria, to shed light on the unbroken z < '"'0 "" . :i: w w u < _, "" > < < < z > LL."" lJ V'l u LL. lJ u'"' u 2 z c:: <( c:: chain of over two millennia of maritime 1400 1 6 2 1 2 activity of the most prestigious port of the 1401 3 2 7 2 6 Mediterranean region. 1402 4 2 1403 3 2 2 . 1 1404 2 3 3 1 1 [49] l. Ashtor, Levant Trade. 1405 1 6 4 8 2 [50] Miege, J. l. la Navigation Europeenne a 1427 3 3 2 1 2 Alexandrie 1815-1865. Revue de !'Occident 1435 5 3 1 3 Musulman et de la MMiterranee, 46, 1987-4.
32 Coastal management sourcebooks 2 Early discoveries of submarine 2 archaeological sites in Alex~ndria I
l>= SELIM A. MORCOS underwater environment before World War II. :c" Former Professor of Oceanography The task was left to haphazard discovery and, l> m University of Alexandria in some fortunate cases, to those pioneers who ,..0 Former Senior Programme Specialist were driven by a great deal of scientific 0 C"I UNESCO curiosity and enthusiasm. < Furthermore, the history of Alexandria is l>,.. closely linked to the maritime activity in the 0 Mediterranean and is1associated with its z C'I he eventful history of ancient Alexandria impact on trade, poli~ics and economics, as .... Thas left a variety of archaeological well as its influence on blending the peoples :t remains, some standing on the surface, some and cultures of the coastal Mediterranean. "" l> buried under the surface or displayed in At least three major ~Id ports had ,.. Alexandria's Graeco-Roman Museum and in successively served the maritime transport "">< > other museums of the world. These monuments activity in the region of Alexandria. One of z 0 and buildings were in many instances products them is probably the oldest documented :a of the creative mixture of major civilizations natural harbour: that at Canopus (near the > z that has characterized the city during its long present Abu Qir) on the eastern side of ("\ history. Although immensely valuable, these Alexandria. The second is the ancient harbour 0 remains represent only a small fraction of the of Pharos, discoverec;I below the waters of the > heritage of a city that occupied such a present Western Harbour by Jondet between ...."' prominent place in the ancient world. 191 I and 1915. The third is the Eastern Yet anyone who is familiar with the Harbour of Alexandr.ia (The Great Harbour) circumstances in which the city of Alexandria created by Alexander the Great in 332 BC. developed, and with the geography, topography and geological history of the region, will realize that the story of the Canopus and ~bu Qlr archaeological exploration of the Alexandrian metropolis is not over. New chapters remain The town of Abu Qir lies 22 km east of to be written on the basis, too, of the Alexandria, situated on an ancient site once archaeological discoveries being made nearby occupied by three towns: Canopus, Heraclium under the sea. Since the coastal region where and Menouthis. The best known of these was Alexandria is situated has subsided since Canopus, which stood at the mouth of the ancient times, many features of the old city Canopic, or westemmos4 distributary of the and the nearby town of Abu Qir have been Nile Delta. This was one of the seven lost to the sea. distributaries that flowed before the 9th Archaeologists of Alexandria were aware century AD carrying the waters of the Nile to early enough that a significant part of the the Mediterranean. Of these seven ancient city was lost under the sea, but no distributaries, five have since dried up, serious attempt was made by them to explore leaving only the present two branches: what lay beneath the sea surface. This is Damietta and Rachict I understood in light of the rich unexplored The significance of q:anopus and the Canopic heritage on land and of the primitive state of Branch of the Nile id the foreign trade of Egypt the tools available for exploring the is well documented. Before its disappearance,
Coastal management sourcebooks 2 33 the Canopic distributary was navigable. It Serapis - the remains of which are believed to received its waters from the Rachid Branch be among the ruins of Canopus. The first near Menouf and flowed to its mouth on the named of these temples became celebrated for Mediterranean near the present Madhia, where its reputed power to protect seamen from the Lake Edku opens to the sea. Of the seven perils of the sea, while the second acquired branches of the Nile, the Canopic Branch was fame for its curative powers and thus attracted the only one open to navigation by foreign many pilgrims. ships. The Greek traveller Herodotus visited Egypt in the 5th century BC and sailed the Abu Qir's submarine remains Canopic Branch up to Necoratis, which he described as the only port authorized to handle Breccia[4] gave an account of the excavations the foreign trade of Egypt, and recorded the which he undertook in the Abu Qir area, :c"" 1- fact that foreign sailors arriving at other referring in several passages to the \j branches were directed to proceed to the archaeological remains extending from the z 0 Canopic Branch. This branch was frequented shore and disappearing under the waves. He ...I <( by other visitors and writers, such as Strabo, described a number of pools or baths and > the Greek traveller and geographer. Ptolemy alluded to the submerged remnants of a massive building that he believed to have had 0 the geographer, who lived in Egypt, described ...."" it as the 'Great River', or the 'Great Spirit' . a connection with one of the temples. 0 w Alexander the Great used the Canopic Branch Despite this long history of exploration and <( :i: to reach the site of Alexandria, after navigating the wealth of temples, churches and other I.I Q:: the Pelusiac Branch south to Memphis then the edifices that have come to light, it appears that < Canopic Branch north to Canopus. the antiquities uncovered to date represent The Canopic distributary continued to be the only a small portion of the total. Many of Abu major channel for trade in and out of Egypt, Qir's monuments suffered heavily during the until the 9th century AD, when it ceased to be various religious conflicts of the past and, navigable. What was certainly the oldest port among those surviving, there has been in the country, and perhaps one of the oldest extensive plunder. Some have been used as natural harbours in the world, prospered at the quarries, providing cut stone for new mouth of the distributary. Archaeologists construction. Considering what has happened disagree as to the exact locations of Canopus, to the shoreline of Alexandria, however, it is Menouthis and Heraclium, but they agree that clear that the whole story of Abu Qir has not these three towns lay in the vicinity of Abu yet been told - that the waters are bound to Qir Bay.[ 1, 2, 3) contain innumerable relics, probably in a Canopus and the surrounding communities much better state of preservation than would constituted a major commercial and religious have been possible if they had been left centre at the time of the arrival of Alexander exposed on the surface, within the reach of the Great. From here, he sailed across Lake irresponsible people. Mareotis to the town of Rhakotis (the site of In 1859, Larouse, an engineer in the Suez Alexandria). A strong rivalry developed Canal Company, discovered that the ancient between Alexandria and Canopus which Canopic distributary extended for a distance ultimately led the rich merchants as well as of 8 km into the bay below the sea surface. the markets to move to the new city. Subsequently, Alexandria's prosperity flowed {1] Favre, J. (1918). Canopus, Menouthis, back in the direction of Canopus and Aboukir. Societe de Publications Egyptiennes, Menouthis, nearby. The area prospered, Alexandrie. linked to the metropolis by a navigation canal [2] El Faharn, 1. M. ( 1958). Abu Qir. Cairo (in which carried throngs of visitors bound for its Arabic). [3] Habashi, l. and Shoukri, M. ( 1960). Abu Qir. temples or in search of entertainment. Alexandria (in Arabic). It was not long before a number of temples [4] Breccia, E. (1914). Alexandrea ad AEgyptum. arose, including the Temple of Aphrodite at Municipalite d'Alexandrie, Alexandria, and lstituto Abu Qir Point and the Temple of Osiris or Italiano, Bergamo. 319 pp.
34 Coastal management sourcebooks 2 This feature, now appearing on hydrographic The Battle of the Nile and 2 charts, probably explains the reference in the Bonaparte's fleet writings of Pliny to an island at the mouth of the Canopic distributary. Omar Toussoun[5] Under Abu Qir Bay's ~aim waters reposes part has argued that this may be a reference to of the fleet that carried Napoleon to Egypt. In Nelson Island, which lies I I km out to sea. one of history's most famous naval This discovery and other supporting engagements, the British naval units observations point to the subsidence of the commanded by Admifcll Nelson sank most of mouth of the Canopic Branch and the Napoleon's flotilla on 1 August 1798. The l> ~ I"\ surrounding land, and to the consequent Battle of the Nile, as it became known, was a :c disappearance, into the sea, of a significant crucial turning point in the struggle between > part of the old buildings of the Abu Qir region. Britain and France during the J8th century. "',...0 It also explains the difficulty and controversy Because Napoleon's flagship, L'Orient, is 0 (\ in identifying the geographical positions of the thought to have carrie9 the pay of the fleet and < three main towns of the region. army personnel transp,orted to Egypt, location > I'"' In the early I 930s, Captain Cull, flying from and recovery of the sh,'ip would be an attractive 0 z the British Royal Air Force base at Abu Qir, salvage operation. Suostantial archaeological (\ observed below the waters of the bay a large and other technical benefits would accrue from -I :t area of the sea bed covered by remains and such an effort - which would also stimulate the rn statuary. He communicated his observations tourist industry. Since the battle was well l> to Prince Omar Toussoun who, with the described, the remains of the fleet should not be ,... assistance of local fishermen, identified two difficult to locate, inspect and salvage.[6] Some "')( > neighbouring areas covered by old remains, have maintained that something of the z I;! including 30 to 40 columns and the shipwrecks can be see.n and that their mastheads :1:1 foundation of a destroyed building. The are visible under water on windless days with a > z Prince's engineers surveyed the area which calm sea. In collaboration with the local was located I ,800 m inside the Bay to the east fishermen, Kamel Abul-Saadat succeeded, in 0 of Borg El-Ramlah. 1965, in identifying three sites of wrecks. Later, "> On 5 May 1933, Omar Toussoun, he led excavation missions of four divers. Sarni "'-I accompanied by Professors Breccia and Dessouki's report in A/ Ahram of 19 August Adriani of the Graeco-Roman Museum, 1977 noted that a silver coin bearing the legend watched the Prince's divers who were able to 'Ferdinand V, King of Naples', as well as the locate a number of marble and red-granite date ' 1798' had been recovered. columns in an area of about 5 m deep and to The institutional support came later when the raise some statuary remains, including a French lawyer and d ~'ve r Jacques Dumas larger-than-life head of Alexander the Great obtained the endorsement of the Musee de la made of white marble. The statue, which Marine in Paris and the French Embassy in shows the effect of sea water, is on display in Cairo, before receiving the permission of the the Graeco-Roman Museum. Toussoun and Egyptian authorities in 1983, to dive and his engineers explored the Bay of Abu Qir in salvage. the summer of 1933 and identified several locations of archaeological importance, which were described in his paper and map [5/ Toussoun, 0. (1934). Les ruines sous-marines de la Baie d'Abukir. s J11e1in de la Societe presented to the Archaeological Society of Archeologique d' Alexandrie, 29: 342-354, Alexandria.[5] Pl. X//1-/X, Alexandria. Since 1933, no serious attempt has been made [6/ Morcos, S. A. ( 1985). Submarine archaeology to explore the archaeological wealth of Abu and irsfurure poremial: Alexandria casebook. Qir Bay. Kamel Abul-Saadat, diver and Chapter 19, pp. 195-212, in: Managing the Ocean. (J. G. Richardson, ed.). Lomond Pub., Inc .. archaeologist, made a few attempts, but with Maryland, USA. And: torcos, S. A. ( 1993). little success owing to lack of funds and Alexandria studies in memoriam Daoud Abdu support at that time. These attempts were Daoad. Bulletin de la Societe Archeologique reported in the press. d'Alexandrie, 45:199- 216. Alexandria.
Coastal management sourcebooks 2 35 2 In June 1983, the French minesweeper, Vinh the dates An 11, An IV or An V. Among the .... Long, working in close collaboration with the most interesting objects recovered from the Egyptian Navy, found the site of the disaster sea bed were the bits of lead type in Arabic "'<( 0 of L'Orient, 8 km from shore in Abu Qir Bay. and Latin characters. Napoleon had acquired v The wreckage was strewn over a distance of his Arabic-language press from the Vatican, z <( 150 m, with guns and anchors scattered about. 'borrowed' by his chief scientist, Gaspard er: In the autumn, Dumas, working with Abul Monge (the mathematician and inventor of Q z Saadat and other Egyptian divers, detected the descriptive geometry). Bonaparte's <( sites of the 74-gun Le Guerrier and the 4-gun declarations to the Egyptian population were >< w.I..... frigate L' Artemise. disseminated via this Arabic press, the first to < In September 1983, Abut-Saadat and the team be used in Egypt. .... of divers were busy salvaging larger items from Before the start of the 1985 season, Jacques :c .... the sea bottom in Abu Qir Bay. In addition, the Dumas died on 22 March 1985, while lecturing group was operating a suction pump with a in Agadir, Morocco. The expedition continued z 0"' vacuum-cleaner-like hose along the seatloor, under a new leader, but the initial plan for an ..... <( which created an 'air lift' drawing the muddy ambitious project was scaled down or put on >..., water covering the wreckage. Dumas spent hold after the sudden death of Maltre Dumas. 0 much of his time with a sieve on board ship, These plans included the Egyptian project of ..... examining and recording the smaller artefacts building a museum in Abu Qir to house the 0 .... recovered. So far, no one has recovered the recovered objects, and of maintaining two <( ::i: hoard of gold, silver and jewels said to have laboratories, one for the treatment of metallic I.I 0: been seized by Napoleon from the Knights of finds and the other, of non-metallic finds, < Malta. A treasure of everyday objects has been which were offered by the public utility found, however - buttons, buckles, wine bottles Electricite de France. A pledge of support also and kitchen spoons, all preserved in the silt came from the Institut Fran~ais de Recherche deposited by the Nile nearby. Besides large pour l'Exploitation de la Mer (IFREMER) and objects, such as cannons and anchors, a the Regional Council of Provence-Alpes-Cote miniature world of the things needed in daily d'Azur, since L'Orient had been built in life (coins, cups, pots, pistols and swords) were Toulon (whence Napoleon's fleet had sailed to slowly adding to a reconstruction of living in Egypt) about two centuries earlier.[6) the late- l 8th century. By June 1984, a concerted attempt to search for the French fleet began aboard the small French The ancient harbour ship, Bon Pasteur, with a 12-man team of of Alexandria French and Egyptian divers concentrating on L'Orient. Kamel Abul-Saadat died on 22 June This ancient harbour was brought to the 1984, in the place he loved most: the waters of attention of the world by Gaston Jondet, the Alexandria. The encouraging start to the season Chief Engineer of the Department of Ports and was marred by the sudden death of this gallant Lighthouses, when he discovered massive and committed diver and archaeologist. maritime structures below the sea, during his In the 1984 season, the divers from the work on improving and expanding the Western Egyptian Navy and the Societe Francaise Harbour of Alexandria. His studies from 1911 d' Archeologie Sous-Marine (SOFRAS) to 1915 revealed in great detail, the nature of salvaged many artefacts not only of military these structures, their distribution, mode of or navigational interest, but also items from construction, and functions, as well as the daily life, which were displayed in a topography of the terrain. He gave a temporary exhibition in Qait Bey Fort in the preliminary account of his findings in a lecture Eastern Harbour.[7) to the Archaeological Society of Alexandria, The silver coins found there faithfully identify the era. Some bear Louis XV' s profile, some, [7] Dumas, J. (1985). Sous lamer, Les canons de that of Louis XVI, and others carry the 'Union Bonaparte. Geo (French edition), April 1985, et Force' slogan of the French Revolution and 74:76-88, Paris.
36 Coastal management sourcebooks 2 which was published in the Bulletin of the the east at a depth of 6.5 to 8.5 m below the 2 Society in 1912.[8] His detailed study appeared sea surface. The water body between the two in 1916 as 'Memoires presentes al'lnstitut breakwaters forms the external basin of the Egyptien' .[9] This was followed by his historic harbour which communicates with the Great atlas of the city and harbours of Alexandria, Western Harbour by a passage north of Abu published in Cairo in 1921 by the Geographic Bakar Rock. Society.[ JO] Because of the difficult access to Among many details, Jondet described two these rare publications, I am giving here a small harbours: the Harbour Master's private > summary of Jondet's main findings. harbour, for him and his staff, which lies east of :tl the entrance of the Ancient Harbour close to the n His 1916 study covered three regions: the :t Ancient Great Western Harbour, Anfouchy present Ras El-Tin lighthouse. The harbour of ,,,> Bay, and the western part of Pharos Island at commerce, which catered for the trade of ...0 Qait Bey. Of these, we shall discuss only his Pharos Island, is located about 200 m from the 0 main discovery of the old Western Harbour. eastern end of the ancjent great breakwater. "'< Plates l, 2 and 3 (see colour fold-out) are The immense size of l)he harbour is amazing, as > r- reduced copies of the final versions of the is the gigantic scale of the structures. The 0 large-scale maps by Jondet.[9, 10) Plate 2 ancient harbour covers 60 hectares; the artificial z shows the modem great breakwater structures surrounding the harbour are more "'-4 :t {constructed in 1870- 1879) extending from than 4 km long. Adding the 1.6 km of the m the Lighthouse of Ras El-Tin to the west just Pharos coastline brings the total circumference > of the harbour to about 6 km. The width of the r south of the Abu Bal
Bakar Rock to the western edge of Anfouchy ancient harbour dwarfs many of our present 0 Bay, at a depth of 4.5 m, and a distance of harbours, but that its layout and the skillful use "> 300 m north of the coastline, thus protecting of the configuration of the sea bottom equals "'-4 the harbour from the prevailing N and NW the works of modem harbour engineers. winds. The bathymetric chart in Plate 2 reveals that To the west of Ras El-Tin, where the modern the ancient builders constructed the great breakwater starts, Jondet observed a gap of break water along the crest of a submerged 200 m free of submerged structures, which he ridge which rises to within 4 m of the surface. designated as the Entrance of the Ancient Behind this ridge is an elongated depression Harbour. From the west of the entrance to the extending from east to west. Their ability to Abu Bakar Rock, a distance of 800 m, extends use a natural depression to create a major a pier of solid and robust structures which can artificial harbour that can accommodate a be observed by standing on the modem large fleet attests, according to Jondet, to a breakwater. The ancient harbour is closed to technical ability and genius of great power to the west by a double pier, 200 m long, which be able to build such a magnificent port. connects with the ancient great breakwater, thus surrounding the rock of Abu Bakar from {8} Jondet, G. (1912). Les ports antiques de the west and north, which represented a Pharos. Bulletin de la Societe Archeologique formidable defence for the ancient harbour. d' Alexandrie, 14:252-266, Alexandria. Most of Jondet's research was carried out {9} Jondet, G. ( 1916). f.-es ports submerges de between 191 1 and1913, but in 1915 he f'ancienne fie de Pharos. Memoires presentes a discovered a line of external submerged ruins, l'Institut Egyptien, IX:JOI pp, planches I- IV, 200 m to the north and parallel to the ancient Cairo. {JO] Jondet, G. ( 1921 ), Atlas Historique de la Ville great breakwater. This interrupted line of er des Ports d'Alexa11drie. Memoires presentes a la structures forms the external breakwater, Societe Sultanieh de '*ographie, II. XVI/ pp, extending from north of Abu Bakar Rock to 13 pp, Planches 1-L IV, Cairo.
Coastal management sourcebooks 2 37 Mode of construction ... The mode of construction of various submerged "'< 0 elements was discussed by Jondet. He gave a v detailed description of the perfectly preserved z <( 160 m landing quay, which lies at about 1.30 m depth to the east of the entrance of the Ancient Q= z Harbour and inside the present harbour. Jondet < described and gave details of a cross-section >< I.I.I and surface view showing the material used in <'"" the construction, after the demolition of part of Y.I the pier by one of his helmet-and-hose divers; able to find the foundations of the breakwater in ...% he noted that the blocks and the quarry stones this section, and to observe that the remains were obtained from the nearby Mex quarry. At were placed on a line extending between the two "'z the northern end of the landing quay, there is a extremities of the breakwater. The relative ....0 < breakwater extending 130 m to the west, where position of the remains indicates the existence of ;>- it limits the entrance to the ancient harbour. The the two identical walls already found in the breakwater, at 2 m below the sea surface, has a eastern section. "'0 .... different structure. It consists of two parallel The eastern section of the breakwater, 0 I.I.I walls of about 2 m thickness, with a distance of extending north of Ras El-Tin to Anfouchy <( x 8 m between them filled with sand, bringing the Bay, is the best preserved. The breakwater I.I a:: total thickness of the pier to about 12.5 m. consists of two parallel sea walls of 8 and 12 m 38 Coastal management sourcebooks 2 Excitement and of the excellent waterways that provided an 2 scientific debate established link to the interior of the country. Of course, this did not apply to the Red Sea where Jondet's discovery aroused considerable Egypt had seaports and maritime activity. Weill interest at the time because of the massive size attributed the construqtion of the ancient of the submerged masonry and the fact that this harbour of Alexandria to the people of Crete was one of the first discoveries in submarine who were known for their peaceful sea trade archaeology. The excitement was reflected in with their Mediterranean neighbours during the l> scientific journals and the public reaction. The Minoan civilization which preceded that of ;::i discovery was also highly unexpected. With ancient Greece. This theory was supported by "::c the exception of a reference by Homer[ 11] to a several scholars, including Sir Arthur Evans l> port on the Island of Pharos, there were no who discovered the palace of King Minos of "'0,... indications of the existence of this harbour Knossos in Crete. Although these scholars 0 (I anywhere in antiquity's written record. Jondet differed in many details, they did agree that this < was honoured in 19 I 8, when the Geographic harbour could not have been built without the ,...)> Society of Paris selected his I 916 monograph co-operation of the reigning pharaoh, possibly 0 z in the Bulletin de l'Institut Egyptien as the Sensuret II (XII dyna<>ty) around 2000 BC. (I winner of the Jules Girard Prize. -t Opinions differed regarding the origin of the :t "' discovered structures. Some specialists Jondet revisited l> surmised that the breakwaters had been built ,... to protect the coastline in the region of Reading Jondet's monograph is an interesting "')< l> Alexandria[ I2) during the Graeco-Roman exercise. He worked with full energy over z c period, whereas others agreed with Jondet that several years to comprehend fully what he ;g the ruins were those of a seaport dating from believed to be the ancient harbour of Pharos )> Pharaonic times. Jondet attributed this ancient or the Port of the Pharaoh. This was not his z harbour to Ramses II or Ramses III, after primary job in the service of the Government 0 comparing the architecture of the submerged of Egypt as Director of Ports and Lighthouses. ")> structures with the building in the Late However, he managed to find the time and "'-t Kingdom when large blocks of stones were resources to accomplish his goal. His likewise used in the temples of Karnak and monograph covered many details and Thebes. Other scholars[ l3] traced the origin discussed many aspects of a variety of of the ancient harbour to the Old Kingdom, disciplines, such as :engineering, cartography, referring to the similarity of the linear pattern geology, geography, history and classical of architecture to that of the pyramids in Giza, studies. He gave a fascinating description of a in addition to many historical arguments. perfect harbour buiJt by a competent harbour These researchers were suggesting, in fact, engineer very attentive to many details. The that the Alexandria underwater structures perfection is so striking that one wonders were the remains of the oldest known man whether Jondet had been influenced by his made harbour. profession as a harbour engineer or by his Weill[ 14] argued in a paper published in 1919 fascination with the discovered harbour. in the Bulletin de l'lnstitut Franfais d'Archeologie Orientale in Cairo, that the /I I] Homer. Odyssey, Book IV. ancient harbour was not built by the Egyptians / 12] Thuile, H. ( 1922). Commentaires sur /'Atlas but by a rich sea power, with a strong fleet and de Jonder. Bulletin de la Societe Geographique, XI. expertise in building maritime works. He Cairo. maintained that ancient Egypt had fluvial ports / 13] £1-Fakharany, flr (1963 ). The Old Harbour of such as Peluse, Tanis and Canopus, and that the Alexandria. Public Lecture Series, University of Alexandria. 1962-63. 38 pp, Alexandria (in Arabic). Egyptian fleet was familiar with the 1 /14] Weill, R. (1919). Les Ports Antehe/leniques de navigational routes and coasts of the Eastern la Cote d'Alexandri~e t /'Empire Cretois. Bulletin Mediterranean. However, Egypt was not in de l'Institut Fran~ais ld' Archeologie Orientale, need of sea ports on the Mediterranean, because 16:37 pp. Cairo. ' Coastal management sourcebooks 2 39 The methodology used by Jondet was not interpretations. It was not team work in which described in detail. However, it is not difficult his conclusions were reached through ~ ~ to give a brief account of his methods from the discussion and consultation. He did, however, < 0 information available at various places in his show his discovery to his contemporary y text. He used the naked eye to observe shallow scholars. As an example, Forster[ 15] thanked z <( structures when the sea was calm and the Jondet 'for taking me to see his fascinating ci: water was transparent. He used a glass device discovery, the Prehistoric Harbour, and for Q z (lunette d'eau), commonly used in maritime placing at my disposal his unrivalled < construction to peer below the surface. Once a collection of Maps and Views'. >( ...... structure was found, a tachometer was used to Jondet's work, appreciated though it is, should < survey the depths and elevations, which were not be the final word in respect of this important I.I.I plotted on a topographic chart covering more ::c discovery. In fact, it is quite amazing that this ~ than 4 km showing the exact positions of the fascinating harbour has not been investigated .., submerged structures. z since its discovery more than 80 years ago. In certain cases, Jondet employed divers to It is recommended that the University of ....0 < examine the better preserved submerged Alexandria, the Supreme Council of ..,> structures, which were also the better protected Antiquities, the Navy, the harbour authorities 0 from the violent sea, as those found to the south and other institutions of learning in Alexandria ..I west of Ras El-Tin. The divers carefully cleared 0 join forces and launch an interdisciplinary ..... these structures of the sand and vegetation research programme to re-investigate what lies < ::c covering them, to scrupulously draw a sketch of in their backwaters. The expected results will be v c:: the side section. In other cases, Jondet asked his far-reaching in shaping our views on this unique < divers to demolish part of the submerged harbour and its place in history. elements so as to be able to study their material and mode of construction. One should remember however that those divers were using The Eastern Harbour the classical heavy diving suit supplied with air by a hose, the scaphander or the helmet-and When Alexander the Great reached the site of hose method which restricted their movement the present Alexandria in the year 332 BC, the and made work very cumbersome. ancient great Western Harbour had already Jondet maintained that the principal structures disappeared under water. The eye of the were measured with the best possible precision Macedonian leader was caught by an Egyptian expected under the conditions prevailing fishing village along the Mediterranean coast during his research. He stressed, however, that known as Raqoda or Rhakotis - just opposite he was not making a typical archaeological of which Jay the small island of Pharos. excavation, which would require dredging Alexander ordered his engineers to draw up instruments and a team of equipped divers, plans for a city with a great harbour that would which were not available to him. include the village and the island within its In addition to the above-mentioned boundaries (Fig. 3). topographic studies showing the distribution Alexander's engineers linked the island to the of submerged structures, Jondet conducted a mainland by a narrow causeway that they bathymetric survey showing the depth of the named Heptastadion because it was seven sea floor west of Pharos where most of the stadia Jong (about 1,300 m). This causeway submerged structures were found. In fact, divided the waters of Alexandria into two parts, Jondet was able to show the complementarity the Eastern Great Harbour and Western of the distribution of these elements and the Harbour or Eunostos. The Eastern Harbour was bottom relief, by describing the condition of the main port, and the city's palaces, gardens navigability and access to the port of Pharos, and government buildings were built around it; as well as the depths of anchorage in what he designated as the mooring grounds. { l 5] Forster, E. M. ( 1938). Alexandria: a History The work of Jondet was single-handed, based and a Guide. Whitehead Morris Ltd., Alexandria. mainly on his own observations and 218 pp. (First edition, 1922). 40 Comtul manogement sourcebouks 2 Coupe transversa /e du Port d'A /exandric Pni·I ,r A l1·x11111l 1•i1• Lac Profil en long des ecueils fermant la Rade d'Alexandrie •~ ~ ...u .c~ ::.. ~.., -g £ •'Ji Q' Port de.< P1_11 /cm1ict< s !{ ~ ~ ~~~~ .. I I t TI I I J du Longucu,.. - '? Echelles: l ,,., I:l ea Jauccura - ' Plate 3. Legends in Arable: " ' ) I ~ Vertical section of limestone 'reefs ' Area of Silsila. (j) .:. ¥.\: \. .JA enclosing the roads (greater port area) l. Four sarcophages; 2. Two (i) ::. .... i.: < /I of Alexandria. sarcophages; 3. Statue without ~~,,.'i, u .....JI;.; . ® Aher }ondet, 1916; Coll. University of ,, head, in a Greek dress, stz irs MEDfT ERRANEA N SE A .i-- tu) -~ ~ J,1 1 Chicago and Ecole des Ponts, Paris. t . with 3 steps, columns in marble .;_..c\ - .:..~.... _)_ - ..>..-,. Photo edited by}. Becton and granite, broken sarcophage u~ \: _ .:,; ~1_, rt;~~ Source: N. Tongring made of basalt; 4. Columns of ~; ~, U>J~ marble in front of the Tiro Club Plate4. ~.r;I: \'U \'~) .J. ~ ~ I I&\ (hunting/shooting club). 1 · -- ~ Original drawing by Kamel Abut-Saadat, • G~\; ,:¥.:, Area of Qait Bey. Sa. Statue of showing the positions of his discoveries ~ c..)"~ I _», J\:..i - @ the Goddess Isis; Sb. Statue of {) inside and outside the Eastern Harbour. ~ / Jl.:.=-- tJ Ramse.s; Sc. Statue in the form J..V'-1'.' ~JI:.> - - of a sphynx; Sd. A number of sarcophages and columns in q.,c.l)IJ ~~ .;,..I..» - f granite and marble, and a 0 \\,;)'.:i 4~1 cY number of stones in marble from Phares. 'There are also Jb-'!. Vl..;..< ~ ~__), (,. other objects in the area which ~.:.i J o_~\ • ~\ I could not identify, since they G ~J~ \ ~ are present at a great depth from the sea surface' . ._SL ~ ;. :ii ..i.) Q.JJ_; J Presented by the discoverer, ~/-_, ~-,,,)- Kamel Abul-Saadat, 7/ 11 /1961 ~...... ,'... LI. y\:t:~-> J. ~ (Comment by S. Morcos: the dote provided by Abul-Soodot coincides with the period during which his discoveries were made. This mop was actually drawn al a later date.) l'f< ll•fHI V(o!( nux nhm-.1' tit• l'nnrh·n111• lit· tl1• Pluwos ...... ""'""..... _.. Plate 1. .LES Po:tt "'" .SuBME1tOES OE L ANCIENNP,; Map showing maritime structures found lLE DE PH.AROS around ancient Pharos Island. J\ • ~ .. f,,a.. .,, ,,ll,.. t!)J5 Coll. University of Chicago, and Ecole p••• G . J~N.DI!.T des Ponts, Paris. Photo edited by/. Becton / Source: N. Tongring Plate 2. The submerged Ancient Harbour of Alexandria (Pharos Island) based on research between 1911and1915. After /ondet, 1921; Coll. Bibliotheque municipal de Rouen. Photo: D. Tragin/ C. Lancien. \ j ;o6".----··-"_...... -...._,~ l ,,... -...... _...... ______./ I it handled the more important naval and Alexandria once stood and where Qait Bey 2 commercial vessels. These were guided into port Fort now stands. A sea wall extending from c: by the celebrated Alexandria lighthouse which Cape Lochias protected the harbour's entrance z 0 stood on what is now the site of the Qait Bey from the north wind and sea currents. m Fort. Over the years, owing to a number of In the middle of the harbour and towards the :a ~ factors, the Eastern Harbour gradually declined south-west, facing the area between the > -I as a seaport while the importance of the Western present-day Al-Raml Station and the El-Silsila l!'I :a Harbour grew: it is the latter that has become the promontory, lay Antirrhodos Island - major port of contemporary Alexandria. As the probably named after the island of Rhodes. >:a Heptastadion became progressively silted up, it On this isle and on Cape Lochias along the "::c lost its original configuration, and Pharos Island eastern shore of the harbour stood the royal > became part of the mainland city of Alexandria. palace, all of which presumably has been ,...0"' Perhaps the most picturesque description of the submerged beneath the sea as a result of 0 Eastern Harbour as it was during the period of geological subsidence. At the south-eastern "< Alexandria's prosperity under the Ptolemaic comer of the harbour, where Cape Lochias >,... kings is one left by Strabo, a geographer of the met the shore, there was a small inner marina 0 l st century BC. According to Strabo[ 16), 'On reserved for the use of the royal household, z entering the great port, the island and lighthouse known as the Royal Port. At a point near "-I of Pharos lie to the right while on the left are today's Al-Ram! Station, a tongue of land ::c seen a cluster of rocks and Cape Lochias, on jutted into the middle of the Eastern Harbour. "" whose summit a palace stands. As the ship At the edge of this promontory, Marcus approaches the shore, the palaces behind Cape Antonius built the Timonium as a place of Lochias astonish one because of the number of meditation and seclusion from the world. dwellings they contain, the variety of constructions, and the extent of their gardens ... ' The most important feature of the Eastern Subsidence and Harbour was that it was protected from the sedimentation east and from the west. To the east, stood Figure 3. Positions of Cape Lochias, most of which has been lost to Ever since its foundation, Alexandria has been harbour installations the sea and of which only the El-Silsila affected by the two natural processes of of Ancient Alexandria promontory remains. To the west, lay the siltation and geological subsidence. These superimposed on Heptastadion and the eastern tip of Pharos a chart of the present Island, upon which the lighthouse of {16] Strabo. Geography. XV/I. day city. IV Abu Bakar Rock •:, _o;· •••••••• •Diamond Rock £ .... 6/i('0 ',, Pharos Island '"E>•~ I -..., "'•t(',. ~ ...... _r..... %,:\.,,.. ···:\ \\§ Eastern Harbour \-;_ j~~ape Lochlas lf~ (0;" Royal Palaces 1,i.; \ '\., Tlmonlum , .•. 1 ,_Al-Silsila {' .. \ g. ~ Antlrrhodos t \ 1 ·1 1' !·x \\ v--·n ; ( ) //I '- i\ \\ ""q J t' l .... H//··- ..., \_JL.' """"'....::..""'""---, ~• I/ ··-.._ ..... ,--..J ~.ml station ~"'· •••...... (! I ----- University Medical Hospital -- present shoreline Scale 1.800 -- former shoreline Coastal management so11rcebooks 2 41 2 processes have brought extensive changes to Archaeological finds the local topography, resulting in the Joss of in the Eastern Harbour many of the city's ancient monuments. There has been also the accumulation of material In October 1962, a group of navy divers from successive periods. succeeded in raising a massive statue The most striking evidence of the geological weighing approximately 25 tons from a depth subsidence is what happened to Cape Lochias, of 8 m behind Qait Bey Fort outside the at the eastern end of the Eastern Harbour, and Eastern Harbour. After examining it and Antirrhodos Island, at its centre, as well as the removing the seaweed with which it was submergence of the many structures once covered, Dr. Henry Riad (then Curator of the standing on the shores of this harbour and its Graeco-Roman Museum) decided that the w islands. For example, at the time that Gorringe object was a statue of the Goddess Isis dating :::: ,_ transported one of the two obelisks of the from the 3rd century BC (Fig. 4). The news i.;o Caesareum Temple in Alexandria (Cleopatra's . media were quick to announce the find z 0 Needle) to be erected in New York's Central abroad, and the great size and antiquity of the ""' 42 Coastal management sourcebooks 2 flat indicated that it had been placed against the archaelogists abroad and to UNESCO; and 2 wall of a building. The artefact dated from encourage him to write on, and make c:: Roman times and was still in good condition - illustrations and maps of, his findings. z even though it had been immersed in salt water In summer 1965, I met in London Miss Joan ,...c for more than 1,500 years.' du Plat Taylor, Professor of Archaeology at :a ~ 'The frogmen also retrieved a large statue, London University and Miss Honor Frost to )> broken into two parts, from the sea bed at the raise interest in and support for the ,...-4 fort, and also made of red granite. It Jacked exploration of the potential of underwater :a parts of its legs but was seven meters Jong and archaeology in Alexandria. My.letters to the >:a weighed roughly 25 tons. The monument specialists and concerned organizations rl ::t represented a woman standing with her left received a good response and encouragement. ,..,)> foot forwards and her arms at her side. The In his letter of 29 December 1966[20], ....0 eye sockets were empty, but unquestionably S. Abdul Hak, Head of Museum and 0 they once held appropriately coloured stones Monuments Division, UNESCO, replied, 'We "-< (as was usual in ancient Egyptian art), and are in agreement with your suggestion ... that ....)> traces of the sacred snake were visible on her action will be developed and expanded more 0 forehead. The statue had a supporting column especially in submarine archaeology, under z at its back. All this shows that the sculptor the Participation Programme in the activities "-4 had been heavily influenced by the cannons of of Member States'. He added that, 'the ::t,.., ancient Egyptian art.' Delegation of the United Arab Republic to the > 'The lady wore, however, a Greek gown with General Conference presented a request for ,... a knot tied between her breasts; in Graeco assistance ... to organize an international '">< )> Roman times, this knot was associated with, expert meeting in Alexandria during next z c specifically, the Goddess Isis. This deity was biennium 1967- 1968, to study the problem of ::0 also depicted with plaited hair hanging in submarine archaeology in the Mediterranean )> symmetrical strands down both sides of her and the problem raised by the ancient z head. It is thus very likely that this statue does submerged harbour of Alexandria.' 0 indeed represent Isis and that it dates from the ' Now we are studying this request carefully ")> VI third century BC'.[ 17] and will make a favorable recommendation. -4 However, we need supplementary information on the problems involved', he concluded. Kamel Abul-Saadat's I responded to his request for more information contribution in February 1967, but the outbreak of the 1967 War put the matter on hold. It was not until In 1964, I gave a lecture to the Archaeological autumn 1968, when the UNESCO mission, Society of Alexandria on the submarine composed of Ms. Honor Frost, from London, archaeological discoveries in the Mediterranean and Vladimir Nesteroff, the geologist, from the Sea.[ 18] At the end of my talk, Kamel Abul University of Paris, finally came. During six Saadat presented himself. I gradually came to dives in October-November 1968, Frost and know him as a model citizen who was let down by his society. He gave me copies of his letters I 17/ See also: Riad. H. (1964). Recentes to the authorities and the press at that time Decouvertes a Alexandrie. Conference de la (1963-1964), which describe his state of mind Societe Archeologique d'Alexandrie, 7 pp., Alexandria. at this time in his life, as presented by Miss [ 18/ Morcos, S. A. ( 1968). Submarine Hala Halim in the present volume.(19] He Archaeological Discoveries in the Mediterranean Jacked recognition of his work as well as the Sea, Archaeological and Historical Studies, moral and material support to pursue his Alexandria Archaeological Society, 1:39 pp., research. Believing in the potential of Alexandria (in Arabic). [ 19/ Halim, H. (in this volume). Recuperating an submarine archaeology in Alexandria, and in Alexandrian pioneer in submarine archaeology: his capability, I embarked on three fronts: to Kamel Abut-Saadat. speak in his favour to the scientific community [20/ Abdul Hak, S., UNESCO (personal and authorities; write to the leading submarine communication). Letter of 29 December 1966. Coastal management sourcebooks 2 43 2 Abul-Saadat examined the salient finds in an in a scholarly way. However, he managed, area of some 180 sq. m with direct with some assistance, to come up with some measurement. In her report to UNESCO, interesting maps of the Eastern Harbour with Frost[21] confirmed what we have believed all the approximate locations of his findings. One along[l7, 22], that the ruins described are not of them is worth publishing here (see Plate 4). only of great historic importance; they were In addition, Kamel Abul-Saadat made me a list also likely to arouse popular, international of 18 items scattered on the sea floor between interest because they represent a part of Pharos, Qait Bey Fort and Diamond Rock, a distance the Seventh Wonder of the Ancient World. of 130 m. Starting from the position of the Isis The UNESCO mission came at a difficult statue, which was salvaged from the bottom, time for Egypt: the aftermath of the 1967 he gave a sketch showing the approximate War. I recall a meeting at my home with distance between each item and the next. He Frost, Abul-Saadat, Dr. Zaki lskander, further drew sketches of each item. These Director, and Amir Abul-Wafa, Engineer, of items appear also among the 22 items reported the Antiquity Department, to discuss the to UNESCO by Frost[21], and the 19 items mission's work, future plans and described in detail by her, later.[24] In 1969, recommendations to UNESCO. We soon she wrote, giving credit to Abul-Saadat, 'Our realized the depth of the problem in such a object in November 1968 was not to search the gloomy and discouraging situation. In fact, site for new finds, but rather to examine the the coastal area of Alexandria had become a site for those already reported by Mr. Kamel military zone, out of bounds for diving and Abu El-Saadat [Kamel Abul-Saadat], and to archaeological exploration. Only Abul-Saadat, assess their importance in relation to possible because he had the confidence of the military, excavation. Nevertheless, the crown of Isis was occasionally allowed to dive, sometimes Hathor is an important addition to what was at great risk to his life. For more than ten already known.' years, activities ceased, but correspondence The charts of Abul-Saadat (and eventually continued between myself in UNESCO, Paris, those of Honor Frost in her report to UNESCO) Abul-Saadat, in Alexandria, Honor Frost and are now overtaken by the present more precise Sarni Dessouki, in London. The latter was Al work of Jean-Yves Empereur and his group Ahram' s correspondent who had covered since 1994, as well as the more recent work of Abul-Saadat's discoveries in the 1960s, now Franck Goddio. However, the drawings made editor and consultant with 'Lloyd's List' by Abul-Saadat, upon my advice, are of special known for its wide interest in marine affairs. interest, since they represent some of the objects The objective was to raise interest in found by him since 1961. Figure 5 is an launching an international initiative to explore unpublished drawing by Abul-Saadat of a and salvage the Pharos. The three of them colossal statue 7 m tall. Frost[24] gave a visited me in UNESCO, to drum up support description of a female pillar-statue and a male for the project. Abul-Saadat's visit to Paris pillar-statue, not counting the female pillar was his only travel to Europe. statue of 'Isis' already raised in 1962. In her letter of May l 984[23], Honor Frost Empereur[25], again in 1994, found the trunk of described that period: 'It has been the deepest disappointment for me to have been unable to help survey the area. It would have been [21] Frost, H. (unpublished manuscript). Report and recommendations on the submerged easy', she continued, 'to raise international architecture and statues at the site of the ancient support for such a project, from both the Pharos, Fort Kait Bay, Alexandria. UNESCO archaeological world and the press.' Report, 1969. Paris. 10 pp. The field work came to a halt, but Abul {22) Morcos, S. A. ( 1965). Sunken Civilizations, the Saadat, with my encouragement, set to the Story ofSubmarine Archaeological Discoveries. task of recording his findings. One should Cairo, Dar-el-Maaref. 162 pp. (in Arabic). [23] Frost, H. (personal communication). Letter of realize that he had not the background nor the 16May 1984. capability of Omar Toussoun or Gaston {24] Frost, H. ( 1977). The Pharos site, Alexandria, Jondet who managed to publish their findings Egypt. Nautical Archaeology, 41: 126-130. 44 Coastal management sourcebooks 2 a colossal statue of a man 4.50 m from the neck might have been covered by sand. Was this the 2 to the knees. This statue (Fig. 6), which was missing fourth statue (of a male) which raised in 1995, compared favorably in size with appeared to Abul-Saadat as a female statue in the statue of Isis, which measures 7 m from the the turbid waters of the Eastern Harbour? top of the head to the knees. Empereur also Furthermore, the theory of the two royal confinned the presence of four large square couples will exclude the identification of the bases (plinths), each 2.30 m high, which brings female statue hauled up in 1962 as being that of the height of the statue to approximately 13 m. the Goddess Isis. This is an old question, since Empereur believes the four bases indicate two )> the discovery of the statue. Riad[ 17] in a lecture :a Ptolemaic royal couples, since their fonn in YMCA, Alexandria in October 1964, raised t"'I ::r: belongs to that of the Hellenistic era. Three of the same question 'ls there a controversy about l> the statues have been found. Only the fourth is the statue: Does it really represent Isis? or can it '"0 r- missing, which may suggest that it was buried be a Queen represented in the fonn of Isis? This 0 ('I under the modem cement blocks which were is possible ... •. Advancing a number of -< recently dumped in the area to protect Qait Bey arguments that the statue is Egyptian, he l> r- Fort. The drawing by Abul-Saadat (Fig. 5) may. maintained that the statue is that of Isis 'until 0 in a complete fonn, represent the huge male proof to the contrary' emerges. z (\ statue brought up in 1995 (Fig. 6), before its Finally, I wish to conclude by quoting the ... feet were lost under the cement blocks. tribute of Honor Frost to Kamel Abul-Saadat, ::r:,.,, Professor Jean-Yves Empereur supports this who ' ... found colossal statuary, possibly from l> interpretation[26]. However, Abul-Saadat the original Pharos, one of the Seven Wonders ,.,,,... presented that to me as a female statue. He of the Ancient World. In addition M. Kamel Figure 5. Original >< l> found it in 1961, but not during the visit of Saadat found the remains of submerged drawing by Abu/ z 0 Frost in 1968. According to Abul-Saadat, it buildings that may represent the lost palace of Saadat of a 7-m :a Alexander and the Ptolemy (supposedly the statue (comparable to l> z final resting place of the glass sarcophagus Isis). It may be the I"\ [25] Empereur, J.-Y. ( 1995). Alexandrie (Egypte), containing the body of Alexander the Great). some statue raised by /es fouilles sous-marines. Bulletin de 0 Thus, he has presented archaeologists with the the Centre d'Etudes l> Correspondance Hellenique, J 19:756-760. Athens. ...VI {26] Empereur, J.-Y. (pers. comm.). Meeting in potential locations of two of the most Alexondrines in 1995 Centre d 'Etudes Alexandrines (CEA), August 1997. sensational sites in the Mediterranean.' (25), but with its feet lost under the cement blocks (Fig. 8). ( c: See also mop in which t. / J Abul-Soodot refers to a statue of Romses (Plate 4, item Sb). Figure 6. Colossal statue of a Ptolemy represented as a phorooh (in Aswan granite); the trunk was found in 1994 (25) and raised in 1995; the head was found later. Here, it is shown at on f· exhibition "Lo Gloire {v- !1.., '/::') ~--:-:-< J).:_;; /V_/ ;. I y-::C d'Alexondrie" at the c .:_. .:.;. \\~" ,_:;,, )'-.);_. -/.( _,, ' j..J" ~ Petit Polois in Paris, .:....-- [_ :.,,--;;_ \ v~-: <> ',..., !) Moy-July 1998. Photo: S. Morcos. Coastal management sourcebooks 2 45 Kamel Al:tul-Saadat: a pioneer in ... VI Alexandr·ian underwater archaeology < 0 v z < a:: Q z < >< w HALA HALIM From a very early stage, Abul-Saadat's ..I < hobbies were diving and spear-fishing and it .... was out of these hobbies that his fascination ...::c with submerged antiquities developed. It was he underwater arclhaeological work done while fishing in Silsila in 1960 that he came "'z across sherds of pottery that reminded him of 0 Tby Kamel Husseini Abul-Saadat ..I pieces he had seen at the Graeco-Roman < (1933-1984), the late Alexandrian diver, is in > many respects singular. Abul-Saadat' s Museum, as he explains in an interview with investigations of submerged sites were a self La Reforme lllustree du Dimanche (28 May, 0 "'-' motivated, self-financed, single-handed 1961). And 'from that day', he says, 'my 0 .... endeavour. Amateur though it was, this friends would go fishing while I made for the < :c endeavour is all the more significant for sea-bed which I combed from Ibrahimia to v a:: having taken place at a time when the Chatby, and if by chance I came across a fish, < authorities had neither the equipment, the well then I'd catch it'.[3] expertise nor even the interest to deal with In Alexandrian homes where there is a diver underwater archaeology. This brief sketch of in the family, salt-encrusted amphorae and Abul-Saadat's contribution is, therefore, also sherds of pottery are not uncommon. Few a reading in the socio-1cultural and political refrain from appropriating whatever portable factors that dictated th1e parameters of what pieces they find and fewer still go as far as could and what could mot be done in the reporting their finds to the antiquities period when Abut-Saadat did most of his authorities, as Abul-Saadat did. Nor is this work - from the 1960s to the early 1980s standard behaviour for a man who lived just (he died in 1984). Giv1~n that most of the sites above the poverty line. His spear-fishing Abul-Saadat discovere:d and explored have been, since then, scientifically surveyed, and { 1] I would like to express my deep gratitude to in some cases excavated, this paper also Kamel Abul-Saadat's half-sister and half-brother attempts to set his work in the context of Leila and Ezzat Mohamed Sadeq, who were most subsequent campaigns.[ I] generous with their time and recollections, and put Nothing about Abul-S:aadat's background and at my disposal Abul-Saadat's papers, including his correspondence and press clippings about his education would have indicated his later work. Many thanks are also due to Ms Honor Frost passion for underwater archaeology. Born in and Professor Selim Morcos for the moral support 1933 to Alexandrian parents, Abul-Saadat I received from both and all the material they spent the early years of his life in Cairo where furnished me with. I am also grateful to Mr his father held a clerical post in parliament. Ibrahim Darwish, head of the Unde1water Archaeology Department ofthe Supreme Council When his parents divorced, he moved back to ofAntiquities (SCA), for allowing me to consult the Alexandria with his miother who later SCA 'sfiles on Abut-Saadat. Both Mr Sameh remarried. He eventuallly dropped out of Ramses of the SCA and Captain Mohsen El school before obtaining his high-school Gohari, a friend ofAbul-Saadat 's, offered valuable certificate and started working with a customs insights. A version ofthis article was published in depot company in the Alexandria harbour, the Al-Abram Weekly ( 1- 7, 1997), issue no. 323, Features page. where he was to remain for the rest of his life [2] Sadeq, Ezzat M. Pers. interviews. March 1997. - apart from a period in the 1950s when he [3] See report by Sarni Dessouki, AI-Ahram, 22 worked in the south of Sudan.[2] May 1961. 46 Coastal management sourcebooks 2 equipment was hand-made, as his half-brother authorities' attitudes towards underwater 2 Ezzat Mohamed Sadeq explains; as for his archaeology and the social and political c:::: diving equipment, he was dependent on context at the time. The question of a proper z discards from foreign friends.[4] underwater archaeological survey of the sites 0 By May 1961, Abul-Saadat had identified two seems not to have come up. Granted, the "'::a ~ distinct submerged sites and amassed enough antiquities department did not have any > -I observations on statues and masonry there to experts to undertake such a survey - "' decide to alert the antiquities authorities. To eventually, it was the Navy frogmen who ::a l> the east of Silsila - or Cape Lochias in were called upon to survey the sites and raise ::a antiquity, site of the Ptolemaic Royal Quarter f"I the statue. But the question that needs to be :z: - he had found, among other things, 'a asked is why the antiquities department > m staircase with eight steps, less than one metre lacked the motivation, at that stage, to call 0 ,.... wide, with marble columns scattered around upon foreign expertise. 0 C'I it. The staircase led to what looked like a Indeed, the Progres Egyptien of 5 March < large sarcophagus. I also saw a life-size 1962 reports that 'On the l 9th of May the ::>,.... Roman statue of red granite. It was headless frogmen from the Navy discovered, again at 0 and lay on its side. Nearby, there was what Qait Bey, a six-metre [sic] female statue [ ... ] z C'I resembled a cylindrical chair.' [5] It was in The news was reported all over the world. An -I Silsila, too, that Abut-Saadat found a gold American expert in such matters, Peter :t coin with a Latin inscription on one side and Thorkmorton [sic], currently in Greece, sent "' l> the face of a woman, identified as Penelope, to the concerned authorities a detailed report ,... on the other.[6] To the north-east of Qait Bey on the subject, expressing his readiness to "'>< > Fort - the Pharos site where the lighthouse help raise the submerged antiquities for a z 0 and the shrine of Isis Pharia once stood - he thousand dollars per month. September and ::a had found 2 headless sphinxes, marble October passed, and the said antiquities were > z columns and a colossal female statue broken still lying on the sea-bed.' n in two, and further on, a jumbled heap of That nothing came out of Peter 0 columns.[7] When in 1961 Abut-Saadat went Throckmorton's offer is not surprising. In the ::> to meet the director of the Graeco-Roman straitened economic conditions of Egypt in -I"' Museum in Alexandria, Dr Henry Riad, he the 1960s, archaeology - particularly took along the gold coin and several sherds of underwater archaeology - ranked far below pottery with which he hoped to endorse his other concerns on the agenda of national statements and his plea that something be priorities, an agenda which privileged military done about these sites.[8] spending and industrialization. Furthermore, The gold coin was initially thought to be Byzantine, but given that the Graeco-Roman Museum had no numismatist at the time, the /4] Accordi11g to Professor and Mrs. Morcos. Personal interviews. October 1996 and April 1997. coin, Dr. Youssef El-Gheriani recalls, was Jn a letter to Frost (dated 12 July 1980; written in eventually delivered to the Egyptian Museum French), Abut-Saadat speaks of his Italian in Cairo. Finally, El-Gheriani adds, the coin journalist andfilmmakerfriend 'Mr Bruno was pronounced a fake. It is not known Vailati ... a friend of mine since childhood. As you whether the possibility that the coin was an probably know, he'sfrom Alexandria like me. Besides, it's he who taught me diving. And it's he ancient fake was entertained, but Mrs. Mary who always sell/ me from Italy all the divi11g Morcos, who later came to know Abul equipment that I needed. ' See note / 24 / Saadat, recounts that the piece was returned to /5] Al-Ahram, 22 May 1961. him and that he eventually traded it in for {6] Interview with Abut-Saadat in La Reforme some decent diving equipment. Illustree du Dimanche, 28 May 1961; reproduction The colossal female statue, the so-called Isis of the coin accompanying the article. /7] La Reforme lllustree du Dimanche, 28 May 1961. which Abut-Saadat had found off Qait Bey /8} El-Gheriani, Youssef Personal interview. Fort, was raised in 1962. The tardiness and March 1997. At the time, Mr. El-Gheriani was many other circumstances surrounding the working at the Graeco-Roman Museum which he raising of the statue are an indication of the later came to head. Coastal management sourcebooks 2 47 2 in the years to come, from about 1967 to the how to rate the monetary and archaeological 1980s, much of Egypt's Mediterranean coast value of the two statues. The committee that and inshore waters were out of bounds for was formed for the task rated the Isis statue at security and military reasons (in Alexandria, £E700, 'for overall, its features are not clear, for example, Silsila was to become a rocket due to its long submersion underwater', as the base, Qait Bey, a military zone). All along the antiquities authorities' report goes.[11] As to coast, diving was severely restricted, since the Roman-male statue, it was estimated at there was fear of enemy sabotage, particularly £E50. Given the appraisal, Abul-Saadat's after 1967 and during the War of Attrition. If honorarium of £El25 (approximately $35) was Abul-Saadat had access to some sites, it was a princely sum. only as an individual and due to what his half But if Abul-Saadat received little recognition IW brother Ezzat Mohamed Sadeq describes as from the antiquities department, he gradually ::t 1- 'his excellent relations with the Navy which drew a small group of supporters who \J often called upon his help.' Hence the great understood his passion and saw the value of :z 0 significance of his observations. what he was doing. Each helped in a different ..I < It is to be recalled, too, that if major way. There was Sarni Dessouki, then > archaeological operations were to be Alexandria correspondent to Al-Ahram, who \J 0 undertaken in the 1960s, these were the often wrote about Abul-Saadat and his ..I salvage of Pharaonic monuments in Nubia projects, thereby providing the diver with a 0 lol.I and Upper Egypt, prior to the construction of < platform for his campaigning. :r: the High Dam at Aswan. Into this less than v Cl: nurturing context - enters Abul-Saadat, this 48 Coastal management sourcebooks 2 And then there was the informed support Abul maps were to prove invaluable and the only 2 Saadat received from Professor Selim Morcos, at source of guidelines for a team of underwater the time teaching oceanography at Alexandria archaeologists from the Supreme Council of University, and later to become a senior Antiquities (SCA) who surveyed the site in UNESCO staff member in the Division of May 1997. The survey was made in response Marine Sciences. Since l %5, when he published to the threat posed to the site by the military Hadarat Ghariqa (Sunken Civilizations), authorities' decision to dump concrete blocks Professor Morcos has written extensively on around the promontory - atop the antiquities. Alexandria's potential for underwater According to SCA archaeologists Ibrahim >:a I"\ archaeology and its links with oceanography. Darwish and Sameh Ramses, both of whom :z: The two men became acquainted when Abul participated in the survey, the divers saw l> Saadat, having read Sunken Civilizations, took fragments of granite columns and a number of "',..0 issue with what he saw as a cursory reference granite blocks, aligned side by side. Partly 0 to his discoveries. In a letter to Morcos, dated hidden by rocks was a big sarcophagus, "< 15 May 1966, Abut-Saadat detailed the work probably one of those mapped by Abul ,..l> he had done in the Qait Bey, Silsila and Abu Saadat.[ 14) 0 Qir sites, ending on a cri de coeur: 'As you In the waters off Silsila, to the west, Abul z know, sir, these discoveries, far from being Saadat had found what he described as 'a ".... :z: easy, are highly difficult and fraught with submerged pavement, part of it buried in the m danger. I have exerted great effort, for I used sand, which may be part of the Ptolemaic Royal > to dive in winter - January and February - for Harbour' .[15] Interestingly, Abul-Saadat's ,.. more than five hours a day. This is because of suggestion about this being part of the "'>< l> the wind which is inopportune except in Ptolemaic Royal Harbour was corroborated by z 0 winter, in terms of underwater visibility in the 1996 findings of the cartographic mission :a areas that are turbid due to Nile water or directed by Mr Franck Goddio. Despite the l> z sewage which pollutes the sea. Yet, despite huge gap in the means of mapping - Abul these huge exertions, there is, very sadly, Saadat using the naked eye, Goddio's mission 0 neither encouragement nor interest from the having the use of a 'differential global "l> antiquities organization or from men of positioning system'. a technique which holds ...."" science like yourself ... ' possibilities of accuracy that would have been In his reply to Abul-Saadat, Morcos explained mind-boggling for the Alexandrian diver - their the importance of documentation and report findings were similar.[ 16) Also worth noting publishing. Later, he was to act as a sort of about Abu I-Saadat' s maps of the Eastern academic mentor, encouraging Abut-Saadat to Harbour is the fact that large portions of the adopt more professional practices, and record submerged antiquities he identified have yet to his sightings and sketch objects seen be surveyed. underwater. Morcos also 'provided [the diver) The friendship between Morcos and Abul with hydrographic maps and documentation Saadat was to have other ramifications, too. In on the Battle of the Nile which later helped his capacity as an academic and a 'name' in Abut-Saadat in identifying [some of) his field, Morcos, unlike Abul-Saadat, was Napoleon's sunken vessels'.[12) In the sixties, Abut-Saadat produced a series { 12} Morcos, Selim. Personal interview. April 1997. of approximate maps identifying locations of { 13} See Abu I-Saadat 's 'Map number 3 of antiquities in the Eastern Harbour and around antiquities submerged in the Eastern Harbour, Silsila. To the east of Silsila, in addition to the discovered in 1968-69 by Kamel Hussein Abu/ headless male statue which was lifted in 1962, Saadat ... ' as the legend reads; map in the SCA 's Abut-Saadat had found two sarcophagi, and files on Abut-Saadat. further to the east, at Chatby beach, he had [14) See 'Making Waves in Chatby', Home page, Al-Ahram Weekly, 5-11 June 1997, issue no. 328. found some limestone pavements (still not { 15} See Abul-Saadat's 'Map number 3'. excavated).[13) As noted above, access to the { 16} See my article 'Harbours unparalleled', Front Silsila promontory was 11arred after 1967 page, Al-Ahram Weekly, 7- 13November1996, when it became a rocket base. Abul-Saadat's issue no. 298. Coastal management sourceboaks 2 49 also in a position to contact key figures and Journal ofNautical Archaeology, Frost institutions in an effort to draw attention to marshals the documentary and the I Alexandria's submerged antiquities. From archaeological evidence linking the ancient <"' 0 1966 onwards, Morcos pleaded the cause of lighthouse of Alexandria with the morphology v Alexandria's submerged sites with prominent of the site and submerged elements, and lists z < figures in the field of underwater archaeology, some 17 of the more important pieces of QC among them Joan du Plat Taylor, George Bass, statuary and masonry, writing that 'such Q z Peter Throckmorton and Honor Frost.[ 17] This evidence would be multiplied a hundred-fold < effort finally bore fruit when Dr Selim Abdul after a complete survey' .[22] >< Hak, head of the Museums and Monuments But this complete survey was not to take place ..d""" < Division in UNESCO, responded in 1968 by until 1994 when the French-Egyptian mission, sponsoring, in co-operation with the Egyptian headed by Professor Jean-Yves Empereur, :i::""" 1- government, a survey mission by pioneer started working on the Pharos site. Frost IJ archaeological diver Honor Frost and geologist herself repeatedly tried to get a permit to z 0 Vladimir Nesteroff. resume work, but the Egyptian antiquities .,j < Remarkably, this survey took place in 1968, authorities never answered her letters.[23] > only one year after the June defeat. Among Meanwhile, Abul-Saadat roped in his Italian IJ other extraordinary factors concerning the friend, film-maker and journalist Bruno 0 survey was the fact that, before coming to Vailati, to film the site in 1979. Vailati's team 0""' .... Egypt, Frost had not been informed about the also raised from the site one of a number of < : exact nature of the task and so had packed huge granite blocks (50 to 75 tons in weight) v cz: only 'a mask, fins and a wet suit'.[18] Her which are now believed to have formed part <( first two dives, with Nesteroff, were without of the masonry of the lighthouse.(24] breathing apparatus as there was no In the interim between Frost's 1968 survey and compressor to be found in Alexandria. For the the current French-Egyptian mission, much had remaining four dives, Frost had to borrow some bottles of compressed air from a group [ 17] 1 am grateful to Professor Morcos for of French divers who were working for an oil providing me with a copy of his 'Memorandum on company in Mersa Matrouh. Likewise, Submarine Archeology in Alexandria Waters', sent theodolites had to be borrowed from the in September 1966 to key figures in underwater Polish mission in Alexandria. Meanwhile, on archaeology, as well as copies of the answers he her second day at the site, Frost 'saw a man received from Joan du Plat-Taylor (dated 7 October 1966), George Bass (dated 8 October with mask and fins sitting on the shore. He 1966), Honor Frost (dated 21 October 1966), Peter told me (in French) that he knew the site well Throckmorton (dated 28December1966) and and offered to show me what was there. His Selim Abdul-Hak (dated 29 December 1966). name was Kamel Abul-Saadat'.[19] [18) Frost, Honor. Letter dated 25 March 1997. Once again, Abul-Saadat was there on his [ 19) As in [18), above. own initiative. The man who had 'discovered' [20) As in [18), above. [21] Frost, Honor. Telephone interview, 23 March the site, who was behind the raising of the 1997, and letter dated 25 March 1997. statue, who knew the changes in the area over [22) Frost, Honor ( 1975). The Pharos site, the years, and who was indirectly responsible Alexandria, Egypt. The International Journal of for Frost's presence, had not been called upon Nautical Archaeology, 4.1:128. by the antiquities authorities to accompany [23] In a letter (25 March 1997), Frost writes that '/refused to return [to work in Alexandria] without the UNESCO mission. Therefore, Abul official Government permission (my letters were Saadat had trouble with his employers over never answered). ' taking time off, and the antiquities department [24) A report on Vailati's work on the Pharos site did not help.(20] Despite the fact that Kamel was published in the Italian magazine Oggi, No. 6, 'was neither academic nor highly educated', of 8 February 1980; a photograph printed with the Frost 'found ... all [his] observations article (page 57) shows the granite block on land. 1 am also grateful to Ms. Frost for supplying me absolutely reliable' - and describes him as with a photograph sent to her by Abul-Saadat, taken 'an amateur of the very best kind'. [21] during the Vailati expedition, showing a floating In her report published in the International crane raising the granite block. See also note [4]. 50 Coastal management sourcebooks 2 changed at the Pharos site. Despite the fact that Sixth of October War. But by the late '70s, the authorities knew of the submerged things began to look up for Abul-Saadat. He artefacts, it was the antiquities department itself had gained a measure of recognition, not least that ordered the dumping of concrete blocks in thanks to Frost's crediting of him in her 1975 two different parts of the site, to reinforce the report published in the prestigious existing jetty and to construct a breakwater to International Journal of Nautical protect Qait Bey Fort. Thus, Frost's map of the Archaeology. And there were lesser rewards, site and her list -compiled with Abul-Saadat's such as an honorary membership of the help - were to prove of great value for the exclusive Alexandria Yacht Club. >:a M ore importantly, one side-effect of late ('\ present mission, helping them to determine the :% changes in the morphology of the site and to president Sadat's Camp David Accords with )> locate missing statuary and masonry. For Israel was a gradual relaxing of the military "',...0 example, buried under the new reinforcement grip on coastal areas. Thus, in 1979, Abul 0 l."I of the jetty are several elements from Frost's Saadat accompanied divers from the < list, including two papyriform columns, a California-based Mobius Group during their )>,... sarcophagus-like box and a block carrying the explorations of the Eastern Harbour. The 0 Roman numeral IV.[25) group's investigations were guided by a z Among a number of hypotheses put forward comparison between the visions and extra "-f by the French-Egyptian team currently sensory perceptions of a number of mediums : "' working on the site, one is of relevance here. and the findings of the side-scan sonar; the > Initially, the colossal female statue raised in team was accompanied by Professor Harold ,... the early 1960s was thought to represent Isis, Edgarton who took readings with the sonar. "'>< )> a hypothesis endorsed by the iconography of The Mobius Group's main quest appears to z Q the figure and by the fact that Pharos island have been Alexander's tomb, a not :a was also the site of the shrine of Isis Pharia, uncommon obsession in Alexandria.(29) )> z patroness of mariners. But given that this Although Abu I-Saadat could not resist joining ,... female statue was found beside one of a male, the Mobius Group, he did not believe that 0 of the same proportions (which the French they could fi nd the Soma, according to his )> Egyptian team has raised from the site), it is half-brother Ezzat Mohamed Sadeq. In ""-f now speculated that the two colossi represent Stephan Schwartz's Le projet Alexandrie, the a Ptolemaic royal couple in Pharaonic guise. American team enquired of Abut-Saadat •Among other things, we learned from Honor about the process and the rate of silting on the and her map, which incorporated information sea bed, whereby antiquities once located later given by Abut-Saadat, that the two colossal become hidden. Abul-Saadat describes it as a statues, that of Isis, and that of Ptolemy game of hide and seek, and gives the example Pharaoh, were found side by side and the of the wreck of a ship carrying statues he had bases of the two statues were found side by once seen; after a storm, he never found it side', says Empereur, 'hence the conclusion again.[30) Schwartz, who led the Group, that these statues stood at the foot of the describes the Alexandrian diver thus: 'Sadaat lighthouse is a sort of royal propaganda on the [sic] looked awesome, with his two-day part of the Ptolemaic kings who wanted to beard, his silvery sunglasses, his thick arms associate their image with the most celebrated monument of the city - the lighthouse.' [26] [25) Frost, Honor. Telephone interview, 23 March In 1973, Frost had arranged for Abul-Saadat 1997, and letter dated 25 March 1997. to give a talk on his discoveries in London at {26) Empereur, Jean-Yves. Personal interview. the congress of the World Underwater March 1997. Federation (CMAS, Confederation Mondiale [27) Frost, Honor. Letter dated 25 March 1997. des Activites Subaquatiques).[27] To raise {28) El-Gohari, Mohsen. Personal interview. March 1997. money for his ticket, Abul-Saadat sold his [29] In the 1950s and '60s, an Alexandrian Greek diving equipment to a friend, Captain Mohsen waiter, Stellio, often obstructed the traffic in El-Gohari.[28) When Abul-Saadat got to the different parts of the city by his random digs in airport, however, he found it closed: it was the search of the Soma or Alexander's tomb. Coastal management sourcebooks 2 51 and huge belly. But he was an amiable man type of Arabic and Latin letters, in addition to who dived because, he said, it gave him a a number of cannons, among other things. sense of 'freedom' ... he was the most But Abul-Saadat was not to see the work indefatigable diver I have ever known[... ] through. He died in Abu Qir Bay on Friday Sadaat was always the first in the water and 22 June 1984. At the time, newspapers and the last to come out, and could hold his breath magazines such as Al-Ahram, Al-Gomhouriya, for an incredible length of time'. (31] Akher Sa'a, Al-Mussawir and Rose El-Youssef No account of Abul-Saadat' s contribution made allegations of foul play about Abul would be complete without a mention of the Saadat' s death.(35] True, Abul-Saadat had the work he did in Abu Qir. Through a unmistakable aura of a tragic hero - noble but painstaking investigation of Abu Qir Bay, and flawed (though in his case the flaw lay more by interviewing local fishermen, Abut-Saadat in the times he lived in) - and thus had, in 1965, managed to identify the location unknowingly and ineluctably headed towards of at least one of Napoleon's vessels, Le his own downfall. Guerrier, sunk by Nelson in 1798, together Yet the suspicions were not altogether with other structures he thought were wrecks unfounded. Dumas had claimed that Abul and a number of cannons.(32) More appeals Saadat had died in the shower of the search to the authorities were typed up by Abul ship, Le Bon Pasteur. However, the doctor Saadat - to no avail. who was to write Abul-Saadat' s death In a letter dated 11March1969, Abul-Saadat certificate had announced to his family that told Ms Frost that he had 'found four 'Battle the diver had died of asphyxia, that his body of the Nile' wrecks, including Napoleon's bore the marks of violence and that one of his flagship, L 'Orient, which carried the silver ankles was dislocated, recommending that an Napoleon had sacked from the Maltese autopsy be undertaken.(36) Meanwhile, Abul Cathedral,' together with jewelry and coins. Saadat' s half-brother, Ezzat Mohamed Sadeq, Among the coins brought out was one bearing disclosed that the diver had spoken of the legend 'Frederick IV D G SICILIA pressures from the French team to keep quiet R ... INFAN ... 1798... HSPANIR'.(33) In 1972, about some of the gold finds and that Abu!- Abul-Saadat had succeeded in obtaining sponsorship from Al-Ahram via his friend Sarni Dessouki and help from a number of {30] Stephan A Schwartz. Le projet Alexandrie. French divers from a company called Co (Translated from the English by l.Aure de Lestrange). Paris: Les Editions Sand, 1985, ocean and thus returned to Abu Qir Bay. It is pp. 288-9. not clear what work was done by this team [31] Le projet Alexandrie, pp. 289: having been apart from the fact that they lifted a coin, the unable to obtain a copy ofthe English original of details of which are not clear from the extant the book, The Alexandria Project, the foregoing is photo.(34) my translation from the French edition. {32] See Abul-Saadat's map ofAbu Qir Bay, the For a full survey of Napoleon's sunken legend of which reads: 'A copy ofa contour map vessels, Abul-Saadat was to wait until the showing some pieces of the French fleet sunk in early 1980s when the late French lawyer Abu Qir Bay, in the aftennath ofNapoleon's Jacques Dumas, then president of the CMAS, Egyptian campaign in 1798; discovered by Kamel undertook the task. This time, the antiquities Hussein Abul-Saadat in 1965'. Map courtesy of department officially called upon Abul-Saadat Professor Morcos. [33] As quoted in a letter from Ms. Frost dated to offer guidance to the French team, which 25 March 1997. included Napoleon's great-nephew. [34] According to the handwritten note Eventually, the team, with Abul-Saadat's accompanying a photo of the coin sent to Professor help, was to identify not only L'Orient and Morcos. Le Guerrier but also L' Artemise. While the [35] See Al-Ahrarn, 29June1984, Al-Gomhouriya, fabled Maltese treasure was not found, the 2 July 1984, Al 52 Coastal management sourcebooks 2 Saadat had asked him to see to the formalities necessary to end his secondment.(37] c By the first week of July, the omens of a z diplomatic crisis loomed on the horizon: 0 foreign correspondents and journalists from :a"' ~ international publications had turned up in > Alexandria to investigate the circumstances of .... Abul-Saadat's death; in Cairo, meanwhile, the "'= French ambassador asked the cultural attache )> :a to compile a full report on the matter.(38] l"'I :z: Eventually, the autopsy and forensic report > concluded that Abul-Saadat had died of a "'0 ~ heart attack.[39] Although Abul-Saadat was 0 officially delegated to work with the French "< team, he had not been insured by the Egyptian > antiquities department nor had he even been ~ 0 given a medical check up. A lawsuit launched z by Abul-Saadat's family demanding that the ".... Egyptian authorities pay compensation came ::; to nothing.(40] "' > Today, visitors to the Qait Bey Fort Museum ~ enjoy the display of artefacts brought up from "'>< > Napoleon's sunken wrecks in Abu Qir Bay. z 0 A sign on the wall narrates the story of the :a excavation, going to great lengths to credit all > the authorities involved. One name, however, z is missing from the list: Kamel Abul-Saadat. 0 Thirteen years after his death, it is indeed time "> ~ that Abul-Saadat's singular achievement find .... its way into the official history of Alexandrian underwater archaeology. {37) Sadeq, Ezzat M. Personal interview. March 1997. See also Al-Ahram, 29 June 1984, Al Gomhouri ya. 2 July 1984, Rose El-Youssef, 9 July 1984, among others. {38] See Al-Mussawir, 6 July 1984. According to Al-Sharq Al-Awsat of 25July1984, 'an unofficial statement from the French Embassy has it that all that has been written on the subject in the newspapers lately is devoid of truth. [... ]Jn any case, France did not stand accused. Rather, the accusations targetted Mr Dumas and those with him on the ship. As a lawyer he can, ifhe so wishes, demand amends for unjust accusations ... '. {39] Copy ofth e second forensic report, by Anhar Al-Sayed Ghoneim, dated 26 June 1984, courtesy ofMr . Ezzat Mohamed Sadeq. See also Akher Sa'a. 1IJuly1984. The fact that Egyptian 1V had been filming the work on the day ofAbul-Saadat's death also helped tip the balance in favour of clearing the French team of the accusation; see October, 12 August 1984 and Al-Mussawir, 6July1984. [40] I am grateful to Mr Ezzat Mohamed Sadeqfor allowing me to look at the memoranda ofthe lawsuit. Coastal management sourcebooks 2 53 I ·2-Ii Underwater archaeological I ~ I investigations of the ancient Pharos v0 z < ii I Q , z < i >( I IOI I JEAN-YVES EMPEREUR revealed the importance of the site.[3] .... 1 < 1 Centre d'Etudes Alexandrines, Alexandria However, in spite of these indications and w those of amateur divers[4], the site remained : I- more or less forgotten, owing to the nearly permanent state of war in which Egypt found :z . "'O ! uring l 994-1998, a Franco-Egyptian team itself since the beginning of the Second World .... I < ! D conducted a salvage inspection of the War. Coastal surveillance led to a general submerged ruins of the famous ancient prohibition of diving, with rare exceptions, lighthouse of Alexandria - the Pharos. The need and if underwater tourism has developed in to protect from the northerly storms the fortress the Red Sea, the tum of the Mediterranean constructed at the end of the l5th century AD [coast of Egypt] has not yet come. by the Mameluke Sultan Qait Bey on the It was, therefore, with surprise that we, in Anfouchy peninsula at the eastern tip of the tum, discovered the extent of the site: over an ancient island of Pharos, led to the construction area of 2.5 hectares, 2,500 pieces of of a submerged concrete wall at a distance of stonework of archaeological interest were several dozen metres in the sea. It was quickly scattered about: columns of all sizes, in their realized that this wall would cover an ancient hundreds, column bases and capitals, archaeological site at a depth of 6-8 m. In the sphinxes, statues, and some immense blocks autumn of 1994, the Egyptian Antiquities of granite which, given where they lie, Service asked the Centre d'Etudes Alexandrines certainly came from the famous lighthouse. [Centre for Alexandrian Studies] to undertake an Hundreds of columns, mostly in pink granite urgent underwater investigation, a near-natural from Aswan, but some of marble, range from extension of our rescue activities on land in the the small modules of the small columns of centre of modern Alexandria.[ 1] Thanks to the Proconnesis up to the huge granite column means placed at our disposal by the Director of shafts which reach 2.40 m in diameter; that is, the ~nstitut Fran~ais d' Archeologie Orientale the width of Pompey's Column. This column (IFAO) since 1994, then, in 1995, by the ELF was erected in honour of Diocletian and is one Foundation, later joined by the EDF of the few monuments of [ancient] Alexandria Foundation, we have been able to undertake a still standing. This monolith is made of pink major underwater archaeological investigation Aswan granite; it is 29.7 m high with a covering more than twelve months of field diameter between 2. 7 m at its base and 2.4 m work, occupying on average some 30 divers.[2] The objective of the salvage operation was to delimit the archaeological zone and to [I] See Lee/ant, J. and Clerc, G. (1995). Fouilles et travau.x en Egypte et au Soudan, 1993-1994. determine its nature. We therefore plotted a Orientalia, 64:229-233. topographic map and developed graphical and [2] See the preliminary report published in BCH, photographical documentation for each 119:424-457 ( 1995). Other accounts will appear element. Obviously, even before the first dive, regularly in forthcoming issues of the BCH and of we already had some idea of the site, thanks the BIFAO. to the pioneer work of Kamel Abul-Saadat in [3] Frost, H. ( 1975). The Pharos Site, Alexandria, Egypt. International Journal of Nautical 1961 and a UNESCO mission in 1968, Archaeology, 4:126- 130. following which Honor Frost published a {4] See Mondo Sommerso (I 980 ) and Schwartz. preliminary report with some drawings which S.A. (1985). Operation Alexandrie. pp. 237-270. 54 Coastal management sourcebooks 2 at its peak. The capitals belonging to these had not been totally destroyed were 2 columns are of composite-A lexandria style, transported to Rome' .[5 J T his was about with floral volutes, sometimes in white marble 25 BC, and this exploita tion of the Heliopolis or black granite. There were also several large site !as a quarry] had begun during the re ign of bases of I onic form in white marble. the Ptolemies. Obviously, the transportation A longside these architectural elements of posed hardly any problems, crossing the Greek style. there were some pieces from Canopic Branch of the Nile then the canal that pharaonic monuments. notably six papyri form arrived at A lexandria between Lake Mariout columns. of which one bears Ramses 11 's and the southern par! of the city wall. Given >:io insignia. There were four obelisks; three were the good state of conservation of some of these I'\ % consecrated by Sethi I (Fig. I ) and the other is monuments, we must suppose that they served Figure 7. ,,.l> from a much later period, belonging no doubt to decorate the city, as did certain discoveries An obelisk of Sethi I 0 ~ to one of the Ptolemies. The first three Lhus at the terrestrial archaeological sites .16 1 at the moment 0 (\ date from the X IX dynasty, near the end of the Cleopatra's Needles, the two obelisks th at had of its discovery. < 14th century BC, and the latter, from the early been placed in front of the Caesarium in Photo: Stephane l> ~ 3rd century BC. 13 BC, also came from Heliopolis.[7) It is not Compoint/Sygma. 0 Several sculptures belong to the pharaonic z era; th ere were 28 sphinxes, bearing the " insignia of the Pharaohs Sesostris Ill (XII dynasty). Sethi I. Ramses TI (XIX dynasty) and Psammetic II (XXVI dynasty) (Fig. 2). Their dates therefore range from the M idd le Kingdom up to the last dynasties, or th e mid- I 9th century BC t.o the ear ly-6th century BC. The presence of some pharaonic elements ca nnot fail to surprise us. Fortunately, two egyptologists from IFAO, Jean-Pierre Corteggiani and Georges Soukiassian, were team members; underwater, they deciphered the hieroglyphics that most of th e monuments bear. Several facts must be pointed out immediately: each sphinx is different from every other, so we must exclude the possibility that they formed part of an approach to a monument. A ll the inscriptions describe scenes of offerings to the divinities of Heliopolis, as do the inscriptions on the obelisks found at the underwater site. In the Hellenistic era, the venerable sanctuary of Re was no more than ruins; Strabo described them as being abandoned. The sanctuary was burned down and thereafter became a veritable quarry. Strabo tells us, ' Among the obelisks, two that [5} Srrabo, XVl/(27). f 6) For example, a lintel of Ramses !I discovered in the emergency exc(1varions to the north of the Radio Cinema, BCH, 119, p. 425 ( 1995). (7/ Gorringe, H. H. ( 1909). Egyptian Obelisks. The engraved inscription on a bronze crab which served as a support for one of rite two Cleopatra 's Needles gives the date of their transportation and erection as 13 BC. Coastal management sourcebooks Z 55 2 the place, in this paper, to draw up a list of the Even if th ese discoveries show us an ... pharaonic monuments or A lexandria that we unexpected aspect - not one we were hithe1to know from the ancient authors or unaware of, but on an unexpected scale - th e "' 56 Coastal management sourcebook.s 2 aligns this statue with one of the bases and Gods' th at Sostratos of Knidos dedicated the 2 adds a double crown, the total height of the Phares? That would mean gening involved in c original would have been close to 13 m. T his a very long-lived debate, which would require z reminds us that a colossal statue of Isis had much more development. Even so, it is 0,,, been found at the same site by Kamel Abul remarkable that, in th is Greek city of ~= Saadat in 1962. We learned from Honor Frost A lexandria, the Ptolemies chose to represent > -I that the Pharaoh Ptolemy had lain parallel to themselves as pharaohs. Of course, this way m this royal spouse represented in the form of of representing royal figures was not :u the chief deity of the Ptolemaic world; and unknown, as, for example, the couple > their bases (2.2 m high) were found only representing Cleopatra with her husband, =n ::t recently under water, next to each other. They which was found in the last century in the ,,,> were one of the royal couples whose images suburb of Hadra.[ 81 No doubt, the idea was to 0 r- stood at the foot of the Phares. At leas t three point out to visitors to the ci ty that they were 0 ('I such couples were so represented, j udging entering the realm of the Ptolemies, masters < from the fragments (two other heads wearing of all Egypt, the pharaohs of their country, > r- a nemes, and a female bust) and from the divinities standing above the ordinary kings of 0 bases of half a dozen colossal statues that the region. These new discoveries reinforce z ('I were found during the excavat.ion s (Fig. 3). even more the Egyptian-like decoration of the -I These royal colossi stood at the foot of the Greek city. It was a deliberate choice of the Figure 3. ::t,,, Phares and bore witness to the care the Lagide kines, the significance of which would Crown of Isis of >,.. Ptolemies took to associate their image with req uire deeper consideration using the body of Athyr; the crown ,,, the most celebrated monument of the city. knowledge represented by the Aigypriaka now was worn by one of >< > Each traveller entering the port passed in front being prepared in A lexandria. the female colossi. z 0 of the statues. The place was very well chosen Besides these statues, among the thousands of Photo: Stephane = for this royal publicity. Was it to the 'Saviour architectural elements, there is a series of Compoint/Sygma. > z n Coastal management sourcebooks 2 57 granite blocks that catch the eye by their documents, as well as some information from extraordinary size: they are often more than our own archaeological investigations, show I ll\ l l m long, weighing 75 tons each. Twenty or that this building was, far more than expected, < 0 so of these blocks are arranged in line starting a mixture of Greek and traditional pharaonic y from the foot of the Mameluke fort (Qait Bey) styles, illustrating well the particularity and z < and running for about 60 m towards the north originality of the Alexandrian world. The a:: west. Some of them have been broken into two representations of the bas-reliefs of temples Q z or even three pieces, which indicate that they and pharaonic tombs describe for us the < have fallen from a certain height. Being thus mastery of transportation and erection of >< I.I.I of an extraordinary size, arranged in a line, and obelisks and monoliths, the biggest of which -' < broken in several fragments after falling, exceeded 300 tons.[13] Thanks to these ""' constitutes a strong temptation to attribute decorative scenes, to the perennity of the • them to the famous Lighthouse, when it is pharaonic techniques that allowed the erection """ known from ancient and Arab authors that of the magnificent Ptolemaic temples of Upper z 0"" these blocks stood precisely at the eastern tip Egypt, and doubtless thanks also to the huge -' < of the Island of Pharos[9) and that tradition - effort to translate Egyptian texts into Greek, ...,> which is not so very old, after all - recounts starting at the time of Ptolemy II or even from 0 that the Sultan Qait Bey built this fortress on the reign of his father[l4], the Greek engineers -' the ruins of this same tower. True, we have not profited from this experience. One therefore 0 found the statue of Zeus that stood on top of saw the multiplication of treatises on applied ""'< :c the tower, nor the dedicatory inscription of science, especially mechanics, in Alexandria. v a:: Sostratos of Knidos, which would remove all The architectural result is this tower, destined < doubt. Yet, to what other extraordinary to guide travellers arriving at the Egyptian monument could we attribute these coast; a tour de force that greatly impressed its extraordinary blocks? The fact that they were contemporaries who were soon to consider the of white stone (but not necessarily of marble, Lighthouse one of the Seven Wonders of the an unfounded deduction transmitted from one World. interpreter to another)[ I OJ, does not appear to The 1998 campaign of underwater be an obstacle to recognizing them as elements investigations on the Lighthouse has lead us of doors - jambs and lintels - or window frames of the Lighthouse, parts that required (8) The male head decorates the garden of the the use of more solid material for pieces of this Graeco-Roman Museum ofAlexandria , and the upper part of Cleopatra can be seen at the size. It is possible to produce larger elements Mariemont Museum. See also M.-C. Bruwier from granite than from marble, and the use of ( 1989), Chronique d'Egypte, pp. 224-237 and this local material reduced the need to import Musee Royal de Mariemont, Choix d' 58 Coastal management sourcebooks 2 to think, together with geophysicists, about at a time when the Pharos was operating. The 2 the consrirution of !his sire; apparently, danger of the Egyptian coast arises from its lack c:: subsidence is particularly strong in this region of relief, so that mariners only see it at the last z - from 5 to 7 m since Antiquity. lt is therefore minute - and in that respect the Lighthouse was c quite probable that, in ancient time~. a good primordial in ave11ing such danger - but also. as '"::0 ~ part of the site east of the Qait Bey Fort was Strabo pointed outl 15]. from rocks at the sea l> ahove <>ea level and that. at the end of the age surface or only slighrly below it. We were able -! :a of antiquity. a dump had been established to follow this rocky bar parallel 10 the coast: it Figure 4. An area '" there. a sort of quarry where all the bits and is now at a depth of 12 m. Given that the about 300 m north > =n pieces of dismantled monuments from various maximum swell is about 5 m, we must suppose of the Pharos: x parts of the ciry had been accumulated. Only a a subsidence of7 m 10 be able to imagine how, a lead anchor stock )> few of them had been reassembled at this in a heavy storm, the unfortunate ships· from one of the ,..'"0 place and it is very difficult to distinguish captains ran aground on this bur even though sunken ships. 0 these from the rest. The blocks of the they could see the monuments of the capital of Photo: Stephane "< Lighthouse were exceptional because or their the Ptolcmies on the horizon.1 161 Compoint/Sygma. ,..)> great size which must have made their 0 transportation difficult. It is notable also that nearly all the blocks at this site are made of Aswan granite, !he marble and limestone having disappeared, probably into the lime kilns or to be used in new buildings. They were incorporated into construction work for the Qait Bey fort or even for the city the Ottomans started 10 build in 1517 on the isthmus that had developed on either side of the Heptastadium. The pieces of granite. a material much harder 10 work, were left, to become covered by the sea Huie by little at a time that is difficult to specify. This subsidence phenomenon is con-oborated by a discovery made in the autumn of 1996: about 350 m to the north of the L ighthouse, we found abom forty Greek and Roman ship hulls daring from the 4Lh century BC to the 7th century AD. Their preservation was remarkable and, besides the usual wine amphorae, there were oil lamps, bronze vases and even ship anchors (Fig. 4). These vessels, which came from all over the Mediten-anean - Crete, Palestine, Rhodes, Asia Minor, Tripolitania, Italy etc. - provide first-rate information for retracing the commerce of Alexandria. Here. I shall only deal with the conditions under which they were sunk: all sank within about 350 m of the entrance to the port of Alexandria. { 15} Strabo. X\111 (6). f 16} Tile excc1mtio11s <>f the Liglrtlrouse a11d its s11rm11ndi11gs is 1111derway mul ll'e lla11e only given tile preliminary results. Two new campaigns are foreseen and thejle/d work sho11/d he.finished by the end of 1999. 59 Coastal management sourceboaks 2 Underwater archaeological survey I of Alexandria's Eastern Harbour "'< 0 v z < c: Q z < >< .... FRANCK GODDIO Surveys ..I < rnstitut Europeen d' Archeologie LU Sous-Marine On the basis of our 1992 electronic mapping ::c 1- (lEASM) mission, all the work performed during the IJ present mission was achieved by diving. A z 0 total of 2,500 dives were made during the ..I June- July and September-October missions < of 1996. The teams of divers were sent to pre > Mission objective IJ selected points and charged with marking 0 ..I Figure 1. The he main objective of the mission was to bottom contours by fixing buoys on visible 0 LU Eastern Harbour of carry out a detailed and systematic targets. Work was greatly facilitated by the < T :c Alexandria showing underwater archaeological survey to establish unexpected relatively light sedimentation on v c: the submerged lands precisely the contours and determine the the sea bottom. In cases of uncertainty, due to < discovered during geographical locations of the submerged land the presence of sedimentation, additional the IEASM surveys. and ruins in Alexandri a's Eastern Harbour. soundings were carried out. 12. 12.5:: :! 12.41 ~ ,.. 12. 3 ~ .. .; , 12.~ , ~ 12.1 :i European ln~titute for Undenuter 3 '\rchaeolo!:) 1 Submerged lands discovered 1996 Mission 12., t•• East Port of Alexandria - -1 - - 11 .9-' '1T m•r 11 rtTJ ~ lml"'"" 1"1J TI[l ltl T1'1f nr., I 1 II IT1 ,,, 1'TI 52.8 52.9 53.0 53.1 53.2 53.3 53.4 53.5 53.6 53.7 53.8 53.9 54.0 54.1 54.2 54.3 54.4 54.5 54.6 54.7 60 Coastal management sourcebooks 2 Any archaeological remains discovered were (d) separate maps of two of the main 2 also identified by means of surface buoys. All archaeological sites at a scale of I: I 00 c: buoy positions were rechecked precisely by (including latitudes and longitudes). z c using: m ::v (a) a differential GPS - a global positioning ~ system allowing 50-cm precision, and Survey results > -I (b) actual underwater on-site measurement. "';:a For the purpose of this mission, we developed We were able to achieve complete and and used for the first time ever in underwater exhaustive mapping of all the submerged land >::v Figure 2. The Eastern l"I archaeology, an underwater differential GPS, in the Eastern part of Alexandria's East Harbour % which has enabled us to fix the geographical (Fig. 1). For the first time, the complete Harbour of > positions of more than a thousand points. panorama of the Magnus Portus can be Alexandria, as it is '",...0 Each point was referenced in an orthometric precisely described and visuali zed instead of the today (in grey), 0 system, as well as by charting geographical so far theoretical interpretation based on known showing the "-< latitudes and longitudes. Several maps were descriptions of Alexandria in antiquity (Fig. 2). contours of ,..> drawn; e.g.: This new charting and description is based submerged lands 0 (a) working maps for each site at a scale of exclusively on actual findings. discovered during z the IEASM surveys 1:500; Some areas are covered by modern structures, "-I (b) a general map summarizing all the data at most probably biding ancient remains. This (in blue). :z: Superimposed (in '" a scale of I :2500, with latitudes and primarily concerns the areas covered by the > longitudes; modern piers, and breakwaters, as well as the red), is the outline of ,.. (c) several maps at a scale of l: 1250 with the Cape S ilsila structural complex. Still, luckily, the harbour as '">< > positions of all artefacts discovered during the these areas represent only a small part of the interpreted from z 0 missions; and Magnus Portus. ancient texts. ::v > z N 31• 13.00 n 0 > Ill 12.90 -I 12.80 12.70 12.60 12.50 12.40 Europe!ln ln,Otutt for l m.len\ ater \rchll'OIOJ!..\ 1996 Mission East Port of Alexandria / 0 Foundation,,,._ GoMo E 29952.80 52.90 53.00 S3.10 S3.20 S3.30 53.40 53.50 S3.60 53.70 5380 53.90 54.00 54.10 54.20 54.30 54.40 54.50 54.60 54.10 Coastal management sourcebooks 2 61 The preliminary maps drawn so far of the two On the northern part of this harbour is located archaeological sites, at a scale of I: I 00, can a very well preserved pier, I 00 m long and be used for future excavations. The general 22 m wide, built of limestone blocks. The maps are helpful for the archaeological upper part of this pier is flat and well paved interpretation of the general topography of the with limestone. Magnus Portus. On the general map of the The bottom of the central part of the harbour discovered submerged land, we have is of the natural bedrock, which has probably indicated all archaeological artefacts, which been artificially levelled to deepen the main will provide a future basis for exhaustive basin. The topography of the eastern part of excavations in the area. this harbour is difficult to describe, since it has been partially covered by the modem pier w · :r:: of Cape Silsila. ... Topographic comments \,;I on the general map z An island 350 m long 0_, of Magnus Portus < . This island (D) is situated to the south of the > On entering the harbour (as Strabo did, for above-mentioned low lying islet, which is \.:7 0_, instance), we perceive, from north to south paved over almost its entire surface. Its 0 and east to west (Fig. I): northern part forms a kind of peninsula ""'< protected by important blocks of mortared :c Submerged reefs limestone. It has been totally paved to create a v a:: pier, probably to protect the island against an < These are to the west and east of the entrance easterly swell. a: ...... (A). They are now partially covered by the On this island, important archaeological < modem piers. There is no evidence of any remains were discovered. On its western s construction or presence of artefacts on them. shore, we found an important quantity of a:: w granite column drums of diameters ranging c z A low islet from 90 cm to 120 cm (a map, showing the :'.) positions of all visible remains, was drawn at This islet (B) is surrounded by reefs, on which a scale of 1: 100). were discovered only a few archaeological The site continues into a 350 m-long vestiges: the foundations of a small wall, alignment of archaeological remains, mostly coarse with uneven stones and mortar; other drums of red-granite columns, ending at the foundations of a small wall of the same tip of the island. Within this alignment, there quality in the south-eastern part; and a small is an obviously dense concentration of ruins in pier which reinforces the eastern part of the an area 120 m from the eastern tip of the islet. island. Another map, on a scale of I: I 00, was drawn also showing the visible remains. An inner harbour An important peninsula This harbour (C) is surrounded on its eastern and northern sides by land and closed towards This peninsula (E) lies to the east of the island the south by a 240 m-long by 15 m-wide pier just described, protruding from the ancient protruding from the ancient seashore. This seashore; it is about 350 m long and some pier is built of limestone and mortar from its 100 m wide, pointing north-west. It has western end and is well preserved. The several noticeable features: eastern part is built mainly of limestone alone A very important pier extending towards the (without mortar). The pier divides the inner low islet. It is 200 m long and 25 m wide, harbour into two basins, the eastern basin built of limestone blocks, its upper part being being partly covered by the modem structures flat and paved. At its base, numerous intact on Cape Silsila. Towards the east, it continues and broken amphorae were discovered. There as a natural rock platform, partly paved. are no remains of construction on this pier. 62 Coastal management sourcebooks 2 Another important pier situated at the start can also be seen to link the peninsula to a 2 of the previously mentioned pier, at the tip of platform just in front of the island. From this the peninsula, prolonging the peninsula paved wharf a pier (also paved) projects towards the island in a south-westerly towards the island. direction. This pier, built of limestone blocks, Numerous archaeological remnants have been is I 00 m long, 35 m wide, and carries a well discovered and positioned all along the paved walkway 14 m wide. ancient seashore from Cape Silsila to the A SO m-wide platform located at the tip of the pier, above-mentioned paved wharf (in front of well paved and covered with scattered ruins, mainly Rannley Station). These remains are > limestone, wall blocks and red-granite column particularly dense between the peninsula and =f"I :::c drums of 90 cm diameter. the wharf facing the island. Between the l> The main peninsula, paved in several places. islaind and the wharf is a 50 m-wide channel ,...0"' Its southern and northern shorelines are built with a muddy bottom scattered with amphorae 0 of mortar and limestone blocks, and are well and antique stone anchors. The wharf is in "< preserved. There are two lesser piers on the front of the place where the two obelisks l>,... northern shore of the peninsula, one built of known as 'Cleopatra needles' used to be. 0 limestone, and a smaller one built of z limestone and mortar, and very well paved "~ with limestone and mortar. There are several General remarks :::c dense concentrations of ruins on this co1r1cerning the zone "' peninsula. >,... All contours and archaeological finds were "')( l> An additional inner harbour accurately positioned and their bearings z 1:1 recorded. :a This is situated between the northeastern Most of the contours of the submerged lands l> harbour and the peni nsula just described, very were rather easy to mark, since they consist of z well protected by a pier protruding, from the wharves or piers built of limestone blocks or Q peninsula on its northern side. This ancient blocks of limestone with mortar. In some "> ~ harbour (F) is about 500 m long and 250 m pro1tected areas (inside the various harbours), ~ wide. The bottom is muddy and scattered with the limits of the lands can be distinguished by amphorae. the presence of pavement made mainly of limc~s tone with borders of limestone blocks. A third harbour An important part of the submerged land is paved. In some areas, the pavement is made This is situated south-west of the peninsula of hard stones (granite, quartzite). The precise (G) and is closed on its western side by the bearings of such areas were obtained. island; it has its entrance between the eastern Evicdence of an important earthquake (and/or tip of the island and the platform projecting tida.1 wave) can be found in many places. For out from the peninsula. example, huge pieces of mortar and limestone (up to 3 m thick), from disintegrated wharves, A vast area of submerged land tilting in the direction of the landslide; acciumulation of column drums which had This land lies to the east of the inner harbour. tumbled down the slopes created by the It is partially covered by the complex of displaced wharves, etc. In many places. the modern buildings of Cape Silsila. Some column drums. hard stone blocks, column archaeological vestiges have been located in capitals etc. are lying on the pavement only this area. slightly embedded in the sediment and covered with concretions. The ancient seashore This links the area east of Silsila to the above mentioned peninsula. The ancient seashore Coastal management sourcebooks 2 63 From Byblos to Pharos: some archaeological considerations HONOR FROST geological factors when considering the Underwater archaeologist origins and functions of any ancient harbour installation. w The geological complexities of Alexandria's :: I- Eastern Harbour have yet to be worked out in Q Introduction detail. It is, however, already clear from the z ::> documentation of one well known landmark, 0 Cl: poet put the theme of my paper quite Diamond Rock, that more than one factor < Aclearly when he wrote: affected the relatively small area containing And the seas go on with sculpturing the capes the remains of the Pharos (which was toppled When harbours have silted and the fish are into the sea during the Middle Ages by w dead. (David Wright) earthquakes of known date). Diamond Rock, IJ These lines evoke two archaeological which is at the north-eastern limit of this < I- questions: the reasons for, and the origins of, underwater spread of fallen Pharos masonry, harbours, as well as the variations in sea level is now a formless shallow covered by some and other geological changes that can occur 3 m of water, but when one of Napoleon's after the building of harbour installations, topographers recorded it around 1798 for the including lighthouses. Description d'Egypte (Fig. 1), it was a rock Some ancient harbours, Phalasarna in Crete well above the surface, towering above the and Seleucia Piraea in southern Turkey, for human figures beneath it. What is particularly instance, are truly bereft of fish, for they have significant is that these figures are standing on been raised by earth movements so that they a flat shelf under the main mass, and this kind can now be visited on dry land, several metres of shelf is a common phenomenon, known to above the present sea level. Elsewhere, as in geologists as an 'erosion trottoir'. Alexandria itself, or at the not too distant Consequently, whatever the other causes of Caesarea Maritima (which is roughly 600 km subsidence, at this particular point in the to the north), the picture is less simple, for, Eastern Harbour, wave-erosion also made a although in both places some ancient major contribution to the disappearance of installations are now as much as 6 m below this particular land-mark. the present sea level, others are not, because different parts of the same harbour can go under at different times and for different Lighthouses: reasons. Geological factors are so complex functions and origins that they make all harbour archaeology both multidisciplinary and long-term. Caesarea The Pharos is known as the Seventh Wonder well illustrates this point, for after thirty of the Ancient World, not because it was the annual seasons of investigation, it was only first lighthouse, but because it was the biggest last year that a very localized geological fault in a line of evolution. Why are lighthouses was identified as the cause of one particular needed? The answer is that any vessel - jetty being several metres below the surface, while on the nearby shore a rock-cut fish-tank [ 1] Raban, A. ( 1996). Underwater excavations in of the same period remains in its original Caesarea 1995-1996. C.M.S. News Report, position.[ I] Again, it is essential to study 23:7-13. 64 Coastal management sourcebooks 2 ancient or modem - sailing across open water open water, but that (whatever the visibility) 3 has to have some reliable mark on the coast to they had to be able to pinpoint a sheltered tell it where it is situated. I stress this point anchorage. because of a longstanding archaeological Even when sailing within sight of land, fallacy whjch still lingers on. Before nautical adverse conditions often create the need for archaeology became a discipline in its own signals from the shore. Fire signals are the right, archaeologists, in interpreting texts, obvious answer, for smoke can be seen by day used to generalize about ancient craft never and light by night, even from so far out to sea losing sight of the coast, never travelling by that the earth's curvature renders low-lying night and never sailing except in summer features invisible. Furthermore, there are weather, whereas every sailor knows that he many ways of controlling fires so that their often has no choice, because he will light appears intermittently, thus producing inevitably meet conditions beyond his control. different patterns of light, each pattern Winds change, blowing him off course; mists representing a specific port. Modem come down so that he cannot see the coast; lighthouses emit flashes at irregular intervals, )> ::a accidents cause delays which force him to sail thus producing a code that identifies one 0 c: by night; and sailing too near an unfamiliar particular lighthouse. By counting the time z coast is in itself dangerous. between flashes, sailors can know which Figure 1. Diamond 0 Archaeologically, there is no doubt that lighthouse they are seeing (and when in Rock as it appeared -I :z: vessels were already crossing open water in doubt, modem sailors look up the code in a in 1798 (engraved ,.. prehistoric times. One proof is that a volcanic pilot-book). for the 'Description ,.. glass called obsidian (used for making Stone Nevertheless, even after having identified a d'Egypte?. Note the 0 Age knives and other tools) has been port, a foreign sailor may have difficulty shelf of rock on ,..-I excavated on certain islands to which it is getting into its harbour, because, unlike local which the figures are =;:!) geologically foreign, so that it must have fishermen, he will not know the rocks, shoals standing. Worn l> arrived by boat, and that the boat containing it and reefs at its entrance. Such hazards away by wave ,..z l> must have crossed open water. Obsidian from encumber the mouths of most Levantine action, this shelf, or z Anatolia has been found in Cyprus. Even harbours, and Alexandria is no exception. The 'trottoir', is a more significantly, two distinct types of solution is for a harbour master either to measure of the part =)> c:bsidian, one from the Island of Lipari (Italy) provide vessels with a local pilot or keep a played by galloping "'z and the other from the Island of Pantelleria, safe channel marked with beacons and buoys. erosion in the have both been excavated in 6th-millennium In the case of Alexandria, the recent discovery disappearance of contexts on the Island of Gozo (adjoining of artefacts of all periods spilled over the this rock which is Malta). It follows that, very early, craft must bottom outside the Eastern Harbour does not now some 3 m below not only have had to find their way across suggest that the Pharos had been inefficient, the surface of the sea. Coastal management sourcebooks 2 65 3 but rather that the ancient harbour-masters boats belonging to the village of Gebail, were occasionally negligent. Let us now z which has taken the place of ancient Byblos. .,, examine the evidence for primitive forms of Except for this little basin, Gebail and the <( cc lighthouse at Bronze Age ports. excavations of ancient Byblos, which cover a z small promontory, are now shelterless, the <( shallow bays that flank the promontory being w z Early lighthouses open to the prevailing south-west wind. <( Submerged shallows, which might once have a::= loW Byblos been a reef, now destroyed by either erosion ... Starting with Byblos (in Lebanon), it must be or earthquake may exist, and if this were so, Q loW admitted that no visible trace of its ancient it would have afforded protection to the :!! harbour survives. However two clues to its southern bay, but this question has still not w :c existence are worth examining. The first been studied. ... comes in the story of the Egyptian priest The story of Wenamon recounts that, as he Q z Wenamon who, around the 12th to l lth was negotiating with the King of Byblos, they ::> century BC, was sent from Thebes to bring saw, out to sea, eleven pirate ships. However, 0 back wood for repairing the temple-boat as the harbour itself, the whereabouts of the =<( sacred to Amon. Trees, including cedar, grow residential quarter and the King's palace on the mountains above Byblos, whence they remain unknown, because only the headland were brought down to the sea as huge trunks, has been excavated and it represents only the often some 30 m long. One such trunk can town's temple area. The bay to the south is still be seen in the infrastructure of the Step the most logical site for the ancient harbour; Pyramid of Djser; another now forms the however, not only has it fi lled with silt, but 23 m-long timber placed centrally in the hull earth from 40 years of excavation on the of the Cheops ship. It follows that promontory has been dumped into it. A embarkation quays must have been big contour map, provided by Maurice Dunand enough to take such trunks, and this rules out when discussing the possible locati~n of the Figure 2. Anchors the very small natural basin formed in the ancient harbour shows the site as it W.as before forming the first rock, currently used by the few 6 m fishing excavation started. step (those above Dunand had also been most generous im it having been helping to retrace the votive stone ancho'i".$ he removed) of a flight had found over the years, inside most of th~ leading up to the Bronze Age Byblian temples, and it is this th-a~ unique entrance of leads to a re-evaluation of one very curious · ' .. ,_ the 'Tower Temple' and architecturally significant 'tower temple' at Byblos, Lebanon. (which, alas, he did not live long enough to Note, firstly, publish fully). He dated the building by the the imprint of Egyptian finds it contained to the 23rd century the second step BC, a dating that is not contested by which had covered Dr Muntaha Saghieh in her reassessment of the rope-holes; Byblian stratigraphic datings.[2) secondly, the This tower temple was on high ground smoothness of the overlooking the sea on the southern side of the top surfaces of the promontory. Contrary to the plans of most anchors in contrast temples, access to the tower was by a single with the underside door up a flight of steps, the first of which was of the one that has entirely made out of stone anchors (Fig. 2). been turned upside Unlike the other Byblian temple anchors, the down and laid across the furthest [2] Saghieh, M. (1983). Byblos in the Third of the anchors Millennium BC. Ed. Arris and Phillips, (see also Fig. 3). Warminster. pp. 72 and 85. 66 Coastal management sourcebooks 2 Figure 3. 3 The undersides of oil the anchors in "'c: the 'Tower Temple's' = == first step were "'::a found to be either rough-hewn, or ""'0 ent.ire/y un-cut. :t "'= -4 )> "'" "".... "'"" )> ::a 0 c: z 0 -4 ::z: "' backs of these 6 anchors were unfinished inland, on the slopes of a tell 20 m high, 3: (Fig. 3) and their rope-holes were covered by whose summit is crowned by a concentration "'0 the second step. Their positioning had of temples. On the shore, at Minet el Beida, .... therefore been deliberate and not a mere re-use Ugarit's port town was discovered and "' ::a= of discarded anchors. This is not surprising, partially excavated. As the name implies, )> for anchors have symbolic significance; in the there is some shelter, although the whiteness z "')> Christian religion they are still the emblem of of the rocks is inadequate as a landmark, z hope. The reasons are obvious, for anchors because they are too low-lying to be seen often stand between a sailor and death, from far out to sea; similarly the mountains in =)> "" because only their hold can prevent a storm the hinterland are too far off to guarantee z tossed ship from being wrecked. reliable landmarks in indifferent visibility. Consequently, in this particular case, the use Consequently, the acropolis on the 20 m-high of anchors as the first step of a flight, in a tell was the best base for any artificial tower dominating the sea, reinforces the landmark, and indeed two tower temples were interpretation of the building as a lighthouse, found on it. Built on podia, recent research and strengthens the case for the harbour shows them to have been over 20 m high.[3] having been in the bay below the building to And excavation indicates that they were the south. Again, a geological survey of the dedicated, respectively, to the Earth God, bay is needed to settle the point; meanwhile, Dagan, and the Weather God, Baal. It was in corroboration of the use of tower temples as the Weather God's temple and its precincts lighthouses also exists at Ugarit in Syria. that all the votive stone anchors were concentrated. Five of the largest, each Ugarit weighing about half a ton, still lie beside the While Maurice Dunand was excavating in entrance to the temple's cella.[4) The cella Lebanon, Claude Schaeffer was excavating the Bronze Age town of Ugarit, north of [3/ Yon, M. (1990). The end of the Ugarit kingdom. Tartous in Syria. He started during the 1920s In: Acts of the Symposium 'The Crisis Years: 1200 and work still continues, for in 1980 he was BC'. Brown University, Providence, R./. , May 1990. succeeded by Professor Marguerite Yon. [4] Frost, H. (1991). Anchors sacred and profane. At Ugarit, the problem of signalling to ships Ugarit-Ras Shamra, 1986: the stone anchors far out to sea was very different from the revised and compared. Ras Shamra-Ougarit VI, problem at Byblos, for Ugarit is some 2 km ERC Paris, pp. 355-409. Coastal management sourcebooks 2 67 itself contained the flight of steps leading to the top of the tower. Whether the votive z anchors had originally formed the cella's "' [5] Schaeffer, C. F. A. (1931). Deuxieme Campagne. Syria XII (9). Paris. [6] Yon, M. (1984). Sanctuaires d'Ougarit. Temples et Sanctuaires. Lyon. pp. 44-45. 68 Coastal management sourcebooks 2 The port of Sabratha, Libya 3 NICOLA BONACASA including a rich-oil factory. It would indeed lstituto di Archeologia appear that this quarter - certainly belonging Universita di Palermo to the Punic tradition of the Hellenistic age - corresponds to the final period of the emporium (I st century BC) and coincides with the founding of the Roman city, which fi:or its maritime trade, the Phoenician eventually spread and incorporated the Punic l> :i:i lr' emporium, which flourished in the 6th-5th quarter, extending along the coast, with 0 c: century BC, exploited the natural houses and ancillary buildings, giving rise to z conformation of the shore, after occupying the rapid urban development that was completed 0 stretch of coast that later was to become the in the second half of the 2nd century AD -I :r area of the Forum of Sabratha. The latter, in (Fig. 1).(1, 2) ,.., fact, very probably coincides topographically with the square of the Phoenician market. "'0 With regard to the traditional use of the area -I,.., for trading purposes, it must be remembered [ 1] Matthews, Jr., K. D. ( 1957). Cities in the Sand: Leptis Magna and Sabratha in Roman Africa. = that, east of the Justinian Basilica, there is a Figure 1. Sabratha: l>= pp. 17-20, 48-9. Philadelphia. z commercial and residential area with [2] Haynes, D. E. L ( 1981 ). The Antiquities of Plan of the ancient ,,, )> substantial remains of pre-Roman Sabratha, Tripolitania, pp. 52-3. London, Rome (4th edition). city. From E. Joly. z ~ )> z RECIO IV N 1 ·- . .... ~ . .. .. METRES Coastal management sourcebooks 2 69 The port structure at Sabratha is fairly limited Sabratha, there is a landing area protected by in extent and ranks as one of the minor natural prominences and sheltered from the landing-places in North Africa. With its basin north and north-west winds, which is typical, protected by an interriupted series of harbour in the first place, of Phoenician and, here, of walls, it is a fairly typical kind of half-natural Libyo-Phoenician emporia, although the half-artificial port, used mainly for passenger technique was also exploited by Roman and goods traffic. It is highly unlikely that the engineers, who continued to build their ports port of Sabratha was ever intended to be used on the same principle. As is often the case, for defensive purposes (Fig. 2). the quays along the shore must have been It thus belongs to the well known category of lower than the other functional quays, facing external ports which present the gradual out to sea, not only along the south side of the enclosure of the stretch of water off the coast port, inside the basin, but also east and west .... by artificial infrastruc:tures.[3] These were of the port area, since, to the east, numerous ::c I- quite high but not heatvy, partly constructed traces of quay structures have been found, as Q and partly based on natural defences just well as ruins of numerous warehouses, at z ::> above or below the se:a surface, like the least as far as the 'Seaward Baths', near the 0 ci::: succession of rocks a1nd islets running parallel Temple of Isis. < to and sufficiently far from the shore-line. Also at Sabratha the use of foundation blocks This system of using coastal islets (nesoi) for and concrete made it possible to create an the construction of ports is common to effective series of protective harbour walls numerous Mediterranean settlements: defending the port basin from the open sea, Figure 2. Sabratha, Oea, Leptis Magna, Caesarea of with equipment placed on the walls Sabratha: the Mauretania, Eretria, Mytilene, Halicarnassus, themselves. However, because of the poor harbour, showing Ephesus and Alexand!ria (but not Carthage). locations of At Sabratha, we have, broadly speaking, the [3] Lehmann-Hartleben, K. (1923 ). Die antiken visible features. same situation as at Oea and Leptis Magna, Hafenanlagen des Mittelmeeres. Klio 14, Beiheft, From R.A. Yorke. though naturally with different solutions. At p. 280, No. 245. MEDITERRANEAN ISLAND 0 ----~ ~~ERGED ~REAKWATER Ym Um~> lJ!. m Um Q&m lJ m 0 SCALE : ""-==--=-"'"100MnRts R.A. Y 1966 Depths In metres 70 Coastal management sourcebooks 2 quality of the remains, we are unable to of triangular shape, over 70 m long. The port determine whether the harbour walls at structures extended considerably westwards, Sabratha, which originally, without any doubt, with the construction of a breakwater over were of the natural rock type with lateral 230 m long that stretched as far as a natural escarpments - as at Leptis Magna in Africa islet in the north-western part of the bay. This and at Centumcellae in Latium - were all outer sea wall, still recognizable 30 cm below replaced by monolithic concrete walls with the surface of the water, protected the inner ashlar facing, the so-called opus pilarum of harbour walls and the quays up to 75 m from Suetonius. the western end of the reef. The opening W hatever the case, in the ports in between the natural rock and the eastern end of Tripolitania and elsewhere, the moles the breakwater constituted the main entrance delimiting the kothon (the port basin) are to the port basin. Opposite this entrance, it is consistently more functional and better still possible to discern on the shoreline the buttressed to the north and north-west, so as foundations of a circular construction which to withstand the north-west/south-east must have been those of the lighthouse located )> :e currents and therefore to obviate the constant east of the Tonnara (tunny fishery) with, we 0 danger of silting up. With regard to these may suppose, overlying structures and c: z technical aspects, there is no Jack of excellent receding floors. The lighthouse must have c examples along the North African coast, one been similar in type to the one at Alexandria, Figure 3. Sabratha: -oj :t of the most prestigious certainly being the which set the standard. The lighthouse at the harbour, showing "' one at Leptis Magna. Leptis Magna which, together with the city details of submerged The only underwater exploration of the port of port, has been sufficiently excavated and remains near the Sabratha was that carried out by the studied, also has precise points in common 'Seaward Baths'. Cambridge University Underwater Exploration with Alexandria.[6] From R. A. Yorke. Group in 1966. The results of this initiative were concisely described by Yorke.[4, 5) It is superfluous today to consider other earlier minor initiatives (Fig. 3). SCALE The Cambridge University Group 0 20 METRES systematically investigated a stretch of water -=--==- 1 km by 500 m, paying attention first of all to the rocky reef running parallel to the coast. The original structures seem to have been built right on this natural rock - which is about 180 m long - immediately to the north of what was to become the centre of the Roman city. This is suggested by the cement works and structures which, although in a poor state RUBBLE LINE OF RUBBLE owing to erosion by the sea, are still recognizable. Later, in the same direction as the 'Seaward Baths', the quays stretched out to sea and towards the north and the centre of the reef, forming in the end a kind of large seawall [4] Yorke, R. A. (1986). pp. 243- 5, in: P. M. Kenrick (ed.), Excavations at Sabratha 1948-51. Journal of Roman Studies. Monograph 2. London. [5} Yorke, R. A. (1967). pp. 20-2, in: Archeologia Juillet-aout 1967. BLOCKS [6] Bartoccini, R. ( 1958). ll porto romano di Leptis COLUMNS Magna. Bollettino Centro Storico. Storia DEPTH 1.2m Architettura, Supplemento I 3. Roma. Coastal management sourcebooks 2 71 Sabratha possessed a fairly ample port basin, relief with the Indian Triumph of Dionysus, similar in layout to that at Oea, but oriented in now to be seen on the inner quay against the exactly the opposite way; also here at Sabratha, south wall of Church l, formerly the the port basin is slightly decentralized towards Judiciary Basilica, built in the southern part the west-northwest, away from the city centre, of the Forum (Fig. 4). We believe that it must to which it is, however, closely connected. This have been brought here from a building in the decentralization must have facilitated the direct square - possibly a great quadrangular base links with the caravan routes which stretched for a celebratory monument - some south towards Gebel, reaching the mythical considerable time after the destruction of the Cydamus and the great Sahara Desert Forum in the late 4th century AD. Thereafter, territories in the area of Hamada el-Hamra, it was reused here as reinforcement material bordering Fezzan. between the early-5th century and about w It is therefore not unreasonable to affirm that, 450 AD, when it is certain that the old ::c ... at Sabratha, there was a long and deep-rooted Roman Basilica, which, in its last phase, had 0 tradition with a natural progression from two opposing apses, was replaced by z :> Punic-Hellenistic to Imperial-Roman culture, Church 1. It is certainly for this reason, and 0 c: for both of which the port was of indubitable also because of the pagan and symbolic < commercial importance. But there is more to nature of the relief, that all the figures in it the question. In the Imperial age, the links were meticulously chiselled and drilled away with Rome and Ostia must have become more to a great depth.[7] W ith regard to this relief, we are most w intense, also as regards passenger traffic. I) Thus, the port at Sabratha, which originally interested in the first of the three surviving < ... had purely commercial functions, related to blocks of marble. This presents a particular the fertile coastal strip and above all to the aspect of the Indian Triumph, with a Bacchic desert hinterland, served another function. It thiasos (procession) and exotic wild beasts, an conveyed, particularly to Rome, slaves, exotic unicum of exceptional interest among the animals and quality goods such as ivory, sculptures of Sabratha and in the figurative timber, textiles and precious stones, which repertoire of the three emporia in Tripolitania, Figure 4. Sabratha: came up from the south along the trans for a number of reasons: the absolute Church 1, showing Saharan route. Indisputable evidence of this is originality of the representation, which marble relief with provided by the eloquent symbol of the pertains to symbolic and religious matters; the the Indian Triumph celebrated statio Sabratensium, an elephant, great importance of its meaning, which of Dionysus. in the Piazzale delle Corporazioni at Ostia. Drawing by In addition to the well known elephant in the [7] Bonacasa, N. (1996). pp. 49-60, in: Scritti di A. Ce/lura, from market place at Leptis Magna, it is useful to antichita in memoria di Sandro Stucchi, ll. Studi N. Bonacasa. recall that, here in Sabratha, there is a marble Miscellanei, 29. Rome. a c; 72 Coastal management sourcebooks 2 concerns a historical and celebratory theme; concession of civiras romana, probably in 110 3 the undoubted public destination of the relief; AD, and finally the title of colonia in the time VI and the propaganda-image nature of the of Antoninus Pius; the creation of the extensive c: subject. I am sure that the relief is a free and quarters west, north and east of the theatre, sc:l audacious local transposition of the basic along the decumanus to Oea, dates from the :u"' compositional panerns of the Indian Triumph age of Antoninus and Commodus.[9, 10) ,..,C'I of Dionysus. ln the first block, the It is certain that Severus Alexander solidly c iconographical theme and symbolical fortified Cydamus (Gadames) to protect the ::t atmosphere flow freely from authentic caravan route from the Sabrathan coast towards :a'" Dionysiac religious iconography to the the hinterland, and it is likely that, after the -c )> triumphal interpretation of a real episode. raids of the Austurians (363 AD) and one year C'I For this reason, the narration has three before the earthquake in 365 AD, Sabratha was "' VI fundamental characteristics: the presence of elected to be the seat of the Tripolitan -c ferae libycae, small African elephants without Assembly. The hypothesis is controversial, but "'VI any ornamentation or trappings (unlike the the inscription remains a palpitating testimony )> :u Indian elephants on the Roman sarcophagi), to city life. It was formerly situated in the 0 c: and exotic felines, together with Maenads and Forum at Sabratha and is now located along the z hunters; the absence of male figures of the south wall of Church I, once the Judiciary c Dionysiac thiasos, Satyrs and Sileni for, Basilica, in honour of the governor Flavius -c :z: example, at least in the surviving block; the Vivius Benedictus, the restorer post ruinam of '" sequence and 'manner' in which the subjects the two cities of Sabratha and Leptis Magna, have been elaborated locally and expressed in under the emperorships of Valentinian and a realistic and fluent style with a precise and Valens. For there is no doubt that Benedictus up-to-date evocative objective which did not not only renovated the thermae (which therefore reflect well known contemporary certainly correspond to the great 'Seaward typologies. And, most importantly, I believe Baths') and the aqueduct that supplied them, that, in view of the subject and the official but also activated the port of Sabratha. nature of its destination, the relief is in fact tangible evidence of the links and the trade between the Mediterranean coast of f 8] Di Vita, A. ( 1982). pp. 588- 95. in: Aufstieg z Proconsular Africa and inner Africa, between und Niedergang der Romischen Welt. JI, 10, 2. Sabratha, in particular, and the vast regions to Berlin, New York. {9] Haynes, D. E. L (1981). pp. 107, 122- 33, the south served by the trans-Saharan caravan in: The Antiquities of Tripolitania. London, Rome routes.[8] (4th edition). A commercial city par excellence, Sabratha [JO] Barton, I. ( 1995). pp. 7- 11, in: North Africa was civitas Libera under Augustus, obtained the from Antiquity to Islam. Bristol. j ~ ;~ ~ ..::·~ . ~~~~ . ,, ...... b • c:' b' c: d e' e f • b c: d e -----0 10 SO cm Coastal management sourcebooks 2 73 The ancient port of war, z VI Thasos, Greece < =z <.... z < a: ....a: ... ANGELIKI SIMOSSI port proper. Nevertheless, each is very close Q.... Greek Department of Underwater Antiquities to a seaward projection of the rampart. The ~ plan of the port is quadrilateral, the south .... west side of which separates the port area ::: ... from the city itself 0 he island of Thasos is in the northern The northern part of the port wall is separate z ::> TAegean Sea, near Thrace, from which it is from the city wall to the west of the Char gate 0 a: separated by a narrow strait 8 km wide. To the and extends in a SE-NW direction (Fig. I, < north of the island, Limenas Bay offers sailors line A-B) for a distance of 148.6 m. It turns in today, as yesterday, a refuge against the often slightly less than a right angle southwestwards redoubtable seasonal winds and even against for about 45 m (Fig. 1, line B-C). This wall, the north and north-easterly winds. which is quite close to the Char gate and In about 680 BC, colonizers from Paros, one of about 3 m wide, is connected to the city wall the Cyclades [islands], established a colony on at right angles and, at its start, its dimension Thasos. The Parians occupied the acropolis of can be compared to that of the city wall. Thasos and the whole island all at the same They are identical, with huge blocks of time, thereby dominating the coastal area of the embossed marble, and are typical of the mainland, then setting up trading posts there. construction at the beginning of the 5th By the end of the archaic period, their city had century BC. The presence of a modem jetty grown rich enough to allow the construction right on top of the ancient walls does not of a rampart built of gneiss and marble, with allow a direct view, but the alignment of the city gates decorated with bas-reliefs, ancient wall is beyond doubt. enclosing an urban area of more than 4 km in Along the line B-C, it has proved possible to circumference. map a part of the fortification that remains The ancient port opened onto the bay to the intact beneath the modem jetty. Here it can be west, near the middle of the rampart; it was seen, at shallow depth in the sea, that the built seawards as an out-jutting fortification. conserved part of the wall, of 3 m width, is A description of the vestiges of the closed made up of two faces of roughly hewn schist port of Thasos has been facilitated today by plates, with filling between them. Here we are the underwater archaeological investigations in the foundations; the marble wall elevation conducted between 1984 and 1992 by the has disappeared. Greek Department of Underwater The line H-G (Fig. I) is straight from the Antiquities, under my direction, and by the gateway near the Museum (the Polemarchos French School of Athens, under the direction or 'maritime' gate). It starts at Hand is of J.-Y. Empereur. connected to the city wall. The wall's The military port of Thasos is situated in the structure along H- G can be seen at H, but middle of the western part of the ancient city. even better so to the north-west of the port The basin is protected by a fortification basin, in front of the modem quay. projecting seawards and connected to the city The facing towards the middle of the basin is wall. Two gateways provide access to the city rectilinear and made up of huge embossed on the eastern and western sides, but both marble blocks superposed in regular rows and gateways (the Char gate, to the east, and the clearly identical with those of the rampart Polemarchos gate, to the west) are outside the (between the bastions) at the beginning of the 74 Coastal management sourcebooks 2 5th century BC. Behind the facing is a rubble It is probable that the closed port of the 5th work of small stones. Certain blocks penetrate century BC was, since the beginning, closed VI more deeply, as foundation stones, at fairly on this side by the extension of the c:: regular intervals of about 2 m. A sample fortification G-F. It is quite likely that the line o:I 3: excavation showed that the height of the D-F was closed by a continuous fortification ,., ::a above-mentioned facing, resting on six marble that obstructed the present passage and ,.,C'I foundation stones, was 2.13 m. extended roughly beneath the present mole. c The section F-G (Fig. I), which turns back The ancient entrance would have been at the :c towards the north-east for 31 m is partly northern comer between C and ,D following a Figure 1. ::a'" covered by the modem jetty. Between D and layout the details of which escape us. Arrangement of the ... l> F (Fig. 1), the fortification there at the If this hypothesis is accepted, the plan of the ship hangars in the C'I beginning of the 5th century has been lost. port, from the very beginning, was that of a closed port "' The excavations that have been carried out closed port, designated precisely by Scylax as of Thasos, identified have, in particular, provided us with 'KAf:t Coastal management sourcebooks 2 75 3 comer of a hangar in service in the mid-5th each cell, it would have been necessary to century BC (Fig. 2). have rows of supports for the hangar roof, z The north side has a foundation 40 m long separating the ramps up which the ships were and 1.1 m wide. It contains a double wall dragged. made of flat schist blocks of regular form. At At greater depth there is another foundation, the end of this wall, no change of angle is made of irregular blocks of schist in a double evident: it is a wall end. The length of the wall walled structure; these vestiges date from the to the east is 20 m and it continues a further beginning of the 5th century BC. 2 m towards the south-east. All this Historical sources establish the existence of a construction is identical. Another wall, also Thasian fleet at the end of the 6th century BC. with an identical structure, goes towards the The texts show that Thasos had a well west. Here again, large schist blocks, up to equipped navy of considerable size. At the .... 2 m across, are employed. These blocks are surrender to Cimon' s forces in 463 BC, the % I- knotched at regular intervals on their Thasian navy was able to sustain a loss of 33 Q Joadbearing surfaces to improve their grip. triremes in naval combat, yet still be strong z :> The undisputable link in this layout defines a enough to sustain a prolonged siege. It is 0 a: plan that suggests a building covering a obvious that the loss of 33 vessels did not < considerable surface with several juxtaposed constitute the whole of Thasos' naval forces; cells. Here we have the elements of a in any case, she kept some reserves in her rectangular cell 44 m x 20 m, approximately, arsenals. A total of 50 triremes, as a standing and part of a neighbouring cell immediately to navy, kept in the ship hangars of the closed the south. These cells open onto the port port, seems an acceptable hypothesis. basin. The obvious interpretation is that these It seems possible to reconstitute a group of are juxtaposed ship hangars. Their length hangars along the wall A-B (Fig. 3). This Figure 2. Excavation corresponds acceptably to that of a trireme, group could have extended over 100 m for 15 in the port area: the hull of which was about 36 m Jong, and triremes (5 groups of 3). Also, along the wall remains of the ship which would have been dragged from the G-H, over a distance of 100 m, one could hangars; see A, B water into the hangar. The width of the cells reconstitute a similar number of hangars for and C in Figure 1. would have allowed each cell to take three 15 triremes (also 5 groups of 3); this would © EFA vessels (beam width about 6 m each). Within amount to 30 triremes. To get to 50, another set of hangars must be imagined; they could have been at the end of the port between H and A. The elevations could be reconstituted, with continuous covers, forming a saw-tooth roof the slope of which, towards the interior of the port, would follow the slopes of the slide ramps on which the vessels were moved. A double-sloped roof for each group of 3 triremes could be imagined (two roof surfaces covering about 20 m wall to wall). The ramparts of the 6th and 5th centuries BC, with their massive high defensive walls, provided sufficient defence so long as the art of the siege remained little developed. Progress in the design of catapults, ballistas and battering rams led the engineers of the 4th century BC to imagine even more complex protection and to construct counter-batteries in the existing fortifications. With this, the number of towers grew quickly. The city walls of Thasos therefore underwent improvements in response to new siege 76 Coastal management sourcebooks 2 strategy. They took the form of the square 3 towers built inland and were erected against the city walls between existing archaic bastions. It was also natural that the port fortifications should change, by the addition of new structures better adapted to resisting the new forms of attack. The machines that, on land, could smash city walls, were just as effective when mounted on heavy vessels or lashed to two hulls side by side. It was at this time, at the end of the 4th century BC, that the fortifications of the closed port of Thasos, designed in the 5th century BC, were reinforced with round towers. l> :c W e know of three of them, at B, C, and G. 0 c Only the tower at G was known before we z started our archaeological investigations. This 0 tower had on one of the facing stones of its -I :z: walls an inscription in large letters m mentioning the name of the person who had m .Sm~v O financed the construction: 'Herakleodoros, i-6,oo ...... 0 -19,00 son of Aristonikos of Olynthe, the city's -I m official host to visitors, has consecrated the :0 ::0 tower, the forum and the statue to all the l> z gods, using funds from the deposit he had m :.'> entrusted to Archedemos, son of Histieos.' the 4-th century BC, by reason of the filling in Figure 3. z The date of the tower is given by the their foundations. Reconstitution of the 02 inscription. It is after the taking of Olynthe O utside the closed port, in the vicinity of the ship hangars in the l> by the Macedonians in 348 BC. The date of angl•e at G, an external construction pushing ancient closed port z the construction of the tower was probably at the e:mbankment northwards has been ofThasos. the end of the 4th century BC; this is observed. It forms a support made of blocks By M. Barely. confirmed by the findings from the sample of marble and schist side by side in two rows excavations of the foundation. The central cove:ring a width of 2 m. The line of this part of the tower had a filling of stones and artifiicial embankment follows a sinuous path that it was probably full, at least up to the top from a point near the green harbour light at F of the rampart against which it was built. The to the vicinity of the tower at G; then it diameter of the tower at its base was only becomes more or less straight towards the 8 m, hence it was a less massive construction soutlh-east, parallel to the rampart G- H. than the towers at B and C (Fig. 1). There was clearly a land enclosure on the The towers B and C, with an average diameter edge of the rampart G-H facing the of 10 m, were only loosely fixed to the 'maritime' gate. ramparts and were certainly hollow, with There stood the ancient edifice of Soteira who floors equipped to contain catapults and with was probably a goddess of protection for the a platform for ballistas. port; and farther to the north, a piece of land They were adapted for the defence of the port recovered from the sea could have borne other and had the same strength as the square constructions. The dedication of towers (9 m wide) of the city enclosure on the Heratkleodoros to all the gods, which was landward side. The existence of the tower at C men1tioned above, and the tower at G, evoke a can only be explained if the entrance to the forum and a statue, which could have had port was between C and D. The date of the their· place on the artificial promontory towers at B and C is ascribable to the end of constructed here. Coastal management sourcebooks 2 77 Underwater archaeology in Greece DIMITRIS KAZIANIS Underwater Antiquities, based in Athens, as a Archaeologist branch of the Archaeological Service, of the Former Director of the Department of Ministry of Culture, for the protection of Underwater Antiquities, Athens underwater antiquities nation-wide. w.I The Department, within its field of competence :i: ... and relevance to the archaeological law, and in Q compliance with the law that was later z :::> Introduction established, has demonstrated multi 0 Ill: dimensional and interesting research and < reece, having 16,575 km of coastline and scientific achievements. Ga history covering many centuries, is the The research programme during the last three richest country in the world in terms of years has continued to improve, despite the underwater archaeological sites and everyday difficulties, and the inevitable shipwrecks. The protection of our cultural bureaucracy. A brief report of the heritage, generally speaking, but more Department's annual archaeological specifically of underwater antiquities, is excavation programme follows. included in the Greek Constitution [article 24], (a) In 1994, the Department discovered, in the and the Archaeological Law KN 5351/32 northern Sporades, a 5th-century BC includes the basic provisions for the protection shipwreck, at a depth of 30-35 m with a cargo of underwater antiquities. This law, in of amphorae which were being transported article l, refers to the ownership of cultural from Mendi, an ancient town of Khalkidhiki. goods. 'All antiquities found in Greece in any (b) A medieval, post-byzantine shipwreck was state-owned property, including rivers, lakes . discovered at the entrance to the port of and the seafloor, either municipal, monastery Zakinthos (on the Ionian island of the same or private, both movable and non-movable, are name); the entire hull is preserved under a property of the state. Accordingly, the right thick deposit of mud and sand. The ship' s and care for their quest, study, preservation freight consisted of pottery, silver coins, and exhibition in public museums belongs to hazelnuts, masses of glass, bullets and cannon the state'. As Professor Roukounas clarifies in balls (made of stone and metal). The his study Cultural Goods on the Bottom of the shipwreck was found at a depth of 11 m. Sea, it is understood that the seabed is the one (c) Research is taking place on the eastern recognized by international law as belonging part of the peninsula of Likithos (in to the coastal state. Khalkidhiki) in the ancient port of Toroni. W ithout a clear and powerful legal system Here, we found remains of podiums, walls our underwater cultural heritage is in danger and other constructions of different periods. from smugglers of antiquities, illegal fishing Some of these architectural remains were and illegal harbour construction. found in the sea, and others, on the coast. (d) At Methoni, near Pylos, an extended submerged Middle Helladic prehistoric The Department's programme of settlement was discovered. Remains of research and field work constructions can be seen under water in various places and the settlement is estimated In 1976, a special law (Government Gazette to cover about 1,000 sq. m. The most 207/Nl0.8.76) established the Department of important find located so far was a large 78 Coastal management sourcebooks 2 pithos (storage jar) with the funeral remains of continuing. Here, an ancient breakwater, .3 a young person inside. 170 m long, remains; it lies in an east-west (e) During the third period of excavations (in direction. Two semicircular towers seem to 1994) at the ancient port of Pythagorion on belong to an older period, since one can the island of Samos, we discovered, on the observe two different construction phases. south side of the harbour, part of the ancient The eastern and northern sides were built in wall-breakwater and a part of a sea wall, the Byzantine era. There are important dating to the Byzantine era. These walls were indications that place the first phase in the the continuation of the walls of the city into Archaic Age. the sea. They protected the ancient port and An important scientific activity of the reinforced the defences of the city. Department of Underwater Antiquities is the (f) In August 1994, during fifteen days, study of ancient navigation routes, (ever archaeological research was carried out on dependent on progress in ancient ship the western part of the temple of Apollo, near building) which facilitated the commercial the ancient port of Aigina (near Attica). and cultural exchanges between the islands )> ::0 Ancient harbour constructions were and the continental regions of the 0 c: discovered submerged along the coastline. Mediterranean. z A topographical land and underwater survey c was completed. -I % (g) In November 1994, the Republic of Reports of archaeological '" Cyprus's Ministry of Transport and discoveries - emergency Communications, Department of Antiquities, excavations was interested in finding a shipwreck in the vicinity of Protara-Paralimni. A team of Besides its systematic research, the archaeologist-divers of the Greek Department Department of Underwater Antiquities of Underwater Antiquities located the hull of undertakes emergency underwater searches as a wrecked ship lying at a depth of about 30 m well as preparatory reconnaissance of newly on the sandy sea floor near Protara. The wreck discovered shipwrecks that have been located was covered with Posidortia seagrass. by recreational and professional divers. Unfortunately, the wreck had been heavily (a) On the indication of a private individual, a -z plundered. shipwreck of the Roman era has been located (h) A survey of the 17th century warship, in the Volimon in the vicinity of Zakinthos at La Therese, is continuing. The ship was a depth of 30-35 m. A preliminary participating in a military mission which underwater search took place; photographs of Louis XIV sent to Handaka to help in the the shipwreck were taken and pottery samples defence of the Venetians (War of Crete, collected. l 645-1669). The warship was sunk after the (b) On the indication of a private individual, a explosion of its powder magazine during an shipwreck of the Roman era has been located organized attack from the sea against the at a depth of 40-45 m, in the vicinity of the Turkish camp. The failure of this attack led to Parapola islet in the Mirtoon Sea. Its freight the end of the Cretan War and the total consists of amphorae that have retained their surrender of the island to the Turks. The caps. Photographs of the shipwreck have been shipwreck was discovered in the harbour of taken and pottery samples collected. Heraklion (Gulf of Dermata) in a depth of (c) On the indication of a private individual, a 17 m, covered by sand. So far, 80 sq. m of the shipwreck possibly dating back to 1770 or to wreck site have been excavated and various at least to the Crimean War ( 1854-56) has parts of the actual ship have been exposed. been located on the site of Methones on the Also, many personal objects belonging to the island of Limnos. The shipwreck has been crew have been raised to the surface. photographed and diagrammed. (i) An excavation near the Acropolis of the (d) The shipwreck found near Keratea in modem fishing port of Avdira (near the Attiki may be mentioned, and the fact that the modem town of Xanthe, Thrace) is north Sporades area is gaining particular Coastal management sourcebooks 2 79 3 ' interest for underwater archaeological research, as a result of the indication of other z shipwrecks to the Department. P reliminary underwater research has been started at various other sites: (i) Alimnia, in the island of Rhodes, where dockyards of the Hellenistic era hewn out of rock have been located, photographed and measured; (ii) emergency underwater archaeological research at Kalo Limani, near Andissa, on the island of Lesbos, where an arrangement of rock piles, which have not been dated, has been located, photographed and measured; and surveys of the underwater part of a construction in Dilesi in Beotia and the ancient arrangements of rocks in Palaiokhora near Siteia on the island of Crete. Registration of antiquities with the Department of Underwater Antiquities A large number of objects, mostly transport amphorae, found underwater mostly by fishi ng trawlers, have been turned over to the Department. Amongst these was a black figure crater (a type of vase) dated to the Classical period. The most important object raised to the surface accidentally by a fishing trawler and turned over to the Department was the bronze statue of a young woman, which was found near the islands of Kalymnos and Pserimos in the Dodecanese. The statue is of life size [ l.90 m] and resembles the well known marble copies of the Great Herakliotissa found at the theatre of Herculaneum. The Young Woman from Kalymnos is the only bronze statue of its type and is dated to the Hellenistic era. The statue, composed of two pieces, the head and the body, was raised to the surface on 30 December 1994 and was escorted to Athens by a team of archaeologists from the Department. In accordance with Greek law, a large amount of money was granted to the fisherman who had salvaged this unique bronze statue. Today, almost two years later, the statue is undergoing a very slow and tedious restoration period, but it will soon be ready to be exhibited, along with the first scientific presentation. 80 Coastal management sourcebooks 2 Modern development !3 and ancient maritime sites along the Tyrrhenian coast ENRICO FELICI Ron11an harbour construction Associazione ltaliana Archeologi Subacquei Rome Firstl.y, some short accounts of Roman techrniques for building harbour moles follow. According to Vitruvius (the Augustan-age l> author of De architectura), one could build =0 c: Introduction maritime structures by casting concrete (opus z caementicium) in two types of wooden 0 oastaJ management cannot disregard moulds: 'waterproofed' or 'flooded'. In the .... :: C knowledge of the ancient underwater first, a double-walled mould had to be "' remains of archaeological interest found there emptied of water, for use by the 'normal' s: as a result of changes in sea level. These building method. In the second, a flooded "'g remains were mainly maritime structures mould was possible, concrete being cast .... destined for residential or practical use: directly in water, but the system needed the ="' seaside villas, anchorages, quarries, fish tanks addition of volcanic ash, pozzolana (pulvis => and fish-processing equipment, harbours, puteolanus), from the Puteoli region, which z "'> lighthouses etc. Such monuments are liable to enables the concrete to harden under water. In z suffer considerable damage from exploitation both cases, the mould was reinforced by an ~ of the coastal zone in modem times. intemal wooden frame of posts (destinae, or I ;)> "' The harbours, especially, have suffered heavy stipites) and horizontal beams (catenae).[l] z destruction; most of the ancient Mediterranean harbours have been lost for [ 1] Oubois, C. ( 1902). Observations sur un human use as anchorages. Moreover, Roman passa:ge de Vitruve. pp. 439-67, in: Melanges harbours were established in the best nautical d' Arc:heologie et d'Histoire. Rome. locations, and the ruins encouraged their • Felici, E. ( 1993). Osservazioni sul porto incorporation into the construction of new neror.1iano di Anzio e sulla tecnica romana delle jetties, to save money in the new construction. costruzioni portuali in caicestruzzo. Archeologia subac:quea. Studi, ricerche e documenti, 1:71-104. When an ancient harbour is covered by a 1stitu1!0 Poligrafico dello Stato. modem harbour, we lose not only a monument, • Fensterbush, C. ( 1964). Vitruv, Zehn BUcher Uber but also the archaeological remains beneath Architektur. Darmstadt. which are often destroyed by dredging. Above • Oleson, J. P. ( 1985). Herod and Vitruvius: all, any possibility of learning about ancient Preliminary Thoughts on Harbour Engineering at Sebastos: the Harbour of Caesarea Maritima. techniques for building harbours is lost. These pp. 165-72, in: A. Raban (ed. ), Harbour techniques are still not very well known; they Archaeology, Proceedings of the First only recently became better understood as a lntemational Workshop on Ancient Mediterranean result of underwater archaeological research Harbours (Caesarea Maritima [near Haifa], and detailed surveys. The concentration of 1983), British Archaeological Reports, 257. Roman ports on the Italian coast of the • Oleson, J. P., Hohl/elder, R. L, Raban, A. and Vann, R. L ( 1984). The Caesarea Ancient Harbor Tyrrhenian Sea is understandably great. It Excaivation Project (C.A.'H.E.P.): Preliminary comprises small docks for local use and grand Repo.rt on the 1980-1983 Seasons. Journal of Field commercial and military harbours, such as Archaeology, 3:282-305. those at Ostia or Portus Julius. (cont'd on next page) Coastal management sourcebooks 2 81 3 The harbour of Cosa The interpretation of the mole's structure as a pier building sprang from a gap between piers 2 z Recent American surveys interpreted the and 3, but this gap is probably the result of the mole of the Roman harbour of Cosa as being recent demolition of a part of the mole to a pier building, dating to the early 2nd facilitate the drainage of a quagmire behind the century BC (Fig. l ).[2] A lacer Italian coastal dune. An indication of this is the techn ical survey reconsidered the building modern ferroconcrete mouth of the drain, which system, suggesting that the mole's structure partially encased the mole. This is an example was based on spaced piers as the main of a modern intervention which, by altering an loadbearing points, and that the gaps ancient ruin, can induce archaeological between were Filled later. This suggestion is misinterpretaLion. Figure 1. Cosa supported by the fact that there are two .... :r: harbour mole, hollows on the north faces of the piers, one ... Western side. of which was surely due to the insertion of a Q small amphora in the wet concrete. The z [ I - co111'd] ::i Figure 2. Cosa hollows served as receptacles for the ends of 0 •Oleson, .I. P. ( 1988). The Technology of Roman harbour mole, the horizontal beams of moulds used in the 12: Harbours. International Journal of Nautical < axonometric construction of the small pier. This was a Archaeology, 17(2): J47 - 57. projection of the cheap way to build an un interrupted mole •Oleson, J. P. and Bra111011, G. (1992). The building technique. (Fig. 2). Harbour of Caesareti Palaes1i11ae: a Case Study of Technology Trtmsfer in 1he Roman Empire. pp. 389-420, in: A//i de/ Si111posio [Symposium Proceedings]. Geschi chte der Wasserwinschaft und des Wasserbaus im Mediterranen Raum (Merida, 1991) . Braunschweig. • Schliige1~ H. ( 1971). Die Texle Vi1ruvs im lichle der U111ersuchu11gen am Hafen von Side. Bonner Jahrbiicher, pp. 150-61. [2/ Gazda, E. K. ( 1987). The Port and Fishery: Description of 1he Exta111 Remains and Sequence of Cons1ruc1ion. pp. 74 et seq. in: A. M. McCa1111 et al., The Roman Port and Fishery of Cosa. Princeton University Press. • Felici, E. and Balderi, C. ( 1997). ll porto romano di Cosa: no/e per f'inte1pre1azio11e di un 'opera 111ari11ima in cemeniizio. Archeologia subacquea, Studi, ricerche e docwnen1i, I/: 11-19. ls1i1wo Poligrafico dello Sta/O. [3) Lugli, G. (1939). Saggi di esplorazione archeologica a mezza del/afozografia aerea. Isti tuto di Studi Romani, pp. 5-6. Rome. • Lugli. C . ( 1940). Saggio sulla topografia del/'a111ica A111iu111. Rivista dell'Istituto Nazionale di Archeologia e Storia dell' Arte, Vil: J 53 et seq. •Blackman, D. .I. ( 1992). Ancient harbours in 1he Mediterranean. Jn: International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, Par/ J, 11(2):79-104; Part 2, ll(3):185-2ll. • Gianji·o11a, P.A. ( 1980). Anzio. pp. 9 et seq. in: (ea/. mos1ra) L'aero fotografia da materiale di guerra a bene culturale: le fotografie aeree della R.A.F. Roma. •Lehmann-Hartleben, K. (1923). Die antiken Hafe11a11lage11 des Miflelmeeres. Kli o XIV. Leipzig. • Schmied!, C. (1970). Atlante aerofotografico dellc sedi umane in Italia. Parle seconda: Le sedi ant iche scomparse. ls1iu110 Ceografico Militare, Firenze. 82 Coastal management sourcebooks 2 The harbour of Antium which there are many barrel-vaulted service 3 rooms (Figs. 5 and 6). The western dock c:"' This impressive harbour near Rome was, The eastern dock :::CD according to Suetonius, buill by the emperor Hitherto, Anzio was known as a one-dock m ;:g Nero. A lot of the main dock was silted up harbour. Plans from the I 8th and I 9th m when the adjoining modern harbour was built centuries and photographs from the early 20th "c in the I 8th century (by Pope Innocence XU), century show the Molo Panfili, a masonry ::z:: f'ft and later occupied by the modern town. A lot ruin now encased by a modern tourist wharf. :a of the eastern mole was encased by the new According to the literature, this pe1111ello was -4 )> mole.[3] built in the early I 8th century, shortly after m Recent surveys have documented the structure the construction of the port ordered by Pope " of the moles' foundations. The moles Innocence XII, to limit its si ltation. This I 8th "'-4 appeared lo be uninterrupted (Fig. 3), built by century pe1111ello, according to some building m flooded moulds reinforced by internal wooden documents, was built by erecting piles "')> ;:g frames made of posts and horizontal beams, (passonate) and filling them with stones 0 c: and filled with pozzolanic concrete and tu ff (a building technique used by th e Papal z fragments. The elevations (above the water States); they were abandoned immediately c surface) of the moles were also brick-faced after completion because they were -4 ::t (Fig. 4). ineffective against siltation. m The same technique was used for building the The photographs otherwise show an obviously 3: m wharf on the western side of the port, on Roman constrnction. made in brick-faced opus Q -4 m Figure 3. Antium ;:g ;:g harbour, Western )> z dock, plan of the left m )> mole. z CCI )> "'z Figure 4. Antium harbour, Western dock, a brick-faced ruin on the seabed. 83 Coastal management sourcebooks 2 3 z "'< CA z < w z < a::= I-"" Q w :E w ::i: I- Q z ;:) 0 =< .,., w I- "'w .., Figures. < Figure 6 . I- Antium harbour, Antium harbour, =w axonometric barrel-vaulted :z: projection of the service rooms. Q concrete bed's w building technique. "'=w ~ c:o :> "' Figure 7. Antium harbour, Eastern dock, the roman mole in an early 20th century photograph. Figure 8. Antium harbour, Eastern dock, axonometric projection of the roman mole's building technique. 84 Coastal management sourcebooks 2 Figure 9. Antium, a new topographical hypothesis on the two harbour docks in a plonimetric sketch. > ::11:1 .. 0 ..•--.. _ c: .. ') .. • .a. z lj -4 ::c m caementicium, most probably built {4] Felici, E. and Balderi, G. (1997). Nuovi simultaneously with the neighbouring Neronian documenti su/la 'topografla portuale' di Antium. harbour (Figs. 7, 8). The Molo Pan.fili absorbed pp. I 1-20, in: Atti del Convegno [Conference these ruins to simplify the construction works, Proceedings] Nazionale di Archeologia as was often done in Anzio.[4] This method Subacquea, (Anzio, 1996). Edipuglia, Bari. {5] Gianfrotta, P. A. ( 1997). Le peschiere also led to the covering of the lefthand mole of scomparse di Nettuno (RM). pp. 21-4, in: Atti del the Neronian port. Convegno [Conference Proceedings] Nazionale di Anzio's harbour complex during the Imperial Arclueologia Subacquea-A.l.A. Sub. (Anzio, 1996) era therefore comprised two docks (Fig. 9), Edipuglia, Bari. z which also explains the discovery, during late [6] Castagnoli, F. (1963). Astura. Studi Romani, l 9th-century construction work, of a Roman X/(6):/-8. • Gianfrotta, P.A. and Pomey, P. ( 1981 ). shipwreck, later sanded in, that had sunk in Figure 10. Nettuno, Archeologia subacquea. A. Mondatori, Milano. the eastern dock. • Piccarreta, F. (1977). Astura, Forma Italiae. roman fish tanks in Regio, XJ//. L. Olschki, Rome. aerial view. The lost fish tanks at Nettuno The recent building of tourist wharves '\1, destroyed two Roman fish tanks, as shown by an aerial photograph (Fig. 10).[5] A harbour at Astura The famous seaside villa, complete with a large fish tank and a harbour, owes its preservation to the absence of tourist facilities (it being military property), in spite of some destruction due to wave action. The fish tank and the harbour moles and wharf were built in concrete.[6] The mol.e's Coastal management sourcebooks 2 85 The sea gate of Circeii This sea gate, perhaps built by Nero, connects the Paola Lake with the sea at Circeii.[8] It has two uninterrupted concrete moles, the righthancl one of which has a head that clearly shows the use of moulds in the construction (Fig. 13).[9] The moles were covered by more modern construction during the Papal era. The harbour of Tarracina This is one of the important harbours of the Tyrrhenian coast; it is lost for modern re-use. Period photographs show an uninterrupted cement mole provided with pierced mooring stones. The harbour had barrel-vaulted service Figure 11. Astura's rooms (storage, workshops, offices etc.).[ I 0] harbour, the left mole, Western side. The Phlegraean Fields Figure 12. Astura's harbour, left mole, The Phlegraean Fields were an important axonometric centre of marine engineering. This region projection of the remains (Fig. 11 ) reveal clearly enough the had a strategic position, excellent for building technique. technique of construction, for which wooden navigation on the Mediterranean. Many of moulds were used (Fig. 12). Some authors the harbour installations discovered were have thought the mole was built on piers part of a complex system that had (pilae), but a filling technique applied complementary functions: military and between the main load-bearing piers was commercial. Today, most of these ruins are most probably used.[7] submerged as a result of the geological Figure 13. Circeii's gate, right mole' head, axonometric projection of the building technique. 86 Coastal management sourcebooks 2 phenomenon (bradyseism) that affects the Figure 14. The entire area, and lost for human use. [ I I] Puteoli's mole in an 7Bth century survey. The mole of Puteoli An image of the Puteoli mole often appears . ,,: • f ~ f on souvenir glass flasks such as those made in ~ W8-8 • .. llilll • "B 8 . Prague, Odemira, Populonia etc.[12) It was Iii •• r ;:'".i_;c:::~~~=-:: ..... -r..__ J M • = e built as a 372 m-long breakwater (Fig. 14) spanned on arcades supported by piers (pilae). It is attested to by many maps drawn in the 17th and 18th centuries. Today, it is completely covered by modem renovation. The same technique (called opus pi/arum) was also used for the external part of the Portus Julius and more frequently along the > ::a Baia coastline. The technique was also used to 0 c: lengthen the structures built into the sea :z around the Rione Terra (Pozzuoli, near Q Naples). -4 ::c "' Harbour structures at Nisida Island s Some other similar structures were built on the "'0 north-eastern side of the island of Nisida -4 (Fig. 15). Few have survived, but many others, "' ::a documented by maps of the Bourbon period, "> have been covered by modem jetties. Remains z "'> of some ancient harbour installations were z hitherto unknown, but recent underwater (7) Felici, E. ( 1993). op. cit. ij;I (8) Lugli, G. ( 1928). Circeii, Forma Italiae. Regio, archaeological research has revealed three l> 1:2. L. Olschki, Rome. pilae still in place. One of these is perfectly z {9] Felici, E. (1993). op. cit. preserved: it is a 'tower' 9.5 m high, the top of {JO] Lugli, G. (1926). Anxur-Terracina, Forma which is 180 cm below sea level. It was built ltaliae. Regio, 1:1. L. Olschki, Rome. { 11] Castagnoli, F. ( 1977). Topografia dei Campi in opus caementicium with tuff fragments Flegrei. pp. 41-79, in: I campi Flegrei which, on the sides of the pita, seem to form a Figure 15. nell'archeologia e nella stori a, Atti dei Convegni sort of opus reticulatum. In some sections, Nisida island: a pier {Conference Proceedings] Lincei 33, Roma ( 1976). there are holes left by the wooden posts and jetty In a 79th { 12) Gianfrotta, P.A. ( 1996). Harbor Structures of beams of the double-walled moulds. century plan. the Augustan Age in Italy. pp. 65-76, in: Atti de/ Convegno[Conference Proceedings] Caesarea Maritima, a Retrospective after Two Millennia, (Caesarea Maritima, 1995). E. J. Brill, Leiden, New York, Cologne. • Ostrow, S. E. ( 1979). The topography ofPuteoli and Baia on the eight glass flasks. Puteol~ J//:77-137. • Di Fraia, G., Lombardo, N. and Scognamiglio, E. ( 1985-1986). Contributi alla topografia di Baia sommersa. Puteoli, IX-X:211-99. • Di Fraia, G. (1993). Baia sommersa. Nuove evidenze topografiche e monumentali. Archeologia subacquea, Studi, ricerche e documenti, 1:21-48. /stituto Poligrafico dello Stato. • Dubois, C. ( 1907). Pouzzoles antiques. Bibliotheque des Ecoles Franfaises de Rome et d 'Athenes, 98. Coastal management sourcebooks 2 87 3 Figure 16. Harbour structures at Misenwn An aerial view of T he same type of construction is found in the z Phlegraean Fields, breakwaters that protected the two entrances <"' showing the location to the harbour of Misenum. On the Punta c:c of the ancient Terone side, the underwater stru ctures[ 13) z ..,< coastline. Portus consist of a row of eight pilae, most of them z Julius occupied the still standing. A long breakwater runs < 0:: two ancient lakes of alongside th em, but today it is hidden by a:: w Lucrino and Averno. blocks of a modern breakwater. The pilae are t- parallelepipeds; some of them have holes left Q by the vertical and horizontal beams of the """ :E scaffolding. The curvilinear concrete head of w the break water remains, in w hich some ::i:: ... mooring stones are visible; four can be Q Figure 17. Baio, plan distinguished, all cut in the middle, with the z :::i of the submerged cut part having been found on the seabed. 0 c: evidence and the < ancient coastline. The Portus Julius "'w It was a great military harbour, built in 37 BC t- by Agrippa in the L ucrino and A vern o lakes ..,, 0 (Fig. 16). w , "'< .• I- f~ .' The submerged town of Baia .· a: BAIANUS This residential settlement is for the most part I.I.I LACUS .. : submerged to depths of 6 to 19 m as a result Q.., of bradyseism. In spite of the A rchaeology Office's efforts, the ruins have been damaged a:: "w by the modern activity of vessels loading ~ CQ pozzolana: the keels of loaded ships have, for ::I ,_____,.. a long time, abraded th e submerged remains. Figure 18. Baio, T he hulks of some modern ships have been "' \1 fragment of abandoned on top of them. The villas of the an Egyptian 'stele' Republican and Imperial eras, which have from the sea. yielded important historical data and sculptures, continue to reveal buildings and objects of archaeological interest (Fig. 17, 18).[ 14) A mong these, also, evidence of the relationship between the Phlegraean coast (particularly the harbour of Puteoli) and Egypt, and perhaps with the harbour of A lexandria, has been found. (13] Gia11.frofla, P. A. (1993). Pweoli sommersa. pp. 115- 24. in: Puteol i. Banr.o Sr11111irica, Napoli. [ 14] Gic11!fro11a, P. A . (1983). l ' i11dagi11e archeologica e lo scavo. pp. 25- 39, in : AA. VV. { va rious a/lfhors], Baia. II ninfeo impcri ale sommerso di Punta Epitaffio. Napoli. • Scog11a111igLio, £. ( 1997). Aggiom amellli per la topograjia d i Baia sommersa. Archcologia subacquea, Studi, ricerche e docume11ti, 11: 35-45. • Sc/11 nied1. G. ( 1972). ll li vell o antico del Mar Tirreno. Firenze. 88 Coastal management sourcebooks 2 Remote-sensing tools for 4 archaeology z C'I FAROUK EL-BAZ 1,000 km above the Earth, the region where l> Center for Remote Sensing most unmanned imaging satellites are placed. z 0 Boston University For example, the polar-orbiting satellites of > the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric :ia I"\ Administration (NOAA) fly at altitudes of :i:: 835 to 870 km; and the near-polar orbits of )> Introduction the American Landsat and the French ,..'"0 Systeme Pour I' Observation de Ja Terre 0 C'I uch has been learned during the past (SPOT) reach a maximum altitude of 920 km < Mthree decades about photographing the above the Earth. Images collected from these Earth from space, through a series of altitudes pmvide greater local detail than is American, Russian and European space possible from the high-altitude satellites, but missions. Starting in 1965, many useful the area covered by individual images is photographs were acquired by astronauts of reduced. the American Gemini, Apollo, Skylab, the At the lower end, most manned missions are US/USSR Apollo-Soyuz, and the Russian Mir placed in orbits below 500 km, to a minimum missions. In 1972, the Landsat programme of 150 km above the Earth. For example, the introduced digital imaging from unmanned Space Shuttle's operational altitude is about spacecraft, from which data were transmitted 250 km. From this altitude, images show to ground receiving stations. The technology greater detail. The Space Shuttle's Large of these systems provides an advanced new Format Camera (LFC), for example, provided tool for detailed study of the natural and images that show features as small as I 0 m in cultural resources and the changing mapping-quality, three-dimensional (stereo) environment of the Earth. This is particularly photographs.[2] true in desert regions where the land features are not masked by vegetation.[ I] Unmanned and manned spacecraft systems Imaging from space are placed in high, medium or low orbits. The highest orbits are left to the unmanned Landsat: The Earth Resources Technology weather satellites, such as Meteosat, which Satellite (ERTS-1 ), the first unmanned digitaJ are propelled to a height of 36,000 km above imaging satellite, was launched on 23 July the Earth. At this altitude, their motion is 1972. Four other satellites in the same series, equivalent in speed to the rotation of the later named Landsat, were launched at Earth about its axis. These satellites are intervals of a few years. The Landsat termed geostationary and remain above the same point on the Earth to acquire and [ 1] El-Baz. F. ( 1984). The desert in the space age. transmit repetitive images as frequently as pp. 1-29, in: F. El-Baz (ed.), Deserts and Arid every hour. Owing to their high altitude, the Lands. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, The Hague, images they collect cover most of one The Netherlands. hemisphere of the Earth at low spatial {2] El-Baz. F. ( 1985). New mapping quality photographs of the Earth and their applications to resolution, which is ideal for studying global planetary comparisons. Lunar and Planetary weather phenomena. Science, XVI( Part I ):207-8. Lunar and Planetary Intermediate orbits are those from 500 to Institute, Houston, Texas. Coastal management sourcebooks 2 89 spacecraft carried a Multi-Spectral Scanner ability of green radiation to penetrate shallow (MSS) and, later, a Thematic Mapper (TM) water, and is useful in coastal studies. The > ' IJ imaging system.[3] two near-infrared bands, which measure the Q ..I The MSS was carried on Landsat 1, 2 and 3 reflectance of the Sun's rays outside the O · w.l I and produced images representing four sensitivity of the human eye (visible range), < :c different bands of the electromagnetic are useful in the study of vegetation cover. V • spectrum (Fig. I). The four bands were The TM is a sensor that was carried on Cl: I < designated band 4 for the green spectral Landsat 4 and 5; it covered seven spectral Q region (0.5 to 0.6 micrometres); band 5 for the bands in the visible, near-infrared, and :z < red spectral region (0.6 to 0.7 micrometres); thermal-infrared regions of the spectrum. It IJ band 6 for the near-infrared region (0.7 to 0.8 was designed to satisfy more demanding :z micrometres); and band 7 for another near performance parameters from experience "'z infrared region (0.8 to 1.1 micrometres). gained in the operation of the MSS with better ""' Figure 1. The Radiation reflectance data from the four ground resolution (30 m). At this ground I """'.., . electromagnetic scanner channels are converted first into resolution, many small agricultural fields may .... ' 0 spectrum, showing electronic signals, then into digital form for be accurately characterized.[4] The seven ~ the range of visible transmission to receiving stations on Earth. spectral bands (Fig. 2) were selected for their D:""' ' (colour) The recorded digital data, at 80-m resolution, band passes and radiometric resolutions. For photographs, are reformatted into computer-compatible example, band 1 coincides with the maximum infrared and thermal tapes for processing and analysis. For transmissivity of water. It also has beneficial images, and radar example, the green band (band 4) most clearly features for the differentiation of vegetation, (microwave) images. shows underwater features, because of the along with bands 2, 3 and 4. Vegetation and soil moisture may be estimated from band 5 readings, and plant transpiration rates may be 04 05 0.7 . . 06. estimated from the thermal mapping in band 6. Band 7 is primarily used for geological UV BLUE GREEN RED IR applications, including the identification of rock types.[3] Wavelength (I'm) SPOT: This system was designed by the 1 • 10• 10• French Centre Nationale d'Etudes Spatiales (CNES) and built by the French industry in association with partners in Belgium and Sweden. Like the American Landsat, it consists of remote-sensing satellites and Thermal ground receiving stations. The imaging is )'Rays j accomplished by two High-Resolution Visible X·Rays lnfrared Microwave Ultraviolet Near&Mld (HRV) instruments that operate in either a Infra red panchromatic (black-and-white) mode for observation over a broad spectrum, or a multi spectral (colour) mode for sensing in narrow ~ '- ·-~ -w-.....,_,,_.,.... l,.i...... K.ltltt. lt.rprin!N•idt...... ~Cltl) .,_ JfM .."lle)WS- ..... Fig. 2 The wave spectral bands. The ground resolutions are l 0 length range of the 'IM BANDS (llm) i 1 •.45·.52 and 20 m, respectively. For viewing directly seven imaging bands , ~: :U:::: beneath the spacecraft, the two instruments I • • .1 ...to : S • 1.H•1.75 of the LANDSAT 1 . 2.0.. us can be pointed to cover adjacent areas. By 1I • 10.4·12.I Thematic Mapper · pointing a mirror that directs ground radiation ~ 10' (TM) sensors. (see 'E 1234 $7 also Fig. 1) 3': cmm 1iii11 10' [3] Hord, R. M. (1986). Remote Sensing Methods and Applications. Wiley Series in Remote Sensing, John Wiley & Sons, New York. o.s 1 2 5 10 20 50 100 {4] Szekielda, K. H. ( 1988). Satellite Monitoring of WAVELENGTH (Jim) the Earth. John Wiley & Sons, New York. 90 Coastal management sourcebooks 2 to the sensors, it is possible to observe any polar, Sun-synchronous orbit by a Delta 11 4 region within 450 km from the nadir, thus rocket on 4 November I 995. lt features a allowing the acquisition of stereophotographs C-band, horizontally polarized, synthetic ~ for Lhree-dimensional viewing. aperture radar (SAR), with flexible beam ::"' 0 steering and resolution characteristics.[6] ~ Shuttle Imaging Radar: Imaging radar Thus, it is the first SAR to operate in a variety "'• instruments transmit waves towards the of resolutions (down to I 0 111 ), swath widths ""'"z surface and record the returned echoes. The and incidence angles. This flexibility is "' laner are stronger (bright) from rocky terrain designed to max imize potential applications z C"\ and weaker (dark) from smooth surfaces. On of the data and the frequency of coverage > its maiden flight in November 198 1[5], the required for operational use. z Q Shurrle Imaging Radar experiment (SIR-A) Figure 3. Left, part of ~ provided the first indication of the ability of Spy satellites: In February 1995, the United the eastern Sahara %1 I"\ radar to penetrate through sand and reveal States Government announced the as depicted in two :r buried courses of ancient rivers in the eastern declassification of Lhe Corona programme LANDSAT scenes > (width of composite "'0 Sahara (Fig. 3). North of this region, in th e 'spy-satellite' photographs obtained between r- Western Desert of Egypt, drilled wells in 1960 and 1972 or various pai1s of the is approximately 0 185 km). Right, the C"\ ·East Owcinat' produced water for an world.[7] Shortly thereafter, Russia followed same area with a < experimental, 5,000 acre farm. It is es timated suit by declassifying similar products. The strip showing the that the ground-water resources in this region DD-5, very-high-resolution, black-and-white palaeochannels as are capable of supporting agriculture on images, are among those declassified; the revealed by the nearly 200,000 acres for 200 years.[ I] The original images, with 0.7 m resolution, are Shuttle Imaging Radar (SIR-A) next flight, three years later (S IR-B), obtained degraded by digitization of photographjc mission of the Space images of the Arabian Peninsula, among other prints to a resolution of about 2 m prior to Shuttle in November regions. In addition, the renamed Spaceborne their sale for civilian use outside Russia. 1981. lmaging Radar (SIR-C) experiment, returned 25 in-resolution images from flights in April and October 1994. Unlike previous orbitaJ radar systems, STR-C acquired digital images using a 24 cm [wavelength] L-band and a 6 cm C-band, with each wavelength recording vertically and horizontally polarized waves. Di fferenl combinations of wavelength and polarization can be used to produce colour images to emphasize particular features. For example, SlR-C images were used to reveal inconspicuous segments of the Great Wall of China (Fig. 4). Radarsat: T his satellite is a project led by th e Canadian Space Agency (CSA) in partnership w ith NASA and NOAA . It was launched in a [5 / Elachi. D. et al. ( I 982 J. Sh1111/e Imaging Radar experimenl. Science. 218: 996-1003. f 6/ Raney. R. K. , Luscombe. A. P .. Langham. E. J. and Al1111ed, S. (1991). Radarsa1. Proceedings of Lhe IEEE, 79(6):839~9. /7/ McD011ald, R. A. (1997). Corona between Lhe Sun and the Earth: the First NRO Reconnai ssa nce Eye in Space. American Society of Phorogrammer1y and Remote Sensing, Bethesda, MD. Coastal management sourcebooks 2 91 4 investigate subsurface layering in petrole um and groundwater exploration.[9] Foremost > among these are the following: "'Q_, Q w Electromagnetic conductivity sensor: This < ::: instrument measures differences in conductivity v between su1face and subsurface soils and c: < features. It provides direct readings of terrai n 0 conducti vity to a depth of about 6 111. Thus, it z 92 Coastal management sourcebooks 2 produced in the ground by two contact trea tment to conserve the remaining paint. 4 electrodes, and the differences in electric Rennote-sensing methods and techn iques was potential between them are measured. applied to: (a) map the region in the =.... Electrode arrays may be moved along profiles immediate vicinity of the tomb for develoJ?ing :;: 0 to determine lateral variations in resistivity. a hydrologic model or the area; (b) establish -I m thu s, pinpointing the location of buried whether the deterioration was a one-cime I m features. evem or a continuous process; and (c) study z the state of various segments of the tomb's ""' Seismic instruments: Seismometers used by wal Is to locate areas needing emergency z archaeologists are much like those used to trea tment. "l> detect, magnify and record vibrations due to T o determine the sequence of the z 0 earthquakes, but are sensitive to artificially deterioration of the wall pai ntings, we used :.t:> generated elastic waves. The detected motions software th at was designed ro aid in the st11dy ::0,.. are recorded in charts, which show the time of Landsat images. Photographs of the same ::z: taken for a wave to travel to a reflection or wal l taken at different times were digitally :I:> refraction subsurface layer and back again to compared using power fu l computers. This Figure 5. Ultraviolet ,.'"0 the surface. The charts are correlated to show indicated th at the recent deterioration was image of a life-size 0 the depth of the interface that causes th e mostly physical rather than chemical - pieces depiction of "< reflection. Thus, emerges a 'seismic picture' th at were alread y separated from the wall by Nefertari on the wall of the subsurface layers and structures. salt crystallization had fa llen down w ith of her tomb in the advanced age. On the basis or this Valley of the Queens, information, it seemed unlikely that the west of Luxor, Egypt. Examples in Egyptology chemical deterioration had continued to affect The image indicated the paintings into recent times.[ I 0] that there were two Tomb of NefertaTi The study of the state of various parts of the generations of wal I was done w ith multispectral paintings - one to The author has applied remote sensing tools to photography. Cameras were used LO obtain establish the form th e investigation of a tomb that was jointly photographs in the visible, near-infrared and (red lines) and a studied by the Egyptian A ntiquities ultraviolet light (Fig. 5). T hese images later one to fill in the Organization and the Getty Conservation indiicated which parts or the wall had colours. Institute. The tomb was that of Queen Nefertm·i , the favorite w ife of Pharaoh Ramses the Grea t, who ruled Egypt for 67 years ( 1304-1237 BC). When it was unearthed in I 904 by an I talian expedition Jed by Giovanni Schiaparelli, it had Jost much of its magnificent wall paintings because of salt crystallization behind the plas ter layer on which the ancient artisans had applied the paint. Fear of further damage resulted in the closing of the tomb to visitors during the pas t 50 years.[ I 0] The obj ective of applying remote sensing was to establish the origin of the water that had caused the mobilization of salt and its recrystallization behind and/or on top of the tomb paintings. so as to recommend a { /Of £1- Baz. F. ( 1987). Geographic and geologic se11i11g. pp. 46-53. i11: Wa ll Paintings of the Tomb of Nefertari. The Gerry Co11se111a1ion lns1i1111e, Los Angeles, California. Coastal management sourcebooks 2 93 4 deteriorated without visible signs. Pockets of that such deterioration may have been caused air or salt not visible lo the human eye were by the changing environmental conditions > detected and helped in locating areas that inside the museum. By association. the second "...0 requiJ·ed emergency conservation . (western) chamber was thought also to 0 II.I contain a boat. It was hoped that the et :c Second 'solar boat' of Khu/u investigation of its environmental parameters v wou ld lead to a better understanding of how a: et The author also conducted a non-des tructive best to preserve the ancient wood of the 0 investigation of the westernmost of two exhibited boat. This idea was the driving force z er: buried chambers at the base of the Pyramid of behind the project. Pharaoh Khufu. The chamber in question was The author developed a research plan that z" located in 1954, aligned with another, 18 m was jointly sponsored by the Egyptian z~ south of the Great Pyramid of Giza. During Antiquities Organization and the National .... the same year, the eastern chamber was Geographic Society, to undertake the "'I excavated from under a cap of 41 limestone following actions: (a) geophysical surveying l-"' o blocks and found to contain a disassembled of the site to develop a profile of the ..,:E boat.[ I I] Gypsum mortar sealed the crevices chamber; (b) drilling a 9 cm hole by means of a:: between the cap blocks. When the first block dry drilling motion through the limestone cap was removed, the excavators smelled the rock; the drilling and other operations were scent of cedar, which made them believe that carried out in a specially designed air lock to the chamber had been hermetically sealed Lill separate the ai r inside from chat outside: then. The 4,600-year-old wood was excavated (c) sampling the air in the cavity at different and the assembled vessel was placed on levels; (d) measuring pressure, temperature ex_hibit at the Boat Museum, wh ich was bu ilt and relative humidity inside the chamber; on the site of the discovery and opened to (e) photographing the interior with a high visitors in I 982. resolution, black-and-white, video camera By 1986, however, the boat had shrunk about using a fiber-optic 'cold' light, and a 35 mm 0.5 m from its original length. It was feared still camera w ith colour film; and (f) sealing the drill hole with material similar to that used by the ancient Egyptian builders, Figure 6. without altering the environment of the Photograph of the chamber in any way.(12] interior of the second Photography of the interior revealed a (western) chamber disassembled boat (Fig. 6). Much like th e one near the base of the that was excavated in 1954, the second Great Pyramid, Giza, chamber contained stacks of wood with pieces Egypt. The chamber of the cabin arranged on top. This second boat is approximately appeared to be smaller than the first and had 30 m long and four small pointed oars. The pressure of the encloses a chamber was identical to that outside, disassembled 'solar indicating that there was communication boat.' The bright between the air inside and outside the angular shapes are chamber. The temperature was 27°C and the mortar that broke relative humidity was 85%. off the chamber's When tJ1e air samples reached NOAA 's ceiling and fell on laboratories, atmospheric scientists and top of the wood physicists began to monitor the contents of the planks of the boat. canisters and analyse their components. Results of freon analyses came first: freon-1 l , 300 pa1ts per trill ion; and freon-12, about 540 parts per trillion. These values were higher than, but close to, those of the air measured near Cairo. 94 Coastal management sourcebooks 2 An unusually high value was that of the coastline of Alexandria. Results of their carbon dioxide concentration: 720 parts per analyses may be of significance in :OU million, double the amount in the surrounding understanding the process of burial of "' atmosphere. Carbon dioxide might have been archaeological sites. s 0 produced by degassing from the organic When the coastal zone environment is -t materials inside the pit or even by decay of understood and a mechanism for monitoring "'I the limestone walls of the chamber. A test to natural and man-made changes is established, z"' date the carbon dioxide gave an age of 2,000 remote-sensing equipment can be employed to "" years, indicating that it was a mixture of help uncover hidden archaeological sites and z C'I ancient air and a modem counterpart. artefacts. The instruments that have the > greatest promise for this particular application z 0 Coastal zone ofAlexandria and which have not been mentioned above > include: :1:1 ("\ The northern coastline of the Nile Delta has (a) Side-scanning sonar: it emits sound waves :::c undergone numerous changes throughout by an electro-acoustic transducer that is in > "'0 recorded history. The subsidence of the direct contact with the water. The transducer r- coastline, which caused the submergence of converts electric energy into acoustic energy 0 C'I many archaeological sites, was due to natural (as a loudspeaker), and converts the returned < processes. However, other changes occurred, acoustic energy back to electric energy (as a owing to human activities, most notably since microphone). Buried objects on the bottom the construction of the High Dam at Aswan. generate specific 'echoes' that help define the The formation of Lake Nasser has inhibited ranges, bearings and nature of the targets. the passage of silts and, therefore, the growth (b) Electromagnetic sounder: this produces of the northern boundary of the Nile Delta. As magnetism by an electric current. Highly the eastward-moving Mediterranean currents sensitive electromagnetic equipment, which began to erode the promontories at the mouths may be adaptable to archaeological of the two remaining branches of the Nile investigations off the coast of Alexandria, is River, segments of beaches received new presently being tested by the Space Research deposits from the eroded areas. This indicated Institute in Russia. that a new balance was being established (c) Sub-bottom profiling: to produce detailed between the water flow from the Nile and the profiles of the Mediterranean Sea floor, which Mediterranean currents. The resulting changes may indicate locations of buried sites. must be understood and monitored prior to (d) Video and other imaging: where a undertaking a programme of underwater submersible craft, manned or unmanned, is archaeological exploration along the utilized to provide high-resolution images of Alexandrian coastline. targeted features on the sea bottom. As stated earlier, satellite images provide an A combination of the above-mentioned exceptionally useful tool to establish the methods (satellite-image interpretation and nature of, and to monitor, such short-term geophysical surveys) is required to fully changes. This is done through change understand the nature of the coastal offshore detection technique~ where an image is region of Alexandria. Such a combination compared with another obtained at a different would also be needed to plan a well thought time to define the changes. Landsat Thematic out exploration programme for archaeological Mapper (TM) images obtained yearly from structures that may have been submerged 1984 to 1993 were recently utilized to beneath sea water. A multi-disciplinary team characterize the minor changes along the of investigators would ensure that such a programme would satisfy the exploration goals without harming the coastal environment. In the meantime, the coastline [ 11 J Jenkins, N. (1980). The Boal beneath lhe Pyramid. Thames and Hudson, London. of Alexandria should be protected from [ 12] El-Baz, F. (1988). Finding a pharaoh's further urban development until the funeral bark. National Geographic, 173-4:513-533. archaeological survey is completed. Coastal management sourcebooks 2 95 Remote imaging of submerged man-made structures H. ARNOLD CARR Imaging American Underwater Search & Survey, Ltd. Submerged human habitat provides the surveyor or nautical archaeologist with complex challenges. Direct access to the Introduction underwater sites and the difficulty of accurately mapping them are two challenges ubmerged objects can be located, mapped that are encountered in even the most benign Sand identified through a variety of underwater locations. Side-scan sonar can help techniques including acoustic imaging, optical to surmount these obstacles. Side-scan sonar remote sensing, manned diving vehicles and can produce an image similar to an aerial robotics. Often, a combination of techniques photograph if a sufficient number of features is the best application if the location of the are not totally buried.[ I] Under these underwater site is not accurately known and conditions, sonar can provide a general view the aim is to locate and acquire some detail of of a site such as a village, and will outline the site. Broad aerial surveys are best streets, homesites and certain landmarks, accomplished using towed acoustic or optical which may determine priorities for excavation. imaging systems. Diving or robotics can then Side-scan sonar can also be used as a means of optically examine specific sites or targets periodically assessing the excavation. As identified in these surveys. excavation or removal of large objects Acoustic imaging is commonly preferred if progresses, side-scan sonar can be used to the survey objective is to cover large areas in provide intermediate maps of the site. It can search of specific submerged objects. Because assist in determining whether the excavation is of its long range and real-time data display, complete or what the impact of excavating a acoustic imaging using side-scan sonar can primary site is on adjacent sites. At sites where provide the archaeologist with very short time underwater visibility is severely restricted, sonar to target acquisition. Side-scan sonar is also may be the only means of surveying the site. the most efficient means of obtaining a real Although current side-scan sonars are time map of an underwater site that is available in different frequencies, multi extensive. Sonar is also preferred when the frequency or dual frequency sonars usually water allows only poor visibility. have a range between I 00 and 500 kHz. The Laser imaging can also provide maps of l 00 kHz frequency is capable of ranges up to sites. The laser line scan is towed from a 600 m on each side. The 500 kHz frequency is vessel in the same manner as side-scan normally used for ranges between 25 and 100 m sonar. The advantage of the laser line scan is and gives higher resolution than the 100 kHz the resolution it can produce. The system frequency. Sonar equipment can have both does require a modest surface support craft these frequencies to enjoy the advantage of that will accommodate a special winch range and of high resolution. Higher because of the size and weight of the frequency side-scan sonars are not commonly towfish. Reasonably clear underwater visibility is also required, since suspended {I] See: Fish, J.P. and Carr, A. H. ( 1990). Sound matter in the water column will quickly Underwater Images. AUSS, Cataumet, MA, USA. attenuate the laser beam. 188pp. 96 Coastal management sourcebooks 2 used, but they are available. They have very W hat area can be covered in an aerial survey 4 high resolving power, but are limited to about that is undertaken with 50 % overlap? If the 20 m in range. side-scan sonar is set for a I 00 m range (on each side) and the vessel is surveying at a speed of 3 knots ( 1.5 m/sec ), the survey can Survey methods insonify a 0.4 km square per hour. At the speed and range mentioned above, a The most important parameters controlled by side-scan sonar may emit pings at a rate of 4.9 a survey team, once on a survey site, are sonar pulses per metre of forward motion. The pulse range, sonar frequency, tow speed, towfish rate is a factor of range: a shorter range will 'altitude' [height above sea floor] and overlap. have a higher pulse rate, whereas a longer When surveying to acquire an aerial range will have a lower pulse rate. For distribution of a large site, a range overlap of example, the side-scan sonar previously 50% is usually sufficient. This amount of mentioned, if functioning at a range of 50 m, overlap is normally enough to offset vessel will have a pulse rate of 9 .8 pulses per metre tracking errors. Operators will also benefit of forward motion. Sonar range, vessel speed from this amount of overlap, for they will and required detectability are critical have a second look at targets that appear at the components of an efficient, successful survey. outer edge of any given lane. Typically, the Even if the target or feature is displayed on the goal of a target distribution survey is not to sonar record, it may not be recognized unless look at and identify each individual target, but the target has been adequately insonified and to achieve a broad overview of the site. This the chart speed is appropriate for the eye and type of survey is commonly considered to be brain of the operator to recognize it. Although a primary survey based upon which a second recent developments in side-scan sonar have more discretely dedicated survey can classify, provided for repeated data displays in in greater detail, specific sites that may be of outgoing pulses and for the displayed data to more interest. be immediately enhanced, adequate If thorough imaging of a large site covering insonification of the target is the primary step several square kilometres or more is preferred, to data acquisition. A conservative plan a scaled, high-resolution mosaic of the includes a choice of tow speeds and ranges submerged area can be generated. The that will allow for a minimum of 12 generation of high-quality mosaics has insonifications (pings) in a forward travel advanced significantly recently. More distance equal to the target's least dimension. programmes are available to produce these The surveyor should make repeated runs on a data as long as the surveyor plans in advance site, so as to insonify it from many different for sonar mosaics and uses the proper medium. angles and perspectives. Each pass will Sonar surveys dedicated to classifying and provide more information to aid in classifying geodetically locating discrete sites or and enumerating the site. individual targets are more likely to use a In general, most surveys are performed with minimum of 100% overlap. This means that the towfish altitude at approximately 10-20% the lane spacing will be equal to the sonar of the range-setting of the sonar. The range on one side. An important benefit of optimum 'altitude' of the towfish above the this methodology is that this overlap puts sea sea bed is a function of range, because, at the bottom and associated target sites that were at outer edges of the record, the angle of the extremes of any one lane, into the near incidence of the outgoing pulse on the seabed range of any adjacent lane. Side-scan sonars is one of the factors that determines the have the characteristic of beam spreading and properties of the echoes returning to the attenuation which may cause loss of detail at towfish. If the fish has a high 'altitude', the outer edges of the sonar record. l 00% resultant target shadows will be lessened and overlap gives two values to the survey: better target recognition reduced. If the fish I detail and a second perspective of the 'altitude' is low, the reflectivity of the outer insonified bottom. ranges will be diminished thus reducing the Coastal management sourcebooks 2 97 effective range. Conditions do exist that experienced sonar operator has a greater ability require a change from this relationship of to recognize and classify features and targets. > sonar range to towfish 'altitude'; one such A prudent post-survey technique is to have ""0_, condition would be in very shallow water. In experienced personnel thoroughly review the 0 w this situation, the reduced effective range may records. < :r be accepted and the distance between survey I.I c: Figure 1. lanes reduced. , ' ·• ' survey will conclude with the acquisition, ~n ,," l ..·, ~ .. :~ •·: ... :::: ·:.. '·;;." interpretation and presentation of the best •#; ~ - ·~ •t "' " ;: possible survey data. Figure 2. ~ ~ .~~.. ~ ...: { :· .. ·-:-~: .~: . Steel bridge. . .~ :.. .. , . Sonogram features: (A) horizontal steel main supports; (8) shadow from steel bridge girders; (C) roadway and original bridge footing; and (D) old riverbed. ·.· 98 Coastal management sourcebooks 2 Remote imaging of potential archaeological Two bridge abutments are depicted in Figure 3. Figure 3. Two bridge 4 sites can provide valuable data to authorities. Both abutments show an articulated face abutments. ~ The information obtained can provide the resulting from the steel cofferdam that houses Sonogram labels rn means of establishing plans for sound the reinforced concrete. One abutment has include: (A) sonar s 0 two vertical supports that sit on a footing. The vessel track; -! management and protection. rn other abutment has one larger vertical support. (B) abutment face I VI The sediment around these structures is a lined with corrugated "'z Sample data combination of fine sand and small cobble. steel sheathing; ~ Water flow in the region has caused the (C) single vertical z The sonar images shown herein were scouring evident in the sediment at the base of support sitting on >"' generated using narrow-beam high-frequency the structures. This figure is a complete side- concrete footing; z 0 sonar. The system used to map these sites was scan sonar record which includes the track of (D) double vertical deployed in a manner specifically designed to the survey vessel and the right and left supports with square >::a image man-made structures. Higher resolution channels. The two white strips on either side configuration; ":c imaging, which would distinguish artefacts of the vessel track represent the water column (E) abutment >,,., smaller than 25 cm, uses a refined application where the signal passes from the towfish prior shadow; (F) bottom ,..0 of VHF short-range sonar. This higher to first contact with the substrate. scouring caused by 0 resolution imaging has an application in Figure 4 shows about 23 granite blocks river current; and "< mapping sites in detail and in better alongside a road. The dimensions of the (G) construction characterizing specific targets. bloclks are 0.8 m in width and 3-4 m long. debris recently lost. A once rural residential area that is now part of a flooded river valley is depicted in Figure I. The site has been submerged for approximately one century. This sonar image was taken at the I 00 m range and at a frequency of 500 kHz. The record has little gray scale because the gain is intentionally low. Note the two ovals in the record. These are believed to be cesspools and should be circular. They show that the record is distorted and that the speed of the record was not synchronized with the speed of the survey vessel. Figure 2, taken at the 50 m range and 500 kHz, gives greater detail of the bridge. The bridge remains remarkably intact except for the bridge roadbed, which is non-existent. During the flooding, the bridge was swept from its footings and now lies with one end canted off the bridge footing, with the other end in the old riverbed. Figure 4. Granite blocks: (A) granite blocks; (B) road; (C) road intersection. Coastal management sourcebooks 2 99 Figure 5. ~-- - - Two foundations: > (A) possible old dirt "'0 ..J road; (8) first 0 w.I contact with bottom; Q (F) basement floor. z Figure 6. Large building complex: (A) factory foundation; (8) collapsed chimney; (C) walkways; Two foundations are well marked in shadows differ with respect to their axis (D) stairs; Figure 5. The white shadow that is prominent perpendicular to the track of the survey (E) subbuilding in both indicates that the basement floors are vessel because of the distance each is from foundation; (F) rood; significantly depressed relative to the the vessel track. The record also suggests (G) survey vessel surrounding topography. Geometric remnants of an older foundation and road. track. This record calculations shows that the depth of the Figure 6 is a record of a large building was token at 50 m basement floor within both foundations is complex. One dimension of this industrial range and 500 kHz. 2 m. The lengths of the two foundation building foundation, as seen in the record, ,,. 100 Coastal management sourcebooks 2 Figure 7. Submerged ,4 homesites: (A) an old riverbed; (8) wall remnant and sloping terrain; (C) main foundation; (D) discrete debris field; (E) steep terraced shoreline; z and (F) shallow lake "l> bed. z 0 > :i::i :t"" l> m 0 r- 0 Figure 8. Submerged "< industrial site: (A) remains of is 44 m long. This foundation wall is not linear A discrete industrial site is shown in industrial building; because the track of the sonar fish, as towed by Figure 8. The site is next to a river which (8) banked slope; the vessel, was not absolutely straight. was the source of power for the factory. The (C) river bed; Figure 7 shows a residence that is submerged site now remains submerged within a (D) hydro power in 40 m of water. This homesite is elevated on reservoir. Some vertical structure is evident, source for factory; land that slopes sharply down to an old especially where the building foundations (E) water discharge riverbed and a nearby ancient Jake bed. were located. area. Coastal management sourcebooks 2 101 4 Proposed survey of > Alexandria harbours by "'0 ..J 0 a sonar sub-bottom profiler w <( :x: v a:: < Q z < IJ z NILS TONGRING AND NEAL W. DRISCOLL Coastal Management, Honor Frost (cf. this Ill z Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution volume, p. 64) pointed out that geological w investigation had discovered a faultline which "'I explained the difference in jetty levels at ...II.I 0 Caesarea, and that such factors can be the key :E Introduction to interpreting ancient harbour installations. w a; In tum, archaeological data can illuminate he fulure of archaeology has been problems in geology. For example, Warne and Tdescribed[ I] as involving the increasing Stanley[6] have used shards from cores to application of a number of technological date soil strata, since the deposit and redeposit innovations, such as: of organic material by water often leads to • laser ranging (used on land for two decades overestimation of the age of the sediment now, although the blue-green window in layers. water has not been exploited);[2] The significance of coastlines, river basins, • satellite observations and spacebome radar and deltas in human history has introduced (the use of satellite images to find prehistoric further geological and oceanographic sites - for example, Acheulean sites in the problems into archeology; an important factor Sahara[3] is well known; SAT images use in many of these problems has been the effect three visual windows - blue, green and red - of sea-level change. The city of Alexandria along with three channels in the infra-red; the offers a striking example of this effect on future Landsat will have 230 channels, with different time scales: the subsidence of the increased resolution); • expanding non-destructive research methods [ 1] For example: Smith, B. D. ( 1996). Remarks on at sites, like ground-penetrating radar; and the next 35 years ofarcheology. The Sciences, New • increased computer use by means of York Academy ofScience, Nov.-Dec. digitizing images. (2] But cf Medard, J. ( 1997). Underwater These technological developments are positioning for archaeological and topographic needs. Sea Technology (July), pp. 31-3. common to many other disciplines, however. [3] McCauley, J. F. et al. (1986). Paleodrainages What seems more significant is the still of the eastern Sahara - the radar rivers revisited. increasing integration of concepts and (SJR-A/B Implications for a Mid-Tertiary Trans analysis from other fields. African Drainage System). IEEE Trans. Geosci. Interdisciplinary efforts in archaeology are not Remote Sensing, GE- 24:624~8. new. In Egypt, the geologist Elinor Gardner [4] Caton-Thompson, G. and Gardner, E. W. ( 1929). Recent work on the problem of Lake worked with Gertrude Caton-Thompson in the Moeris. Geog. Jour., 73:20-60; The Desert Fayum. Fayum and in the Kharga oasis[4]; such Landon, Royal Anthropological Society. Vol. 2. collaborative work goes back to the I 9th (1934). century.[5] (5) CJ the discussion in Butzer, K. (1964). Such factors as geological structure and Environment and Archeology. Chicago. [6] Warne, A. G. and Stanley, D. J. (1993). climate change have often been critical in Archeology to refine Holocene subsidence rates analysing land sites. At the International along the Nile delta margin, Egypt. Geology, Workshop on Submarine Archaeology and 21:715- 18. 102 Coastal management sourcebooks 2 Ptolemaic city, first noticed and described by years. Much of the palace precinct (Cape 4 Arab commentators, due to local tectonic Lochias) is under the sea; the rest is under ~ changes and the global (eustatic) sea-level great amounts of fill used to compensate for m rise; the earlier subsidence of the ancient the subsidence when building resumed in the 3: 0 harbours reported by Jondet[7]; and, on a middle of the J 9th century. -t larger time scale, the relative subsidence and The late-Quaternary sea-level history is fairly "'. m landward migration (some 50 km) of the well established. In the recent period, 5,000- z coastline since the last Pleistocene lowstand 1,000 years BP, sea level rose about 5 m.[ 11] "' 18,000 years BP (before the present).[8] The first goal then will be to scan the Eastern z To study in detail aspects of this relative sea Harbour, covering with particular care the "l> level change, and to supplement the visual area surveyed visually by Goddio, from El z 0 archaeological survey being carried out by Manshiya to El Si Isita (Cape Lochias) along l> Goddio, we propose an acoustic imaging of the corniche, and the area at the base of Qait ::a the harbour of Alexandria. Bey Fort, the site of the figures recovered by "::z: ;I> In the last decade, sonar has developed the Empereur. The detailed stratigraphy revealed m capacity to penetrate the ocean bottom, and is by the sub-bottom sonar can provide th~ ,..0 now able to resolve sediment layers 5 cm optimal places for taking cores, determining 0 thick to a depth of 60 m or more. The strata, possibly to distinguish the later "< application of sonar to archaeology had Roman work from the Ptolemaic, to help in essentially been limited to the finding of the analysis of the sonar data, and to shipwrecks, the 'objects' of marine contribute to determining the rate of relative archaeology. As coastlines are investigated, sea-level rise. Ultimately, the visual and an obvious application of this technology will sonar data could be integrated to produce a be the imaging of structures buried in ocean three-dimensional computer model of the silt and sand. An example of this kind of Ptolemaic harbour, a kind of imaging which sonar, a shallow-water sub-bottom profiler, is is already in use; for example, the stored being developed at Woods Hole, and our visual images of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge are proposal is to use the system to map the presently so displayed. Eastern Harbour of Alexandria as part of the The second goal will be to perform a similar general plan to survey the remains of the scan of the site of the earlier breakwaters and Ptolemaic city. If we judge by the silence of the early writers {7] Jondet. G. ( 1916). Les ports submerges de on the subject, the subsidence of Alexandria /'ancienne fie de Pharos. Institut Egyptien, 9. has taken place in the last I ,OOO years. The [8] That this area was inhabited is likely. Even in gradual eustatic sea-level rise for the last the Western Desert of Egypt, human settlement may 3,000 years is almost linear[9], about 3 m extend back 500,000 years; cf Wendo1f. F. et al. ( J985). Prehistoric settlements in the Nubian below the present sea level 3,000 years ago Desert. American Scientist,73:J32-4J. and I m below, I ,OOO years ago. This is too [9] Lighty, R. G. et al. (1982). Acropora palmata slow to be seen by the contemporary casual reefframework: a reliable indicator of sea level in observer, but, coupled with tectonic changes, the western Atlantic for the past JO.OOO years. the relative rise was noticed (to find new Coral Reefs, J:l25-30. first-hand accounts from Arab sources would [JO] El-Sayed, M. Kh. ( J988). Sea level rise in Alexandria during the late Holocene: be extremely useful, particularly to improve archeological evidences. Rapports et Proces estimates of the rate of relative subsidence at Verbaux de Reunions, Commission lntemationale different historical times). One estimate from pour !'Exploration Scientifique de la Mer archaeological and tide-gauge records is an Mediterranee, 31: I 08; cf also El-Cindy, A. A. and average rate for subsidence of 1.2 mm/yr Eid, F. M. ( 1988). Sea level variation in the Mediterranean. ibid, 31: 196. over the past 3,000 years.[ I 0] The tectonic [I I] Cf the discussion in Warne, A. G. and Daniel, factor is difficult to determine, but the levels J. S. ( J993). Late Quaternary evolution of the indicated by submerged Greek and Roman northwest Nile Delta and adjacent coast in the ruins suggest that the total effect has been a Alexandria region, Egypt. Journal of Coastal submergence of 3-5.5 m in the last 2,500 Research. 9:26-64. Coastal management sourcebooks 2 103 .4 dockwork reported by Jondet north and west A description of the system of Ras EI Tin, if possible. Again, study of the > sub-bottom may suggest particularly suitable Originally designed to generate quantitative "'Q_, places to extract cores; the structure of the acoustic data which can be used for ...,Q sediment layers and shards may verify and classifying sediments and determining their < ::c date these early harbours, and yield physical properties, the Subscan Sonar being v information on their subsidence. The constructed at Woods Hole Oceanographic 0:: < extensiveness of Jondet's finds and the Institution will permit the collection of high Q problem of the lack of any documents or resolution seismic images in nearshore z < reports referring to the existence of such a environments (surf zone to mid-shelf water harbour, beyond its mention in Book IV of depths). This system is built on proven and z"' the Odyssey, as Jondet himself points out, new technology, including advanced signal must lead to caution in passing judgment on processing, to make possible the extraction the existence and nature of such structures. of data under conditions particularly adverse The 'karkar' limestone of the type described to sonar: shallow water means greater energy by Jondet can naturally exhibit channels trapped in the water column, causing resembling joints or tiling in the plan view. persistence or 'ringing', side echoes and The mystery of the Homeric Pharos Harbour, 'ghosts', multiples caused by reflections first pointed out by Jondet, remains. between the bottom and the sea surface. New Finally, the offshore area parallel to the coast beam focussing and CHIRP technology could be scanned to complement the land significantly reduce these obstacles to studies[ 12], and to determine the link resolving power. CHIRP differs from other between sediment loading and delta sonar systems in that it transmits a linearly migration. Are the limestone ridges fault swept, frequency-modulated pulse, instead of controlled as previously proposed?[ 13] If the a constant-frequency pulse. Its frequency ridges continue east, the extent of their therefore changes with time, the resolution bending under the load of the deposits of Nile possible with CHIRP varies inversely with silt could be determined (with the present pulse bandwidth and is not a function of scouring and reduced Nile flow, rebounding pulse length as in conventional sonar. The might be observed). CHIRP operating frequency being lower, Figure 1. Close-up of Subscan Sonar vehicle on sled. 104 Coastal management sourcebooks 2 sound absorption is reduced, which, in the 4 sea, is roughly a quadratic function of ;u frequency; in the conventional sonar, ,., s: reducing the operating frequency would 0 reduce the resolving power of the system. ,.,-c The equipment is deployed on a sled, the . ,.,, total weight being approximately 200 kg, z light enough to be handled on a small open "" boat with an A-frame or davit (Fig. I). The z tow frame is designed to be stable on the ")> z bottom while being pulled slowly across the c surf zone out to mid-shelf water depths. > Outside the surf zone, the vehicle and the ::0 ('\ towed frame will be 'flown' in a traditional ::c configuration while maintaining a constant ,,,)> depth above the seafloor. ,..0 The sonar is wide-band, sweeping from 0 I kHz to 7 kHz in 20 ms with extraordinary "< resolution; matched filtering techniques will allow a resolution as small as 5 cm. With the software developed at Woods Hole for three dimensional imaging, an unprecedented picture of any structure above and below the bottom to a considerable depth (70 m) will be obtained. The Subscan Sonar is entirely self-contained with its own power supply, and can fit in a container I 0 x 8 x 8 ft (approximately 3.0 x 2.4 x 2.4 m), thus allowing relatively easy transportability. Supported by the US Navy, the Subscan Sonar will be available for use in a pilot project, and the suitability of the system to the survey of the Eastern Harbour of Alexandria is obvious. The chance for archaeologists to take part in the development and trials of such equipment will improve the potential for its successful application. [ 12] Stanley, D. J. and Hamza. F. H. ( 1992). Terrigeous-carbonate sediment interface (late Quatemary) along the northwestern margin of the Nile Delta, Egypt. Journal of Coastal Research, 8:153-71. / 13 j El-Wakeel, S. K. and El-Sayed, M. K. (1978). The texture, mineralogy, and chemistry ofbottom sediments and beach sands from the Alexandria region, Egypt. Marine Geology, 27:137-60; cf Butzer, K. W. ( 1960). In: The P/eistocene shorelines ofArab's Gulf. Egypt. Journal of Geology. 68:626-37. Coastal management sourcebooks 2 105 5 Conservation of marine artefacts ExampEes from INA-Egypt project$ HOWARD WELLMAN and numerous archaeological sites were Director of Conservation identified, including the Sadana Island Institute of Nautical Archaeology-Egypt shipwreck. On the north-west coast, 16 a:: 0 wreck and harbour sites were visited dating ... from the 4th century BC to the 7th century AD, where amphorae and other evidence of Introduction sea-faring, including a stone anchor, and a Byzantine cruciform anchor were found. he Institute of Nautical Archaeology is These objects were measured, documented Tthe pre-eminent American organization and raised, and are now in the Alexandria conducting research into nautical Conservation Laboratory for Submerged archaeology worldwide, and training nautical Antiquities. archaeologists in the United States. Since the Given INA interest in Mediterranean ships Institute of Nautical Archaeology-Egypt and shipping, future surveys will focus on (INA-Egypt) established its permanent base the north-west coast, looking for information in Alexandria in I 994 to explore Egypt's about Egyptian shipping from the Bronze nautical heritage, it has conducted four major Age into the Medieval period. This is a Q z projects focusing on shipwrecks on the crucial area, since Egypt was a centre of < Egyptian coast, and intends to continue its maritime trade, and we should expect to find z 0 work, with an emphasis on research, the ships of all nationalities along its shores. I training of archaeologists, and long-term < > care of the artefacts discovered. Excavation a:: LI.I Surveys give us broad pictures of ships and VI z shipping in a region, but to get detailed 0 v Three major components information about the objects and sites found on surveys, it is necessary to excavate. INA Long-term research into regional maritime Egypt does not attempt to excavate every site history requires three major elements: it fi nds; it focuses on those shipwrecks that survey, excavation and conservation. can add significantly to our knowledge of ancient trade and shipbuilding. Survey For its first excavation, INA-Egypt chose the Survey is a necessary part of any long-term Sadana Island shipwreck, a 50-m 3-decker research, since the larger picture of where ship from the 18th century, carrying a mixed wrecks are located, and the patterns of load of Chinese porcelain, Middle Eastern shipping and trade, figure in the earthenware, copper tools and vessels, understanding of individual excavations. including inscribed basins, which allowed us INA-Egypt has performed two survey projects to date more precisely the time of the since 1994: one in the Red Sea, from EI Qesir shipwreck, glass containers including to Ras Mohammed, and one on the beverage bottles and a perfume vial, and Mediterranean coast west of Alexandria, from various spices, resins and foodstuffs, which Sidi Abd AI-Rahman to Ras Hawala. would constitute a low-volume, high-value In the Red Sea, over 26 sites were visited cargo. 106 Coastal management sourcebooks 2 This vessel was chosen for excavation since it Conservators from INA-Egypt and the SCA 5 was endangered by looting, and it illustrates a are already working on materials from the poorly documented part of Egypt's place in surveys and the Sadana excavation. This is 0 the modem Red Sea and Arabian Sea trade. In an excellent example of how INA-Egypt "z two years of excavation, we have logged ""' staff and the SCA can work together and ::a"" 3,000 dives on the site and raised 1,300 exchange information about modern < l> artefacts for conservation and study. The ship conservation and research techniques. This -f 0 itself is the largest artefact on the site, and we laboratory will also be an excellent place to z have uncovered parts of it to reveal that it is train future conservators from Egyptian l> of an unknown type of construction. Our third universities, and from abroad. We have z c and final season of excavation will focus on already been able to show the public what is understanding the ship's construction and being done in Egypt to promote the ~ l> origin. conservation of cultural heritage from z l> The surveys and the excavation give INA underwater sites. " Egypt a chance to contribute to the ""~ development of professional archaeology in Conservation and research ""z Egypt by training students from various Conservation is something, however, that -f universities, and Inspectors from the cannot be confined to the laboratory. The Supreme Council of Antiquities (SCA) in the unique thing about archaeological techniques and goals of nautical research. conservation, and particularly marine site A critical part of any excavation is the post conservation, is the immediacy of treatment - excavation treatment of the artefacts. In 1994, conservation begins before the artefacts are INA-Egypt proposed to the SCA the creation excavated, and never truly ends. of a permanent conservation and research The marine environment can be both harsh facility based at the National Maritime and protective. Salt water will corrode metal, c Museum in Alexandria. Derelict buildings at etch ceramics and dissolve stone. The sea z 0 the National Maritime Museum were the harbours many organisms that will attack and :a"" servants' quarters and outbuildings for a royal decay metal and organic materials. But ~ villa on Stanley Bay. The green house has waterlogged sediments will also preserve a l> -f become the main laboratory, the servants' wide range of materials, especiall y rare ::a"" quarters will become climate-controlled organic finds. As in any excavation, storage, darkrooms, a photostudio and removing an object from its burial > =-f research space. The garage will be used for environment means exposing it to changes in "".., machine space, the water-purification plant, moisture and atmosphere that can begin l> r. and treatment of large objects, such as ships' irreversible chemical and biological changes. -f timbers. Other smaller rooms will be used for This is even more extreme on marine sites, ""' pumps, compressors, and x-radiography. where objects can go from anoxic, wet Construction of two artefact-storage and conditions to oxygen-rich, extremely dry desalination tanks was completed in 1995, conditions in a matter of minutes. At the and the renovation of five buildings was Sadana Island site, objects were exposed to completed in 1996, marking the creation of relative humidities of about 20% and the Alexandria Conservation Laboratory for temperatures of about 30°C (a change of Submerged Antiquities (ACL). This work 80% in RH and l 5°C) within minutes of was done with the aid of the Alexandria being raised. Businessmens' Association, Bechtel Corporation, and a grant from USAID administered by the Egyptian Antiquities Stabilization Project and the American Research Centre in Egypt. We shall be able to treat a wide range Under the~e conditions, the most pressing of materials from submerged sites, as well as dangers are the formation of salt crystals, the conduct high-quality research and loss of moisture from waterlogged materials, documentation. and the physical damage caused by the loss Coastal management sourcebooks 2 107 5 of support and buoyancy. It is the excavated. Heavy concretions can damage conservator's job on site to foresee these the object physically, as well as harbour salts changes and begin immediately to ameliorate and marine animals. Cleaning and detailed the conditions. For preference, stabilization investigation are two things that are closely should use passive methods, such as simple linked. Many objects from marine sites are wet storage, the creation of physical supports obscured by layers of marine concretion laid to prevent accidental damage, rather than down by corals, algae and other marine ..,...= active intervention. This is so that hasty organisms. Metal objects may be covered in 108 Coastal management sourcebooks 2 Pneumatic air-scribes can be used on larger information is revealed at every stage. X-ray 5 masses of concretion that cement objects images can show the shape of an iron object together. obscured in a block of concretion and can be 0 As copper corrodes, the original surface is used to guide the careful removal of the "z "' preserved inside the corrosion. With a concretion from the object. "'::u <: scalpel you can clean down to that line and O ther forms of examination could include )> stop, but with chemicals it is far too easy to chemical analysis, or scanning electron -t 0 clean past that line to the metaJ, and then the microscopy. We are looking for signs of z surface details preserved in the corrosion are weakness, signs of decay, and clues to the )> lost. We are again invoking the principal of structure and nature of the object. z 0 minimum intervention. 3: Sometimes it is impossible to avoid the use l> of chemicals, but then they must be used Paclking and storage z )> carefully, and the by-products washed away ",,, completely. With objects from marine sites, Anotlher aspect of on-site conservation, of ~ it is best to apply chemical treatments while cours.e, requires getting the objects safely to "'z the objects are still in the desalination tanks, the la1boratory. Simply choosing the correct -t so that the desalination washes away the packing material to protect the objects from =-! ,,,,.., chemical by-products. Some chemical physical shock, and to prevent them from :z: procedures are better than others, and some drying out, allows us to transport objects z have lesser side-effects than others. from Sadana to Alexandria. Padded well and c c: wrapped in wet foam and plastic, over 1,300 ,,, artefacts have been carried across the desert, "'.., 0 Investigation Cairo and Alexandria to reach the laboratory, ::0 with only 5 recorded breakages, and the e During all of the above-mentioned objects were still dripping water when z treatments, the conservator is constantly unpacked. ,,,0 ::a observing, investigating, and reporting on the ~ nature of, the artefact. Having a conservator )> -I on site means that there is a trained observer Drying "'::0 looking closely at each artefact, noting materials, technology and fine details of In the laboratory, once all the cleaning and ::a> -t decoration and usage. This constant flow of investigation is complete, the final stage for ..,"' information going to the archaeologists about mari 111e artefacts is drying. Drying can be l>,.., the objects can enhance the excavation plan. very damaging to objects, especially organic -t Similarly, conservators can help excavators materials, since water has replaced organic "' with specific advice on how to handle material, and removing the water causes it to delicate or even dangerous materials. shrink and collapse. Treating waterlogged Careful investigation before and during organic materials can be a long, dirty job, but treatment cannot be overemphasized. it is very rewarding, since materials like Treatment should only be performed after leather, seeds, wood and other delicate you know what the object is, and what its objects are best preserved under water, and particular problem is. Even the most obvious are rarely found in bulk in terrestrial problems should be examined, because one excavations. These organic materials need to small detail may alter everything. This does be stabilized with consolidants before they not need to be complicated; simple can be dried out. Waterlogged wood is microscopy can reveal many details to the especially sensitive and must be treated trained eye. carefully so that the object is not damaged. O ther options include x-radiography, but Plant materials, such as wood and rope, are these are carried out in the laboratory, not on usuallly treated by soaking them in a solution site. Investigation is something that takes of polyethylene glycol, which acts as a fi ller place during the entire conservation, as new and lubricant to replace the cellulose Coastal management sourcebooks 2 109 5 dissolved from the wood. The wood or rope can then be carefully dried. These procedures can take several years. Conservation takes a long time - years to treat a single piece of wood, months to treat a copper basin. For every season of excavation, we commit ourselves to two years of conservation. But after all this, what next? The object goes into the Museum display or onto the store-room shelf. And conservation does not stop: it is based on the knowledge of decay, and on trying to slow it. Objects can deteriorate faster in the Museum or storeroom than they can on site - they are subject to a fluctuating environment, damage by handling, and pollution in the air. This is one reason that INA-Egypt and the SCA wanted a permanent conservation facility at the Museum - to help maintain the collections and to implement the best procedures in the care and supervision of collections. No conservation job is complete unless the paperwork is done. Conservation is a constant flow of reports and descriptions. All treatments must be recorded so that, in the future, researchers will know precisely what Q z has been done to each artefact and how it has <( been altered, if at all. We also publish the z 0 results of our archaeological and I conservation work, in our own publications •. < > as well as in international journals. 0:: w Ill z 0 v Acknowledgements I should like to acknowledge the help and support of my fellow staff members at INA Egypt, and the conservators from the SCA. I should also like to thank the many generous private and corporate donors who support the work of INA-Egypt and the ACL, and particularly the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute which made it possible for me to attend this conference. 110 Coastal management sourcebooks 2 Protection of shipwrE!cks 5 f'\ The experience of tlhE~ Spanish Nationam 0 2 Maritime Archaeologiical MMseum "'m :0 < l> -1 0 2 l> z 0 Iv AN NEGUERUELA W e shall set out the main lines along which the ~ l> Director system of defence and protection of shipwrecks z l> National Maritime is bc~ing developed by the Museum (which Archaeological Museum "m deptends directly on the Spanish Ministry of ~ m Education and Culture). The brevity required z on this occasion only allows me to set out the -1 -t basic policies we have been following over the m Introduction last three years. Furthermore, since not all the l"I :r aspects that this multifaceted system obliges us z he call for a Conference, made by the to monitor have yet been sufficiently f) c: TUniversity of Alexandria and the developed, this International Workshop in m Egyptian Delegation to UNESCO as a result Alexandria will serve to compare and contrast "'.., of the discovery of some important it with the experience of colleagues from other 0 :0 archaeological remains of the Ptolemaic city countries, because the complexity of what has c:: of Alexandria, is a unique occasion for all been found in this ancient, beautiful and z 0 those of us who work in this field. The great hospitable city is going to force all of us to m :0 significance of these underwater remains, exclhange our respective experiences :; which were discovered by two French continually for years to come. l> -1 Egyptian teams of archaeologists, is due to the m :0 well known historical implications, size, quality and tourist interest of these remains. The problem When considering the totality of 'what should be done', the biggest problem faced is not a Firs.tly, the extreme gravity of the situation of technical one, but an economic one. Although, the common archaeological underwater technically, new solutions must be found that heri.tage is well-known. We shall not deal have never previously been used in with it here, since it has already been the underwater archaeology, no insuperable subject of discussion in several international difficulty appears to exist in this regard. On conferences (Athens, UNESCO, European the other hand, the economic funding Union, etc.). Out of this grave situation arises necessary to undertake such an enormous task the urgency for the administrative authorities in a short period of time surpasses by far what of tlhe collective heritage to adopt the any State is able or willing to dedicate to its necessary measures for its protection. heritage policies. For this reason, the first Secondly, the degree of difficulty involved in consideration must be that the work is likely protecting the shipwrecks lying on our sea to take many years. And the question that all beds has also been repeatedly considered. archaeologists ask themselves, in a case like This difficulty arises from the fact that, this, is: meanwhile, how can we protect the whereas visual vigilance on land is relati vely remains? The present paper tries to deal with easy to implement, it is virtually impossible this aspect of the problem and, more under the sea. specifically, with the protection of Thirdly, the budgetted cost of the protection shipwrecks. must be considered, and the difficulty we Coastal management sourcebooks 2 111 5! professionals have in convincing the political the Museum intervened. Various systems authorities to fund projects with a very low have been studied over the last five years, profitability. which can be summarised as follows: Fourthly, we are faced with a lack of Barrows: These are the most classical personnel who are sufficiently specialized in solutions and are applied internationally. the work to be carried out. Basically, they involve covering the The situation is therefore the following: the shipwrecks with an artificial mound of sand. successive exploratory campaigns of any There are several variations on this theme, the marine archaeological research centre most sophisticated being that used by Stewart gradually detect more shipwrecks over the et al.[l] on the 16th-century Spanish years, and the action to be taken may be any shipwreck of a Basque Country whaler found of three kinds: in Red Bay (Canada). (a) The shipwrecks are excavated entirely and Some 6-8 years ago, the Museum considered extracted: this only happens rarely. using Poseidon seagrass (in co-operation with (b) The shipwrecks are documented, completely the corresponding university marine biology excavated and left at the bottom of the sea. departments) and/or metallic shavings. Both (c) The shipwrecks are partially excavated, as in options were rejected and it was decided to the majority of cases, and not only the ship but protect the remains with a classical stratified also part of its cargo are left on the seabed; barrow composed of successive layers of however, the ensuing damage caused by natural sand, stone and wire netting (Fig. I). In this agents and amateur divers is irreparable. regard, it is important that the first layer to be in contact with the wreck be of the same nature as the original bed where it was found, Our experience to minimize any changes to the physical/chemical environment of the boat Faced with the set of problems described during the centuries it has remained under the above, we in Cartagena are trying to impose a sea. The upper layer should be made up of Q z corresponding set of solutions. As we shall see stones mixed with sand. < below, some are being tested and are proving Among the main advantages of these barrows z 0 successful; others are under development, and is the fact that they blend in with the ... others have not yet been undertaken, but will . surrounding sea environment very quickly, < :> be in the immediate future. and, of course, their very low cost. Among the a: I.I.I W e have divided the systems of defence and disadvantages is the fact that they can only be Ill z protection under the following main headings: used once the excavation of the shipwreck has 0 v Passive protection { 1] Stewart, J. et al. ( 1994). Reburial of the Red By passive protection we mean the procedures Bay wreck as a form of preservation and protection of the historic resource. Materials that, once implemented, give a reasonable Issues in Art and Archaeology, IV, Cancun, guarantee that the shipwrecks will be Mexico, 16-20 May 1994. We thank Mr. Wellman, preserved in the state they were in at the time of the INA-Egypt, for this reference. Figure 1. A barrow of classical composition. Plastic netting Sand and stones Wire netting Lar e ins to fix the wire netting Large stones and sand Seaweed 112 Coastal management sourcebooks 2 been completed and not during the excavation 5 itself, and their opening or closing for review I I is very cumbersome. In the case of the ~ n 0 Canadian barrow in Red Bay, mentioned z previously, a system was thought up to "' l "':::0 monitor the state of the wood and the medium < )> which surrounded it. However, it must be -I remembered that, in that case, it was not a 0 z shipwreck that was being protected but rather )> the storage of its dismantled wood: the boat z was excavated and then dismantled piece by 0 3: piece (over 3,000 of them) and fragment by )> fragment (several thousand) and these were ~ z )> then buried again one by one in a well in I which the wood was carefully placed and I ::""' "'z Figure 2. -I Strongbox. .... "' :r "z 0 c Figure 3. "' The strongbox con "".,, be closed at day's 0 :::0 end to protect the c: excavation site z 0 during the night. "':::a ~ )> -I ::a"' Figure 4. )> General aspects of ::a -I the strongbox. .,, "')> l"'I stored, without its position in the well bearing -I "" any relation to its previous position in the Grid of ropes ship. The Museum has not, so far, considered for excavation this type of decision (dismantling a ship and then storing its wood at the bottom of the sea). Strongboxes: Having reflected on the problems presented by the barrows mentioned above, the convenience occurred to us of Framework guides to fix developing a different system which would the plates provide all the advantages of the barrows while avoiding the disadvantages. The system was originally thought up for shipwrecks that were being excavated, to enable them to be closed at the end of each day and opened again the next. Two basic options were considered for this purpose: a large box-shaped cage installed at :~- ---~< I I ' I the bottom of the sea, or a completely enclosed \ Upper metallic box (Figs. 2 and 4). ~- closing plates ...... _ ..... Coastal management sourcebooks 2 113 Figure 5. When excavating, only the necessary plates are opened, while the rest of the box serves as scaffolding for the _ divers. a: 0 u. We shall set out the option we have secured with long metallic pins and security developed, after making two important bolts. The horizontal part of the frame of the comments: firstly, that this option has now box is perforated so that a grid of ropes or been used by us with satisfactory results in the elastic cords can be installed there and used case of the two 7th-century BC Phoenician to facilitate excavation of the ship and the Q z vessels discovered at Mazarr6n;[2] secondly, associated drawing and photography. 114 Coastal management sourcebooks 2 Figure 7. 5 The 'windows' of the strongbox can be 0 easily opened and "z closed as required. "' "':io < ....)> 0 z > z 0 ~ > z )> t:'I 3:"' "'z -1 -I '"f'\ :J: z f:) c: "' currently being worked on. Thus, during the Active protection ..."' excavation made each day, the rest of the 0 ::a box remains closed and the wreck adequately In spite of aJI the foregoing, if ' pirate' protected (Fig. 5). excavators locate a barrow and/or strongbox, (c) When excavation is taking place, the part they have all the time in the world available to of the box that is not open serves as them, aided by the opacity of the sea water on scaffolding on which the divers can the sea bed, to dismantle and violate the comfortably move around without altering passive protection installed by the Museum. the ship in any way, and on which all the A team of well equipped clandestine divers instruments being used by the archaeologists, would need several days to force the Figure 8. restorers, chemists, draughtsmen, etc., can be strongbox, but this could be done if the A strongbox placed within easy reach (Fig. 5). system is not complemented by other security as used to protect (d) Since it is so easy to open and close the arrangements. the wreck for an 'windows', we can begin by only opening one W e therefore recognized the need to extended period. and, over the course of the day, progressively co-ordinate this protection with a system of It combines open and close others (Fig. 7). periodic vigilance which we call active the strongbox with (e) The structure itself serves as a frame for protection. tumulus. installing the grid of ropes used during excavation and documentation (Fig. 4). (f) Naturally, it protects the remains of the shipwreck against natural agents and unauthorized divers. Once the study of the shipwreck is complete, either definitively or provisionally, the strongbox remains in place and is in turn Sand and small stones covered with a classic barrow, as described Stron box previously, whose volume and importance Wire netting will depend on the time that the shipwreck is Sand and stones expected to remain without further review or Large pins to fix the netting study (Fig. 8). ~~~~~~~~~~~aweed Coastal management sourcebooks 2 115 5 For this aspect of the problem, it was Conclusion considered essential to involve the police I-"' authorities who have jurisdiction over the sea. Combining this double system of passive and v ...< But the collaboration of diving and amateur active protection, we believe that the IU submarine archaeology clubs, etc., must be protection of shipwrecks defined by I C:: sought too. In our view, the weight of this ministerial policy can be integrally < phase of the project should always basically guaranteed. It is true that the economic cost fall upon the police force, since it has makes it difficult to protect all the shipwrecks sufficient authority to intervene effectively already found, as well as those that have yet and expeditiously. to be discovered, but it is also true that a high In the case of Spain, this jurisdiction is number of shipwrecks and underwater attributed to the Guardia Civil (the Civil archaeological zones can be safeguarded for Guard, one of the national police forces) future generations. which has two related organizations The main problem faced in Spain is the =0 ... responsible for this task: the Guardia Civil enormous length of its coastline. This means del Mar (Marine Civil Guard) and the it is likely that, in the future, similar models Grupos Especiales de Actividades will be created in the main archaeological Subacuaticas (GEAS, or Special Forces for zones of our country, whether this be the Underwater Activities), the latter being responsibility of the Civil Guard or the made up of highly skilled, well equipped corresponding police forces of Spain's divers. In the Museum of Cartagena, autonomous communities. co-operation with the Civil Guard is being The funding of the project does not involve developed with the aim of involving the inaccessible costs for the institutions, since police in the defence and protection of our staff from the Ministries concerned can be heritage. used. In fact, the main economic cost turns The Project can be divided into two stages: out to be fuel. As regards the barrows and (a)The development of training courses on strongboxes, these can be made with local 0 z underwater archaeological heritage, given by resources at a relatively affordable cost. < technical staff from the Museum. The first of In the case of the shipwrecks that are being z 0 these courses took place in 1996 with discovered near Alexandria, some of the I optimum results, both for the Civil Guard and principles set out here could perhaps be < > the Museum.[5] applied as a way of protecting them until their ..,Q: (b )The creation of a small detachment from study can be undertaken. The decisions to be "'z the GEAS stationed in Cartagena, to work taken on the enormous concentrations of stone 0 v with the Museum. Among its functions is the blocks, which we had a chance to see on the surveillance of the barrows, general control of occasion of the International Workshop, must the coast, detention of delinquents, etc. All of obviously be different. But it is also true that, this is simply an extension of what existed in near these blocks, several shipwrecks from the Spain: the Heritage Civil Guard, which Hellenistic-Roman era have been discovered, operated on land. and some belonging to the Islamic era are These measures are expected to result in the likely to come to light. On the next occasion, signing of a series of very ambitious after this first and fruitful international agreements between the Ministries of contact, we could discuss our ideas on the Defence and Culture, which will enable us in protection of remains that are not shipwrecks, the near future to complete the development but related specifically to the architectural of these operations. As soon as the monuments found. agreements referred to have been signed, we shall set up a network of collaborators among the diving clubs and fishermen's associations; [5] Negueruela, I. et al. ( 1996). I Curso sabre we are already working on the design of the protecci6n del patrimonio arqueol6gico network, which is not yet operational, subacuatico. Cuadernos de Arqueologfa however. Marftima, 4:239-43. 116 Coastal management sourcebooks 2 Data management 5 ,.. in underwater archaeology 0 z ~ :a"' < l> -i 0 z > VINCENZO SOMMELLA lead to the creation of new instruments, z c ES s.r.1. - Progetti e Sistemi and the ability to investigate further; and Rome thus it proceeds by stages, until it reaches the very peak of wisdom ... In the light of Spinoza's words, I think that Introduction the role of data management is to transform information into knowledge or, better, to help n recent years, the techniques of data archaeologists to do it along the many steps of Imanagement have improved significantly. the same path. This improvement, in addition to the T ime destroys, day by day, with a big help development of working methods, has from Man, the remains of the past and the brought a change in the way we think about memory of things. The only way to preserve the process that takes place between the our heritage is to record all the data in the best ... archaeological site and the museum. possible way and to make them available to =0 All the work - surveying, mapping, video the largest number of people. c: photo documentation, cataloguing, data This is more urgent for underwater remains z 0 analysis, book publishing, museum display, which often are in constant danger of being "' and so on, should be considered a unique stolen or destroyed. The necessity of =~ activity: data management. collecting data quickly and in the best > -i Spinoza, in paragraph 31 of his Treatise possible way depends also on the high cost ,,, on the Emendation of the Intellect ( 1661 ), of underwater excavation and, in most cases, = wrote: on the impossibility of going back and checking the surveying, or the hypothesis, ... just as men began by being able to do later. very easy things using their natural The present workshop is dedicated to instruments, even if they did them underwater archaeology and coastal imperfectly and with much effort, and management; if we want to deal with the two having done these things they went on to do subjects together, we need a common others which are more difficult, and they language and a way of sharing data and did them better and more easily, and problems to reach solutions suitable for both thus they proceeded by stages, passing first fields. from the simplest works to their necessary This will be very difficult until we create the instruments, and from these instruments three following things: to other works and other instruments, • a common surveying methodology; until they came to a point at which • a common way of describing data, in format they could do a great many very difficult and in vocabulary; and things with great ease - in the same way • one or more instruments to manage these the intellect proceeds, making for itself data all together and easily. intellectual instruments out of its innate Obviously several steps have already been strength, through which it then acquires taken in this direction and the objective of the new strengths which enable it to perform present paper is to contribute to the work in new intellectual tasks, and these new tasks progress. Coastal management sourcebooks 2 11 7 5 Methods To return to our own field, this analogy suggests that data, if they are to be properly It is not feasible here to deal with the whole comparable, must either be measured with issue of surveying methodology, because that equivalent precision and accuracy, or at least would require a longer paper than the present be translatable into a common standard with one; but one aspect of the question may be the aid of certain reference values. For considered: the importance of planning every example, if you measure one distance with a survey according to the characteristics of the metric ruler made of plastic, and another with related data-management programme. a distance-measuring theodolite, the two As already stated, we have to consider the data measurements will not be comparable, unless flow, starting from the field survey. A survey the accepted level of tolerance is extremely is never an objective description of reality; it is great, or unless there is a coefficient which, a choice of some parts of it or, better, just a when applied, reduces the difference in choice of some quality of the chosen parts. accuracy of the two instruments to within This establishes a definite responsibility of the acceptable limits. surveyors in the final results of the research, These same ISO 9000 standards require that because different ways of describing things the operational procedures for every lead to different ways of studying them. significant activity in a process be defined. Every time we look at something that we Besides ensuring that the correct methods are think we know well, from a different and applied to every stage in the manufacturing unusual viewpoint, we discover something process, this requirement guarantees new or, at least, new aspects never seen continuity of standards and procedures, even before. This means that we have to plan our if the personnel applying them change. system choosing a side of reality and to In conclusion, we may say that, to obtain organize the whole work from the beginning, reliable data in sufficient quantity and knowing exactly which kind of data our data sufficiently quickly to meet our objectives, it management system requires. We have to is necessary to have a comprehensive vision Q z know in which formats and with which of the process of study and research as a < accuracy and precision our system works; whole from the very start. Such a vision z 0 what are the graphic standards and so on. should include a clear definition of the ... All this is absolutely necessary to permit the project's aims, and the instruments to be used < > comparison of data and to create a possibility in achieving them. It should also be founded 0: of scientific research. on the exact definition of the procedures for ""VI z To take a well known contemporary analogy, collecting and recording data that will be 0 y we can imagine the kind of approach that we adopted. ought to have to projects and to the method of data acquisition, by comparing these processes to the UNI EN ISO 9000 The instrument: GIS international quality standards. These standards, which now regulate quality control GIS is the acronym of Geographic in all manufacturing businesses, whether Information System. Beyond its natural field public or private, require the elimination of of application - land management - the GIS any ambiguity from all of the activities of a family is the latest development in data-base company. For instance, the precision of the software. In fact, a GIS permits contemporary measuring instruments used for quality but different types of data to be handled control must itself be explicitly defined (that together and has the ability to hold and is, the minimum unit of measurement that manipulate large bodies of data of any kind, they are able to gauge), their accuracy (that is, from vector to raster, from alphanumeric to their deviation from a perfect measurement in video, from sound to photo. terms of this minimum unit) and their range of The most important innovation is the tolerance (that is, the variation in dimension possibility of linking different types of data that is considered acceptable). and of making queries of graphic and 118 Coastal management sourcebooks 2 alphanumeric information. This means that different finds which share certain 5 we can start by making a query of a map and characteristics, without descending below a obtain a list of information, or make a query given depth. 0 "z of an alphanumeric data base to obtain a We have developed a GIS that we called, ..... thematic map as an answer. ,,, without much imagination, Archaeogis. It ::0 To pose such questions as: 'show me all the was developed to manage the data of La < l> painted ceramics found on 10 July 1996 in the Marmotta site in Lake Bracciano near Rome. -I 0 third stratum' or 'show me all the animal This site is one of the most important z bones of the 2nd stratum that are at less than European Neolithic sites. During the )> 2 m from the axe n° 345 and print the list' is a installation of an underwater pipeline in z 0 simple way of using a GIS and a great help to 1989, the neolithic village was found at a the archaeologist in his work. 3: depth of about 7.5 m, covered by 2 m of )> Moreover, a GIS is able to perform sediment. As soon as we began surveying the z )> simulations and to produce reasonable excavation area, we understood the necessity ,,,~ hypotheses about any question whose answer of handling many thousands of ceramic ,,,:::: could be deduced through algorithms. For fragments, oxydians, stones, wood, bon~s. z example: you have the drawing of an ancient vegetables etc., each one with its -I fresco and its damage mapping; it is possible corresponding card and its picture. ,,,-I to visualize and calculate the increase in The GIS has a highl y innovative characteristic ("\ :r damage during a given time under specified compared with the older data base: it has z conditions (temperature, humidity, insulation, given to our systems a third dimension, not /;) c: wall damage, etc.). that of the spatial kind, which is quite ,,, Archaeology draws on information from common, but the third dimension beyond ..."' many different governmental and commercial 0 space and time - the subjects themselves. ::0 entities, as well as specialist data. It stands to c reason, then, that it will be a major benefit if z 0 an information system can extract the salient The standards ,,, ::0 point from these various sources to create ~ maps directly from attribute information from In recent years, we have seen progress in the )> -I individual or combined data sets. For standardization of archaeological cards and, in ,.., ::0 example, in Alexandria, there is the problem consequence, of archaeological data. This of preserving the Pharos island from sea progress has lead to a reduction in the erosion and, concurrently, of continuing the numbers of different index cards, from excavation of the underwater archaeological thousands to a regional or national site and of constructing an underwater standardization. This standardization does not museum. include, in most cases, either the dimensions The two or, better, the three problems are and the definitions of data-base fields or the dealt with by different specialists with structure and the compatibility of data-base different languages and different points of software. This is a problem in Italy and, view. The GIS allows them to find a common probably, in the rest of the world, and the ground and an instrument that will merge the situation amongst different countries is much languages and the data. worse. We can introduce into a GIS either data on Here, at an international workshop, the the archaeological excavation, or those on sea necessity of a common scientific language is currents, bathymetric contours, the nature of very apparent. Everybody agrees that it is the coast and the rate of erosion. It is useless to own a powerful instrument that is possible, however, using appropriate impossible to use because of the lack of algorithms, to obtain immediate answers to compatibility in the data. To make a query we questions about the effects of currents and need a vocabulary; to exchange data we need their ability to change coastal defences, just standard cards; hardware is stupid, and if you as it is possible to select and de fi ne define a cup as being biansata instead of 'con automatically an underwater path linking due anse', it could be a big problem, so you Coastal management sourcebooks 2 11 9 5 ) can imagine what happens between different system, about 30 categories and 500 sub languages, different institutions and different categories. 11"1 I- software. Today in Italy, there is a card-cataloguing v < The first big problem is the definition of the system for archaeology which has been ii. ....w categories and the sub-categories. This established by an agency that is part of the = definition is the first step in the data-base Ministry for Cultural Heritage, the ICCD. < structure. This is not a programmer's problem This system is specifically designed for =.., but an archaeologist's. In cartography, for cards that are used for archaeological .... < example, there are internationally recognized 'objects'. For those who are not familiar s standard categories, as: buildings, streets, with such systems, let me give an example ..,= hydrography, orography, etc. Each category of how ours works: all significant finds are Q :z has many sub-categories and each sub catalogued in the system with a card that is :> category has his own graphic characteristics marked RA ('reperto archeologico'). The 0= and its own card. There is, in the most used nature of the find (ceramics, wood, stone, ii. metal, etc.) is described on the card. This ..,"" description is a free description, since the :::> Cl nature of such finds can be highly diverse. z There is no scale of priorities which would :2: v define a hierarchical structure for the data. w t- The same is true of the US ('unita ... stratigrafica') cards, which are used for z ..... every independently identifiable element of ....~ the site, from a ditch to a wall, from an arch INPUT to a mosaic. This Jack of a descriptive < ""z hierarchy greatly simplifies the work of < :? classification, even if it is at the cost of a certain inaccuracy, so as to cover the widest Q z EXCAVATION possible range of cases. < The first problem we encounter if we want to z 0 create a GIS for archaeology is the following: I- in a GIS, every category must have certain < > Surveying graphic characteristics which are fixed; for a:: w example, the category 'pavements' would Recovery "'z have to be a closed area, and the category 0 y 'contour lines' would have to be an open Simplified Cards polylinear form. If objects are placed in the DATA category 'US cards' which cannot be External described in these ways, then the original Data Analysis categories will have to be sub-divided into (geological sub-categories. geographical This subdivision - which should also be a bibliography Documentation etc.) priority for other, unconnected reasons - has never been formally defined. As a result, each Catalogue person chooses only those categories which seem to him or her most significant, and defines them according to those parameters VECTOR, RASTER AND ALPHANUMERIC DATA ENTRY that are most important in his or her work. As a result, we could have one GIS that begins by GIS identifying finds according to their date, another that identifies them according to their SCI NTIFIC RESE RCH material, and yet another, according to the terms in which they are described. 120 Coastal management sourcebooks 2 In addition, the graphic categories used to In accordance with the concept of data 5 describe objects have not been formalized management, this project is conceived around ,... either, as a result of which we may have a flow of the data that originates in 0 several 'objects' which belong to the same archaeological excavation, is then rendered in z "" category, but which are defined in such digital form, collected and managed within a ;o'" < different ways that the various sets of data GIS, studied using that GIS, is then )> cannot be used in conjunction with one distributed and compared with other data over ~ 0 another. the lnternet, and is finally used to put together z Finally - though this is not the last of our exhibitions, publications (on paper, and )> problems - the question of devising an electronically, as CD-ROMs), lectures and so z 0 unambiguous code to replace the traditional on - all of this at only minimal cost at each inventory numbers has not yet been stage and, above all, with all the data addressed, nor has the problem of the continuously available to provide new 'skeleton' which structures the mass of data answers to new questions. that has been assembled yet been resolved. In France, the method that is increasingly favoured is that of the 'intelligent' code, from which one can immediately read off the fundamental information associated with the object. /;)- c: '"VI REINS Project ... 0 OUTPUT = We are currently working on a project that e follows the themes described above. The z 0 name of the project is REINS (Rete Europea '";o per lo studio degli Insediamenti Neolitici ~ Sommersi); it is co-financed by the GIS )> ~ European Commission under the Raphael SCI NTIFIC RES RCH ='" Programme for European Cultural Heritage Safeguard. The project's partners are: ES Progetti e Sistemi Company, Naples-Rome (Italy), co-ordinator; Museo Nazionale Luigi Pigorini, Rome (Italy); Museu Arqueologic Coman;al de Banyoles (Spain); Archaeologische Denkmalpflege Landesdenkrnalamt, Baden Wurttemberg (Germany). Book and articles Multimedia The REINS project includes the development of a Europe-oriented G IS, Temporary exibitions Archaeogis re/. Euro. To develop this software we are comparing the index cards from Italy, Germany and Spain, to create a KNOWLEDGE common standard. This is a vast project. One needs only to think of the difficulty of defining an unambiguous relationship Museum between definitions in three different languages. At the same time, we are trying to define at least some of the procedures for acquiring and presenting the data mentioned Universit above. Coastal management sourcebooks 2 12 1 6 Conventions and laws related to submarine archaeological sites in the Mediterranean VINCENT NEGRI the sea sought to address the question of Affiliated researcher protecting those cultural goods that were to be lnstitut de Droit de I' Environnement found underwater. But simply granting the Universite de Lyon 3 prerogative to the various States concerned as to how the management of these goods should be regulated was not enough to ensure that they would be protected against every he Mediterranean is a geographical link possible threat. It thus fell to the Convention ,,, Tthat binds together different continents. for the Protection of the Mediterranean Sea z As a 'complex of seas', it defines a unity that Against Pollution, adopted in Barcelona on 0 ... is not only physical, but human, and thus 16 February 1976, and its additional <( ai: historical, too[l]. It embodies a common protocols, to begin the process of formulating II.& Q heritage which is the source of the high principles by which underwater cultural goods ,,, culture generally associated with Western can be brought within the scope of an z 0 civilisation[2]. Indeed, few people today are international environmental instrument. The v not indebted to the culture of the convention of the Council of Europe of -' <( Mediterranean. Where once men and women 8 March 1993 on civil liability for damage \.:1 fought over their inheritance, there is now, for resulting from activities dangerous to the II.& .... the most part, peace. Yet even this relative environment confirmed the extension of the calm is not entirely devoid of tension. idea of reparation for environmental damage On land, the frontiers have been fixed. Where to the cultural heritage. Thus reparation for conflict does re-emerge, it remains localized. damage occasioned to wrecks of Instead, those who are ambitious to extend archaeological interest due to marine their dominion have turned their attention to pollution, and especially the oil spills, was the sea. From the time the law of the sea was brought under a clearly-defined legal scheme. first formulated in 1930, up until the Law of Finally, to resume where the law of the sea left the Sea Convention of 1982 and beyond, the off, the Mediterranean States have adopted interests at stake have been growing ever national laws, some of which deal exclusively more numerous and more complex. Today, with underwater cultural goods, and through the demand for economic development which those States seek to achieve a certain occupies centre stage. Rather than new degree of control over this part of their heritage. territories, debate focuses on the question of rights to the apparently inexhaustible natural resources of the sea. At the same time, the The law of the sea and cultural dimension of development policy has the notion of cultural heritage come to the fore, and the protection of the environment has emerged as a major issue. Partly through the efforts of the The protection of cultural goods has thus Mediterranean States, the law of the sea has come to be seen as integral both to the values gradually come to incorporate certain specific of development and to environmental provisions relating to the underwater cultural concerns. It was in this context that the law of heritage. In this context, the Mediterranean 122 Coastal management sourcebooks 2 has often come Lo serve as the laboratory in cultural goods. This inadequacy can be clearly 6 which these new concepts were first seen in the case of article 303, which can be promulgated and applied. interpreted as protecting the right to the commercial exploitation of wrecks of historical First steps towards legislation for significance - and thus, in effect, the right to underwater archaeological sites destroy archaeological resources before they r'\ 0 The States which border the Mediterranean can be investigated by scientists[4]. z first raised the question of how to protect "" archaeological objects found under the sea The Mediterranean as laboratory: during the third Conference on the Law of the exploring concepts of heritage Sea which began in 1970. Greece, Italy, The Mediterranean sea is tightly girded round Malta, Portugal, Tunisia and former by land[S], and as such has often served as a Yugoslavia together put forward a model for other enclosed or semi-enclosed proposition, which was also supported by seas. Thus the term 'Mediterraneans' has Cape Verde, according to which sovereign sometimes been used to refer to such types of rights would be granted to each coastal State maritime space[6]. One example of this is the over all archaeological and historical objects declaration adopted at Santo Domingo on that were located on its continental shelf. 9 June 1972 by the 15 States which border the Each coastal State would thus have enjoyed Caribbean Sea, in which the Caribbean is exclusive prerogatives to investigate, salvage, referred to as the American Mediterranean. The ;i;.. protect and exploit those objects, along with idea of the Mediterranean thus came to play a ;:a preferential rights should the objects be sold crucial role in defining the concept of a :c"' )> and exported from the country of origin. patrimonial sea. This concept was intended to "' These preferential rights would have belonged solve the problem of reconciling the divergent 0,.. either to the State of cultural origin, or to the interests of these States, which could not claim, 0 State of historical or archaeological origin. whether by convention or by unilateral " The spirit of this proposal, which would dec1aration. 'national sovereignty'(?] and "')>,.. effectively have created a series of archaeological zones covering the continental shelves of the various States concerned, was {I] Braudel. F. (1990). La Mediterranee. Volume/, supported by other Mediterranean States, in p. 21. Armand Colin. Paris. {2] Duby, G. (1986). 'L'heritage'. p. 193, in: particular France, Egypt and Cyprus. But it F. Braudel (ed.), La Mediterranee, les hommes et was also strongly opposed by certain States, !'heritage. Champs/Flammarion, Paris. including the United States, who worked to [3] Leanza. u. (1992). Le regimejuridique have the archaeological zone reduced to the international de la Mediterranee, p. 253. in: contiguous zone. During the negotiation and Recueil des Cours de l'Academie de droit final drafting of the Law of the Sea international, V, volume 236. The Hague. [4/ UNESCO ( 1995). Etude de faisabilite sur la Convention of I 0 December 1982, this redaction d'un nouvel instrument pour la preservation counter-proposal finally won the day. Leaving du patrimoine culture! subaquatique. Documellf 146 aside the economic interests of the parties EX/27 (23 March 1995). UNESCO. Paris. concerned, these debates show how the [5 / Braudel, F. op. cit.. p. 22. original idea of an archaeological zone, [6] Lucchini, L (1984). La troisiemeconference des Nations-Unies sur le droit de lamer face au irrespective of the size of the zone proposed, phenomene des 'Mediterranees' ou le triomphe de first emerged in the Mediterranean context, l'Etat oceanique. p. 289. in: Etudes offertes a C.-A. with the support of the coastal States(3]. Colliard. Pidone, Paris. The Convention contains two articles which /7 / The interpretation of the nature of the rights to make specific reference to the underwater which a nation lays claim will differ from one heritage. Articles 148 and 303 deal respectively nation to another. The imerpretation that is adopted will not necessarily suppose the application offull with archaeological and historical objects found sovereign rights. /cf Castaneda, J. ( 1972). Les in the zone, and the rights of the coastal State. positions des Etats lati110-americains. p. 158, in: However, these articles are far from being an Actualites du droit de la mer, Societe fran~aise pour adequate mechanism for protecting underwater le droit international. Pedone, Paris]. Coastal management sourcebooks 2 123 6 exclusive jurisdiction over an area of up to 200 resources for their development[ 11). nautical miles without thereby each trespassing This concept may have had its origin in the on the waters of their neighbours(8). most generous feelings. But unfortunately, in Subsequently, the regime governing the norms governing development, law _, matrimonial seas significantly refi ned this principles largely predominate over the rules < patrimonial concept, by prescribing a sort of they were meant to inspire. Although these v .., commonality of all biological resources which principles are juridical principles - that is, 0_, lie beyond the 12-mile limit of national able to dictate juridical rules - their moral or 0.... sovereignty. Once again, we must recognise ideological content is very pronounced. < that it was the Mediterranean States who first Clearly, it is easier to formulate a general l:: v developed this concept. During the third pri nciple - and to ensure its universal a: < conference on the law of the sea, the case was acceptance - than a rule which dictates a plainly stated by the Libyan representatives: precise form of behaviour{ 12]. The 'the wealth of these (semi-enclosed) seas formulation of article 149, which deals with constitute the heritage of the coastal States' [9]. archaeological and historical objects found The law of the sea which emerged from the within the zone, is thus intended to reserve Convention of 1982, and which is dominated room for the rights of States relative to the by the idea of appropriating maritime concept of a common heritage, which is areas[ JO], also satisfied the demand made by nevertheless grandly presented as if it were a ..., one Mediterranean state -Malta - that the monument to the interests of humanity as a z juridical notion of a common heritage of 0 whole. ... mankind be recognized. This notion, as < ..,a: applied to maritime areas, was originally 0 conceived as being advantageous to the Adapting international ..., developing countries, in that it was thought it environmental norms to protect z 0 would help them to obtain additional cultural heritage v _, < [8] The maritime zone defined in this way, as the The United Nations' declaration on the "'.... patrimonial sea, is a zone over which the coastal environment at Stockholm in 1972, _, state is competent to exercise jurisdiction and proclaimed that 'both aspects of man's supervisory powers to a specific end. but over which environment, the natural and the man-made, it does not claim sovereignty. Thus the declaration are essential to his well-being and to the stipulates that 'the coastal State has sovereign rights over the renewable and non-renewable natural enjoyment of basic human rights - even the resources, which are found in the waters, in the sea right to life itself.' [ 13]. Natural resources and bed and in the subsoil ofan area adjacent to the cultural productions were thus united without territorial sea called the patrimonial sea'. The distinction in a single concept: the patrimonial sea should thus be considered a zone environment. It is this sense of the term over which the State has economic jurisdiction. The 'environment' that is graduaJly taken into prerogatives that are thus granted are accompanied by both a duty and a right to regulate scientific account in the formulation of environmental research conducted in these areas, particularly so as norms. The evolution of international law in to protect natural resources. this area is thus characterised by a series of [9] Document Officiel, vol. 1, p. 150. Cited by subtle steps through which heritage L Lucchini, op. cit, p. 302. considerations have gradually been integrated [JO] Tavernier, P. ( 1984). Droit de lamer et droit international du developpement. p. 230, in: La into texts whose explicit aims are formation des normes en droit international du environmental. developpement Editions du CNRS, Paris. [ 11] Ibid. First steps towards taking heritage [12) Villary, M. (1984). Droit, politique et considerations into account developpemem. p. 57, in: La formation des normes en droit international du developpement. Editions In the preamble to the Convention for the du CNRS, Paris. protection of the Mediterranean sea against [ 13] United Nations ( 1972). Doc. A/Conf48/14/Rev.l. pollution adopted at Barcelona in 16 February UN, New York. 1976, the contracting Parties declare that they 124 Coastal management sourcebooks 2 recognize the economic, social and cultural must, as specified in article 7, gradually enact 6 values of the marine environment of the the necessary measures, in accordance with ,... Mediterranean area. Yet the text of the international law. As far as cultural heritage is "' Convention itself reduces the cultural concerned, there is a reference in article 7, ",..l> dimension of this programme to a simple matter paragraph i) to 'the regulation of any ("\ of the enjoyment of the pleasures which cultural archaeological activity and of the removal of 0 goods can procure for the individual. Article 2 any object which may be considered as an z of the Convention thus mentions the archaeological object'. "" degradation of amenities as among the elements Concerns regarding the scientific management which define the notion of pollution. and development of these areas are The Protocol which was joined to the specifically mentioned in article I0 of the Convention concerning co-operation in Protocol: 'The Parties shall encourage and combating pollution of the Mediterranean sea develop scientific and technical research on by oil and other harmful substances in cases of their protected areas and on the ecosystems emergency, adopted on the same day as the and archaeological heritage of those areas'. Convention itself, extends this approach by As a corollary, this action should be including threats to historical and touristic accompanied by mechanisms to ensure public attractions among those related interests which participation and the dissemination of the States must seek to preserve from such knowledge. Thus article 11 declares that the damage[l4]. These partial, even reductive, States will endeavour to inform the public as > approaches to the heritage question, limited by widely as possible of the significance and ;rJ the requirement that the sites in question be interest of the protected areas and of the "':r deemed aesthetically attractive, were to be scientific knowledge which may be gained l> considerably extended in the drafting of the from them in relation to both nature ,.."'0 additional Protocol of 3 April 1982. conservation and archaeology. Such 0 information should have an appropriate place " The concept of a protected area applied to in education programmes concerning the "'l>,.. archaeological sites The Protocol of 3 April 1982 concerning [ 14) These ideas are to be found in most specially protected Mediterranean areas conventions on regional seas and their protocols places natural resources and sites on a par concerning co-operation in combating pollution in with the cultural heritage when it comes to cases of emergency: Convention of 23 March 1981 for co-operation in the protection and development defining such areas. of the marine and coastal environment of the West According to the terms of the first article of the and Central African region and its Protocol Protocol, the contracting Parties 'shall take all adopted the same day; the Convention of appropriate measures with a view to protecting 20 November 1981 for the protection of the marine those marine areas which are important for the environment and coastal areas of the South-East safeguard of the natural resources and natural Pacific, and its Protocol; the regional Convention of 14 February 1982for the conservation of the sites of the Mediterranean Sea Area, as well as Red Sea and the Gulfof Aden environment, and its for the safeguard of their cultural heritage in Protocol; the Protocol of24 March 1983 the region'. concerning co-operation in combatting oil spills in Continuing in the same dual perspective, which the wider Caribbean Region; the Convention of associates natural sites and resources on the 21 June 1985 for the protection, management and development of the marine and coastal one hand with cultural heritage on the other, environment ofthe Eastern African region, and its article 3 declares that the States will create Pro1ocol. As for the Convention of25 November protected areas in order to preserve from harm 1986 for the protection ofthe natural resources both the various elements that constitute and environment of the South Pacific region, its natural and ecological resources, and 'sites of supplementary Protocol concerning co-operation particular importance because of their in combatting pollution emergencies gives a somewhat different formula/ion of the relevant scientific, aesthetic, historical, archaeological, cultural interests. Here, the reference is to the cultural or educational interest'. cultural value of the region and to the exercise of To ensure this aim is achieved, the States traditional customary rights within this zone. Coastal management sourcebooks 2 125 environment and history. The Parties should international waters, nor in lakes, streams or also endeavour to promote the participation of rivers[ 16]. By thus limiting the area concerned their public and their nature conservation in accordance with the notion of national organizations in appropriate measures which sovereignty, the text is deprived of much of its are necessary for the protection of the areas potential force, and the mechanisms for concerned. protecting the underwater heritage that it Co-operation and assistance programmes, establishes are rendered powerless outside each especially in the areas of training of scientific State's territorial waters. and technical staff and of scientific research, should also be established, so as to allow The regime governing responsibility for those developing countries that wish to do so damage to cultural goods caused by to define, establish and manage their own pollution or by dangerous activities protected areas. Wrecks involving several oil-carrying tankers The application of the concept of protected have alerted public opinion to the damage areas to the underwater cultural heritage, as it such accidents can do to the environment. But was defined in the Protocol of 3 April 1982, the responsibilities of the authors of what has allows for the creation of archaeological come to be known as 'ecological damage' zones according to original criteria. In this could not be fully addressed by mere juridical sense, this new approach to protecting the means. In order to create an adequate space occupied by the underwater heritage mechanism for obtaining reparation, corresponds to the concept of a marine reserve therefore, the Council of Europe introduced a or park. Though this concept may be very Convention on 8 March 1993 on civil liability attractive, it also suffers from two notable for damage resulting from activities limitations, as a result of the fact that its dangerous to the environment. II\ application is limited to territorial waters. The Convention defines the environment in z 0 On a practical level, the underwater cultural the same terms as the Stockholm declaration u heritage can only be protected through the of 1972. Under article 2.10, it states that the creation of protected areas around known or environment includes: generally recognised sites on a case-by-case • natural resources both abiotic and biotic, basis. This approach supposes that the sites to such as air, water, soil, fauna and flora and the be protected have already been identified an~ interaction between the same factors; listed. Although the Protocol says nothing on • property which forms part of the cultural this subject, these are the classic mechanisms heritage; and used by international instruments which aim • the characteristic aspects of the landscape. to define protected areas[ 15]. In the absence These last two points are of particular interest of any other specific dispositions, this for those whose concern is with the protection identification process would inevitably be the of the Mediterranean coastline and responsibility of the coastal States, within the environment. They are particularly important limits of their territorial waters. This last point because this convention explicitly emphasises is implicitly confirmed by the wording of the question of reparation for damages article 2 of the Protocol, which restricts the sustained by the environment. Article 2.7 in area of the Mediterranean concerned 'to the particular distinguishes between damage to territorial waters of the Parties and may persons and to personal property, and damage include waters on the landward side of the baseline from which the breadth of the [ 15] For example, the UNESCO convention of territorial sea is measured and extends, in the 16 November 1972for the protection of the world case of watercourses, up to the freshwater cultural and natural heritage includes certain limit'. This text also states that the area thus dispositions which suppose the creation ofsuch a defined may 'include wetlands or coastal mechanism. [ 16] Strati, A. ( 1995). The protection of the areas designated by each of the Parties'. underwater cultural heritage: an emerging objective There is no ambiguity about the words used of the contemporary law of the sea. p. 86. Martinus here: protected areas cannot be created in Nijho.ff Publishers, The Hague. 126 Coastal management sourcebooks 2 or loss resulting from some change inflicted Nevertheless, these remarks should not be 6 on the environment. The conjunction of this allowed to detract from the importance of this ,.. distinction and the definition of the norm, which marked a decisive step forward "' environment adopted by the Convention in ascribing civil responsibility for l> "r- makes this an especially valuable instrument environmental harm, and which recognized ,.... through which to address the protection of the the specific nature of damage to the 0 cultural heritage against pollution of all kinds. environment, where environment is broadly z "" As for the strict liability of the authors, interpreted to include among other things the 0 whether public or private, of damage cultural heritage. "'::D l> resulting from dangerous activities While the Convention primarily concerns the -I undertaken for professional reasons, the European States of the Mediterranean basin, its 0 z Convention established as a criterion that the benefits can also be extended to other States "" environmental prejudice suffered should be which are not members of the Council of .,, 0 assessed on the basis of restoration to the Europe, at the invitation of the Committee of ::D prior state and the cost of this work - Ministers or at the proposal of the permanent VI c: including appropriate protective measures - Committee following a decision of the member Cl' or, as a subsidiary provision, the costs States taken by qualified majority voting. :: l> incurred to obtain compensation in kind[l 7). Despite its defects, then, this norm does ::D Under the heading of damage caused by address a number of important questions z pollution to 'property which forms part of the concerning reparation and compensation for "' ;r;:. cultural heritage' and negative effects of damage to elements belonging to the cultural ::D,.... dangerous activities, are included any heritage, including underwater archaeological ::t changes suffered by underwater sites, caused by the dumping of polluting l> "'0 archaeological sites. These sites are substances. r- particularly vulnerable to such impacts, 0 especially those caused by oil spills. The "l"I strong point of these articles is therefore that > National legislation r- they establish terms of objective responsibility for such damage. Their weak Many of the States which border the point lies in the definitions they give of Mediterranean Sea have adopted laws which appropriate reinstatement work and specifically deal with the protection of their preventive measures. underwater cultural heritage. Certain States, Reinstatement measures are defined in the such as France and Tunisia, have limited the Convention under article 2.8 as any scope of such laws to supervising reasonable measures ai ming to reinstate or archaeological activities and protecting restore damaged or destroyed components of cultural goods to be found within the the environment, or to introduce, where contiguous zone. reasonable, the equivalent of these Thus the first article of French law number 89- components into the environment. National 874 of l December 1989, concerning maritime law may indicate who will be entitled to take cultural goods, states that maritime cultural such measures. Preventive measures are here defined as any reasonable measures taken by any person, after an incident has occurred to { 17] Martin, G. J. ( 1994). La convention du prevent or minimize loss or damage as Conseil d'Europe du 8 mars 1983 dite convention Lugano. p. 99. Les petites affiches, no. 50 (27 April defined in the Convention[l8]. However, the 1994), Paris. repeated use of the adjective 'reasonable' in [I 8] Article 2. 7 of the Convention in particular these definitions, which seems designed to defines damage as meaning, among other things. echo the Anglo-Saxon usage, 'rule of any loss or damage sustained due to an alteration reason' [ 19), leaves the door open to attempts in the environment, where this latter term includes both natural resources and those goods that make to attenuate the enforcement of the up the cultural heritage and the characteristic mechanisms for establishing responsibility aspects of a landscape. created by the Convention. [ 19) Martin, G. J. op. cit. Coastal management sourcebooks 2 127 6 goods are those sites, wrecks, remains or in identical to its exclusive fishery zone. general any element which, being of More generally, State practice has tended to prehistoric, archaeological or historical interest, extend control over underwater cultural goods is to be found in the public maritime domain or to cover all or part of the continental shelf. Thus on the sea-bed of the contiguous zone. Spanish law applies to movable and immovable The second article of Tunisian law number goods to be found either in territorial waters or 86-35 of 9 May 1986, concerning the on the continental shelf[20]. protection of archaeological goods, historic In those cases where national law has sought monuments and natural sites in urban areas, to extend the area of its application, it has envisages that explorations may particularly done so simply by reference to the continental target underwater remains in any area of shelf. Yet such extensions might well have water, including inland waters, territorial adopted the exclusive economic zone as an waters and the contiguous zone which extends alternative criterion. The decision to extend to 24 nautical miles from the base lines used juridical control to the continental shelf alone to define the extent of the territorial waters. can be found in the legislations of Greece, More recently, Tunisian law number 94-35 of Israel, Libya and Turkey[21]. Among those 24 February 1994 concerning the code that States which initiated the demand for governs the archaeological, historical and sovereign rights over archaeological and traditional craft heritage, gives to the State the historical objects to be found on their property of all archaeological goods, movable continental shelves at the third Conference on or immovable, that are discovered in both the Law of the Sea, it should be noted that inland and territorial waters. Cape Verde has also manifested this ambition This regulation then goes on to stipulate that in its law number 102/111/90 of 29 December any exploration of underwater cultural sites 1990, which deals with the defence of Cape requires prior authorization, and that in certain Verde's cultural heritage. "'z 0 cases the State's property in archaeological Yet this kind of legislation contravenes the v objects retrieved from the sea bed is main thrust of the Law of the Sea Convention, accompanied by a pre-emptive right over which was to limit the archaeological zone to those objects. In a chapter devoted 24 nautical miles, that is, to the contiguous specifically to discoveries made at sea, the zone, and which in no case foresaw that a Tunisian archaeological, historical and . coastal State might exercise any form of traditional crafts heritage code of 1994 forbids sovereign right over underwater cultural any form of investigation whose aim is to goods to be found on its continental shelf. search for archaeological and historical goods Nevertheless, the Council of Europe's at sea, without authorization from the minister recommendation number 848 of 4 October responsible for national heritage. Most States 1978 concerning the underwater cultural likewise stipulate that underwater heritage, which seeks to define the principles archaeological goods are to be subject to the which should guide the development of a same juridical regime of authorization and European Convention on underwater cultural supervision as that which applies to heritage, proposed the declaration of national archaeological investigations on land. zones of cultural protection which might Other Mediterranean States have extended extend up to a limit of 200 miles, where their control over underwater cultural goods geographical conditions made such a distance beyond the limits of the contiguous zone. appropriate. In its annex on minimal legal According to the terms of article 46 of law norms, the recommendation envisaged that number 22-80 concerning the preservation of national jurisdiction could run up to the limit historic monuments and sites, inscriptions, art of 200 miles, with an international agreement objects and antiquities, promulgated by the dahir number 1-80-341 on 17 Safar 1401 [20] Art. 40 of law number I 611985of25 June on (25 December 1980), Morocco has defined the Spanish cultural heritage. the maritime zone within which it claims [21] According to the indications provided in jurisdiction over archaeological goods as U. Leanza, op. cit, p. 254. 128 Coastal management sourcebooks 2 to determine, on condition of reciprocity, how definition of the territoriality of heritage given cultural goods discovered by one country yet under article 1, paragraph 2(iii), which simply .... belonging to the cultural zone of another accepts the practice of dealing with the m country should be dealt with. underwater cultural heritage through the legal "',...> The recommendation preferred the 200-mile dispositions which already apply to the zone as a norm for the Mediterranean instead archaeological heritage that is to be found on of the continental shelf, both because the land. Far from daring to define the territorial definition of the continental shelf is imprecise terms of cultural sovereignty, the European and subject to variation, and because by doing Convention for the protection of the so, the recommendation was able to align archaeological heritage (revised version) itself with the idea of an exclusive economic simply accepts a traditional conception of the zone which was just then emerging from the zone that is controlled by the State, and thus negotiations on the Law of the Sea excludes from the outset any possibility of Convention. It was also then possible to rethinking the idea of archaeological heritage remodel the definition of cultural zones in the light of new approaches to the definition according to the same principles. of national territory. It is therefore to be feared Despite this advance, the European that a similarly traditional approach may yet Convention for the protection of the manage to undermine the conceptual archaeological heritage (revised version), innovations of the European draft Convention signed in Malta on 16 January 1992, returns to on underwater cultural heritage which is to be the traditional terminology, without taking a drawn up according to the recommendation of ,,> /"\ position as to the extent of a nation's territorial 4 October 1978. ::t waters. After having stated in article 1, > paragraph 2(iii) that the cultural goods dealt ,...0"' with by the Convention are those which are Conclusion 0 located in any area within the jurisdiction of "/"\ the States, the third paragraph of the first The Mediterranean Sea constitutes a unique >,... article sets out to define the archaeological legal context in which issues concerning the heritage. This is taken to include structures, environment, both natural and man-made, constructions, groups of buildings, developed have had to be dealt with through a series of sites, moveable objects, monuments of other innovative and original measures. Because the kinds as well as their context, whether situated protection of the underwater cultural heritage on land or under water. This final precision, in several international instruments has been added for the sake of completeness to a text associated with the protection of the which deals primarily with the protection of environment, it has come to be approached the archaeological heritage on land, leaves the through a normative language in which the States concerned a more or less free hand to key terms are protection, prevention and define the extent of the zone over which they reparation of damage. In this sense, the claim rights as regards the underwater precepts that have developed in the region archaeology to be found within it. Different differ markedly from those which typically national laws may thus define this zone as underpin laws dealing with cultural heritage comprising the territorial waters, the elsewhere. There may therefore be lessons to contiguous zone, the continental shelf, the be drawn from them which could help in the economic zone or even a zone of cultural establishing of new international instruments protection, as they so choose. As a result, an to extend and complete the provisions already original conception of the State's specific included in the Law of the Sea Convention. jurisdiction - national zones of cultural UltimateJY, it is to be hoped that all these protection up to a limit of 200 miles - which different approaches can be brought together could have been defined in the terms laid to work for the protection of our cultural down by the Council of Europe's heritage and of the underwater archaeological recommendation number 848 of 4 October heritage, in the interests of humanity as a 1978, was effectively sabotaged by the whole. Coastal management sourcebooks 2 129 Legal principles for protecting underwater cultural heritage ..I < I.I "'0 ..I 0 LYNDEL V. PROTI Archaeological Excavations 1956. It sets out <"" Chief, International Standards Section basic provisions such as the requirement for :z: I.I Division of Cultural Heritage excavation permits, conservation, publication c:: < UNESCO and placement of finds primarily in the museums of the host country. It is notable that Principle 1 defines excavation as: Any research aimed at the discovery ofobjects Introduction of archaeological character, whether such research involves digging ofthe ground or NESCO has been interested in the systematic exploration ofits surface or is Uprotection of underwater cultural heritage carried out on the bed or in the sub-soil of for a long time. Its first Recommendation in inland or territorial waters ofa Member State. 1956 was expressly extended to cover it; since Another UNESCO recommendation of then, UNESCO has published two books on the importance for regulating the situation subject: one in 1972, Underwater Archaeology: confronting the preservation of Alexandria's A Nascent Discipline and one in 1981, underwater cultural heritage is that on the VI Protection of the Underwater Heritage. Its Preservation of Cultural Property Endangered z journal has published by Public or Private Works 1968, Principle 20 0 Museum International \J three issues of relevance: one on port museums, provides: in 1990, and two on maritime museums, in (a) There should be a co-ordinating or 1996. The February 1997 issue of UNESCO consultative body, composed of representatives Sources is devoted to the underwater cultural of the authorities responsible for the heritage, with a striking picture of one of the safeguarding of cultural property, for public and finds off Qait Bey on the front cover. private works, for town planning, and of Because most of the underwater cultural research and educational institutions, which heritage was not accessible and therefore not should be competent to advise on the threatened until the discovery of the self preservation of cultural property endangered by contained underwater breathing apparatus public or private works and, in particular, on (SCUBA), legal principles related to it have conflicts of interest between requirements for only been developed since the 1940s. However, public or private works and the preservation or they have not yet been incorporated into the salvage of cultural property. relevant international and national law. (b) Provincial, municipal or other forms of local government should also have services responsible for the preservation or salvage of International law cultural property endangered by public or private works. These services should be able to Looking first at the international system, there call upon the assistance of national services or are several UNESCO recommendations for the other appropriate bodies in accordance with protection of cultural heritage, developed by their capabilities and requirements. experts from the relevant disciplines and provide guidance for national legislation. (d) Administrative measures should be taken to The very first of these Recommendations to be co-ordinate the work of the different services developed was the Recommendation on responsible for the safeguarding of cultural International Principles Applicable to property with any other department or service 130 Coastal management sourcebooks 2 whose responsibilities touch upon the problem legislation is applied simply by way of of the preservation or salvage of cultural interpreting general terms on excavation, ,... property endangered by public or private works. protection of archaeological sites etc. without ,.., Yet another UNESCO Recommendation is further reference. The Egyptian Antiquities ",..)> relevant: that pertaining to the Means of Act would thus appear to apply in this fashion. Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Export, Other States have quite specific legislation 0 "z Import and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural directed expressly to the underwater cultural V'l Property 1964. This is relevant because removal heritage alone - Australia, France, the United of individual elements of the important finds Kingdom and the United States are all in this being made under water can distort the situation. Often, a State decides to create some archaeological record, so control of access to kind of special status for an underwater site. 0 prevent unauthorized activities is therefore The Australian legislation is quite interesting :z "' essential. in this regard since it provides for sites which These principles seem particularly relevant to are underwater or partly on land and in the sea. the protection of the important archaeological Other solutions have been to use National Parks sites of Alexandria. The obligation of Member legislation, or to create marine reserves. On one States of UNESCO is to study standard-setting occasion in the United States, powers were used Recommendations adopted by the General in respect of a restricted site supervised by the Conference, to transmit them to their local defence forces as part of coastal security. Because of powers under such legislation, the authorities and to report on their ];lo implementation, or on the reasons why they defence forces can be very useful colleagues in ,.,= have not been implemented. ln many cases, the protection of the cultural heritage. To do so, :I such recommendations have provided a useful of course, they have to be properly briefed in ,..)> 0 guide for national governments in resolving the importance of the heritage and what kind of r- dilemmas over the protection of particular sites, activity they have to watch for. 0 since they represent the best professional ",., expertise at the time they were drawn up. ,...)> There are, of course, also the UNESCO Sites with a special status Conventions to look ac. Two of those concerned with the protection of the cultural heritage are It would seem that Egypt has legislation in particularly relevant here. The first is the force that can be used to protect the UNESCO Convention on the Means of Alexandrian sites. The Antiquities Act No. 117 Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, of 1983 (and its 1992 amendments) has already Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural been mentioned; the Law on the Environment Property 1970, which provides international No. 4 is also relevant; and the Law on Natural mechanisms for the control of international Protectorates would appear to give the trade in illegally removed cultural property. possibility of creating a special status for the Mention has also been made of the UNESCO sites by declaring them natural protectorates. Convention concerning the Protection of the Mention has been made of the possible World Cultural and Natural Heritage 1972. nomination of the Qait Bey/Pharos site for the I will address its possible relevance further on. World Heritage List according to the Convention on the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage 1972. However, National jurisdiction to protect this has to be treated cautiously. The World underwater cultural heritage Heritage Committee has never, so far, accepted an underwater site for inscription. This seems to Some States rely on their general legislation be due to avariety of deterrents: the practical for protection of cultural heritage. Newer difficulties of delimitation; the provision of a legislation tends to make express provision for buffer zone; monitoring; and devising an underwater cultural heritage to be included in adequate management plan. None of these its ambit (for example, Spain's 1985 requirements is easy to meet, even for land legislation), but quite a lot of national sites, and is much more difficult for underwater Coastal management sourcebooks 2 131 6 sites. The ICOMOS Sub-Committee on the Committee on the Underwater Cultural i Underwater Cultural Heritage is in favour of Heritage of the ICOMOS International their inclusion in the World Heritage List, but Committee on Archaeological Sites drafted a the World Heritage Committee will have to be Charter on the Protection and Management of convinced that it is appropriate and that proper the Underwater Cultural Heritage which w~s management of such sites is possible. adopted at the Plenary Conference of Inscription on the List inevitably brings greatly ICOMOS held in Sofia in 1996. These are increased tourism and it can be a threat to the principles devised by the experts in the subject survival of the site. This is why the Committee to set international standards of best practice. has developed a procedure of close scrutiny of The considerations included are important and at least 18 months before a site is judged the text is annexed to this document. appropriate for listing, even if it is not eliminated at an earlier stage. If the Committee is not satisfied that all the requisite safeguards Setting priorities are in place, it may be delayed until they are. However, no law can be efficient without two factors: a proper national policy that establishes Law in the making the priorities; and adequate enforcement. As the 1968 Recommendation discussed above makes VI The international community is taking an clear, co-ordination of policy is essential on z increasing interest in the underwater cultural important sites, since it is evident that there are 0 ... heritage, and in 1994 UNESCO received the often many national and local authorities et Buenos Aires draft convention on the involved in one way or another with a site. ~ .... protection of the underwater heritage prepared France regulates its programme of underwater Q by the International Law Association (ILA). archaeology at 4-year intervals, enabling "'z 0 This text has been studied by a group of changes to be made in the light of new v experts called together by UNESCO and discoveries, completion of earlier projects, commented on by States. Following the particularly threatened sites etc. In establishing reports of the meeting and of States' such a programme, it is necessary to have comments, the UNESCO General Conference adequate information - first an inventory of decided, in November 1997, that UNESCO known sites and potentially archaeologically should draft an international convention on the rich areas, then an assessment of their relative subject, and a further meeting of governmental historical/archaeological importance and, of experts will be held during 1998. However, the course, an evaluation of their significance for discussions have so far focussed on protection the cultural dimension of development. in the area beyond the territorial jurisdiction of the coastal State and this is not an issue in the case of the sites off Alexandria, so I will not Imaginative protective solutions go into further detail on its provisions. According to the United Nations Convention If it is decided that these sites have a great on the Law of the Sea 1982, a State has potential for development in the cultural jurisdiction over its territorial sea (not to dimension, then imaginative protective exceed 12 nautical miles) and can take control solutions can be found. There are several of underwater heritage out to 24 nautical possibilities. One that has been mentioned is miles. There is not yet general agreement on an underwater museum. There are certain jurisdiction over underwater cultural heritage areas where tourists go as divers for leisure, in the area beyond that, although some States and some of these sites are mixed sites where, have asserted it (e.g., Australia over the for example, coral has grown over an old continental shelf and Morocco, in a Dahir of shipwreck. Some of them are administered as 1981 , over the Exclusive Economic Zone - out underwater parks. The existing ones are to 200 nautical miles). However, in connection mostly concerned with shipwrecks and natural with the ILA's Buenos Aires draft, the Sub- areas and the Lighthouse site is different: it is 132 Coastal management sourcebooks 2 an outstanding monumental site. But an Annex '6 underwater museum is more than this and would need very careful planning and development. Another possibility is a mixed land-sea site; this could provide a very THE ICOMOS INTERNATIONAL interesting tourist experience. Maritime ('\ CHARTER ON THE PROTECTION AND 0 museums are well developed in many areas of z the world where it has been decided to raise MANAGEMENT OF UNDERWATER ""c the underwater finds, but this would not be CULTURAL HERITAGE ,,, :a desirable where the remains are immovable, > ~ such as the old port installations in the Eastern (ratified by the 11 th I COMOS General 0 Harbour of Alexandria. Assembly, held in Sofia, Bulgaria, z from 5-9 October 1996) "" Management as a continuing process Introduction The management of a complex site such as the Qait Bey/Pharos site needs to be seen as a This Charter is intended to encourage the continuing process, and legal regulation must protection and management of underwater l> allow for this. At this one site, it is evident cultural heritage in inland and inshore waters, :a l"I that coastal management will be a continuing in shallow seas and in the deep oceans. It :c issue and the collection of data to allow focuses on the specific attributes and >,,, informed decisions on future conservation circumstances of cultural heritage under water ,...0 will need to be pursued. Archaeologists still and should be understood as a supplement to 0 C'I have survey work to do, and the questions of the ICOMOS Charter for the Protection and conservation, interpretation and long-term Management of Archaeological Heritage, "',...> management will need their input. 1990. The 1990 Charter defines the These issues will also need to be discussed 'archaeological heritage' as that part of the with other governmental agencies likely to material heritage in respect of which have some responsibility for the sites. archaeological methods provide primary information, comprising all vestiges of human existence and consisting of places relating to Conclusion all manifestations of human activity, abandoned structures, and remains of all The legal issues relating to the protection of kinds, together with all the portable cultural the Alexandrian underwater sites do not seem material associated with them. For the difficult to resolve. Egypt is fortunate in purposes of this Charter, underwater cultural having good legislation in existence which heritage is understood to mean the either applies already to the sites or can easily archaeological heritage which is in, or has be adapted to give them a special status. been removed from, an underwater On the other hand, the potential for recognition environment. It includes submerged sites and of the sites as having 'outstanding universal structures, wreck-sites and wreckage and their value' (the terminology of the World Heritage archaeological and natural context. Convention) cannot be allowed to obscure the By its very character the underwater cultural complex management decisions that will have heritage is an international resource. A large to be made to ensure their continuation in that part of the underwater cultural heritage is condition. This is a precondition for the located in an international setting and derives development of a cultural tourism that will not from international trade and communication damage the site and for any argument that in which ships and their contents are lost at a could be made for the extension of the World distance from their origin or destination. Heritage listing to underwater sites. Archaeology is concerned with environmental Coastal management sourcebooks 2 133 6 conservation; in the language of resource underwater cultural heritage for trade or management, underwater cultural heritage is speculation is fundamentally incompatible both finite and non-renewable. If underwater with the protection and management of the cultural heritage is to contribute to our heritage. This Charter is intended to ensure that all investigations are explicit in their aims, ...I appreciation of the environment in the future, < methodology and anticipated results so that the v then we have to take individual and collective I) responsibility in the present for ensuring its intention of each project is transparent to all. 0 ...I continued survival. 0 Archaeology is a public activity; everybody is Article 1 - Fundamental principles I.II < entitled to draw upon the past in informing The preservation of underwater cultural ::c v their own lives, and every effort to curtail heritage in situ should be considered as a first a:: < knowledge of the past is an infringement of option. personal autonomy. Underwater cultural Public access should be encouraged. heritage contributes to the formation of Non-destructive techniques, non-intrusive identity and can be important to people's sense survey and sampling should be encouraged in of community. If managed sensitively, preference to excavation. underwater cultural heritage can play a Investigation must not adversely impact the positive role in the promotion of recreation underwater cultural heritage more than is and tourism. necessary for the mitigatory or research objectives of the project. VI Archaeology is driven by research, it adds to z knowledge of the diversity of human culture Investigation must avoid unnecessary 0 disturbance of human remains or venerated 1- through the ages and it provides new and 134 Coastal management sourcebooks 2 Investigation must be carried out in All intrusive investigations of underwater 6 cultural heritage will only be undertaken accordance with the project design. The r- project design should be made available to the under the direction and control of a named 1'1"1 underwater archaeologist with recognised l> archaeological community. "'r- qualifications and experience appropriate to Article 3 - Funding the investigation. Adequate funds must be assured in advance of investigation to complete all stages of the Article 7 - Preliminary investigation ,..,0 project design including conservation, report All intrusive investigations of underwater ::0 l> preparation and dissemination. The project cultural heritage must be preceded and -I informed by a site assessment that evaluates 0 design should include contingency plans that z will ensure conservation of underwater the vulnerability, significance and potential of "' the site. .,. cultural heritage and supporting 0 documentation in the event of any interruption The site assessment must encompass ::0 background studies of available historical and I.I\ in anticipated funding. c: Project funding must not require the sale of archaeological evidence, the archaeological C1' and environmental characteristics of the site ~ underwater cultural heritage or the use of any l> strategy that will cause underwater cultural and the consequences of the intrusion for the ::0 z heritage and supporting documentation to be long term stability of the area affected by ,,, irretrievably dispersed. investigations. > ::0 I"\ Article 4 - Time-table Article 8 - Documentation ::r l> Adequate time must be assured in advance of All investigation must be thoroughly ,., 0 investigation to complete all stages of the documented in accordance with current r- project design including conservation, report professional standards of archaeological 0 preparation and dissemination. The project documentation. "'I"\ l> design should include contingency plans that Documentation must provide a comprehensive r- will ensure conservation of underwater record of the site, which includes the cultural heritage and supporting provenance of underwater cultural heritage documentation in the event of any interruption moved or removed in the course of in anticipated timings. investigation, field notes, plans and drawings, photographs and records in other media. Article 5 - Research objectives, methodology and techniques Article 9 - Material conservation Research objectives and the details of the The material conservation programme must methodology and techniques to be employed provide for treatment of archaeological must be set down in the project design. The remains during investigation, in transit and in methodology should accord with the research the long term. objectives of the investigation and the Material conservation must be carried out in techniques employed must be as unintrusive accordance with current professional as possible. standards. Post-fieldwork analysis of artefacts and documentation is integral to all investigation; Article JO - Site management and adequate provision for this analysis must be maintenance made in the project design. A programme of site management must be prepared, detailing measures for protecting Article 6 - Qualifications, responsibility and and managing in situ underwater cultural experience heritage in the course of and upon termination All persons on the investigating team must be of fieldwork. The programme should include suitably qualified and experienced for their public information, reasonable provision for project roles. They must be fully briefed and site stabilization, monitoring and protection understand the work required. against interference. Public access to in situ Coastal management sourcebooks 2 135 6 ; underwater cultural heritage should be • ! underwater cultural heritage should be promoted, except where access is promoted through popular presentation in a incompatible with protection and range of media. Access to such presentations management. by a wide audience should not be prejudiced by high charges. Article JI - Health and safety Co-operation with local communities and The health and safety of the investigating groups is to be encouraged, as is co-operation team and third parties is paramount. All with communities and groups that are persons on the investigating team must work particularly associated with the underwater according to a safety policy that satisfies cultural heritage concerned. It is desirable relevant statutory and professional that investigations proceed with the consent requirements and is set out in the project and endorsement of such communities and design. groups. The investigation team will seek to involve Article 12 - Reporting communities and interest groups in Interim reports should be made available investigations to the extent that such according to a time-table set out in the project involvement is compatible with protection design, and deposited in relevant public and management. Where practical, the records. investigation team should provide Reports should include : opportunities for the public to develop • an account of the objectives; archaeological skills through training and • an account of the methodology and education. techniques employed; Collaboration with museums and other • an account of the results achieved; institutions is to be encouraged. Provision for VI • recommendations concerning future visits, research and reports by collaborating z 0 research, site management and curation of institutions should be made in advance of v underwater cultural heritage removed during investigation. the investigation. A final synthesis of the investigation must be made available as soon as possible, having Article 13 - Curation regard to the complexity of the research, and The project archive, which includes deposited in relevant public records. underwater cultural heritage removed during investigation and a copy of all supporting Article 15 - International co-operation documentation, must be deposited in an International co-operation is essential for institution that can provide for public access protection and management of underwater and permanent curation of the archive. cultural heritage and should be promoted in Arrangements for deposition of the archive the interests of high standards of investigation should be agreed before investigation and research. International co-operation commences, and should be set out in the should be encouraged in order to make project design. The archive should be effective use of archaeologists and other prepared in accordance with current professionals who are specialized in professional standards. investigations of underwater cultural heritage. The scientific integrity of the project archive Programmes for exchange of professionals must be assured; deposition in a number of should be considered as a means of institutions must not preclude reassembly to disseminating best practice. allow further research. Underwater cultural heritage is not to be traded as items of commercial value. Article 14 - Dissemination Public awareness of the results of investigations and the significance of 136 Coastal management sourcebooks 2 Human impacts on Alexandria's marine 7 ~ environment 0 r r c::: ~ 0 z l> z 0 YOUSSEF HALIM stretches over a narrow and irregular strip of Department of Oceanography land between the Mediterranean Sea to the University of Alexandria, and north, Lake Mariout (a major coastal lagoon) to 0 FATMA ABOU SHOUK the south and Abu Qir Bay to the east. z Alexandria Governorate Topographically, the city appears to be encircled by a belt of aquatic environments subject to multiple human impacts. 0 Introduction z Environmental Issues /"\ 0 he environmental problems of Alexandria )> have grown rapidly in recent decades, in In Alexandria, the interface between marine VI T ~ )> proportion to the growth in population and and territorial environments extends along r- population density, as well as to the urban and some I 00 km of coastline. The city interacts ...,::t: industrial development. The rate of with its aquatic environment in two ways: by = development has accelerated considerably discarding all its liquid wastes, domestic and ~ )> since the turn of the century. In 1905, industrial, into the sea, either directly or via ...,("\ Alexandria's 370 thousand inhabitants lived in Lake Mariout; and by physically altering its an area of about 4 km2 between the two coastline, by coastal engineering works. Figure 1. harbours. Since then, the city has expanded The total cumulative volume of waste water The expansion of the rapidly eastwards and westwards, beyond its disposed of into the sea from all point sources city of Alexandria medieval walls, occupying at present an area of along this stretch of coast is about equal to the since 1805. about 300 km2 with a population ten times Nile outflow from the Rosetta outlet: roughly larger, 4 million, and a density exceeding 1,200 9 million m3/day; that is, 3.33 km3/yr. But this Figure 2. Population per km2 (Figs. l and 2). Modern Alexandria is not river water. growth since 1840. MEDITERRANEAN SEA 11rJ1sos !l;j1ass ~1905 B19ss §1980 Lake Mariout 20 '° '° eo 1 ~0 Years Coastal management sourcebooks 2 137 7 A daily volume of more than one million There is, however, an encouraging fact in that cubic metres of mixed sewage water is remedial action is being taken by the w drained from the city. About one third of this Alexandria Governorate. Work is underway to "'<.... is disposed of without any treatment, into the close the Eastern Harbour and Qait Bey c: Eastern and Western Harbours and their outfalls and divert their share of waste water :c"" Figure 3. surroundings. The Qait Bey outfall (Fig. 3), to the Lake after primary treatment. ... even greater concern, however, are the far 138 Coastal management sourcebooks 2 the beaches to compensate for the lost archaeologists, on the other, has to be 7 material, but the added sand will gradually be established. A standing intersectorial ~ removed by the unending wave action and by commission or a board with a clearly defined ,...0 winter stonn surges, ultimately to blanket the mandate can achieve this link. Among other ,... nearshore bottom. things, the board will be mandated to carry c.... A project has recently been submitted to the out an Environmental Impact Assessment 0 Governorate for the building of a marina in (including an archaeological assessment) z l> the inner Eastern Harbour precisely on the site prior to the authorization for any z of the recently discovered Ptolemaic harbours. governmental or private coastal development '=' m It is a relief to know that the project has been project. ;Q 0 temporarily shelved, albeit only on grounds of VI feasibility. Monitoring programme 0 The foregoing examples and many others The land-sea interactions and the coastal zone z point to an unmistakable trend. Cultural and environment must be continuously monitored natural environmental resources are often in relation to land-based activities. The irreversibly damaged by decisions taken and monitoring programme will have to be carried implemented without prior assessment of the out by an interdisciplinary team of engineers, 0 consequences. This is a universal problem. marine scientists and archaeologists. The z Economic development often outweighs the programme will focus on the morphodynamic, t"I concern for conservation and management of hydrodynamic and meteorological processes, 0 l> the natural and cultural ressources. the relative sea-level fluctuations, the water VI.... quality, the rate of erosion, sediment transport ,...l> and deposition. ::c Management Issues ::g"" International obligations .... ;i.. The integrated management of the coastal The submerged archaeological sites of C'I zone can only be achieved through the Alexandria being part of humanity's cultural "" adoption of a sound policy supported by heritage, it is not inopportune to recall some adequate institutional arrangements. The of the relevant principles stated in the UN policy will aim at ensuring that the protection Convention of the Law of the Sea and in of the coastal zone resources remains an Agenda 2 1 adopted by the Rio Earth Summit integral part of the development priorities of in 1992. the country. It will also aim at the co All States are called upon: ordination of the sometimes conflicting (a) to prepare and implement integrated interests and uses of the coastal zone. coastal zone management and sustainable development plans, Institutional arrangements (b) to prepare coastal profiles identifying Several institutions are involved with the critical areas, coastal zone: the Organization for Coastal (c) to carry out environmental impact Protection (Ministry of Pu.blic Works); the assessment prior to any major project and to Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency, follow up the impacts and responsible for the implementation of the (d) to improve human settlements, especially National Coastal Zone Management Plan; the the treatment and disposal of sewage and Supreme Council for Antiquities; the industrial effluents. Governorate of Alexandria; and the Egyptian W hile all States have the sovereign right to Navy. There are therefore several decision exploit their natural resources, the enjoyment making circles, with little communication, of such rights shall be in accordance with very little co-ordination and sometimes their duty to protect the environment. diverging views. A functional mechanism for The Egyptian Government, having ratified the co-operation and mutual understanding UN Convention on the Law of the Sea and between decision-makers in these institutions, being a party to the Agenda 21, is committed on the one hand, and scientists and to meeting the obligations thereof. Coastal management so11rcebooks 2 139 Environmental concerns in Alexandrian underwater archaeology _, < I- "'<( 0 v z 0 0SSAMA M.T. ABOUL DAHAB nature of the artefact, the length of time the Department of Oceanography object has been in the water and the University of Alexandria prevailing environmental conditions, notably pollution and sediment type. z 0 Background and causes Known archaeological sites for concern Q The most known archaeological sites on the z rchaeological discoveries are the Alexandrian coast are the Western Harbour < principal source of knowledge of ancient z A and its surroundings (Mex Bay), Qait Bey, 0 cultures. Classical archaeologists are Eastern Harbour, El-Silsila and Abu Qir Bay I particularly interested in the early cultures of (the Graeco-Roman site of Nelson Island). :> _, the Mediterranean and the Near East, These sites are of invaluable importance to 0 especially Greece, Rome, Iran, Egypt and human knowledge of ancient history. Q,, Iraq, and in the civilizations of ancient China, Pakistan and of south-east Asia. The majority of archaeological work involves: State of the environment (a) surveying, locating, recording and studying the nature of the area; and The coast of Alexandria is adjacent to two of (b) excavating or actual digging at the site. the most populous, most industrialized and The first step in excavation is to make a most commercialized coastal metropolitan record of the site before digging begins or areas in Egypt: the Abu Qir area, to the east, before it is changed in any way, to determine and El-Mex area, to the west. The city's the time period and the civilization from inhabitants put the coast to a wide variety of which the artefact came (dating may be recreational, commercial and industrial uses. relative or absolute) and to synthesize data There are four important harbours in (preparation of historical reports). [ 1] Alexandria, particularly after the market Recent underwater archaeological searches oriented liberalization of the economy in have been aided by technological Egypt. improvements, such as satellite photography, The coast of Alexandria is continuously radiocarbon dating and the use of computers subject to degradation and destruction by and metal detectors to locate sites and to human pressure, accelerated urbanization record data. One of the most pressing challenges for modem archaeology is to prevent the loss of data, and therefore of {I] Oxman, B. H. ( 1988). Marine Archaeology and knowledge, that results from the destruction the International Law of the Sea. Columbia - VI.A of archaeological sites.(2] Artefacts Journal of Law & the Arts (USA), 12:353. {2] Strati, A. ( 1991 ). Deep seabed cultural immersed in sea water for long periods may property and the common heritage of mankind. undergo chemical, physical and biological International and Comparative Law Quarterly alteration. These alterations depend on the (UK), 40:859. 140 Coastal management sourcebooks 2 and land-based pollution. The Alexandrian unacceptable environmental conditions 7 coast also suffers from several other which do not allow marine life in the Bay. problems, such as erosion (natural and man The Tabia pumping station and the Lake ~ 0,... made) and beach degradation, decline of Edku outlet provide the Bay with excessive ,... c: coastal habitats, accelerated loss of coastal loads of suspended solids, sulphides, -j biodiversity, destruction and exhaustion of ammonia, trace metals and phenols and are 0 resources, intrusion of sea water into the responsible for the deteriorated environment z > freshwater aquifers, and the impact of sea in the Bay.[3] z level rise. 0 Alexandria's coastal environment receives a huge amount of waste water containing Environmental Issues associated mixed agricultural and industrial wastes, and with searching, locating, 0 domestic sewage. The sources are sewage excavating and dating artefacts z outfalls, agricultural drains and industrial outfalls. Several industries also dispose of These environmental issues can be their waste water directly into the sea at Mex summarized as follows: Bay (chemical factories, cement and iron and (a) Environmental issues are of prime 0 steel plants, tanneries of various sizes and an importance to Alexandrian archaeologists, z oil refinery) and at Abu Qir Bay (food primarily owing to the co-occurrence of the f"I 0 processing plants and canneries, chemical heavily polluted areas and the archaeological > and fertilizer plants, paper mills, an oil sites. ""-j refinery and an electricity-generating station). (b) There is a possibility of interference with ,...> The Alexandrian coast also receives surveying techniques by sea-surface slicks, agricultural drainage water through the metallic wastes, recently sunken vessels. Umoum outfall in Mex Bay, the Noubaria (c) There is also a possibility of loss of traces Canal into the Western Harbour, the Tabia (of archaeological remains) because of pumping station and the Lake Edku outlet in pollution and sedimentation. Abu Qir Bay. (d) Alexandria's coastal environment is not The disposal of untreated or inadequately safe for divers and archaeologists, because of treated waste water from land-based sources the severe pollution in most places, and the into Alexandrian coastal waters causes lack of short-term forecasts of sea state. severe pollution problems. The Umoum (e) There is a possibility of degradation of outfall in Mex Bay is the main land-based artefacts. This may be due to chemical or source of suspended solids, chlorides, mechanical factors. The chemical factors nutrients, pesticides, trace metals and result from the continuous discharge of phenols to Alexandria's marine environment. untreated wastes into the Alexandrian coastal Mex Bay is also subjected to pollution from sea and the mechanical factors result from the a chlor-alkali plant (suspended solids, free dumping of concrete blocks at certain places, chlorine, ammonia and mercury), tanneries the dragging of anchors, unplanned (chromium and hydrogen sulphide) and from engineering works, as well as erosion and the Noubaria Canal. The sea bottom in the sedimentation. Western Harbour is anoxic in most places (f) Excavation wastes may affect some and heavily polluted with different types of ecologically sensitive habitats. organic and inorganic pollutants. The direct (g) Chemical pollutants in Alexandria's disposal of untreated sewage at Qait Bey and coastal waters may interfere with dating EI-Silsila produced severe pollution techniques. problems on the eastern coast. The bottom areas surrounding the end of the sewage outfalls are anoxic and completely devoid of [3] Aboul Dahab, 0. (1996). Pollution Loculsfrom Land-based sources to Alexandria marine benthic life. The sea bottom in these areas environment. p. 160. in: Proceedings of Asia-Pacific appears to be covered with beds of sewage Conference on Science and Management of Coastal residues. Abu Qir Bay to the east suffers Environment, Hong Kong, 25-28 June 1996. Coastal management sourcebooks 2 141 7 (h) There is a possibility of destruction of that coastal states should establish, or where some archaeological sites along the necessary strengthen, suitable co-ordination Alexandria coast by pollution and unplanned mechanisms for integrated co-ordination and engineering work. sustainable development of coastal and marine zones and their resources, at local and national level. ..I < Problems that may hamper Integrated coastal zone management (ICZM) .... protection and preservation involves comprehensive assessment, setting "'< of Alexandria's underwater of objectives, planning and management of 0 u archaeological sites and coastal systems and resources, taking into z artefacts account traditional, cultural and historical 0 perspectives and conflicting interests and These problems can lbe summarized as uses; it is a continuous and evolutionary follows: process for achieving sustainable (a) Lack of an operative coastal zone development. The successful management of z management plan for Alexandria. the coastal zone requires reliable and accurate 0 (b) Lack of input data required to operate information which must be available in a computer models for predicting the most 'user-friendly' format. The most effective probable movements of water and suspended instruments for providing such information sediment under various meteorological are resource maps and atlases. The resource Q z conditions. map needs a comprehensive database which < (c) Lack of maps showing the areas of gives a holistic view of the resources, the z 0 archaeological, ecolc1gical, recreational or demands and the various direct and indirect .... economical importance. inter-relationships. ::> -' (d) Lack of information on geographical, Unfortunately, nothing is mentioned about -' 0 nautical and meteorological circumstances the underwater archaeological resources in c. which may influence underwater the national framework programme for the archaeological work. development of an ICZM plan for Egypt. (e) Lack of modem rieceiving and treatment The resources, demands, conflicts and issues facilities for artefacts, as well as lack of that can be featured in a map of the trained personnel at the national level. Alexandrian coastal area are: (f) Lack of rehabilitation programmes for (a) maritime shipping operations and impacted areas. navigation lanes, (g) Difficulty of funciling underwater (b) ecologically sensitive areas, archaeological work. (c) tourism and recreational facilities and uses, (d) administrative boundaries and zones, Alexandria's historical (e) coastal erosion, storm and other hazards, underwater trt!asures: (f) harbour facilities, the development of (g) discharge points for liquid wastes, an ICZM plan f·or Egypt (h) fishery production and methods, (i) oil and gas exploration and extraction, Coastal zone management can be defined as a (j) conservation of heritage and historical dynamic process in which a co-ordinated resources, strategy is developed! and implemented for (k) socio-economic factors in coastal zone the allocation of enviironmental, social, management, cultural and institutional resources to achieve (I) power generation facilities, the conservation and sustainable multiple use (m) industrial development and of the coastal zone. 1rhe Earth Summit infrastructure, (UN Conference on !Environment and (n) oil-spill contingency planning, Development, Rio de Janeiro, 1992) (o) demographic data for coastal zone use, recommended, in section 17 .6 of Agenda 21, (p) seawater uses, 142 Coastal management sourcebooks 2 (q) landscape and aesthetic values of the the various aspects of underwater 7 coastal zone and archaeological work, are urgently needed. "';2 (i) artificial breakwaters and other (k) It is important to ensure the safety of 0 r constructions. divers and archaeologists during their field r c: work. -4 (I) International co-operation and support in 0 Recommendations the field of underwater archaeology should be z l> encouraged. z The following recommendations are made: ,..0 (a) Representatives from the Supreme :::0 0 Council of Antiquities and the Ministry of ..... Education should participate in the national 0 committee for ICZM. z (b) Preservation of Alexandria's underwater artefacts and sites should be incorporated into the national ICZM plan as a separate issue aiming at the development of a national 0 underwater cultural heritage preservation z plan. ,., (c) Alexandria's underwater archaeological 0 l> sites should be mapped and taken into ..... -4 account in the national marine oil pollution l> r- contingency plan. ::c (d) A data base on environmental conditions ,.. affecting Alexandria's underwater =-4 l> archaeological sites should be established. ,.. (e) The idea of constructing an underwater " archaeological museum should be encouraged and its implementation should consider primarily the prevailing environmental conditions to prevent any possible pollution or damage due to erosion or sedimentation. (f) Research studies and programmes in support of underwater archaeology should be formulated and implemented. (g) There should be a contingency fund to enable immediate efforts to preserve the archaeological sites of Alexandria to begin with. (h) The development of national legislation to protect underwater archaeological sites is urgent.(4] (i) Environmental monitoring and research programmes on Alexandria's coastal zone should be encouraged. G) Intensive training programmes, covering [4} O'Keefe, P. J. and Nafziger, J. A. R. ( 1994). The Draft Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage. Ocean Development and International Law (USA), 25:391-418. Coastal management sourcebooks 2 143 :11 Currents and their variability in Eastern Harbour and Qait Bey areas ..I ...< ~ < 0 v z AHMED ABDEL HAMID EL-GINDY persisting for one to several days occasionally 0 Professor of Physical Oceanography invade the region between December and University of Alexandria May. For the protection of the Eastern Harbour and the artefacts on the sea floor, it is necessary to z study the current circulation by indirect 0 Introduction methods, such as the distribution of hydrographic parameters, and by direct he Eastern Harbour of Alexandria lies current measurements. This paper deals with between 29° 52' 52" and 29° 54' 20" E previous studies on this aspect and comments Q T z and 31° 12' 00" and 31° 12' 53" N. This on future requirements to fill the present gaps < Harbour was once a bay east of the old in our knowledge of the circulation. z 0 Pharos island. Qait Bey Fort was built about ... 500 years ago on the foundation of the :::> _, famous Alexandria lighthouse site on Pharos Discussion ..I 0 island and now forms the end of the western ~ breakwater. The middle breakwater was The circulation in the study area was reviewed constructed around 1929, dividing the bay by El-Gindy[l], including the main results of into two outlets. The western entrance has a investigations by Gerges[2), Abdallah[3], width of about 300 m with a water depth of Eid[4] and Sabra[5]. 9.5-11 m. The eastern entrance has a width of about 140 m and water depth of 3.5 m. [1] El-Gindy, A. A. H. (1988). The circulation The eastern breakwater and the Harbour pattern ofAlexandria coastal waters in relation to itself are strongly exposed to north-westerly pollution transport: a review. pp. 286-99, in: waves during winter, which affects the Symposium on Environmental Science (UNARC), fishing boats, the sea road and the Alexandria, 1988. underwater artefacts. The average depth of {2] Gerges, M. ( 1978). Trajectories and speeds of surface currents near the Egyptian Mediterranean the Eastern Harbour is about 8 m. coast as deduced from the movement of surface The area outside the Eastern Harbour, off Qait drifters. pp. 573-87, in: IVeme Joumee d'Etudes Bey Fort, is a part of the continental shelf sur la Pollution, Antalya, 1978. CIESM, UNEP. where the depth gradually increases to about [3] Abdallah, A. M. ( 1979). Study of the currents 50 m at about 8 km from the shore. It is and the hydrographic structure of the water masses affected by natural forces, mainly currents and in front ofAlexandria coast. M.Sc. thesis, Faculty of Science, Alexandria University. (An internal report waves, and by the sewage discharge which of the Institute of Coastal Research of which an changes the water quality and current abstract was published by IAPSO, Mexico 1988). intensity and direction. [4] Eid, F. M. (1979). Current and water masses in The wind system in the area is related to the the coastal area from Abu-Kir to Agamy. M.Sc. atmospheric pressure distribution over the thesis submitted to Faculty ofScience, Alexandria University. Eastern Mediterranean and over the North [5] Sabra, A. ( 1979). Wind current and sea-level African Sahara, with a prevailing N-NW variations over the continental shelf ofAlexandria wind, except that, in winter, the wind coast. M.Sc. thesis, Faculty ofScience, Alexandria direction is more variable and storms University. 144 Coastal management sourcebooks 2 Gerges, who used surface drifters, found that third anticyclonic. The current was flowing out 7 currents in the nearshore area were in the to sea through the eastern outlet, whereas at the inshore direction, while, offshore, the current western outlet the current had two opposite ~ 0,.. direction was variable. directions. Outside the Harbour, the current was ,.. Abdallah measured the currents at the outlets predominantly inshore with indications of eddy ....c: of the Eastern Harbour using an Ekman motion; the current speed was between 0 current meter. These measurements indicated 3 and 60 cm/sec, with the strongest current near z )> that, in January and August, water was the Qait Bey sewage outfall. The salinity z flowing into the Harbour through the western (Fig. 2a) showed a tongue of low salinity 0 outlet and out of the Harbour through the outside the Harbour, going towards the "':1:1 eastern outlet. Opposite directions were found breakwater in the western part of the area, 0 "' in October and May, when a one layer current where the strongest current existed. Near the 0 was present. bottom, the current pattern (Fig. I b) was z Continuous current-meter measurements generally similar to that at the surface, except carried out from July 1977 to July 1978, using near the Qait Bey sewage outfall, where there an Endeco type instrument, at 30-minute was a cyclonic eddy. The range of current speed intervals, off the Qait Bey Fort, at distances of was 3- 25 cm/sec. The salinity distribution 0 l and 10 km from the shore, at the surface and (Fig. 2b) showed a range of 38.75-38.9, outside z at 2/3 of the total depth, were analysed and the Harbour, and of 37.4-38.5, inside the ,.... reported by Anon.[6], Eid[4] and Sabra[5]. Harbour. The current inflow to the Harbour 0 )> The NW current (i.e., inshore flow) was through the western outlet could be followed by "'.... dominant, but in September, February and a tongue of high salinity, making a cyclonic ,..)> April, the SW current was also important. At eddy inside the Harbour. the offshore station, the dominant current directions in August and September, 1977, and in January and March, 1978, were to the Conclusions NE and SW. In May and June, the NE current was persistent. Current speeds were generally The results of the above-mentioned survey, as higher at the upper current meter. The well as other surveys, carried out in 1985 and nearshore current was slower than the current 1986, indicated that: offshore. The surface salinity distribution (a) At the western outlet of the Harbour, near along the Alexandrian coast, including the Qait Bey Fort, the current enters the Harbour study area,[3, 4) indicated a tongue of low at the surface and at the bottom. salinity water extending parallel to the shore (b) At the eastern outlet, the current is mainly to the NE, except in spring when the current out of the Harbour. was SW. The plume direction was not related (c) Eddy motion is an important characteristic to wind or current direction. of the current pattern inside the Harbour at the Current velocity and hydrographic surface and at the bottom. This evidence is measurements were carried out at 110 stations confirmed by the salinity distribution. inside and outside the Eastern Harbour, using a The sewage discharge system was changed portable direct-reading current meter, at the sea after 1986, so that the current pauern, which surface, at mid-depth and above the bottom, by depends on wind stress, tidal force and the Institute of Coastal Protection, with the water-density distribution, is expected to be contribution of the author in the data analysis different from that found in I 986. Since then, and interpretation, in the periods from 30 May 1984 to 26 June 1984, from 8 May 1985 to [6] Anon. ( 1978). The Ministry of Housing and 9 June 1985 and from 4 March 1986 to 5 April Reconstruaion, Arab Republic of Egypt, I 986.[7) Examples of these results are shown in Alexandria Waste Water Master Plan Study. Vol. 1, Marine Studies. Camp Dresser and McKee, Inc. Figures I and 2. During the survey (May-June [7] Anon. ( 1987). Data collected in the Eastern 1984), the surface circulation inside the Harbour area, Alexandria. Final Report. Ministry Harbour (Fig. la) was characterized by three ofirrigation, Water Research Centre, Coastal eddies, two of which were cyclonic and the Research Institute, Alexandria, April 1987. Coastal management sourcebooks 2 145 7 all of the sewage water is discharged through measurements. to determine the present .... the Qait Bey outfall, hence greater amounts current pattern rather than utilize the are discharged outsid1e the breakwaters of the previous information. Modelling is also < I-" Eastern Harbour. Comsequently, density recommended to determine circulation in the ....c::: currents, which could be relevant in this area, area under wind stress from different ::i:: should change drastically. It is therefore directions and at variable rates of sewage _, < necessary to make new current discharge. I- <"' 0 v z Figure 1. The current pat.tern in the Eastern Harbour: 0 a) at the surface; b) near the bottom, from 30/5 to I-"' 26/6/1984 (Anonymous, 1987). v < c. ~ 0 z Map Scale O 200 400 600 800 1ooo 0 Velodty Scale O lO 20 30 40 SO Cm/sec "'0 a: ...... -.... Unes of general pattern Q ,,. ,, Current vector z I I) < -G Gyre position z 0 I- ::i_, _, 0 ~ Figure 2. The salinity distribution in the Eastern Harbour: a) e1t the surface; b) near the bottom, from 30/S to, 26/6/1984 (Anonymous, 1987). ,._, I' I ----+ Expected flow direction 146 Coastal management sourcebooks 2 Wave propagation and sedimentation 7 '"Q 0 at the Pharos site ,..,.. c -I 0 z l> z 0 DENIS AELBRECHT compatible. The objective of the present study ::c J.-M. MENON and is to provide some preliminary results, 0 "' ERIC PELTIER particularly regarding wave agitation and 0 Laboratoire National d'Hydraulique possible sedimentation, useful for the global z Electricite de France understanding of the local hydrodynamic system. Impacts in terms of wave agitation have been studied with the help of numerical modelling using the ARTEMIS software 0 Introduction developed at EDF-LNH; sedimentological z aspects have been investigated during a short ,., he present study lies within the scope of mission to Alexandria, although with only a 0 :l>.... T the corporate patronage of Electricite de limited field-data set, and a comparison was ..... France (EDF). Dr. Jean-Yves Empereur, the made with similar situations already studied. ,..l> French archaelogist in charge of the Pharos The first part of this report is an overview of the submarine excavations in Alexandria (Egypt), present situation. It is followed by the results on asked the EDF Foundation for a technical wave agitation from four different schematic assessment of the coastal engineering configurations describing present or possible problems linked to the displacement of a future maritime works. The limited sediment submerged wall. This submerged concrete data set available just allows a few conclusions wall corresponds to the first phase of an on the sedimentological impact to be expected uncompleted project on the construction of a from the installation of new marine structures. large breakwater, and was built in 1994 to protect the Mamelouk fortress at Qait Bey, itself established on the old Pharos Present context foundations. The wall partly covers the submarine excavation site, consequently Alexandria is on the Mediterranean coast of inhibiting completion of the archaeological Egypt, and stretches more than 50 km along work. The archaeologists would like to the shore from Abu Qir Bay to Sidi Krir. The displace this wall, keeping in mind that the Alexandrian coast is oriented along a SW-NE displaced structure would have to meet the axis and is characterized by the presence of following requirements: the Pharos peninsula which separates the (a) protection of the Qait Bey fortress against Western and Eastern Harbours. A Mamelouk prevailing waves, fortress is located at Qait Bey. on the north (b) enabling the conti nuation of the Pharos eastern part of the Pharos peninsula, and excavations and stands on the foundations of the famous old (c) protection of the archaeological site from Pharos whose remains have been found near wave agitation and sedimentation, with a view the fortress, 6-8m under water (Fig. I). In to creating a 'submarine museum' which 1994, the Tirst concrete blocks of a could be visited by divers or by observers in breakwater were laid on the site of the glass-bottomed boats. archaeological remains and compromised These constraints, which apply to their preservation. An emergency programme archaeological preservation and coastal was then decided, to undertake systematic management preoccupations, may not be fully archaeological investigations. Since this date, Coastal management sourcebooks 2 147 Figure 1. 7 Submerged concrete- Map showing .... MEDITERRANEAN '.SEA block wall N the site of the < (/0 blocks) l I-"' archaeological a: remains of Fort w :i:: Qait Bey and the IOOm ..I < modern submerged I- wall intended lfl < to protect 0 Concrete Pla tform v the foundation z of the fort. 0 1'I I- v < ~ 2 z 0 1'I 0 ....a: Q z Dr. J-Y. Empereur, Director of the Centre Offshore < d'Etudes Alexandrines, has been in charge of wave conditions z 0 this task. More than 2,000 archaeological I- remains have been located, and it is assumed The objective here is to define boundary ::> ..I that the present submerged concrete wall may conditions to be imposed on the local ..I 0 cover some other remains. computational domain around the Pharos !:!. excavations. Offshore wave climate and the effect of bottom refraction have then to be Wave-propagation considered. No criteria have been specified modelling regarding, for instance, the maximum allowable significant wave height in the area The objective of this section is to describe a of interest. We then focussed our study on model of the propaga1tion of waves in a wave agitation for annual conditions; i.e., for localized area around the Pharos excavations. which a statistical probability of occurrence is The method is based upon the following steps: about once a year. (a) definition of the wave conditions offshore The wave climate in the deep water off in deep water Alexandria is relatively well known and has (b) estimation or computation of the wave been determined in a previous LNH study of deformation when approaching the shore line the Sidi-Krir Power Plant project.[ I] (wave refraction contJrolled by the Hindcasting of the wind-induced wave regime bathymetry) and statistical analysis of swell observations (c) specification of thie wave conditions at the by ships provide the following results: boundaries of the local computational domain (a) 75% of the waves reaching the coast come (d) digitizing of the bathymetric and shore from the WNW-NNW sector; contours (b) statistically significant wave heights (Hs0) (e) numerical computations in the local for statistical return periods of 1 year and 100 domain using the ARTEMIS software. years are about 4.0 m and 8.0 m, respectively; (c) 60% of the time, wave periods are in the range 6- 9 seconds for NW waves and 5- 8 {I] Teisson, C. and Bouchard, J-P. ( 1987). Etude seconds for NE waves. de faisabilite pour la centrale thermique de Sidi Krir (Egypte). Phase!. JEDF-LNH Reports, Refraction by the near-shore sea floor (depths HE-42187.10 and HE-43187.21. < 100 m) modifies the wave propagation. We 148 Coastal management sourcebooks 2 have assessed its effect analytically and concrete blocks. A reflexion coefficient R =0.3 .7 finally chose the following 'annual' is assigned to this limit. ~ conditions: W ith the help of the Centre d'Etudes 0 r (a) NW waves: HSo =4.0 m; Tp =8.0 s Alexandrines, we set up a bathymetric map of r (b) WNW waves: HSo = 4.0 m; Tp = 8.0 s the site and assumed it to be constant in time c: ~ (c) NE waves: HSo =3.0 m; Tp =7.0 s for the numerical simulations. There are no 0 where HSo = significant wave height; Tp = significant sea-level or tidal variations: a free z )> peak period of the wave-energy spectrum. surface at rest is fixed at the elevation Orn, z referred to as the Chart Datum. Four ,..0 topographic/structural configurations have ::0 The ARTEMIS been studied: 0 "' numerical model C 1: The present situation, including the 0 submerged concrete wall next to the fortress z ARTEMIS is a piece of scientific software (Fig. 3). The wall is represented as a developed by LNH and commercialized bathymetric artefact, roughly adding the within the TELEMAC system.[2] height of two concrete-block layers ( + 4.0 m) ARTEMIS deals with wave propagation to the estimated natural bottom level, and 0 towards the coast and into harbours. It is z based on the Berkhoff, or Mild-Slope, {2] Hervouet, J-M. ( 1996). Introduction to the ('\ equation (refraction-diffraction equation,[3 ]), TELEMAC System. EDF-LNH Report, HE- 0 )> including dissipation through depth-induced 431961073/A. [3] Berkhoff. J.C. W. ( 1976). Mathematical models ""~ wave breaking and bottom friction in shallow )> for simple harmonic linear water waves - wave ,.. and very shallow water.[4] ARTEMIS uses a diffraction and refraction. Delft Hydraulics Figure 2. :z:,,, finite-element formulation and then enables Laboratory Publication, 163 (April). ARTEMIS: :0 accurate and reliable results in coastal areas {4] Aelbrecht, D. (1997). logiciel ARTEMIS- computational ~ )> of complex geometry to be obtained. . version 3.0. Notice thiorique. EDF-LNH Report, mesh for wave H E-421971002. ARTEMIS computes wave parameters such simulations, " [5] Hasselma1111, K. et al. (1973). Measurements of "' as significant wave height, wave incidence, wind-wave growth and swell decay during the Joint comprising breaking rate, etc. North Sea Wave Project (JONSWAP). Deutschen 2,233 nodes and In this study, bottom-friction dissipation has Hydrographischen Zeitschrift, Reihe A (8°). no. 12. 4,236 elements. been neglected, given the short distance covered by the computational domain, whereas wave breaking is taken into account. We used ARTEMIS in random mode to represent the frequency distribution of the COMPUTATIONAL MESH FOR WAVE SIMULATIONS wave energy, defined through a typical Joint North Sea Wave Project (JONSW AP) Y(m) spectrum by the parameters Hs and Tp r ----- defined above.[5] )()() i i Configuration of the marine structures The local computational mesh comprises 2233 nodes defining 4236 triangular elements. It covers an area of about 400 m x 500 m around the excavations (Fig. 2). Direction Y is parallel to the North direction. Borders BI, 8 2, 8 3 and 85 are liquid limits across which, waves can enter or leave the domain. Border 84 corresponds to a solid boundary made of ISO JOO 3SO 400 450 500 X(m) Coastal management sourcebooks 2 149 7 clipping the maximum water depth above the CONFIGURATION Cl : PRESENT SITUATION top of the wall at 1.25 m. w IJ C2: The 'natural' topography assuming that <( Diamond Rock Ood1ym~try (m} I- Y(m) the concrete wall is removed. Notice the = i------· -LO presence of Diamond Rock in the north :c"' i Submerged wall eastem part of the domain (Fig. 4 ). 300 ./ (balhymetric artefact) N C3: The installation of an emerged I breakwater, located along the north-western lS0 - -1.0 limit of the computational domain (see Fig. 5; the mesh presented in Fig. 2 was designed for ~ 1 this purpose). One length only has been -7.0 considered: I 00 m. ISO 'l C4: The installation of a submerged breakwater, located along the north-western limit of the computational domain (Fig. 6) . . 10.0 z Three different lengths have been considered: 350 Figure 3. Q CONFIGURATION C2: SUBMERGED WALL REMOVED z Bathymetry < of configuration C 7. z Diamond Rock B>thymotry Im> 0 Yim) -1.0 I :> -' ..I 0 c.. Figure 4. -4.0 Bathymetry of configuration C2. lOO -7.0 ISO 100 Figure 5. -10.0 Bathymetry of configuration C3. water depth over the top of this structure is CONFIGURATION C3: EMERGED DISPLACED BREAKWATER 3.0 m, on average, considering that the submerged breakwater corresponds to the Diamond Rock Ylml U:a1hymc1ry (m) displacement of the two-layer block structure . -1 .0 Emerged displaced in configuration C 1. breakwater (I = 100 m) JOU ..... N For configurations Cl and C4, submerged .. .. breakwaters have been integrated into the ~ bathymetry. However, Booij[6) has shown ... ·· -4.0 ... that Berkhoffs equation, used by ARTEMIS, ' can integrate the bottom slope up to 1/3. It is -7.0 {6] Booij, N. ( 1981 ). Gravity Waves on Water with Non-uniform Depth and Current. (PhD thesis) lllO Technical University of Delft, The Netherlands. ·10.0 ll 150 Coastal management sourcebool Hs values have been computed for the four DOD confiigurations and the various wave conditions. DCJD For example, Figures 8 to I I show the results I for c•onfigurations C l-C4, respectively, for NW 0 Concrete blocks z Natural sea bottom wave conditions. Hs profiles along P I and P2 Figure 6. "J> are also given on the same figures. All the Bathymetry z results are summarized in Table I. of configuration C4. 0 not therefore possible to represent the vertical slope of the concrete blocks directly, so we Q connect the water depths above the natural sea CONFIGURATION C4: SUBMERGED DISPLACED BREAKWATER z floor and above the top of the submerged wall with a 'numerical' bottom slope of 1/3. Submerged displaced breakwater (I = JOO, 125, ISO m) Dlamoad Rock Wave-simulatio n results Y(ml 0 -1.0 z t"'I Refraction-diffraction patterns )(l) 0 > "'-; );> Figures 7a to 7d show the wave phase field 230 -4.0 r- computed for each topographic configuration and each set of wave conditions. This depicts the refraction-diffraction patterns of the wave ·1.0 propagation and shows how the wave length ''° and wave direction are modified in the various configurations and offshore wave conditions 100 used: diffraction behind detached breakwater -10.0 for NW waves, behind Diamond Rock for NE waves, etc. TABL E I. SUMMARY OF WAVE - AGITATION RESU LTS NWWAVES W~WWAVES NE WAVES CONFIGURATION Cl Pl: 75% I 25% (FIG. 9) Pl: 75% I 20% Pl: 45% I 65% P2: 35% I 75% P2: 20% I 75% P2: 70% I 90% CONFIGURATION C2 Pl: 80% I 55% (FIG. 10) Pl: 80% I 30% Pl: 50% I 80% P2: 65% I 70% P2: 35% I 75% P2: 85% I 100% CONFIGURATION C3 Pl : 30% I 25% (FIG. 11) Pl: 35% I 20% Pl: 50% I 80% LENGTH = 1 00 M P2: 25% I 50% P2: 25% I 30% P2: 80% I 1 00% CONFIGURATION C4 Pl: 75% I 25% (FIG. 12) Pl: 45% I 20% Pl: 30% I 80% LENGTH =1 00 M P2: 35% I 75% P2: 25% I 50% P2: 85% I 100% Notes: For each simulation, results are given in terms of relative significant wave height Hs/Hs0 along profiles P 1 and P2; the Lefthand value, in each case, is for the first part of the profile, and the righthand value is for the second part. NW and WNW wave simulations were run using an incident Hs0 of 4.0 m; NE wave simulations used an incident Hs0 of 3.0 m. Coastal management sourcebooks 2 151 1 . CONFIGURATION Cl : PRESENT SITUATION VCm> ..,j < 2.IO ... Wave Conditions l .,, :zoo < Figure la. NW-8s-4m 0 uo I.I Wave refraction-diffraction patterns z resulting from model configuration C1 . Ill() 0 )Oii JSO 400 450 SOO X (m) Wave Conditions z 0 WNW·8s·4m 150 100 Q 400 450 5CJO X (m) z 1 ~1 l llO 250 JOO l50 400 450 5CJO X (m) Wave Conditions NW-8s-4m ISO 200 250 JOO 350 400 450 SOO X (m) Figure lb. Wave refraction-diffraction patterns )00 resulting from model configuration C2. 2.10 Wave Condidons WNW-8s-4m l.IO 100 JOO J50 400 450 "10 X (m) Wave Conditions 200 NE-7s-3m 100 l.IO JOO J.IO 400 450 "10 X (ml 152 Coastal management sourcebooks 2 CONFIGURATION C3: 7 EMERGED DISPLACED BREAKWATER ~ ,...0 ,... Y!ml c: -l 0 z Wave Condidoiu ;I> z NW·8s·4m Figure le. 0 m Wave refraction-diffraction patterns ,;) resulting from model configuration C3 0 V\ ISO 200 2.SO )()() 3SO 400 4SO SOO X (m) (breakwater length= 100 m). 0 z Wave Conditions WNW -8s-4m 0 z ("\ 0 ;I> "'-i ;I>,... JOO ;l N I 2.SO-, Wave Conditions CONFIGURATION C4: 200 ' NE-7s-3m SUBMERGED DISPLACED BREAKWATER ISO 100 Y(m) ISO 300 350 400 4SO SOO X (m) Wave Conditions NW·8s·4m Figure ld. Wave refraction-diffraction patterns N resulting from model configuration C4 (breakwater length = 125 m; depth over Wave Conditions breakwater top = 3 m). WNW·8s·4m ICXJ • .,.. 21KI i. ;IOI) . N Wave Conditions 200 NE·7s-3m ISO 100 . , uo Coastal management sourcebooks 2 153 1 Analysis of wave-simulation results Conversely, when the submerged wall is removed (configuration C2), the degree of w ..,, WNW and NW waves (prevailing wave agitation obviously increases (Fig. 9) < l- conditions): The results observed for relative to configuration C I (Fig. 8): the risk ....a:: incoming NW and WNW waves are similar, of sea-bed scouring may increase, because :z:: even if the last part of profile PI is more wave agitation and wave reflection are ...I stronger, and wave overtopping is also < protected against WNW waves than against 1-.,. NW waves. This is why we do not give herein emphasized, even if waves propagate along < the figures related to WNW wave conditions. the fortress wall. 0 ...., In the configuration C I, the NW waves It is not possible in this preliminary study to z propagate almost parallel to the axis of the quantify precisely which of the two 0 submerged wall. Strong wave breaking occurs previously mentioned processes is prevailing. over the top of this wall, as shown in Figure 12 But this shows that: (a) special attention has (for example, Qb = 50% roughly means that to be given to the protection of Qait Bey 50% of the waves break). This may generate a fortress, considering the damage observable z Figure 8. strong residual current, induced by breaking on the site; and (b) the present situation may 0 Distribution of and driven along the corridor between the be dangerous for the foundation's stability. .... significant wave submerged wall and the fortress seawall. This The installation of an emerged breakwater 0 ....a:: heights resulting may emphasize the undermining of the along a SW- NE axis (configuration C3) from model fortress's foundations through direct erosion notably decreases the level of wave agitation 0 z configuration C1 and/or transport of bottom sediment material (Fig. I 0). However, agitation behind such a < z (for NW waves only). suspended by oscillatory wave currents. detached breakwater depends on the length of 0 the structure and is not zero, owing to 1- diffraction. :J ...I T he wave agitation behind the submerged ...I 0 CONFIGURATION Cl : PRESENT SITUATION displaced breakwater (configuration C4) is not Q. reduced in the same range as for configuration C3, owing to wave transmission over the Y(ml · ------. Direction: NW 1- ·----...------, maritime structure (Fig. 11 ). It is interesting Period: 8s Hs(m) here to refer to experimental flume results Incident Hs : 4 m .IOO ,_ N • S.00 obtained by Elkamhawy[7] for the 4.SO 111 transmission of waves through 2-dimensional ~4.00 2J() I m3.SO submerged obstacles, to estimate the Ei 3.00 transmitted wave height for any other water 200 2.50 .3 2.00 depth over the breakwater. In our case, we t I.SO observed a transmitted wave height of about . 1.00 2.5 m, which is consistent with the o.so experimental observations of Elkamhawy.[7] 0.00 1111 But here, the finite length of the breakwater induces 3-dimensional processes that slightly 3$0 400 4$0 "IO x (In) modify the expected results, according to Elkamhawy's experimental results. And 6 - again, the 'shadow' area (in terms of wave Hs (m) . . . . . -- ProRlePI agitation) behind the detached breakwater s ...... · 1:====~ . . . . depends on the length of the structure. 4 • • •• • •• ' •••••• ••.; • •• •• • . • ;. •••• •• ••;. •• • •••• ; •• • • . • ••: • •• • ••• • .; • ----- ProflleP2 . . ' W e observe no difference between Cl and C4 3 ...... -~. . . ·. _, ...~ ...... ~ ~ .-. ~ ~:- ...... : ...... , / ~ ...... : .. ~. ' ' ' : , , : . in terms of agitation for NW waves. This ':- ... _, ' .; ...... ;...... ; . means that a smaller water depth over the top ...... [7} Elkamhawy, H. (1995). Submerged Rubble 0 ·1--~-i-~-i-~--.i--~-i-~-T-~--T~~.;.-> 0 so 7S 100 12.I ISO mound Breakwater. (PhD thesis) University of Oislancc along profile (m) Windsor, Canada. 154 Coastal management sourcebooks 2 of the breakwater would be necessary to Sedimentologlcal aspects 7 improve the protection of the area of interest from wave agitation, if the present 2-layer Generalities -0 ,...0 concrete block wall were displaced as shown ,... c:: in Figure 6. If a criterion of wave agitation is Even if we are here concerned with a very .... imposed in the excavation area, it is possible, limited area, sedimentological preoccupations 0 using[?), to estimate firstly the depth over the require us to view the matter on a large scale, z l> submerged wall required roughly to meet the in time and in space. Alexandria was founded z adopted criterion, after which, a numerical on a coastal barrier. Its coasts are formed by: 0 simulation might be used to compute the wave a sandy shoreline from Sidi-Krir to El Agami; agitation in the whole area, to estimate the a mixed shore with rocky zones and sandy horizontal wave energy distribution. beaches in Alexandria Bay; and, on the 0 All computations for WNW and NW waves eastern side of the Eastern Harbour, as far as z showed wave-breaking over Diamond Rock Abu Qir; and Abu Qir Bay itself. (see as an example Figure 12 for NW waves). During our second visit to Alexandria, a NW Information from the evolutiou Figure 9. wave climate was present over the area, with of coastal morphology Distribution of 0 an estimated significant wave height of 2.5 to significant wave z 3.0 m. Wave-breaking was clearly observable A previous study of the site of Sidi-Krir[I] heights resulting ,.., over Diamond Rock. This is directly showed that the estimated mean longshore from model 0 )> comparable to the computational results transport of sand is about I00,000 m)/yr from configuration C2 "'.... shown in Figure 12. west to east. This seems to be in agreement (for NW waves only). l>,... NE waves: None of the proposed configurations offers satisfactory protection against NE waves. We can see the impact of CONFIGURATION C2: SUBMERGED WALL REMOVED Diamond Rock on wave propagation: it diffracts waves around the rocky point. For Y Coastal management sourcebooks 2 155 with the shape of the shoreline in the vicinity coast suggests, however, the existence of of the large rocky area of Abu Qir. significant longshore sand transport from west Obviously, the large number of human to east, which can be locally interrupted by activities along the coast over many the construction of obstacles. centuries depicted in the maps available in the Centre d'Etudes Alexandrines does not Local sedimentological data ..I < allow clear conclusions about the natural I- trends in the large-scale sedimentological Non-cohesive sediments: No precise and "'< regime. It seems that recent activities linked quantitative data on the sediments in the area 0 v to tourism in the western part of the Egyptian of interest could be collected during our z coast showed sand accretion on the western missions. The only information available 0 side and erosion on the eastern side of comes from observations by archaeologists Figure 10. groynes. Some sandy beaches on the eastern diving in the submarine excavations. It seems Distribution of side of the Eastern Harbour are subject to that the bottom in the area is rocky and partly significant wave strong erosion. Some of them are covered with sand 20 cm to 50 cm thick. z heights from model periodically renourished with fine desert Farther offshore, the sand thickness could be 0 configuration C3 sand, which rapidly disappears under wave greater. The sand in the excavation area seems (breakwater length= and current action. to be coarse (D ::::: 0.5 mm; that is, the mesh "'0 50 er: 100 m; for This incomplete analysis of the large-scale size through which 50%, by weight, of the """ NW waves only). Q sedimentological evolution of the Alexandrian sand grains pass). This is consistent with z constant wave agitation which imposes < z resuspension of fine sediment which can be 0 transported by currents and redeposited in I calmer areas, the coarse sand staying in place. :> -' The French nautical instructions manual[9] ..,( 0 CONFIGURATION C3: EMERGED DISPLACED BREAKWATER for 1981 indicates that the Eastern Harbour of ~ Alexandria is no longer frequented, being partly filled by high inner sand banks. This Y(m) I Direclion : NW evolution is probably due to the dikes and the I Period: 8s I lncld_ent Hs : 4 m : Hs(m) detached breakwater built to protect the )00 N .5.00 Eastern Harbour. l'il 4.50 Iii 4.00 2$11 B).50 Cohesive sediments: The site of interest is Iii 3.00 surrounded by a lot of industrial, agricultural, ml 2.50 200 and domestic sewage outfalls: 3 in the Western 11 2.00 1.50 Harbour (Mahmoudia Canal, East Noubaria 150 1.00 Canal, and the Umoum outfall), and 3 domestic 0.50 sewage outfalls in the western part of the Qait 0.00 llKI · Bey fortress, in the Eastern Harbour, and along the eastern part of the Silsila promontory. I'° ~00 :00 300 ).I() 400 450 SOO Xtm> Divers have pointed out the fact that, in certain wind conditions, the water turbidity in the archaeological area becomes much too high for Hs .. • . - - Profile PI them to pursue their excavation. Mud (m) S ····:········:-··· ····:········:· ··· ··· ·:·· I ...... deposition is also observable in the Eastern 4 . • . •.. ~ ••••.•• <· ...... ' ...•• ...; .. . -•.. . i .• • .....: ...... ; .. --- -- ProfileP2 . ,. Harbour. It is clear that such conditions would 3 .. . . •. =· ...... -~ ...... : ...... ·:· ...... : ...... ;,"'.~ ...... , . compromise visits by tourist divers. ' ' : • I : 2 • • • • . • ·...... :. ; •; ;. ~.: ..; ~ ••••••. ·:· ~ ~: ~--· ~ ~ ._.; ;"'·. -~- . ••. . . '. ,r ...... : I . ~·_- ; :·_·; ~--·• ·:· • • ..... '. • .;-,.. ..,.,- :--:-. · ""'·:· .,.._· ~-____..r.-.-.-;-,..,.,.._-; {9] Service Hydrographique et Oceanographique de la Marine. ( 1981 ). Instructions nautiques: Afrique - Cote Nord, entre la Mer Egee et le canal de Suez, Serie D. vol. 6. 156 Coastal management sourcebooks 2 Sedimento/.ogical risk and sediment-transport modelling. We 7 performed such modelling within a recent In the present case, it seems that: European research programme dealing with -a ,..0 (a) no significant non-cohesive (sand) tombolo formation behind a hypothetical ,.. sedimentation occurs in the archaeological detached breakwater on a sandy beach (0 c: 50 = ~ area at present, owing to the frequently high 0.25 mm).[ IO] 0 level of wave agitation For the estimation of long-term sedimentary z > (b) there may be a potentiaJ stock of sand impacts, laboratory studies on reduced scales z seawards to be moved and displaced through are giweraJly used to check and finalize the 0 cross-shore and along-shore transport if options that could be indicated by numericaJ Figure 11. structures are displaced modelling. Physical modelling of Distribution of (c) no precise quantitative data (grain-size sedimentary impacts due to the installation of significant wave 0 z distribution { 0 50, 0 90}, sand-layer thickness, marine structures facilitates reproduction of heights resulting etc.) are available the Jong-term morphological evolution to be from model (d) cohesive sediments are often in suspension expected when exposing the site to a configuration C4 in the water column. representative wave climate. Such an (breakwater length = The protection solution consisting of a approach has already been applied in our 125 m; depth over 0 displaced emerged/submerged breakwater has laboratory for instance to assess the breakwater top = z to be carefully considered; here, we must sedimentary impacts around the new Olympic 3 m; for NW waves focus on the possible use of such marine harbour in Barcelona (Spain).[ 11] only). "0 > structures to increase sedimentation on the VI ~ wave-protected side of the breakwater ,..> (formation of tombolos: sand accretions on :r the wave-protected side of a detached "';:g breakwater), to improve the nourishment of ~ the beaches and the shore by sand, for C ONFIGURATION C4: SUBMERGED DISPLACED BREAKWATIR > instance. This potential effect would be ""' completely opposite to that required for the Yfml creation of a submarine museum. Direction : NW The rate of sand accretion in the lee of such a Period : 8s I lnddent Hs : 4 m I H~Cm J detached breakwater depends on the incident JOO . N . S.00 wave characteristics, the distance from the ~ ...... 4.50 Wav~ •••,.• • 4.00 shore, the water depth, and the sand's 250 ...... m3 .50 characteristics and availability. For instance, a ... 1§1 3.00 small wave length brings less wave energy 200 Ii 2.SO ii) 2.00 (i.e., less agitation) in the lee of the 1.50 breakwater than a larger wave length for a ISO · _J l.00 given Hs value, and thus promotes sand 0.50 0.00 accretion. lflO Numerical modelling of such processes is in progress, but requires a consistent linking 2.~ JOO "° 4SO .!00 X!mJ between wave regime, wave-induced currents, - Hs . . . -- ProClle Pt (ml s .... ·;· ...... ····:···. ··· ·········:····· .. ·:· ~=====; : : : : . • - - - - Profile P2 c ·······~· ····· ··:········ ········~········~········~········~ · . . . . . r------~ [ 10) Pechon, P. et al. ( 1997). lntercomparison of wave-driven current models. Coastal .: ·:•.: : ·•:: _.I/·-·->r•:,:: 31: 199- 215. >? ... ,: Engineering, [ 11] Pechon, P., leymarie, J-C.• Cail/at, M. and ... .-~: ~...... ·~ ...... ~ ...... ·:· ..... :r ...... ~ ...... :. Rabeau, J. ( 1991 ). Etude sedimentologique sur . ' . . . o.i---;----T'--T·--·,__-~·--~·--~ modele red11it du Port Olympique de Barcelone. 0 7S 100 (2j llO 17S EDF-LNH Report, HE-42191 .33. DiM1ncc llon1 prontc (m) Coastal management sourcebooks 2 157 7 Conclusion is favourable to high wave-driven currents during extreme events. The present Localized numerical wave-agitation submerged concrete blocks may therefore be simulations in the vicinity of the Pharos unuseful, at best, or harmful, at worst. excavation site in Alexandria (Egypt) have Suspended materials from a large number of been carried out for annual wave-climate adjacent industrial and domestic outfalls in ..I conditions. They show how WNW, NW and the vicinity of the archaeological site caused < I- NE waves propagate towards the site. high water turbidity which can compromise "'<( Depending on criteria that have not yet been the visit to the site by divers. 0 v specified and on the priorities to be fixed by Local sedimentological data are not readily z Egyptian authorities, it is possible to assess available. Nevertheless, previous experience 0 the wave-agitation level in the case of at LNH suggests that the creation of a emerged or submerged detached submarine museum, protected from wave breakwaters. agitation by a detached breakwater, could be Figure 12. A rapid investigation of the Qait Bey considered, but with much caution. z Distribution of fortress area, reinforced by local Morphological evolution observed along the 0 breaking rote information, has shown the necessity of Alexandrian coasts shows that the risk of resulting from model looking carefully at the present protection sedimentation by sand or mud, associated configuration C7 system. The presence of a corridor between with the installation of detached marine (for NW waves only). Q the submerged concrete wall and the fortress structures, is appreciable. z EDF-LNH has been asked questions that <( z relate to a more global problem. A solution 0 therefore has to take into account all the .... sources of complexity in the problem. A ::> .....I CONFIGURATION Cl : PRESENT SITUATION durable solution may be reached through a 0 few temporary actions consistent with the c. priorities to be fixed. Y(m) No definitive solution for durable marine ::JN . structures can be proposed at the moment Period:Di~ion 8s / ~ Qb Incident Hs : 4 m /',.. without an extensive and integrated study, N .1.00 .0.90 which must include: w... 0-. / ,(II II o.so (a) complete field-data collection; l .0.70 (particularly regarding sediments) ri!I 0.60 ,// I ·-·~-~--~-~-~--~-....--,,,------, Qb ProntePl I 0.75 ...... 1 ------ProfileP2 ' o.s . . !~ ... :. .. " .. ; ...... :...... :...... : . " ... ..; ...... :.. :~ : : : : : I \ ' ' I I • ' O.l S ,' · -~ · · ; ~ "..' · ,. 0 ·I"-.;:.._-;.'-':---;...-~-:..;•------·..::..:;::c._.:o.;'-"--;.i-...... ::·--;.~ ---_-·- +-' 0 25 7S 100 125 ISO Discancc alona proliJe (m) 158 Coastal management sourcebooks 2 Coastal processes and proposed 1 ~ protection works along the Alexandrian ,...0 r e:: coastline -l -0 z l> z 0 -0 ALFY MORCOS FANOS Sho1reline and sea-bed 2 Director, Coastal Research Institute, and mor·phology 0MRAN EL SAYED FRIHY Deputy Director, Coastal Research Institute The shoreline is undulating and interrupted by ro1cky headlands, forming embayments 0 and pocket beaches ranging from 300 to z 1,600 m in length, except for El-Mamora ,., Introduction (4,000 m), and of maximum width of 50 m 0 l> (Fig. I). Most Alexandrian coasts are rocky VI -! he city of Alexandria is on the north and have very little or no sandy beaches. ,...l> western border of the Nile delta coast. It The small rocky islets submerged in the T ::t,,., lies between latitudes 31° 06' and 31 ° 20' N nearshore zone off Alexandria serve as wave ::ic and between longitudes 29° 45' and energy dissipaters. The predominant features .... )> 30° 04 E. Its coastline is about 42 km long, of Al1exandria's coastline, extending from El C'I from El Agami in the west to Abu Qir in the Agami to Abu Qir headland, are depicted in m east. Alexandria is the second largest city in Figure 1. The Alexandrian beaches are Egypt and the principal harbour and trade moderately dissipative of wave energy; they centre of the country. Its coast is bordered are steeper than those on the rest of the Nile by a highway (corniche) which is protected delta coast, having a slope of I :30 and from the sea by a concrete sea wall. crescient-shaped sand bars associated with The corniche follows the coastline for a rip currents which are hazardous to distance of 16 km, from Montazah to Ras swimmers. Some of the beaches are El-Tin. On the landward side of the corniche suffe1ring from erosion. Nourishment has is some of the most valuable property in been carried out using desert sand with or Egypt. The corniche itself represents a without solid protection works such as significant investment and its cost is groynes. estimated now at £E200 million. The nearshore zone contains outcrops of The city itself was founded on a narrow emerged and submerged rocky islets aligned sandy coastal plain (Ridge No. II); a part of more or less parallel to the shoreline and the corniche is built on rocks, as in Roshdi, extending 300 m into the sea. These and the rest, on the sandy plain, as in the El outcrops form rocky shoals in front of most Mandara area. The beaches are narrow, with of Alexandria's beaches and act as natural a maximum width of about 50 m, to the east wave breakers. They reduce wave heights of the Eastern Harbour and wider, to the and change wave direction near the west. They are, however, suffering from coastline. The nearshore bathymetry is erosion, with a shoreline retreat of 20 cm/yr. complex, owing to these outcrops. The Alexandria beach sediments are derived from the adjacent limestone ridges west of Alexandria and/or from local rocky limestone outcrops. They may also be Coastal management sourcebooks 2 159 ,. tv 7 To El·Alamei o Figure 1. Alexandria I longshore waterfront East (Abu-Qir to El-Agami) a.. e1 .... -:·::·:: Sandy Beac~ .. Rocky * Nourished Beaches - Rocky Islets TABLE I. MAIN FEATURES OF THE ALEXANDRIAN COAST Region Length Type Beach Altitude of Status Expected future (m) width comiche protection works (m) (m) El-Anfoshi 900 Sandy 40 • deposition area 1 OOO Rocky • submerged concrete blocks about 1 00 m offshore . l · ·, • t' ... - . Eastern Harbour 3 800 Rocky (5.00) • narrow beach at Scout Club (300 x 5 m) • protection by concrete blocks . ",!' :' El-Shatby 850 Sandy 40 (5.00) • erosion area 8-10 detached breakwaters in 200 Rocky • nourished in 1988 water depth of 2 to 4 m 3 (59 OOO m ) + 60 m groyne on the western side maximur;n erosion is 0.7 m/yr + 270 OOO m1 nourishment~and Sporting and 400 Sandy 3 (4.00) • nearly stable lbrahimiya 700 Rocky • narrow,.., ..eroded beaches Cleopatra 200 Sandy 10 (4.00) protection of the corniche 4 to 6 detached breakwaters in and Sidi Gaber 1 OOO Rocky by concrete blocks water depth of 2.5 to 4 m maximum erosion + 60 m groyne on the eastern side is 0.7 m/yr + 180 OOO m3 .nourishment sand -·' ... -'" . . ~~ Roshdi and 850 Rocky (6.50)-+(4.00) • erosion area Mostapha Pasha • narrow pocket beaches 5 to 7 detached breakwaters in water depth of 2.5 to 5 m + 60 m and 40 m groynes on the western and eastern sides + 15 OOO m3 nourishment sand Saba Pacha 200 Sandy 20 ( 4.00)-+(8.00) • erosion area 2 short detached breakwaters and Stanley 1 250 Rocky • nourished in 1987 in water depth of 2.5 m ~~ 3 90~m 3) San Stefano 1 OOO Sandy • deposition area 5 or 6 detached breakwaters and Gleem 150 Rocky 30 (3.75) • narrow sandy beach in water depth of 4 to 5 m + 40 m groyne to the west + 216 OOO m3 nourishment sand 160 Coastal management sourcebooks 2 7 ID f ~ ~tt·~ a....:h -'- i.mtota; .. !H~ f t~~ I~~~ ~~ , -=.. l"l!S JX)m + , ,'"' - %ky"- ! · ~ ·.• ;, .... '\\•. ·~ At>.;<>-"r Roa R.,lwav TABLE I. (Continued) Region Length Type Beach Altitude of Status Expected future (m) width( comlche · protection works (m) (m) I Loran and 1 200 Rocky (5.00)-->(350) • protection of the corniche El-Ram I by concrete blocks Sidi Bishr 1 700 Sandy 15 (4.00) • nearly stable 250 Rocky maximum accretion is 0. 7 rn.Jyr ' Miya mi 500 Sandy 30 (4.00) • erosion area 450 Rocky • nourished in 1989 1 (19 OOO m ) 1 in 1995[(49 OOO m ) El-Asafra 1 100 Sandy 20 (5.00) • erosion area • nourished in 1990 1 (48 ooo;m ) I El-Mandara 950 Sandy 25 (2.00)-•(5.00) • erosion area 3 or 4 detached breakwaters • nourished in 1988 + 4 m groyne to the west 1 (60 OOO m ) in water depth of 3 to 5 m + extension of 30 m to the existing eastern groyne 1+ 9 OOO ml of nourishment sand El-Montazah 900 Sandy Variable ( 4.00)-->(8.00) • erosion area 1 500 R?cky • Ayda and Venice beaches El-Mamoura 3 500 Sandy 40 (2.75) • erosion area 350 Rocky • maximum rate is 0.7 m/yri on western side • maximum accretion rate is 0.7 miyr on eastern side Abu Qir 1 OOO Sandy 20 (l .60) • erosion area 2 OOO Rocky • nourished in 1987 1 (20 OOO m ) in 1993 ps OOO ml) Coastal management sourcebooks 2 161 7 Figure 2. Existing situation of Qait Bey Qait Bey Fort. Fort archaeological Sketch showing Section ~ site ~ A-A (not to scale)----~ ----~._.~....., ..I < ... ~.- .. ~.) <"' / 0 __ u t concrete blocks z N 0 I 1-"' u < c. ~ z 0 Q z < z Figure 3. Proposed 0 solution for saving I the archaeologlcal ::> ..I site and protecting ..I 0 Qait Bey Fart. ~ Qait Bey Fort detached breakwater M.S.L. ~ ~detached breakwater sacks filled with o.;:, sand and ~ cement ·~ ~ concrete blocks c.,O N underwater I archaeological opening for water~ museum circulation? 162 Coastal management sourcebooks 2 derived from the sediment discharge from monuments in the area, so that unwanted 7 El-Mahmoudia Canal and El-Umoum side-effects will be avoided. ~ outfall. The sand-grain size range is from (h) Assessment of future consequences for 0 r medium to coarse. Table I summarizes the submarine and onshore archaeological r c: main features of the Alexandrian coast. The remains, based on a predictive model and -I predominant wave directions are mainly realistic scenarios of sea-level change. 0 from the N-NW sector and this is (i) Prohibition of the quarrying and removal z '1> responsible for the generation of a longshore of the natural carbonate ridges west of z current towards the east. In addition, an Alexandria that constitute a natural coastal 0 appreciable percentage of waves from the defence system (comprising also offshore N- NE sector generates a reverse longshore islets and sandy beaches) and which could current towards the west. The net sediment be effectively managed to protect the 0 transport direction is towards the east. coastline and combat flooding and the z consequences of sea-level rise. Recommended actions 0 Given the lack of hydrodynamic data and z underwater surveys and the objective of ,... optimizing the planning and design of 0 ~ ~ protective works, the following actions are -I recommended: ,...~ (a) Collection of data on waves, currents, sea-level variations, bottom characteristics (sandy or rocky), littoral drift rate, storm surges, etc. (d) Conduct of bathymetric side-scan sonar and high-resolution seismic surveys to determine the depth contours and bed slopes, and to locate submerged and/or buried monuments (if any). (c) Utilization of the existing emerged and submerged islands of Alexandria to achieve better protection for recreational activities. (d) Avoidance of the use of vertical seawalls or any similar hard structures, because they will accelerate erosion and cause undermining of the bottom sand as well as overtopping and high uprush. (e) Careful design of underwater museums to ensure preservation of archaeological finds and to encourage underwater tourism in Alexandria, as in the Red Sea. Figures 2 and 3 illustrate one possible solution for a problem facing Alexandria's underwater heritage. (f) Prohibition of protective works in the Alexandria area until it has been established that there are no monuments buried in the sea floor. (g) Beach nourishment to overcome erosion problems in Alexandria, if there are no Coastal management sourcebooks 2 163 8 Need for a coastal management plan The AMexandrrea ~ase ... lBTEHAL Y. EL-BASTAWISSI coastal areas and potential use conflict have 0 Department of Architecture been key factors, which has prompted the 1- z University of Alexandria attention now being given to the planning and u.I :! management of the coast as a resource. A key u.I aim is to balance the needs of recreation \) 164 Coastal management sourcebooks 2 1- !i};"ignificance means any coastal wetlands, The coastal zone and 8 ~beach, dune, reef, estuary or fi sh and wildlife man's interactions with it / habitat, if any such area is determined by a z -4 coastal city to be of substantial biological or Any consideration of a coastal resources "'('\ natural storm-protective value. management system must take into account XI )> (c) The term coastal waters means those man's past and present interaction with the -4 waters, adjacent to the shorelines, which ecosystems of the coastal zone. From these "'0 contain a measurable quantity or percentage past interactions, an effective initial model for 3: of sea water, including, but not limited to, a coastal zone management system can be l> z sounds, bays, lagoons, bayous, ponds and developed. Man subjects coastal ecosystems )> estuaries. to a number of direct stresses, or ('\,., (d) The term estuary means that part of a river modifications, whose effects are immediately s: l'1'I or stream or other body of water having apparent. These involve activities ranging z -4 unimpaired connection with the open sea, from building sites, through industrial and 0 where the sea water is measurably diluted commercial activities, to sports and fi shing.[ l] .., with fresh water derived from land drainage. For instance, beneficial use of sandy shores (e) The term water use means use, activity or has included projects on navigation, project conducted in or on waters within the recreation, waste disposal, power generation, coastal zone. food supply and others. Affluence, leisure (f) The term management plan means a time and transportation have made recreation :t,., vehicle for recording systematically the a major shoreline activity, with mass XI characteristics of the site, acknowledging accommodation and facilities for vacations or -4 )> explicitly its most valuable aspects and retirement in the vicinity of population centres specifying objectives for the site's and, at more remote locations.[6] Being the ""' management which will be achieved through major shoreline activity, recreation, including the proposals and work programmes that are its impact on nature conservation, has outlined in the plan.[3, 4] attracted the most attention. Johnson and (g) The term coast, from an environmental Seabrooke[2] stated that standpoint, is a popular destination for the impact of recreation on nature recreational activities. The natural beauty and conservation can create short- or long-term landscape variety of the coast, its nature damage and disturbance which can be either conservation interest and its various natural reversible or irreversible. English Nature resources for recreation, such as water, ( 1991) recognizes disturbance as perhaps the beaches and cliffs, make it a major attraction, and there have been growing pressures on its capacity. In most coastal areas, the aim should [3] Leay, M., Rowe, J. and Young, J. D. (1986). be to balance and reconcile these interests and Management Plans: a Guide to Their Preparation contain the impact of these activities through and Use. Countryside Commission, CCP 206, Cheltenham (UK). appropriate management measures[2]. [ 4] Johnson, D. ( 1996). Coastal management (h) The term coastal man(lgement plans. pp. 273-95. in: T. Goodhead and programme is [intended to be] a co-ordinated D. Johnson (eds.). Coastal Recreation process by which the government, with Management E. & F. N. Spon. London. public and private input, designs and [5] Reimold, R. J. ( 1980). Effectiveness of assessments of coastal management. pp. 444-50, implements an agreed plan for the use and in: B. L Edge (ed.), Coastal Zone '80: Proceedings protection of coastal resources. The of the Second Symposium on Coastal and Ocean programme should rely on the government Management Vol. I. American Society of Civil for leadership, with the input of local and Engineers, New York. national interests to supplement this [6] O'Brien, M. P. and Johnson, J. W. ( 1980). leadership role. Coastal management is also Struclllres and sandy beaches. pp. 2718-40, in: B. L Edge (ed.), Coastal Zone '80: Proceedings of designed to improve the technical and the Second Symposium on Coastal and Ocean scientific framework within which coastal Management Vo/ IV. American Society of Civil decision-making is based.[5] Engineers. New York. Coastal management sourcebooks 2 165 8 major area of conflict, particularly in renewable resources, such as natural gas estuaries, affecting resident and migratory reserves, must be utilized in ways that best bird populations. conserve their value for present and future Dramatic examples of the consequences of the generations, by recycling, for example. Other development of recreational facilities are also resources, including archaeological and mentioned by Pickering[?], who stated that historical sites, rare plants and animals, and ...I facilities development, their location, design freshwater wetlands, have special values < .... and management can affect the landscape which must be considered in wise planning for ""< quality, destroy habitats and disturb or the coast, recognizing that some resources are 0 v increase the stress levels felt by the wildlife. suited for development, whereas others should The use of a site as a recreational area will be managed for maximum protection.[5] inevitably lead to change in local ecosystems. Habitats will be destroyed and wildlife displaced to provide car parks and facilities. The urgency of implementing In terms of explicit provision, changes to the a coastal zone management ecosystems will need to be made to withstand programme the intensity of use. It may be necessary to plant trees and shrubs able to withstand soil In the light of the foregoing discussion, the ....Q compaction and damage from vandalism. US Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972, .... Moreover, the poor design of access routes can which provides definitions of terms relating to < a: lead to a widening of the pathway or area the coastal zone (see above), offers some ....\J affected by trampling, potentially to the point of points of resemblance to the case of the 1- z creating a barrier to species movement.[7, 8) Alexandria region: P ickering[?], after Edington and Edington[9), (a) There is a national interest in the effective highlighted the view on the environmental management, beneficial use, protection and disturbance of the flora and fauna, that development of the coastal zone. flora and fauna typically have narrow (b) The coastal zone is rich in a variety of tolerance levels in respect of the natural, commercial, recreational, ecological, environmental conditions they require for industrial and aesthetic resources of survival and health. Aquatic animals, for immediate and potential value to the present example, are sensitive to salinity, water and future well-being of the country. movement, temperature and plant formations. (c) The increasing and competing demands Plants not only form an important part of the upon the lands and waters of coastal zones food chain, but also provide essential shelter occasioned by population growth and and support. economic development - including To plan sustainable interaction between man requirements for industry, commerce, and the coastal zone, a coastal management residential development, recreation, extraction programme is needed that is specifically of mineral resources and fossil fuels, tailored to preserve, to protect, to enhance and transportation and navigation, waste disposal, to develop the use of the coastal renewable and harvesting of fish, shellfish and other and non-renewable resources. The plan must be formulated to manage unique coastal resources prudently, giving equal {7] Pickering, H. (1996). Limitation ofcoastal recreation. pp. 69- 91, in: T. Goodhead and consideration to economic and ecological D. Johnson (eds.), Coastal Recreation goals, one of which should be to resolve Management. E. & F. N. Spon, London. conflicts that arise between natural-resource [8] Sidaway, R. ( 1993). Sport, recreation and conservation and economic development. This nature conservation: developing good conservation resolution needs to be brought about in a practice. In: S. Glyptis (ed.), Leisure and the timely manner to ensure the greatest possible Environment: Essays in Honour of Professor J .A. Patmore. Be/haven Press, London. long-term increase in public benefit for all user [9} Edington, J. M. and Edington, M. A. ( 1986). groups. For example, renewable resources, Ecology, Recreation and Tourism. Cambridge such as fisheries and forests, and non- University Press, Cambridge. 166 Coastal management sourcebooks 2 living marine resources - have resulted in the Guidelines for the 8 loss of living marine resources, wildlife, implementation of a coastal nutrient-rich areas, permanent and adverse zone management programme z changes to ecological systems, decreasing open -t m space for public use, and shoreline problems. Any system of management devised for the (d) The habitat areas of the coastal zone, and "= the coastal zone must, as a first consideration, ....l> the living marine resources and wildlife reflect the ecological processes that occur in ,., 0 therein, are ecologically fragile and that zone. Clearly, any management system consequently extremely vulnerable to ~ must also take into account political and l> destruction by man's alterations. social constraints, but, when concessions are z l> (e) Important ecological, cultural, historical made, they must be made in favour of natural ,.,(\ and aesthetic values in the coastal zone, which processes, not in favour of man-oriented ~ m are essential to the wellbeing of all citizens, processes. This is the only safe path to be z are being irretrievably damaged or lost. taken if the coastal zone resources that are .... (f) New and expanding demands for food, prized so much and that are so necessary to ..,0 energy, minerals, defence needs, recreation, sustainable welfare of the country are to be r'\ waste disposal, transportation and industry are 0 protected.[ I ] l> placing stress on coastal areas and are creating VI The US Coastal Zone Management Act of -t the need for resolution of serious conflicts 1972 offers a set of guidelines that may be ,...l> among important and competing uses and included in the national policy and used as a values in coastal and sea waters. basis for implementing a coastal zone (g) Special natural and scenic characteristics management system. These guidelines are: are being damaged by ill-planned (a) To preserve, protect, develop and, where development that threatens these values. possible, to restore or enhance the resources (h) In the light of competing demands and the of the country's coastal zone for present and urgent need to protect and to give high future generations. priority to natural systems in the coastal zone, (b) To encourage and assist the cities to present governmental and local institutional effectively exercise their responsibilities in arrangements for planning and regulating land the coastal zone through the development and and water uses in such areas are inadequate. implementation of management programmes (i) Land uses in the coastal zone and the uses lo achieve wise use of the land and water of adjacent lands which drain into the coastal resources of the coastal zone, giving full zone, may significantly affect the quality of consideration to ecological, cultural, historical coastal waters and habitats, and efforts to and aesthetic values, as well as the need for control coastal water pollution from land-use compatible economic development. Such activities must be improved. programmes should at least provide for: (j) Because global warming may result in a • the protection of natural resources, including substantial sea level rise with serious adverse wetlands, estuaries, beaches, dunes, coral effects in the coastal zone, coastal cities must reefs, fish, wildlife and their habitat, within anticipate and plan for such an occurrence. the coastal zone; (k) Because of their proximity to and reliance • the management of coastal development to upon the sea and its resources, the coastal minimize the loss of life and property caused cities have substantial and significant interests by improper development in areas prone to in the protection, management and floods, storm surges, geological hazards and development of the resources of the exclusive erosion, and in areas likely to be affected by economic zone that can only be served by the or vulnerable to sea-level rise, land active participation of coastal cities in all subsidence and salt-water intrusion, and by governmental programmes affecting such the destruction of natural protective features resources and, wherever appropriate, by the such as beaches, dunes and wetlands; development of sea resource plans as part of • the management of coastal development lo their governmentally approved coastal zone improve, safeguard and restore the quality of management programmes. coastal waters, and to protect natural Coastal management sourcebooks 2 167 resources and existing uses of those waters; governmental and local agencies, and • priority consideration of coastal-dependent international organizations where appropriate, uses and orderly processes for siting major in the collection, analysis, synthesis and facilities related to national defence, energy dissemination of coastal management generation, fishery development, recreation, information, research results, and technical ports and transportation, and the location, to assistance to support governmental regulation the maximum extent practicable, of new of land-use practices affecting the coastal and commercial and industrial developments in or sea resources of the country. adjacent to areas where such development already exists; ... • public access to the coasts for recreational Development of a coastal zone 0 purposes; management plan ~z • assistance in the redevelopment of deteriorating urban waterfronts and ports, and The concept of Coastal Zone Management ""~ sensitive preservation and restoration of (CZM) has developed, as discussed ""\J <( historical, cultural and aesthetic coastal previously, from the struggle to find a z mechanism to balance the demands on the <( features; ~ • the co-ordination and simplification of coastal resources, promote their sustainable Q procedures, to ensure expeditious use and manage individual activities. It is now w ~ governmental decision-making for the recognized that coastal areas need to be <( a: management of coastal resources; managed in an integrated way. Each activity \J • continued consultation and co-ordination should be considered as a part of the whole ""~ z with the affected governmental agencies; and not managed independently of other • the creation of opportunities for public and activities in the same area. All of them must local-government participation in coastal co-exist with other maritime activities. The management decision-making; need to work in harmony with the numerous • assistance to support comprehensive agencies involved with the coast is therefore planning, conservation and management for an important element of the job of coastal living marine resources, including planning managers.[2] This approach was articulated at for the siting of pollution control and the World Coast 2000 Conference[lO]: aquaculture facilities within the coastal zone, A national CZM programme should facilitate and improved co-ordination between local and integrated decision-making through a national coastal zone management agencies continuous and evolutionary process for co and wildlife agencies; and operation and co-ordination among sectors, • the study and development of plans for integrating national and local interests in the addressing the adverse effect upon the coastal management ofactivities concerning the zone of land subsidence and of sea-level rise. environment and development [through] (c) To encourage the preparation of special education, public awareness and an equitable area management plans which provide for process for the participation of all increased specificity in protecting significant stakeholders. natural resources, reasonable coastal Decisions on which is the best use of a given dependent economic growth, improved unit of the coastal zone must be made with protection of life and property in hazardous full input from scientists, ecologists, areas, including those areas likely to be geologists, economists, anthropologists, affected by land subsidence and sea-level rise, planners and architects.[!] Therefore, the and improved predictability in governmental preparation of coastal management plans decision-making. requires a systematic approach.[4] To fulfil (d) To encourage the participation and co operation of the public and of local [ 10] World Coast 2000. (1993). Preparing to Meet government. the Coastal Challenges of the 21 st Century. (e) To encourage co-ordination and co Conference Statement, Noordwijk, The operation with and among the appropriate Netherlands, 5 November 1993. 168 Coastal management sourcebooks 2 this requirement, Kennedy[ 11 ] identified five Analysis: 8 preparatory stages in developing a coastal Resolution of conflicting management management plan. They are: proposals together with consideration of z -I Stage 1: Identifying the real management opportunities and constraints, and an "' issues. This involves infonnation-gathering to assessment of their importance. "l>= give a picture of the management situation Objectives: -I prior to fonnulating the management plan. This Specific, measurable and precise targets, "'0 be stage may result in the production of a which can priced and time-tabled, outlining ~ preparatory document, or interim or issues courses of action. l> z report, to serve as a consultation document, Prescription: )> helping to shape and build support for the plan. An overview of the work required to meet the " Stage 2: Planning for what is desired as an management objectives together with resource "'s: outcome and how to achieve it; in effect, the requirements. "'z -I work programme for the management planning. Implementation: 0 Stage 3: Agreeing on the management A detailed action programme explaining how "l't structure for the plan is essential with any management objectives will be achieved and f'\ 0 project where there are multiple work executed. )> VI responsibilities. An accepted fonnat is the Monitoring and review: -I )> formation of a steering group or working A record and assessment of action taken and I'"" party consisting of the primary decision proposals for reviewing the plan. ::c makers. The government advises local Finally, Johnson recommended that, while the "' authorities to take the lead in preparing preparatory stages are important and largely =-I l> coastal management plans. determine the management plan's content, the Stage 4: Doing the work (i.e., analysis of result should be a working document rather ""' information, formulation of objectives and than merely a paper exercise. production of a detailed action programme). Stage 5: Presenting the plan firstly as a draft for consultation, to allow for comment and Principles for an effective public/user reaction, and then as a finalized coastal management document. programme These stages serve only as guidelines because it would be inappropriate to set out a universal An effective coastal management programme list of contents applicable to every coastal must be founded on principles that can be management plan. Each plan is specific to its repeated in time and space. It must not rely site, managing agencies and subject focus. solely on any individual, public official, or Johnson[4] also added: conservation leader, but must be founded on a However, while detailed content will vary from series of goals and objectives established for location to location, many of the component the wise use of the coast. For instance, the parts are common to all such documents. programme may emphasize significant natural He supported this view by giving a brief resources such as dunes, beaches and summary of a typical management plan wetlands, or point to the increasing need for format set out by Leay, Rowe and Young.[3] accessibility to the coastal areas for Their headings are as follows: recreational uses; at the same time, assurance Aims of the protection and restoration or Statement of intent reflecting strategic enhancement of the cultural and natural policies and the balance of interests. Survey Background information and baseline data [ 11] Kennedy, K. ( 1994 ). Producing management that are both regional and site specific. This plans for major estuaries: the needfor a systematic approach. Case study: the Thames Estuary. section usually includes a description of the Conference on Management Techniques in the site and a detailed audit of the site's key Coastal Zone, University of Portsmouth, 24- 25 features. October 1994. Coastal management sourcebooks 2 169 resources is needed. Such a programme may coastal zone. Wise conservation of this sand also document the need for increased co sharing system is of vital concern to all w IJ operation in intergovernmental co-ordination citizens to maintain their health, safety and < ... so as to bring about greater predictability in welfare. Appropriate conservation regulations public decision-making. An analysis of how for this dynamic sand-sharing system ensures effective the programme has been in reaching that all structures and activities on the ...I these goals is required. offshore sandbars, shoals, beaches and dunes <( ... Standards and criteria adopted through laws do not adversely affect the functioning and the ~ <( and applicable rules and regulations should value of the sand-sharing system. 0 v provide guidelines on evaluation and assessment. Guidelines should include, for The role ofscientists in establishing an effective example, a review of the public interests, the coastal zone programme: Another component water-dependent nature of the proposed of an effective programme in coastal activity, whether the piroposed change is management is the utilization of the most recent essential for safe navigation and/or public advances in science and technology as a health, and address the public recreational foundation upon which to base coastal benefits. In addition, am effective coastal legislation. This involves close networking with management programme should provide free scientists of many disciplines so as to ensure Q technical assistance to the applicant to assist that recent discoveries of science are integrated w ... in following the guidelines of the coastal into wise resource management. An effective <( c:: regulation programme. Reimold[S) provided coastal management programme will be one IJ ...w planners with a set of important components that reviews existing laws and rules and z of an effective coastal management regulations relative to coastal resource and land programme. These counponents are summed use, and that makes recommendations in the up in nine headings; a tenth heading is also light of recent findings. In this instance, the added, as follows: scientists and government officials cannot work in a vacuum. Care must be taken to ensure that Understanding the val'ue of dunes, beaches the discoveries of science are interpreted for use and offshore bars: An important component by the layman and the legislator alike. of a coastal management programme is the ability to manage the dunes, beaches and Managing the conflict between natural offshore bars. These areas are fragile products resource conservation and economic of shoreline evolution and are quite easily development: The need to reconcile disturbed. Exposed to the full effect of waves, conflicting uses should be supported by tides, currents and winds, the visible beach increased environmental awareness. undergoes changes in width in response to Worldwide, there is an increased willingness changing conditions; high, steep storm waves to accept the economic costs of measures to cut into the beach and move sand offshore, protect the environment (see [2], for whereas low swells move it back and rebuild example). The coastal resource manager the beach. For this reason, beaches are therefore aims to manage the coast, not only generally narrower towards the end of winter because it is all too easily destroyed by a in most locations during the stormy season range of human activities but also for its own than in the late summer.[6] sake. (For further details refer to the section The offshore sandbars. and shoals are the on the coastal zone and man's interactions shore's first line of defence against with it, discussed above.) destructive energy generated by winds, tides and storms, and consequently protect the Encouraging the optimum location of private onshore portions of the system by serving as a and public development projects: Another sand reservoir for the beaches. These sea important component of assessing the beaches frequently provide an unparalleled effectiveness of coastal management is to natural recreational re:source which has determine whether or not the programme become vitally Jinked to the economy of the encourages the location of private and public 170 Coastal management sourcebooks 2 development projects in the most suitable ecological importance. It is therefore also areas so that adverse impacts upon natural appropriate for marina sites to operate in an resources are minimized. The programme environmentally aware manner, whereby these z -c must effectively control the quality and kinds ecosystems can be protected.[ 13] ,,, of development that takes place in the coastal ('\ => zone. This can be best accomplished through Ensuring public access to the coastal water: -c zoning. These zoning decisions must be made ,,, Another way of assessing the effectiveness of 0 by weighing ecological values against the the coastal management programme is to ~ values associated with other uses.[ I] dete1rmine whether it has had an impact on > z public accessibility to coastal waters and > M aintaining and/or improving water beaches. As the coastal area grows and more ,,,C'I quality: Another component of wise coastal people use the coast, additional regulation of ,..~ management is the maintenance or public access is essential, although the public z -t improvement of the quality of coastal shoU!ld continue to have access to the coastal 0 waters. Maintenance and, where possible, wate:rs. .., improvement of coastal waters are essential f"\ 0 to public health as well as to the Identifying, preserving, and rehabilitating )> improvement of the tourist industry. Great historic sites: Historic sites, structures and "'-c care must be taken to ensure that industrial relics, whether man-made or natural, are ...)> waste and port activities, as well as urban essential cultural resources which must be ,,,:t growth, do not adversely degrade coastal preserved. The effectiveness of a coastal water quality. man:agement programme can be assessed by "-I A range of substances that exert a variety of > its ability to identify, preserve and rehabilitate ('\,.. polluting effects enter coastal waters via a important historic sites. number of sources. These include landborne sources - discharges via rivers, streams, Designing a balanced/sustainable use of the drains, pipes and direct run-off; shipborne and coast: In designing a balanced use of the marine industrial sources - accidental, coast, it is essential that local governments not deliberate or operational; regulated dumping unreasonably restrict or exclude facilities of material at sea (radioactive waste, sewage from being sited in the coastal zone when they sludge etc.); environmental sources, such as cannot be easily sited elsewhere, as long as atmospheric deposition. Sewage should only this allows for safety zones and does not come be discharged into the sea after it has been into •Conflict with other human activities. screened and comminuted; it should also be Facillities of regional and national benefit discharged through long sea-outfalls, not incluide power plants, transmission lines, through short ones.(12] Water quality is a pubI ic port development, regional airports, critical consideration in water sports, being sewage treatment plants, regional solid-waste not only important for immersion and wet disposal facilities, and energy-resource sports but also for sports directly exploiting exploration and production facilities. the resource, such as gamefishing and Recreational water activities provide obvious wildfowling. Surfers and divers are regarded examples of a critical use of the coast. as being more at risk than swimmers, owing Growth in the number of people participating to their longer periods of exposure.[7] in water sports, changes in lifestyle, Boat users and marina operators should, in theory, be in favour of sensible environmental / 12) Lewey, S. ( 1996). Water quality and pollution. controls, since water and environmental quality pp. 93-114, in: T. Goodhead and D. Johnson are important to maintaining the quality of their (eds.), Coastal Recreation Management. E. & F. N. recreational enjoyment. Marina operators need Spon, London. to preserve business, therefore water quality is [ 13 j Harris, /., Hill, Z., Hill, R., Pourzanjani, M. and Savi/I, T. ( 1996). Legislation or self of primary environmental concern. A number of regui'ation. pp. 297-320. in: T. Goodhead and marina development projects are also in coastal D. Johnson (eds.), Coastal Recreation areas of outstanding natural beauty and Management. E. & F. N. Spon, London. Coastal management sourcebooks 2 171 8 technology and disposable incomes all add to very carefully explained and justified. One the complexity of the equation, making this must be optimistic that, with a careful job of the most dynamic of activities to be explanation, wide public acceptance of the managed. [ 14] The location and spatial needed restrictions can be achieved. distribution of activities is fundamentally Johnson and Seabrooke[2) supported this important. The recreation manager should be view, noting that ..J able to identify, systematically and the way in which sites are perceived varies <... objectively, the potential uses of any site, the according to the nature and context of the use <"' likely duration of those uses, and the which it supports and the degree of imagination 0 capacity of the site to accommodate and sensitivity of the users. Visitors who are \J recreational pressures. All managers are new to a site or visit infrequently may need to charged with responsibility for maintaining be informed about the site and how best to use or enhancing the worth of the resources to it. Managers should not assume that all visitors which they have access. Such values can will use a site in the planned manner when this easily be swept aside as managers strive to is in any way unclear. maximize use values, and the collective On the other hand, Harris et al.[ 13) noted that failure of managers and planners to take there is, however, a reticence towards proper account of 'existence' values leads, introducing formal environmental Q management techniques among some coastal .... inevitably, to long-term deterioration of the ... natural environment and to resource recreational managers for the following < 0:: management that is manifestly unsustainable reasons. Firstly, it is felt that there is no "'w in the long run.[2] economic advantage. Secondly, managers do 1-z not consider that their operations are causing Co-ordination between the different levels of environmental damage. Thirdly, an authority: Another important component of a environmental approach is difficult to put into coastal management programme should be the practice since most coastal recreation involvement of the public, as well as local currently operates in an environmental authorities, in decision-making on coastal management policy vacuum where few resources. It is essential that there be co statutory guidelines exist. ordination between the government and local Therefore, the introduction of an appropriate authorities in all resource planning for the environmental programme to protect the coast. Such co-ordination recognizes the coastal ecosystem depends heavily on the importance of considering development and participation of all involved individuals in the conservation needs in deciding the future use community. of all coastal resources. Reimold, of the Georgia Department of Public participation: Public participation is a Natural Resources, highlights the importance key component of the success of any coastal of having an effective coastal management management programme. In the case of a programme.[5] His comments included the management programme that contains as one following: of its major elements restrictions on land use, The effective coastal management programme there must be strong acceptance by the must produce a manageable impact on the general public or the programme will fail. government's ability to assure that its coast is Cooper[ l] noted that wisely utilized for a balanced concern traditionally, coastal people have been between economic and ecological factors. unwilling to accept limitations on the use of Careful consideration of the above their lands and waters, and one may expect components of effectiveness assessment in that many of them will approach any coastal management should enable the programme of zoning with the same jaundiced planner, the manager, the environmental view. Therefore, the reasons for the specialist, and the economist to all better programme, the ecological bases for the land understand the effective means of coastal use restrictions that are proposed, must be management. 172 Coastal management sourcebooks 2 Urban waterfront development is not far from this description. 8 revitalization Alexander the Great must have been struck by the excellent position offered by the village of This section is based mainly on the work of Rhakotis, protected by the island of Pharos, T.R. Hudspeth.(15] It is likely that urban for the establishment of a harbour for waterfronts will continue to be the sites of intercourse with the rest of the world. The intense pressures for re-development. plans for the future city were traced by the Intensive use of waterfronts is still expected, architect Dinocrates and work began at once. owing to the growth in the number of people ~ Two harbours were formed: The Eastern > participating in water sports and to changes in Harbour (Magnus Portus) which was z > lifestyle, technology and disposable considered the more important of the two by incomes.[14, 2] This growth is usually related "'" the ancient Alexandrians, and Port Eunostos ,..,~ to achieving optimal use of waterfront (the modem Western Harbour). Consequently, z resources. Therefore, a coastal zone Alexandria provided an excellent, safe and ~ 0 management programme should comprehend large port, connected by a navigable canal to .,, problems and relevant solutions. Lake Mariout, and in easy communication with the Red Sea, realized all the conditions Historical background favourable to becoming the centre of universal commerce[ 16), and its waterfronts Human settlements have been associated with became full of activity and life. :c water throughout history. The uses of water '" include drinking, carrying away human ~'° ):> wastes, farming, fishing, industrial Waterfront decline ('\ processing, transporting raw materials and '" finished products for trade and commerce, Great changes in the use of urban waterfronts power production, and aesthetic and have resulted from four changes during the recreational activities. For these reasons, present century: many cities are located near rivers, lakes, bays, oceans and seas. Steadily decreasing waterborne passenger A very long time ago, man settled at river travel: Tourists are largely carried by planes mouths or at harbours protecting him from to different destinations all over the world. stormy seas and tides. In time, these Travelling by ship has become a luxury. settlements became active sea ports through Given the limited vacation periods, people which came materials, goods and people from prefer to travel by air to take advantage of around the world. Commercial well-being of rapidity. Every year, over 775 million people, citizens was tied to the fisheries, ship-building worldwide, fly on commercial aircraft. yards and brisk coastal shipping trade. Commercial flight has become so common Systems of canals built to form links between that having to travel without flying as an larger navigable waterways helped to promote option would be inconceivable to many the prosperity of these cities. The people.[17] Railroads and highways affected development of urban areas and the passenger activity at seaports negatively. predominance of certain cities over others depended largely on their combination of / 14 /Ratcliffe, T. (1992). Responsibility for transportation systems; those places that watersports managemem and developmem. Ocean combined railroads and port or river access and Coastal Management, 18:259-68. became dominant. The waterfronts were the /15/ Hudspeth, T. R. (1980). Urban waterfront centre of activity of these urban areas and revitalization employing visual preference as a development took place along the water's strategy for managing visual resources and edge. There were large wooden docks, behind facilitating public participation. pp. 33-50, in: B. L. Edge (ed.}, Coastal Zone '80: Proceedings of which were warehouses, shops, offices, bars, the Second Symposium on Coastal and Ocean restaurants and hotels. Management. Vol. I. American Society of Civil The history of Alexandria's waterfront Engineers, New York. Coastal management sourcebooks 2 173 Technological changes in marine finger piers and much of the break-bulk transportation and cargo handling: The cargo-vessel system are being rendered phenomenal growth in size of bulk petroleum obsolete as a smaller number of specialized carriers has created a need for new and container ports receive most of the cargo specialized terminals which cannot - and need shipping business. not - be located at traditional urban waterfront sites. The largest crude oil carriers are so large Changes in land transportation modes: 174 Coastal management sourcebooks 2 have resulted in a decline in urban finding precious relics of their beginnings and 8 waterfronts and in the loss of their position as earliest days. In many cases, preservation and the economic, commercial and industrial restoration ofsuch historic riches are part of centres of cities. They have forced cities to waterfront renewal programmes. focus their attention inland and tum their Restoring historic homes, adapting older backs on the place where they were born: buildings to new, economically viable uses, their waterfronts. and recreating traditional cultural events in these areas of picturesque natural settings. 3: distinctive architecture, colourful heritage and l> Rediscovery of waterfronts z rich history add to the amenity value of urban )> Coastal cities are, nevertheless, beginning to waterfronts for residents and to their attraction m "3: realize that their waterfronts are an asset. for tourists and other visitors. m They are being eyed as potential sources of Citing the Institut Europeen d' Archeologie z -I new income, depending on the needs, on the Sous-Marine[ 19], 0 nature of the waterfront, or on the citizens [Unfortunately] some areas [in Alexandria's "" themselves. For example, the Eastern Harbour Eastern Harbour] are covered by modern 0 is now viewed as a potential tourist attraction structures, most probably hiding antique "l> ~ after the discovery of the submerged land and remains. This primarily concerns the areas -I )> ancient ruins. covered by the modern piers and breakwaters, ,... As many coastal cities have sought to as well as the Cape Silsileh structural ::c improve their image as good places to live, complex. "'= work and play in, and visit, they have re -4 )> examined their waterfronts, have recognized Conservation of C\ that they are special and important places, and natural heritage resources "' have made an effort to revitalize them. Alexandria has thought of revitalizing its Revitalizing urban areas, instead of new Mahmoudeya riverfront. It succeeded in development construction, helps to conserve removing the slums along its banks and is the natural environment by preventing urban trying to clear the water stream. This project sprawl and the filling of valuable yet fragile has not yet been completed, but it hopes to ecosystems. Unfortunately, the northern coast demonstrate the multiple uses and advantages development - a new developing tourist urban of re-developing this riverfront. area - is an example of urban sprawl. This is Urban planners have re-discovered these areas obvious in the establishment of many tourist (e.g., the Eastern Harbour, the Mahmoudia villages overlooking the open sea while Canal), where the natural amenities of water eliminating the possibility of a safe swim. and coast are combined with a rich cultural Some projects were pushed to install heritage, recreation and commerce, and they breakwaters to overcome this problem, have recognized that these are exciting and forgetting that they are severely disturbing the unique places. They have also suggested that ecosystem of the area. the most obvious re-uses are quality housing and recreation, including marinas, aquariums, restaurants, theatres, promenades, etc.; and if the location is close enough to the downtown [ 16] Breccia, E. V. ( 1922). Alexandrea ad area, it might also be attractive for prestigious AEgyptum: a Guide to the Ancient and Modern commercial buildings.[ 15, 18] Town, and to its Graeco-Roman Museum. lstituto Italiano d'Arti Grafiche. Bergamo. Preservation and conservation of [ 17] McCool, A. C. ( 1995). In-flight Catering historical heritage resources Management Wiley. New York. [ 18] Whitman, 1. L. , David, R. M. and Goldstone, S. E. ( 1964). Renewal of wate1fro11t areas. Journal Citing Whiteman et al. and Hudspeth[ 15, 18], of Housing. June. pp. 236-55. City waterfronts areas are old sections, often f 19] lnstitut Europeen d'Archeologie Sous-Marine full ofhistory. In renewing them, cities are ( 1996). Mission 1996: Alexandria East Port Coastal management sourcebooks 2 175 8 Guidelines for eff ective waterf ront managing the visual resources of urban revitalization as an element ofa total waterfront environments and in facilitating coastal management programme public participation in urban waterfront revitalization. Urban waterfronts constitute a limited resource. A significant part of the increased There is fierce competition for waterfront space environmental awareness deals with aesthetics, among industrial, commercial, residential, the visual landscape and scenic resources. recreational, defence, transportation, and other Visual resource management has developed to land-use interests. Some are incompatible and assist planners by providing technology to result in conflicts - as between heavy industry, address challenges in landscape planning. The ... petrochemical or energy storage facilities or assessment systems and technology employed 0 marine transportation terminals and residences in this field are derived from a variety of 1- z in the same neighborhood. Because water is academic and professional disciplines ~ common property, the disposition of shoreland (e.g. psychology, architecture, landscape ~ ..,~ is often considered to be a public-interest issue, architecture, geography, economics, <( but public interest is often in conflict with engineering, natural sciences, natural resource z <( private property rights, and with a developer's management), through interdisciplinary ~ expectations of an appropriate economic return. approaches, and make use of descriptive, Coastal management programmes must computerized, quantitative, psychometric and include guidelines on setting priorities for special scientific approaches. waterfront use within particular areas of the There are two major types of systems coastal zone. The following are suggested: employed in visual resource management: (a) Increase public understanding of the (a) Expert professionaljudgment systems: opportunities for, and environmental, social, They use professional planning and design and economic benefits of, urban waterfront norms to evaluate landscape qualities; in such revitalization. an approach, variables are selected arbitrarily, (b) Improve environmental planning and and the scoring values are therefore arbitrary. design by adopting criteria for the development (b) Public preference or empirical systems: of an information clearing house for: They evaluate peoples' preferences for • enhancing the special and unique qualities, various landscape characteristics. the sense of place, of each waterfront; For either system, numbers are assigned to • providing the full range of water-dependent each factor or variable, and the scores are then recreational activities; determined. To elicit responses, actual on-site • considering the particular needs of low visits, black and white photographs, colour income people, minorities, the elderly, the slides, videotapes, line drawings, art pictures, handicapped and the young, in the provision and tachistoscopic [extremely brief exposure of recreational opportunities and mixed uses; to the eye) projections are used. • optimizing public access (physical and A specific type of empirical assessment visual) opportunities; and system is the visual environmental preference • reducing access barriers caused by railways assessment, or, simply, visual preference, and highways. which requires participants to rate how much (c) Technical assistance, such as techniques they like what black and white photographs for gaining the support of citizens and the show, using a Likert scale. business sector. Visual preference offers an effective tool for (d) Encourage private sector support of public obtaining peoples' perceptions of and access goals. preferences for urban waterfront projects, and is a necessary prelude to building consensus Visual preference in urban and mustering support for such projects. waterfront environments Asking people to share their visual images encourages them to participate and to provide The use of visual preference offers feedback to planners and agency members considerable promise as a strategy for sponsoring redevelopment efforts. Visual 176 Coastal management sourcebooks 2 preference assessments can provide useful relation to the attributes of the leisure 8 information to such people on all aspects of experience sought by an individual will planning and decision-making. determine that individual's perception of the z -f Seabrooke and Miles[20] and Johnson and density of occupation and the carrying m Seabrooke[2] proposed three factors to be capacity of the site.(22, 7) Individuals seeking "::v considered in the evaluation of a natural )> quiet enjoyment may similarl y have the -f environmental site. These factors, which are ,,, quality of their leisure experience affected by 0 related to location, site attraction and carrying the shore-side by-products of water-side 3: capacity, will influence people's perceptions recreation, as, for example, noise generated by )> and preferences with respect to urban z radios, dogs and even children. l> waterfront projects. They are: Urban waterfront revitalization may be a valid ""' Location factors: The relationship between enterprise for all cities on the coasts of sea, ,.,,s: the location of a site and its accessibility to rivers, lakes, bays and oceans that have z -f the people for whom it is intended to be rediscovered their long waterfronts. But the 0 attractive is fundamental to any resource form the revitalization takes should be different .,, evaluation. The distance that day trippers will - as different as each city's history. The f'\ 0 casually cover from home by car should be particular combination of tools and techniques l> V\ considered. used should reflect the needs, interests, -f Site attraction: The most positive influence resources, and constraints of each city; and ....l> on the value of a site in recreational use is its visual preference serves as a promising strategy ability to attract visitors. For water-based for determining what these are. [ 15] recreation, the site may: • offer special physical water conditions Conclusion and (sheltered, safe/exposed, exhilarating); recommendations • be where facilities, such as marinas or clubhouses, exist; Alexandria's coastal zone has undergone great • be near to competition areas; and pressure for participation in recreational • be naturally beautiful, as are some harbours activities, especially in the summer. This or beaches. pressure has prompted attention to the The attractiveness of a site may be implementation of an effective system for categorized by the site's distinctiveness, managing its resources. The recent discovery available quality, quality of management, and of submerged ruins in the Eastern Harbour has price. Matching the physical characteristics of also encouraged coastal planners to give full the site with specific activities is a routine consideration to its cultural and historical stage in evaluation. values. Carrying capacity: Management needs to The following recommendations are made: balance the attraction of visitors against the (a) Technical and financial assistance should likelihood of their causing an unacceptable be provided for the sustainable re deterioration which could have a resultant development of deteriorating urban knock-on effect from the r.ecreational waterfronts and for the sensitive preservation experience to the likelihood of a return visit. and restoration of historic, cultural and However, when people are involved in the aesthetic coastal features. evaluation of urban waterfront projects, planners should take into account the [20) Seabrooke, W. and Miles, C. ( 1992). perceptual and social carrying capacity. Sites Recreation Land Management. E. & F. N. Spon, can be said to have a perceptual or social London. carrying capacity which relates to people's [21] Curry, N. (1994). Countryside Recreation: perceptions of other users and the extent to Access and Land-use Planning. E & F. N. Spon, which this affects their enjoyment[21, 7], London. [22] Ashton, P. G. and Chubb, M. ( 1972). affecting the quality of their leisure A preliminary study for evaluating the capacity of experience. The type, numbers and speed of waters for recreational boating. Water Resources craft and the behaviour of their occupants in Bulletin, 8:571-7. Coastal management sourcebooks 2 177 8 (b) In the light of various proposals on the of these waters, such as commercial or sport exploitation of the Eastern Harbour area, fishery, should be protected. including the submerged relics of our ancient (h) Implementing systems for evaluating civilization, management of sustainable people's preference towards proposed urban coastal development should aim to improve, waterfront revitalization offers a useful tool safeguard and restore the quality of coastal for ensuring public support for such projects waters, and to protect the natural, cultural and through participation and the provision of historical resources and existing uses of these feedback to planners and agencies that are waters. sponsoring re-development. (c) Land use in this coastal zone and the use (i) Social or perceptual carrying capacity .... of adjacent lands which drain into the coastal should be determined to improve the tourist's 0 zone is significantly affecting the quality of recreational experience and increase the 1- z.... the coastal waters. Therefore efforts to control potential for a return visit. ~ water pollution from land-use activities must (j) The form of urban waterfront revitalization .... be improved . in Alexandria should be tailored to its history, < (d) The co-ordination of, and co-operation "'z needs, interests, resources and constraints. < among, different governmental agencies R,evitalization of the Eastern Harbour ~ involved in planning, development and waterfront should be developed in the light of ....Q environment should be developed fully and the recent discovery of submerged antiquities. I < applied also to international organizations a: involved. Such co-ordination and co-operation .... are concerned with collection, analysis, 1-"' z synthesis and dissemination of coastal management information, research results and technical assistance. Such an action will help to support governmental regulation of land use practices affecting the coastal and marine resources. (e) Coastal planners and developers should consider public participation as a key component in the success of any coastal management programme, especially when it comes to restrictions on land use, since wide public acceptance of the needed restrictions are only likely to be achieved if a careful job of explanation has been done. (f) The rediscovery or revitalization of waterfronts, as in the case of the Eastern Harbour of Alexandria, and its potential sources of new income should be considered along with the conflict that may occur with the natural environment and coastal resources. Any relevant compromises that have to be made should be in favour of natural processes, not in favour of human activities. Any coastal land-use decisions should be made with full input from ecologists, as well as from local government officials, development authorities, economists and planners. (g) Any re-development of the Eastern Harbour area should ensure that the public continues to have access to the coastal waters. Existing uses 178 Coastal management sourcebooks 2 In the same boat and learning 8 z the ropes -l "' An AOexandria/Boston comparison "::0 )> -l "'0 ~ )> z l> "rn VICTOR T. MASTONE interpretation of history side by side with ~ rn Massachusetts Board of Underwater the contemporary. z -l Archaeological Resources T he heritage resources lying at the bottom of 0 Boston Harbour may not have the same ..,, World Heritage values as those in ("\ 0 Alexandria. However, the circumstances )> VI Introduction determining the potential to identify and -l )> exploit these resources are quite similar. r- m have included the metaphorical phrases More specifically, the Boston :t,.., m 'in the same boat' and 'learning the Harbour/Massachusetts experience has a ::0 ropes' to describe the theme of my number of parallels that provide a good -l )> presentation. Whether we are managing basis for comparison. It is a major tourist ,., submerged cultural resources, here or destination. The Boston Harbour Islands was " anywhere on the globe, there are common recently designated a National Recreation issues and problems which place us 'in the Area. In the 19th century, the coastal same boat'. And as with learning the communities around Boston were developed management of a ship's sails, the as summer residences for the affluent. management of submerged heritage Boston Harbour is heavily polluted and the resources is very much a process of clean-up effort involves a sewage treatment 'learning the ropes'. project with an ocean outfall. The W hy compare Alexandria with any other reconstruction and relocation of Boston's place, such as Boston? While local main transportation link requires extensive circumstances are unique, there are issues development in an historic area unearthing that have a wider application beyond this heritage resources. city and the Mediterranean region. Through Submerged cultural resources represent a even the most casual observations, we non-renewable scientific resource: readily see the region's [maritime] heritage statements left by time to be preserved in the form of monuments, palaces, through their documentation for public study fortifications, religious and domestic and benefit. The study of harbours offers the architecture, and harbour facilities. The opportunity to examine the sweep of history same is true for the Boston Harbour region rather than a point in time (time capsule) of with its ship captains' homes, lighthouses, synchronic resources, such as shipwrecks. public buildings, fortifications, wharves and Rapid advances in technology, particularly for boatyards. While many of these terrestrial marine exploration, are revolutionizing resources reflect the seaward nature of this capabilities to discover and exploit resources. heritage, a maritime legacy can be found in The pace of their application to the discovery the submerged reaches of both regions as and recovery of submerged cultural resources prehistoric sites, historical and modern has effectively shattered the access barrier. shipwrecks, sunken buildings, disposal Access was a major limiting factor in the areas, and even aircraft. Both cities and both exploitation of these resources. In some harbours offer an opportunity for the respect, these technological advances have Coastal management sourcebooks 2 179 outstripped the institutional ability to ensure Marine sciences - marine scientists, marine the appropriate management of the resource. biologists, natural resource specialists, The exploitation of submerged cultural technology developers resources is not a new phenomenon. Marine Fishing - commercial fishermen, salvage has a long tradition developed from the recreational fishermen, boaters, chartered need to protect lives and property and to fishing-boat operators, marina operators maintain the highways of commerce and Regulatory agents - governmental communication. Until recently, there was no managers, law-enforcement officers need to accommodate or consider alternative Information - journalists/writers, educators natural and cultural uses of these resources. Commercial interests - salvage companies, .... The recognition of these resources as habitat technological services 0 and heritage resources led to the need to create W hile these categories represent the major 1- z a new management regime governing their use. interest groups, they cannot be viewed as l.U :; Frameworks and linkages must be mutually exclusive. The type and extent of w established with agencies, other disciplines exploitation varies among them. There is ~ < and individuals outside the traditional overlap, competition and conflict; some z < preservation community. These would types can be described as symbiotic, and ~ recognize and accommodate a wide range of others, parasitic. Additionally, the use, or ....Q appropriate uses for these non-renewable rather exploitation, of these resources can be I resources. By viewing submerged heritage characterized as destructive or non < a: as a multiple-use resource, we assume these destructive. The appropriate management ~ l.U resources provide multiple benefits and regime would demonstrate conceptually, 1- z values. To optimize the allocation of the then practically, that stakeholders can work benefits, there is a need for collaboration together and that they add value. among the interested parties, the There are several ways to view the potential stakeholders, in designing and benefits and values of submerged cultural institutionalizing the management regime. resources. They include: commercial The management of heritage resources, advantage (traditional salvage); recreational whether terrestrial or submerged, involves a value; ecological/habitat (cost of replication) sequence of: (a) inventory (discovering and value; educational value; and historical/ recording the resources present); archaeological value. However, it might be (b) evaluation (determining their scientific and more appropriate to redefine value in terms of public importance); (c) planning (determining the effects of exploitation due to the activities how they could be most appropriately used); of the stakeholders. Value can be more simply (d) protection (safeguarding the resource); and defined in several broad areas: (e) utilization (authorizing or otherwise Commercial value - financial (profit) accommodating the proper use). This regime Intellectual value - historical/archaeological could serve to integrate heritage concerns into Public value - multiple concerns the goals of all stakeholders. Other value - to be defined In this way, one might be able to incorporate these values and their associated issues Stakeholders directly into the management regime. A wide variety of interest groups, stakeholders, are concerned, actually or Commercial value potentially, with submerged cultural resources (such as historic shipwrecks), including: Commercial value can be defined as the Preservation - historians, conservators, income derived from the direct sale of objects archaeologists, history preservationists themselves and/or the income derived from the Diving - diving clubs, diving instructors, sale of ancillary materials such as sport divers, diving-boat operators, diving reproductions, print media, books, video/movie shops, diving certification organizations rights and royalties, etc. However, commercial 180 Coastal management sourcebooks 2 value may be viewed more broadly as a information derived from the objects and 8 mechanism by which a project's sponsor raises their context. The issue of re-study, capital (investors) to undertake the venture. including access to the information, objects z -c This is becoming increasingly evident with or previous analyses, powers the strong (\"' respect to the development and application of ethical arguments against commercial =)> advanced technology. exploitation. Removal of archaeological -c In addition, commercial value may be materials, be they tools, pottery or "'0 viewed as a subset of recreational value. dwellings, can diminish or even destroy the 3: That is the income derived from charters and value of the site for future study. Often, sites )> z equipment sale and rental. There is the are best preserved intact and in situ. )> (\ indirect cost (income) derived from SCUBA Moreover, in the case of historic m certification programmes and related diving shipwrecks, there is an intellectual value ~ literature. This could be expanded to which may or may not have a fiscally '"z -t consider encompassing the entire range of assignable value. 0 economic impacts related to the expenditure T he changing view of multiple-use values ... patterns of divers: food and lodging costs, assignable to submerged cultural resources f'\ 0 travel costs, etc. Numerous accommodations means that these resources could possess )> IA and good transportation attract more people historical value, and that there exists -I )> who in turn visit resources. The impact on competing interest in these resources. r- resources can be viewed in relation to the Access to these resources for recreation ::c ability of support facilities to improve must be guaranteed. Management ="' and/or increase access to resources. responsibility for these resources is vested in -t )> governments. Therefore, governments must C'I m develop management policies that Public value accommodate a wide range of appropriate uses for these non-renewable resources. Through structural deterioration and In Boston Harbour (as well as elsewhere in plant/animal colonization, submerged cultural the United States), a mechanism for resources are transformed from their original accommodation and collaboration exists function into habitats. In the case of across various governmental management shipwrecks, their value to the stream of structures. Heritage interests are integrated commerce no longer manifests itself in the into an individual agency in the form of cargoes carried or the functioning of the specific agency personnel. Certain agencies vessel, but rather in its ability to function as a are charged with a heritage mission, and habitat and thereby support the food web. In their staff members have a role to advocate economic terms, it might be viewed as heritage issues in organizations whose ecological/habitat value as derived from the missions are not heritage-oriented, such as cost of replication. Ancient sites would those concerned mainly with economic achieve not only biological value, but also development or construction. Fortunately, historical and/or archaeological value. this development took place over the past As with commercial value, the diverse several decades in a benign budgetary and recreational activities, particularly related to regulatory climate; today, with tight diving, fishing and heritage tourism, can budgetary constraints and a different have a significant effect on the resource. government philosophy, this regulatory Since benefit is derived, these activities can infrastructure would not exist. By be assigned to public value. eliminating the adversarial role, stakeholder and non-stakeholder interests can be reconciled. Intellectual value Established in 1973, the Massachusetts Board of Underwater Archaeological Intellectual value, or more simply Resources is the trustee of the State's archaeological value, is defined as the underwater heritage. The Board works to Coastal management sourcebooks 2 181 protect the State's proprietary, scientific and ventures to museums. An applicant must historical interest in these resources. It provide demonstrable proof (documentary maintains a balance between these diverse evidence alone is insufficient) to be granted and sometimes conflicting constituencies a permit. The Board grants two types of and the interests of the State. The permit: reconnaissance and excavation. Massachusetts programme is viewed as a Permits are granted for a period of one year model management scheme. and are renewable. The majority of the The nine-member State Board is permits are issued as reconnaissance permits administered by the Executive Office of which can be best characterized by non Environmental Affairs. The Executive disruptive research activities aimed at site Office is responsible for the protection and identification and delimitation; excavation is enhancement of the Commonwealth's [State prohibited and recovery is limited to surface of Massachusetts] natural resources; one of finds. Excavation permits are required when the agency's diverse missions is to enhance any destructive activities are to be public access to historic and scenic undertaken, ranging from test excavations to resources. The Board membership is mitigation. Permit areas (not to exceed one composed of: four statutory appointments - nautical mile square) are located across the the State Archaeologist, the State Archivist, state's coastal and inland waters. Q the Commissioner of Waterways, and the To deal with certain types of artefact ..."' Director of Mineral Resources; and five discoveries, the Board's regulations provide <( a:: gubernatorial appointments - one an exemption from the permit process for IJ representative of the Massachusetts isolated finds, exempted sites, and 1-"' z Historical Commission, one marine underwater archaeological preserves. The archaeologist, one law-enforcement Board maintains a list of such sites. The specialist, and two representatives of the intention in creating an exempted site list is diving community. The statutory to preserve shipwrecks for the continued composition of the Board is an early enjoyment of the recreational diving recognition of the need to bring the major community. Recreational diving on constituencies and critical technical exempted sites does not require a permit knowledge into the management scheme. from the Board. However, any major The Board's staff undertakes a programme disruption of these sites is prohibited. The of public outreach, project review, technical recreational diving community is assistance, resource identification, inventory encouraged to work with the Board to and assessment. protect these sites for the continued Those granted permits by the Board work enjoyment of all. with the Board to maximize the cultural The Board may designate underwater value of the site, while enjoying the Board's archaeological preserves to provide special protection of their proprietary interest in the protection to those underwater site. Board permittees are required to archaeological resources of substantial provide all necessary resources to complete historical value. Access to underwater their projects and demonstrate their financial archaeological preserves for recreational, ability to carry out their plans. Depending historical and scientific purposes shall be on the nature of the resource and the guaranteed. It will serve to encourage the proposed activities, permittees are required public enjoyment, use and appreciation of to have a project staff (research team) which the resource. could include a project archaeologist and a The various stakeholders must collaborate project conservator. Work is undertaken in with archaeologists and cultural-resource conformity with an approved research managers. There is a need to identify and design/work plan. characterize impacts, clarify issues of The Board currently has issued twelve professional responsibility and standards, and active permits. Permittees range from improve cross-disciplinary understanding and individual sport divers to commercial awareness of the diverse concerns associated 182 Coastal management sourcebooks 2 with these resources. The following examples press coverage, an applicant attempted to 8 from the Boston experience illustrate pressure the State into sanctioning recovery adversarial and collaborative aspects of the efforts. Poor historical research was ....z management regime. undertaken and evidence completely "'t:\ inconsistent with the resource sought was :a )> Outfall and power-supply cable sitings offered as proof of the existence of the .... resource. The fact that the actual event site "'0 The construction of the sewage-treatment was several city blocks away, under landfill s: facility serving 2.6 million people includes the and a building, was initially ignored by the )> z installation of several miles of new buried appllicant. A permit was not granted. In the )> submarine power cables and an outfall end ,, the press felt manipulated. The project t:\ effluent disposal site nine miles seawards coulld not be successful because it was "'s from the city. Remote sensing surveys were couched in adversarial terms of public ""z -! undertaken to collect data for engineering and pers.pecti ve versus the professional 0 archaeological purposes. Unfortunately, these pers:pective. It did not capitalize on available .., efforts were not co-ordinated at the research datai or collaborative relationships. The f"I 0 design level. While the data suited project's proponent failed to read his Boston .,,)> engineering purposes, they were inadequate Stra.bo. .... for archaeological interpretation. Additional ,...)> survey work was required to meet British evacuation project ::c archaeological needs; the work was :a"' e.ssentially done twice (increased cost and In an effort to capitalize on another event in .... )> Gime lost), owing to a lack of co-ordination. the history of the American Revolution, the C'\ I m evacuation and abandonment of Boston by .4rtificial-reef placement British troops, an application was filed with the Board. The location, Long Wharf. exists As part of project mitigation (Spectacle as a_n historic resource today. Sufficient Island, see below), proponents are required proof was presented to grant a permit. When to replicate habitats lost to construction. It positive results were not immediately was determined that an artificial reef would achieved and press coverage waned, the / 1 be created to replace lost habitat. Research, pennittee sharply curtailed research { including remote sensing and visual activities. The city ordered the fieldwork to / inspection, was undertaken to ensure that the be stopped, when it was revealed that these new habitat did not adversely affect acti vities were stirring up pollutants. Better submerged cultural resources, as well as to background research and alternative field assess the viability of the site from a habitat methods might have achieved a different perspective. In this case, data collection and result. As with the Tea Chest Search, this evaluation were co-ordinated to meet project failed because it was couched in engineering, archaeological and biological adversarial terms of public perspective needs, with results satisfactory to all parties. versus the professional perspective. Tea-party tea-chest search Spectacle Island expansion The Boston Tea Party has become a symbolic As part of the massive highway project and event in the history of the American War of sewer-tunnel project, a fill disposal site was Independence from England. Today, a replica needed. It was determined that Spectacle ship exists with daily re-enactments of the Island in Boston Harbour would be greatly event. In some respects, it is a cultural icon. enlarged. Extensive geological coring and There is one known tea chest in existence. If boring samples were collected to support another could be discovered archaeologically, this undertaking. The data were re-analysed it would have both intellectual and to produce a geomorphological history of commercial value. With much orchestrated the island and its surroundings. This analysis Coastal management sourcebooks 2 183 8 assisted the interpretation of the island's archaeological sites and the evolution of the harbour. It resulted in the creation of a web site depicting the island's natural and cultural history - essentially an on-line exhibit. The enlarged island will become a new recreation area. This project demonstrates that collaboration adds value to all components and for all the stakeholders. .... Clearly, successful collaboration must 0 ... involve the use and distribution of data. As z we see when stakeholders do not co w ordinate, or take adversarial roles, the results ~ w are unsatisfactory for all parties. lj < The Massachusetts programme has z 184 Coastal management sourcebooks 2 Urban design and ecc•-tourism: ,8 The Alexandria Comprehen~ive Master Plan MOHSEN ZAHRAN summer months, tourism in this famous Professor of Urban Planning seaside resort may add to the city as many as University of Alexandria 2.2 million tourists from all over Egypt, as Chairman of the Alexandria Planning well as from some other Arab countries. This Commission seasonal influx drastically increases the pop1ulation to approximately five million residents, overtaxing its roads, traffic, utilities and services. Introduction The overall population density was about 975 persons per square kilometre in 1986, he city of Alexandria was founded by compared to 856 persons per square T Alexander the Great and planned by kiloimetre in 1976 and 672 persons per Denocratis in 332 BC. Stretched out linearly square kilometre in 1966. The most crowded for 25 km between the Mediterranean Sea district, locally and nationally, is the El and Lake Mariout, it is considered one of the Gomrock district, near the port, with a oldest living metropolises in the world. density of 133,000 persons per square Today, it is the second largest city in Egypt kiloimetre. and in Africa, and is recognized as a major port in the Mediterranean, as well as being a principal industrial and tourist centre. Ho1uslng and health Alexandria is the primary centre of commercial, business and cultural activity in The: housing situation in Alexandria is a lower Egypt, and is recognized nationally as major source of health and environmental the capital of the Western Delta's economic prolblems. These are due to the following region which comprises three important factors: governorates. As such, this great metropolis (a) Informal housing is commonplace. has attracted continual waves of immigrants, (b) Shantytowns and squatter settlements are allowing strong vertical and horizontal mushrooming in the southern and western mobility, thus influencing the pattern and districts. tempo of urbanization and the state of the (c) The deterioration of housing stock, city's environmental health. espiecially in the old quarters, is alarming. (d) There is a major shortage of housing stock generally. Population (e) There is a widening gap between housing supply and demand, particularly for housing The present population of greater Alexandria the lower income groups. borders on four million people, increasing at (t) Rent and land values, as well as a rate of about 3.8% per annum. This is high condominium prices, are spiralling beyond in comparison with 2.5% in neighbouring the affordability of the majority of the govemorates. During the crowded, hot resident population. Coastal management sourcebooks 2 185 8' (g) There is a shortage of building quadrupled during the last decade, although materials. the north winds, when prevailing, seem to (h) There is a continuing increase in dissipate it. Gas and dust emissions from construction materials and labour costs, factories to the east, as well as from which reflects on housing costs. seasonal sand-bearing winds in the west, (i) Housing patterns and design seem to be require measures to control health and ... orthodox and too regimented, owing mostly environmental hazards caused by alarming 186 Coastal management sourcebooks 2 Social services of Egypt. The city's development has 8 centered principally on its importance as a The circulation and transport networks are port and trading centre, and more recently on z -I generally adequate in new areas. Narrow its value as a major coastal tourist resort and "'(\ streets and alleys in inner-city districts, as industrial centre. The importance of these ::a > well as in marginal and slum areas, hamper activities to the present local economy is -I the flow of traffic and cause congestion. indicated below: "'0 They also hamper the access of fire and (a) The port of Alexandria handles 80% of 3': emergency vehicles. Although twenty-two Egypt's shipping. l> z new classrooms are built daily, the number (b) Alexandria attracts 2.2 million tourists > and facilities of public schools are in great each year. (\ shortage, making it necessary for some (c) Alexandria's manufacturing industry :s:"' schools to work in two or even three daily constitutes 38% of Egypt's industrial activity. "'z -I shifts. Schoolyards have been generally Until recently the scale of unanticipated 0 taken over for building new classrooms, growth had not threatened Alexandria's .., depriving pupils of the needed athletic and unique character and historical heritage. But 0 sport facilities. Overcrowded classrooms now there is an urgent need to house the "l> II\ (reaching sixty pupils per classroom in some growing population (expected to reach 7.75 -I l> districts) hamper learning and overburden million by the year 2005) and to improve the ,.. teachers. Naturally, such overcrowding and deteriorating condition of many existing :c lack of facilitjes contribute to intolerable houses. This situatjon has been made worse ::a"' hazards and threats to public safety, public by the inflation of land values and building -I l> health, educational standards and learning. costs. In addition, there is a need to protect t:'I irreplaceable agricultural land from "' sprawling urban development, to manage Green space and industrial expansion and to reduce the recreational f acllltles serious erosion of Alexandria's beaches. There is therefore an urgent need to adopt a The size and percentage of green areas sound comprehensive master plan for throughout the city have been dwindling systematic development. The key factors of during the last few decades. It has fallen to such a structural plan are outlined as follows: 1/3 acre per I ,OOO inhabitants with very few (d) The growth in population. additions in existing districts, despite the (e) Deteriorating housing conditions. quadrupling of the total population. Other (f) Increasing land values and construction than the recent establishment of the costs. International Garden (Fig. I), which (g) Preservation of the historical heritage. constitutes the real addition of 150 acres (h) Protection of agricultural land. during this century, new communities are (i) Management of industrial expansion. being provided with adequate open space and U) Control of environmental pollution and sport facilities, but drastic addition and beach erosion. improvement of recreational areas are needed in crowded districts and in slum areas. The Comprehensive Master Plan strategy The Alexandria (a) The Comprehensive Master Plan is 2005 Comprehensive intended not only to deal with the problems Master Plan of Alexandria's expansion, but also to be compatible with the plans for the new city of Alexandria has a distinctive character that Amriah (to the west) and the derives fundamentally from its ribbon-like recommendations of the North Coast Tourist development along the Mediterranean coast Development Plan. Coastal management sourcebooks 2 187 8 (b) The fundamental concern of the and employment opportunities. Alexandria Comprehensive Master Plan is (k) To overcome the present lack of adequate how best to deal with the anticipated growth open and recreational space, the Plan in population of approximately two million proposes a hierarchical system of ... people above the present population of about playgrounds, parks and exposition facilities :c four million inhabitants and yet maintain to be planned city-wide. favourable environmental conditions. The (I) Downtown Alexandria is to be revitalized intention is to develop an extensive expansion through urban-renewal projects in inner-city area to the west of the city. This decision was districts, in addition to the provision of an taken so as to preserve the valuable efficient urban transport system. agricultural land located south-east of the city. (m) The city is sub-divided into various (c) The Plan attempts to preserve the unique zones of definite building heights and floor coastal character of Alexandria as an area ratios, depending on location, character important tourist centre, and is especially and intensity of activity. concerned with the preservation of (n) The Plan defines city limits within a Alexandria's unique historical heritage. green belt beyond which no urbanization is (d) The expansion zone from east to west to be allowed. surrounds Lake Mariout which will thus (o) The Plan is a continuing process that ..,Q provide two more extensive waterfronts for should be periodically monitored, reviewed .... urban development and will increase the and updated, taking into account the material <: 0: recreational and commercial opportunities and human resources which are always w for the city. in flux. "'.... z (e) The southern limit for Alexandria's expansion is to be defined by a 'green belt'. This buffer zone will protect the agricultural land and restrict industrial expansion. The green belt will also act as the southern boundary of the western expansion zone. (f) A broad zone, running south from the new port of Dekheila, has been designated for existing and proposed industry. Such a zone will reduce the inherent conflict between industrial and residential areas. (g) The Plan establishes a comprehensive circulation network to link the city from east to west, and provides a number of axes along which the city can be approached and tied to regional circulation networks. (h) The Plan capitalizes on the development of the city's archaeological and touristic resources and further develops facilities and amenities to enhance and promote these major assets. (i) The Plan proposes major programmes of housing development, serving a variety of population groups, especially the low and limited-income groups. (j) The Plan bans or controls water pollution of waterfront beaches and recreational lakes. It proposes the use of primary-treated waste water as a major resource in land reclamation with a view to increasing agrarian production 188 Coastal management sourcebooks 2 INTEGRATED MANAGEMENT OF (OASTAl !HERITAGE ,,·~·. ~·- I \ \ \ 0 •• / ...... ~·. ::;-:-:. ; flvi .,: •· ,...... ~ '"' .: Figure 1. Map of Alexandria showing the disposition of green spaces, including the International Carden. At lower edge, thick dork line represents the green belt, and generally delimits the City of Alexandria. The grey shading represents proposed (particularly around Lake Mariout) and existing recreation areas; several tourist landmarks and trails are concentrated around the area of the East, and to a lesser extent, the West Ports. International Workshop on Submarine = Archaeology and Coastal Management '",... 0 Recommendations ==~ '"z 0 > -I -0 z "' The Declaration of Alexandria Recommendations he significance ofAlexandria in To the National Authorities, including: Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency T history has made the threat on its Ministry of Culture (Supreme Council of Land and marine archaeological sites Antiquities) Ministry of Public Works and Water a matter of urgent concern to Egypt Resources (Coastal Research Institute) and and the world. (Coastal Protection Authority) The recommendations below dealing Ministry of Tourism Ministry of Education with the erosion under the Qait Bey Ministry of Transport fortress and long term preservation Ministry of Defense and management of the cultural assets Govemorate of Alexandria ofAlexandria have been made by the Recognizing the necessity of a strategic scientific community attending the framework for future management of underwater and onshore cultural heritage and International Workshop on the need for urgent action to protect and "Submarine Archaeology and Coastal preserve the Qait Bey/Phares area, Management". With the cooperation the workshop recommends: of the world community, we believe I. Qait Bey/Pharos area Pilot Proj ect that Egypt will be able to succeed in I. An assessment be made of the present the above goals; and preserve the condition of the Qait Bey Citadel and the threat cultural heritage of the City of of erosion to this Citadel. For this assessment, Alexandria as part of the heritage of a request to UNESCO be considered, to solicit its assistance in identifying and dispatching us all. competent international experts in engineering and coastal processes. The nature of such an JO April 1997, intervention should take into consideration the need to protect and preserve the integrity of Alexandria, Egypt both the submerged Lighthouse site and the Citadel. 2. Concurrently, a targeted program to collect key environmental data be implemented immediately in order to rapidly identify (4-6 months time) temporary remedial actions. These temporary actions are to stabilize the erosion threatening the Citadel without Coastal management sourcebooks 2 191 compromising the integrity of the underwater recommended in para. 3 has been completed, archaeological site until such time as a lasting and urgent action be taken to stop the discharge solution can be found. of sewage into the Eastern Harbour. 3. No remedial action, including the further 3. To survey the archaeological sites and placing of cement blocks, should take place the geomorphological and hydrodynamic until completion of the assessment of the processes environmental conditions and state situation of the Citadel and the proposal of of pollution of the coast of Greater temporary solutions after collection, analysis Alexandria; and that experts and agencies and interpretation of key environmental data, transmit to the Department of Underwater nor without consultation of all appropriate Archaeology of the Supreme Council of agencies and experts. Antiquities all information on the coastal 4. In addition, the competent archaeological heritage (cultural and natural) of Alexandria. experts be requested to complete to the extent 4. On the basis of the survey, to set the possible, the surveying and mapping of the priorities for the critical problems faced and underwater archaeological site of the to direct the continuing monitoring of the Lighthouse. area. 5. The aforementioned data collection 5. The existing laws be studied to ensure that program be extended and if necessary the special problems of the underwater expanded in order to provide the archaeological sites of Alexandria are environmental information required to appropriately dealt with and in particular: identify and implement a long-term and a) The Supreme Council of Antiquities be lasting solution which to the greatest extent included as one of the responsible agencies possible maintains the integrity of both concerned with the protection of the water cultural heritage sites. environment (Law No. 4 on the Environment, 6. An ad hoe Task Force, possibly coordinated Art. 1.38); by UNESCO, be established whose b) The possibility of establishing a special membership should include the relevant legal status for the underwater archaeological decision-making bodies such as the Egyptian sites of Alexandria be studied as well as the Environmental Affairs Agency, the Supreme possibility of inscription on the World Council of Antiquities, the Coastal Protection Heritage List. Authority, the Ministry of Transport (marine 6. The potential economic value of the transport), the Coastal Research Institute, the archaeological sites of Alexandria for tourists University of Alexandria and the Governorate and visitors be studied, e.g. by way of of Alexandria and other relevant bodies, along museums, archaeological parks (on-land or with experts in submarine archaeology and underwater). coastal processes. This cross-sectoral Task 7. A small group be established to follow up Force will be responsible for setting an overall the recommendations of this workshop, to strategy for implementing and monitoring this prepare project proposals and investigate pilot project. funding possibilities. II. Long term management plan: Addendum 1. A strategic framework be drafted for the conservation and integrated management of The workshop further recognized the coastal heritage (cultural and natural) to the importance of the following issues: be incorporated into the coastal management plan of the Egyptian Environmental Affairs •The University of Alexandria should Agency. consider developing specialized courses for 2. The placement of concrete blocks inside or graduate and under-graduate students on outside the Eastern Harbour, and any increased submarine archaeology and related use or activity in the Eastern Harbour and Qait disciplines; it should also consider open Bey be stopped until the proposed survey education for the public at large. 192 Coastal management sourcebooks 2 • The need to promote awareness of public at large including youth through media coverage and dissemination of information, on the value and the significance of the coastal (natural and cultural) heritage of humanity. • Participants attending this workshop expressed the wish, to convene an international conference on Underwater Archaeology and Coastal Management in 1999. • The participants wish to express their thanks to national organizations and to UNESCO and other international organizations for sponsoring and financing the workshop. • The participants also wish to express their appreciation to the Egyptian Navy and to the international community for their cooperation which led to the remarkable archaeological discoveries at Qait Bey and the Eastern Harbour. Coastal management sourcebooks 2 193 Contributors I"'\ 0 z -I :0 Q3 c: -I 0 :0 V\ FATMA ABOU SHOUK H. ARNOLD CARR FAROtiK EL-BAZ Environment Department, American Underwater Search Director, 60 Horria Street, and Survey, Ltd., Center for Remote Sensing, Alexandria Govemorate, Box 768, Boston University, Alexandria, Cataumet, MA 02534-0768, 725 Commonwealth A venue, Egypt. USA. Boston, MA 02215-1401, fax: (20-3) 484 7192 fax: ( 1-508) 564-6600 USA. e-mail: [email protected] fax: ( 1-617) 353 3200 0SSAMA M. T. ABOUL DAHAB e-mail: [email protected] Oceanography Department, NEAL W. DRISCOLL Faculty of Science, Clark Laboratory, AHMED ABDEL HAMID EL-GINDY Alexandria University, Woods Hole Oceanographic Oceanography Department, Moharram Bey, Institution, Faculty of Science, Alexandria, Woods Hole, MA 02543, Alexandria University, Egypt. USA. Alexandria, fax: (20-3) 491 1794 Egypt. MOSTAFA EL-ABBADI DENIS AELBRECHT Archaeology Department, OMRAN EL SAYEO FRIHY Laboratoire National Faculty of Arts, Coastal Research Institute, d'Hydraulique, University of Alexandria, 15 EI-Pharaana St., El-Shallalat, Direction des Etudes et Alexandria, 21514 Alexandria, Recherches, EDF, Egypt. Egypt. 6, quai Watier, or fax: (20-3) 484 4614 B.P.49, 27, Abdel Hamid Badawi St, 7840 l Chatou Cedex, Azarita, Alexandria, J EAN-YVES EMPEREUR France. Egypt Directeur, Centre National de la fax: (33-1) 30 87 80 86 fax: (20-3) 483 3088 Recherche Scientifique, e-mail: [email protected] (20-3) 483 3136 (Faculty) Centre d'Etudes Alexandrines, 50, Rue Soliman Yousri, NICOLA B ONACASA IBTEHAL Y. EL-BASTAWISSI 21131 Alexandria, Director, Department of Architecture, Egypt. Archaeological Institute, Faculty of Engineering, fax: (20-3) 484 6245 Palermo University, University of Alexandria, e-mail: [email protected] Facolta di Lettere, Alexandria, Viale delle Scienze, Egypt. ENRICO FELICI 90128 Palermo, fax: (20-3) 586 2 107 Associazione ltaliana Italy. e-mail: [email protected] Archeologi Subacquei fax: (39-091) 6560268 I 6421494 (A.I.A. Sub.), e-mail: [email protected] via Tripolitania, 195, 00199 Roma, Italy. fax: (39-06) 86208038 Coastal management sourcebooks 2 195 HONOR FROST DIMITRIS KAZIANIS DOUGLAS NAKASHIMA 31 Welbeck Street, Department of Underwater Coastal Regions and Small l'I London WIM 7PG, Antiquities, Islands Unit (CSI), =0 I- England. 30, Kallisperi str., UNESCO, ::> co I 17 42 Athens, I, rue Miollis, -....0:: FRANCK GODDIO Greece. 75732 Paris Cedex 15, z Institut europeen d'archeologie fax: (30-1 ) 92 35 707 I 92 21 888 France. 0 v sous-marine (IEASM), fax: (33-1) 45 68 58 08 41-43, rue de Cronstadt, VICTOR T. MASTONE e-mail: [email protected] 75015 Paris, Director, France. Board of Underwater VINCENT NtGRI fax: (33-1) 45 49 18 03 Archaeological Resources, 21 rue Rene Leynaud, Executive Office of 69001 Lyon, NICOLAS GRIMAL Environmental Affairs, France. Former Director, Suite 2000, fax: (33-4) 72 00 44 57 Institut frarn;ais d' archeologie 100 Cambridge Street, e-mail: [email protected] orientale, Boston, MA 02202, 37, rue el-Cheikh Aly Youssef, USA. IVAN NEGUERUELA B.P. 11562 Qasr el-Ayni, fax:(l-617) 727 2754 Director, 11441 Cairo, e-mail: Museo Nacional de Arqueologfa Egypt. [email protected] Marftima y Centro Nacional de fax: (20-2) 354 4635 Investigaciones e-mail: [email protected] J.-M.MENON Arqueol6gicas Submarinas, Laboratoire National Ministerio de Educaci6n y HALAHALIM d'Hydraulique, Cultura, Dique de Navidad, 97 Abdel Salam Aref St., Direction des Etudes et Apdo. de Correos 72, Glym, Alexandria, Recherches, 30280 Cartagena, Egypt. Electricite de France (EDF), Spain. fax: (20-3) 545 761 l 6, Quai Watier, BP 49, fax: (34-9) 68 52 96 92 e-mail: [email protected] 78401 Chatou Cedex, (Hala Youssef Halim) France. ERIC PEL TIER fax: (33-1) 30 87 80 86 Electricite de France (EDF), YOUSSEF HALIM e-mail: [email protected] Direction des Etudes et Oceanography Department, Recherches, Faculty of Science, SELIM A. MORCOS Les Renardieres, Alexandria University, 28204 Kenton Lane, 77818 Moret-sur-Loing Cedex, Alexandria Govemorate, Santa Clarita, CA 91350, France. Alexandria 21511, USA. fax: (33-1) 60 73 75 69 Egypt. fax: ( 1-661) 296-1034 e-mail: [email protected] fax: (20-3) 545 7611 e-mail: [email protected] e-mail: [email protected] LYNDEL V. PROTT ALFY MORCOS FANOS Chief, MOSTAFA HASSAN MOSTAFA Director, International Standards Section, Vice President, Coastal Research Institute, Cultural Heritage Division, Graduate Studies and Research, 15 El-Pharaana St., UNESCO, University of Alexandria, El-Shall al at, 1, rue Miollis, Alexandria, 21514 Alexandria, 75732 Paris Cedex 15, Egypt. Egypt. France. fax:(20-3) 595 2715 fax: (20-3) 484 4614 e-mail: [email protected] 196 Coastal management sourcebooks 2 ANGELIKI SIMOSSI MOHSEN ZAHRAN Department of Underwater Project Director, Antiquities, Bibliotheca Alexandrina, 30, Kallisperi str., The Executive Secretariat, 117 42 Athens, Shallalat Bldg., Greece. 116. El Horreya Av., fax: (30-1) 92 35 707 I 92 21 888 P.O. Box 138, El Mansheya, Bab Sharqi, Alexandria, VINCENZO SOMMELLA Egypt. ES s.r.l. - Progetti e Sistemi, fax:(20-3) 483 6001 Via Zoe Fontana 220, e-mail: [email protected] Tecnocitta ed. B 1, [email protected] 00131 Roma, Italy. fax:(39-06)4191713 e-mail: [email protected] NILS ToNGRING Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Marine Policy Centre, Woods Hole, MA 02543, USA. fax: (1-508) 457 2184 e-mail: [email protected] HARRY E. TZALAS Hellenic Institute for the Preservation of Nautical Tradition, 94 Skra, Kallithea, Athens 17673, Greece. fax: (30-1) 95 64 388 e-mail: [email protected] HOWARD WELLMAN Director of Conservation, Institute of Nautical Archaeology (INA), P.O. Box 432, El-lbrahimia, Alexandria, Egypt. fax: (20-3) 546 6872 e-mail: [email protected] or l 06000.36 l [email protected] Coastal management sourcebooks 2 197 ISBN 92-3-103730- 111111 I 9 789231 037306