Stakeholder Analysis Report (Stakeholder Capacity Building for Key Biodiversity Area Management Planning in the Chimanimani-Nyanga Mountains)

Stakeholder Capacity Building Assessment

By Felistas Chikaura and Batsirai Frank

July 2013

Stakeholder Analysis Report

Acknowledgements

We would like to thank all members of the BirdLife Zimbabwe team who provided information and supported the field surveys. We would particularly like to thank Togarasei Fakarayi, who is responsible for the Capacity Building project of BirdLife Zimbabwe for all his hard work and support during this stakeholder assessment.

We would also like to thank all the stakeholders who ranged from Government Departments, Rural District Councils, NGOs, Schools and Privates Sector members of the Eastern Highlands community who provided information for this assessment

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Executive Summary BirdLife Zimbabwe (BLZ) is a membership based conservation non-governmental organisation (NGO), a local bird conservation initiative established in 1951. The aim of BLZ’s conservation and capacity building programmes is to improve the conservation of birds and biodiversity for the benefit of bird species and improve the quality of life of people, with a view to soliciting conservation action by all. The project will take place in the Chimanimani-Nyanga Mountains priority corridor in Zimbabwe. The KBA sites involved will be:

1. Nyanga Mountains, 2. Stapleford Forest Reserve 3. Vumba Highlands 4. Chimanimani Mountains 5. Chirinda Forest Reserve,

Stakeholder capacity building project for KBA management project will assess the capacity of organisations, groups and individuals that are actively involved in the biodiversity management and protection or whose interests may be positively or negatively affected by biodiversity conservations. The ultimate goal is that of creating awareness of the value of biodiversity, building Site Support Groups (SSG), and building Stakeholder Management Advisory Groups (SMAG) for improving the management and conservation activities at these sites.

The main purpose of the stakeholder assessment (as stated in the ToR) was to identify stakeholders in the Chimanimani-Nyanga Mountains corridor and understand their current activities, their interests and capacity needs in biodiversity to assist BLZ to implement biodiversity conservation projects especially for birds in the 5 KBAs. The assessment also looked at some of the legal frameworks that govern biodiversity conservation in Zimbabwe.

The study found out that there were government departments, Non Governmental Organisations (NGOs), Community Based Organisations (CBOs) and private sector organisations doing a variety of activities on biodiversity management. The district structures of Natural Resources management exist but the main constraints for a coordinated approach to conservation activities include among other things are financial, human and materials resources.

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All stakeholders consulted were happy and eager to work with BirdLife Zimbabwe in the biodiversity conservation programme in this IBA. It is recommended that BLZ should use the existing structures of the Rural District Council (RDC) to have a coordinated approach in the management of biodiversity. The structures would be effective in promoting learning, documentation of researches, capturing and using the IKS and recording of birds species found in these areas for sharing with others in the country and beyond.

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Table of Contents

Taof Contents Acknowledgements ...... 1 Executive Summary ...... 2 Table of Contents ...... 4

Abbreviations ...... 8 1. Background and Context ...... 10

1.1. Purpose of Stakeholder Assessment...... 11

1.2. Project Description ...... 11

1.3. Approach to Study ...... 12

1.4. Assumption and Limitations ...... 12 2.0 Legal Frame Works Governing Biodiversity Conservation in Zimbabwe ...... 13 2.1 Introduction to Zimbabwe’s Legislative Framework ...... 13

2.1.1 Constitution of Zimbabwe and the Environment ...... 13

2.2 National and Institutional Environmental Policy ...... 14

2.2.1 Zimbabwe National Environmental Policy ...... 15

2.2.2 Company Environmental Policies ...... 16

2.3 Institutional and Administrative Framework ...... 16

2.3.2 Local Government ...... 17 2.3.3 Environmental Management Agency ...... 18

2.4 Environmental Framework Legislation/Proclamation ...... 22

2.4.1 Environmental Management Act [Chapter 20:27] ...... 22

2.4.2 Environmental Management Act Regulations ...... 23

2.5 Other Relevant Legislation to the Biodiversity Conservation Project ...... 24

2.6 Regional and International Multilateral Agreements ...... 25

3.0 Study Findings...... 27

3.1. Defining of Terms ...... 27 3.1.1. Stakeholder ...... 27 3.1.2. Gaps, Hindrances and Driving Forces...... 27

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3.2. Key Biodiversity Areas of Zimbabwe ...... 28

3.3.1. Population Distribution...... 28

3.3.2. Ethnic Groups ...... 28

3.3.3. Water and Sanitation ...... 28

3.3.4 Religious Practices and Beliefs ...... 29 3.3. Nyanga District ...... 30

3.3.1 Nyanga National Park ...... 32

3.3.2. Stakeholders Consulted and Identified ...... 34 3.3.3. Gaps, Hindrances and Driving Forces...... 35 3.4. Mutasa District ...... 38

3.4.1. Stapleford Forest /Allied Timbers ...... 39

3.4.2. Stakeholders Consulted and Identified ...... 39 3.4.3. Gaps, Hindrances and Driving Forces ...... 41 3.5. Mutare District ...... 42

3.5.1. Vumba Forest ...... 42

3.5.2. Stakeholders Consulted and Identified ...... 44 3.5.3. Gaps, Hindrances and Driving Forces ...... 45 3.6. Chimanimani District ...... 48

3.6.1. Chimanimani National Parks ...... 48

3.6.2. Stakeholders Consulted and Identified ...... 49 3.6.3. Gaps, Hindrances and Driving Forces ...... 51 3.7. Chipinge District ...... 53

3.7.1. Chirinda Forest ...... 53

3.7.2. Stakeholders Consulted and Identified ...... 55 3.7.3. Gaps, Hindrances and Driving Forces ...... 56 4.0 Local Area Livelihoods and Indigenous Knowledge Systems on Biodiversity Conservation ...... 58

4.1. Local Area Livelihood Systems ...... 58 4.2. Local Indigenous Knowledge systems ...... 58 4.3. Knowledge Belief and Attitudes on Biodiversity ...... 62

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4.4 Capacity Building Needs ...... 65

5. Conclusions and Recommendations ...... 67

6. References ...... 70

7. Appendices ...... Error! Bookmark not defined.

7. 1. Stakeholder Log ...... Error! Bookmark not defined. 7.2. Questionnaire and Interview Guide ...... Error! Bookmark not defined. 7.3. Schools Knowledge Attitude Practice Test ...... Error! Bookmark not defined. 7.4. Nyanga RDC Chief Executive officer ...... Error! Bookmark not defined. 7.5. Nyanga District Administrator ...... Error! Bookmark not defined. 7.7. Nyanga Ministry of Education ...... Error! Bookmark not defined. 7.8. Nyanga Ministry of Education DEO ...... Error! Bookmark not defined. 7.9. Nyanga National Parks ...... Error! Bookmark not defined. 7.9. B. Nyanga Parks Action of Section D. Tourism Management Programme ..... Error! Bookmark not defined. 7.10. Nyanga Village Inn...... Error! Bookmark not defined. 7.11.Nyanga Forestry Extension ...... Error! Bookmark not defined. 7.12. Nyanga Kairezi Catchment Area Zimwa ...... Error! Bookmark not defined. 7.13. Nyanga ZRP ...... Error! Bookmark not defined. 7.14. Nyanga Claymont Estate ...... Error! Bookmark not defined. 7.15. Mutasa DA ...... Error! Bookmark not defined. 7.16. Mutasa RDC ...... Error! Bookmark not defined. 7.17. Mutasa AGRITEX ...... Error! Bookmark not defined. 7.18. Mutasa Ministry of education ...... Error! Bookmark not defined. 7.19.Mutasa Zimbabwe Republic Police ...... Error! Bookmark not defined. 7.20.Mutasa Allied Timber ...... Error! Bookmark not defined. 7.21. Mutare Vumba Botanical Gardens and Reserve ...... Error! Bookmark not defined. 7.22. Chimanimani DA ...... Error! Bookmark not defined. 7.23. Chimanimani EMA ...... Error! Bookmark not defined. 7.24. Chimanimani Hotel ...... Error! Bookmark not defined. 7.25. Chimanimani Ministry of Education...... Error! Bookmark not defined. 7.26. Chimanimani National Parks ...... Error! Bookmark not defined.

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7.27. Chimanimani Risitu High School ...... Error! Bookmark not defined. 7.28. Chimanimani AGRITEX ...... Error! Bookmark not defined. 7.29. Chimanimani Allied Timbers ...... Error! Bookmark not defined. 7.30. Chipinge Chirinda Forest ...... Error! Bookmark not defined. 7.31. Chipinge Forestry Extension ...... Error! Bookmark not defined. 7.32. Chipinge Ministry of Education ...... Error! Bookmark not defined. 7.33. Mutare EMA ...... Error! Bookmark not defined. 7.34. Mutare DA RDC ...... Error! Bookmark not defined. 7.35. Mutare Seldom Seen...... Error! Bookmark not defined. 7.36. Nyanga Nyamhuka primary school KAP Results ...... Error! Bookmark not defined. 7.37. Chimanimani Risuti High school KAP Results ...... Error! Bookmark not defined.

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List of Figure Figure 1Key Biodiversity Areas of Zimbabwe ...... 28 Figure 2 Smouldering Saw Dust hips at Allied Saw Mills ...... 31 Figure 3 Logging Truck at Allied Saw Mills ...... 31 Figure 4 Nyanga Parks in Relation to Other Parks in Zimbabwe ...... 32 Figure 5 Chimanimani ...... 48 Figure 6 River Water Polluted By Illegal Gold Paners ...... 49 Figure 7 Craft Products from Natural Resources ...... 53 Figure 8Chirinda Forest ...... 53

List of Tables Table 1 Environmental Regulatory Authorities in Zimbabwe ...... 18 Table 2 Multilateral Agreements Zimbabwe is Signatory to ...... 25 Table 3 Number of Schools in Manicaland Province ...... 30 Table 4 Nyanga Stakeholders Consulted and Identified ...... 34 Table 5 Nyanga Gaps, Hindrances and Driving Forces ...... 35 Table 6 Mutasa District Stakeholders Consulted ...... 39 Table 7 Mutasa District Gaps, Hindrances and Driving Forces ...... 41 Table 8 Mutare Stakeholders Consulted and identified ...... 44 Table 9 Mutare Gapes, Hindrances and Driving forces ...... 45 Table 10 Chimanimani Stakeholders Consulted and identified ...... 49 Table 11 Chimanimani District Gaps, Hindrances and Driving Forces ...... 51 Table 12 Chipinge Stakeholders Consulted and identified ...... 55 Table 13 Chipinge Gaps, Hindrances and Driving Forces ...... 56 Table 14 Stories of Indigenous Knowledge Systems ...... 60 Table 15 Questions and Responses ...... 63

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Abbreviations BEST Environmental Science Teaching BKAP Biodiversity Knowledge Attitude and Practice BLI BirdLife International BLZ BirdLife Zimbabwe CAMPFIRE Communal Areas Management Programme For Indigenous Resources CBO Community Based Organisation CMA Community Management Agreement EMB Environmental Management Board Gvt Government IBA Important Bird Area IKS Indigenous Knowledge Systems KBA Key Biodiversity Area MENRM Ministry of Environmental and Natural Resources Management MET Ministry of Environment and Tourism MLGPW Ministry of Local Government, Public Works NEnvC National Environmental Council NGO Non Governmental Organisations. NRDC Nyanga Rural District Council PVO Private Voluntary Organization RDC Rural District Council SMAG Stakeholder Management Advisory Group SSG Site Support Group TOR Terms of Reference UN United Nations ZNEP Zimbabwe National Environment Policy ZPWMA Zimbabwe Parks and Wildlife Management Authority

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1. Background and Context

BirdLife Zimbabwe (BLZ) is a membership based conservation non-governmental organisation (NGO), a local conservation initiative that was established in 1951. It is registered with the Ministry of Labour and Social Welfare as a Private Voluntary Organization (PVO 7/91). The goal of the organization is to conserve biodiversity by using birds as indicators. BirdLife Zimbabwe’s mission is to promote the survival of birds in Zimbabwe and elsewhere for their intrinsic value and the enjoyment of future generations. The day-to-day operations of BLZ are carried out by a Secretariat of paid staff, employed by the organization. The Secretariat is answerable to a Council of Trustees which is elected by the members at BLZ’s Annual General Meetings. BirdLife Zimbabwe is a full partner in BirdLife International (BLI), and as such is the national representative of BLI in Zimbabwe. However BLZ is a completely independent organization with its own governance structures and BLI is not represented on BLZ’s Council.

The aim of BLZ’s conservation and capacity building programmes is to improve conservation education status of birds conservation sites and habitats for the benefit of bird species and improve the quality of life of people, with a view to soliciting conservation action by all. BirdLife Zimbabwe has been monitoring and conserving biodiversity in Important Birds Areas (IBA) in Zimbabwe. All the Key Biodiversity Areas (KBA) in the Eastern Highlands of Zimbabwe are also IBAs and BLZ has been working in these areas with communities and government agencies for the past eight years.

The conservation projects will take place in the Chimanimani-Nyanga Mountains priority corridor in Zimbabwe. The KBA sites involved will be: 1. Nyanga National Park, 2. Stapleford Forest Reserve, 3. Vumba Highlands, 4. Chimanimani Mountains National Park and 5. Chirinda Forest Reserve,

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1.1. Purpose of Stakeholder Assessment The main purpose of the stakeholder assessment (as stated in the ToRs) was to carry out a stakeholder analysis in the Chimanimani-Nyanga Mountains corridor. The consultancy had field work covering the following areas: 1. Nyanga National Park 2. Stapleford Forest Reserve 3. Vumba Highlands 4. Chimanimani s National Park 5. Chirinda Forest Reserve

The consultant interviewed and collated data of:  Current and potential stakeholders activities in biodiversity conservation and established their roles and responsibilities in biodiversity and their different levels of influence,  Level of awareness of stakeholders on the importance of biodiversity conservation in all the KBAs in the Chimanimani-Nyanga Mountains corridor.  Stakeholders’ information needs/gaps.  Key barriers and challenges in the KBAs to effective and active stakeholder participation in biodiversity conservation/sustainable use of biodiversity products.

1.2. Project Description The Stakeholder Capacity Building project will take place in the Chimanimani- Nyanga Mountains priority corridor in Zimbabwe. The KBA sites involved will be:

1. Nyanga National Park 2. Stapleford Forest Reserve 3. Vumba Highlands 4. Chimanimani s National Park 5. Chirinda Forest Reserve

Stakeholder capacity building for KBA management project will work with organisations, groups and individuals that are actively involved in management and conservation of biodiversity or whose interests may be positively or negatively affected by biodiversity conservations. The project also seeks to promote awareness on the value of biodiversity, building SSGs, and building Stakeholder Management

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Advisory Group SMAGs for improving the management and conservation status of the conservation sites.

1.3. Approach to Study The stakeholder assessment team travelled from Harare to Nyanga, Mutasa, Mutare, Chimanimani and Chipinge and used a participatory approach and conducted 37 interviews discussions and administered a Biodiversity Knowledge Attitudes and Practices (BKAP) tests to one primary school in Nyanga grade 7 (26 pupils) and one secondary school in Chimanimani forms 5 and 6 (33 pupils). It was also meant check on their interests, roles, responsibilities and gaps in biodiversity conservation. The team assessed and identified stakeholder information needs and opportunities on biodiversity conservation in the KBAs. The team identified three critical levels of stakeholders to this project and these are government departments, CBOs/NGOs and the local community (urban/rural). The consultation of a wider spectrum of the community was not possible because all NGO activities are not active as most people are involved in the preparations for the impending general elections.

1.4. Assumption and Limitations It was assumed that the assessment would cover the 5 districts at all levels in the community, but only urban and other government, parastatals and a few NGOs were consulted since most people were involved in the preparations for the impending hamonised elections in the country.

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2.0 Legal Frame Works Governing Biodiversity Conservation in Zimbabwe

The Republic of Zimbabwe, formerly Southern Rhodesia, Rhodesia, the Republic of Rhodesia, and Zimbabwe Rhodesia is a landlocked country located in the southern part of the African continent, between the Zambezi and Limpopo rivers. It is bordered by South Africa to the south, Botswana to the southwest, Zambia to the northwest and Mozambique to the east. Zimbabwe has three official languages: English, Shona and Ndebele and minority languages like Tonga, Shangani, Venda and Nambia.

Zimbabwe began as the British crown colony of Southern Rhodesia, created from land held by the British South Africa Company. Mr. Robert Mugabe is the President and head of State while Mr. Morgan Tsvangirai is the Prime Minister. Zimbabwe is a semi-presidential republic, which has a parliamentary system of government. Under the constitutional changes in 2005, an upper chamber, the Senate, was reinstated. The House of Assembly is the lower chamber of Parliament.

Biodiversity conservation has been a major concern for Zimbabwe and efforts have been deliberately put by central government through various arms of government namely Parks and Wildlife Management Authority, Environmental Management Agent (EMA), Forestry Commission, Agritex and Rural District Councils (RDC). Apart from these government agents there has been great effort as well from Non Governmental Organisations (NGOs) and United Nations (UN) agencies. All these players in biodiversity conservation are guided by international laws, conventions and national laws in their quest to conserve biodiversity. This section shall look at some of the legal frameworks that govern biodiversity conservation in Zimbabwe. Zimbabwe is a signatory to some international conventions which are aimed at conserving biodiversity.

2.1 Introduction to Zimbabwe’s Legislative Framework

Zimbabwe’s Legal system consists of the Common law (non- statutory or unwritten Anglo Roman Dutch Law) Legislation, Case Law (Precedent) and Customary Law.

2.1.1 Constitution of Zimbabwe and the Environment

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The New Constitution of Zimbabwe was Gazetted on Wednesday 22nd May 2013. The constitution gives general provisions in terms of rights of citizens. The environmental rights are covered in section 73, some of them include the follwing:

Environmental Rights: (1) Every person has the right-

i. To an environment that is not harmful to their health or well-being and ii. To have the environment protected for the benefit of present and future generations, through reasonable legislative and other measures that- iii. Prevent pollution and ecological degradation; iv. Promote conservation and v. Secure ecologically sustainable development and use of natural resources while promoting economic and social development

(2) The State must take reasonable legislative and other measures, within the limits of the resources available to it, to achieve the progressive realisation of the rights set out in this section.

The Constitution of Zimbabwe is the Supreme Law of the country and it is the parent Act of any other Legislation. With the exception of Criminal Law, Zimbabwe’s law is mainly uncodified.

2.2 National and Institutional Environmental Policy

The National Conservation Strategy of 1987 was the first policy document to incorporate the concept of sustainability into development and environmental management in Zimbabwe. In 1997 the then Ministry of Environment and Tourism (MET) published the Environmental Impact Assessment Policy which became the foundation for a law reform process which resulted in the Environmental Management Act, 2002 [Chapter 20:27], as amended in March 2006. The Zimbabwe National Environmental Policy of 2004 is used in conjunction with the Environmental Management Act, the new EIA Regulations and the EIA Guidelines to ensure that EIA’s are carried out correctly before any development has been done. This has been done to ensure that development project do not impact on the environment negatively.

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2.2.1 Zimbabwe National Environmental Policy

The Zimbabwe National Environment Policy (ZNEP) supports Zimbabwe's national policy objective of alleviating poverty and improving the quality of life of the people of Zimbabwe through strategic measures that are aimed at ‚sustaining the long-term ability of natural resources to meet the basic needs of people, enhance food security, reduce poverty and improve the standard of living of Zimbabweans through long- term economic growth and the creation of employment‛. The ZNEP contends that land degradation, inequitable distribution of land and insecure tenure are key issues affecting the environment just as they are root causes of land degradation. The degradation of land has an effect on biodiversity and accordingly, the national environmental policy calls for sustainable use of land, integrated land-use planning and the provision of secure tenure in the newly settled areas. The 2003 ZNEP was developed in line with the National policy objective of the Government of Zimbabwe which seeks to alleviate poverty and improve the quality of life of the people of Zimbabwe. The ZNEP’s major objective therefore is to avoid irreversible environmental damage, maintain essential environmental processes and preserve the broad spectrum of biological diversity so as to sustain the long term ability of natural resources to meet the basic needs of people, enhance food security, reduce poverty and improve the standard of living of Zimbabweans through the long term economic growth and the creation of employment.

The ZNEP recognizes guiding principles to biodiversity conservation, use and sustainable management. These include the following:  That the biodiversity of Zimbabwe is the foundation of the natural heritage of the country  The conservation of biodiversity in all its forms is more likely to be sustained if there is an economic incentive arising from the use of that biodiversity by those people living closest to the resource;  As a major component of Zimbabwe’s natural heritage, and as an economic resource plant diversity and the ecosystems of which it forms part must be protected, conserved and used in sustainable ways;  The many economic, environmental, cultural, spiritual and aesthetic functions and values of forests and woodlands need to be maintained, both for their intrinsic worth and for the contributions they make to human welfare;  The best custodians of wildlife and other natural resources are those landowners, including local communities, who are able to benefit directly from the use of the wild life on their land;

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 The conservation of biodiversity and other natural resources requires a multi- faceted approach including the establishment of protected areas; and  Collaboration between countries over shared trans-boundary natural resources ensures more effective sustainable development.

2.2.2 Company Environmental Policies

Companies in Zimbabwe have promulgated Environmental Policies which guides their activities. These policies are an indication that the world over business has become environmental sensitive and also that it makes good business sense to promote good environmental practices. The environmental policies commit Companies to the following:  cleaner production;  control of waste;  prevention of pollution; and  safe operation of plant.

The goals of corporate environmental policies are to ensure all companies attain ISO 14001 certification. To realize these policy goals companies commit to institute the following at their plants:  Conduct frequent environmental audits of all their operations to ensure conformance to the ISO 14001 Standards.  Review our environmental objectives and targets continuously.  Carry out continuous campaigns to all our staff and stakeholders on friendly environmental practices  Document, maintain and make available information on all our environmental practices to all the stakeholders.  Continuously improve on our environmental performance.

2.3 Institutional and Administrative Framework The following paragraphs discuss the institutional and administrative framework at the national and local level and organizations responsible for the preparation of environmental policy and technical guidelines.

Zimbabwe has a centralized government and is divided into eight provinces. The two major cities, Harare and Bulawayo have been granted provincial status for administrative purposes. Each province has a provincial capital from where official business is usually carried out. The provinces are subdivided into 59 districts and

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1,200 wards (sometimes referred to as municipalities or local authorities). Each district is headed by a District Administrator, appointed by the Public Service Commission and represents the Ministry of Local Government in the District and has ultimate authority over all district affairs. There is also a Rural District Council made up largely of elected members which appoints a Chief Executive Officer to administer affairs of council. The Rural District Council is composed of elected ward councillors, the District Administrator and one representative of the chiefs (traditional leaders appointed under customary law) in the district. Other government functions at district level are carried out by district offices of national government departments.

2.3.2 Local Government

The activities of local government units are co-ordinated by the Ministry of Local Government and Public Works (MLGPW). The ten provinces into which the country is divided are administrative rather than political provinces and do not have elective structures. The juridical framework for local government is set out in several pieces of legislation. The principal Acts governing local authorities in Zimbabwe, the Urban Councils Act and the Rural District Councils Act set local authorities as separate and fairly autonomous legal corporate institutions. The main Acts for local governance purposes are: 1. Urban Councils Act (Chapter 29:15), 2. Urban Councils Amendment Act (Chapter 29:16), 3. Rural District Councils Act (Chapter 29:13), 4. Chiefs and Headmen Act (Chapter 29:01), 5. Communal Land Act (Chapter 20:04), 6. Provincial Councils and Administration Act, 7. Customary Law and Local Courts Act (No. 2) of 1990 and 8. Traditional Leadership Act of 1998.

In addition, there are a number of statutory instruments defining the legal parameters of local government. The Ministry of Local Government administers all these Acts and Statutory Instruments promulgated in the local government area. The Minister retains a substantial supervisory role over all local government units (LGUs) and enjoys the ultimate power of intervention and suspension of any local council

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2.3.3 Environmental Management Agency

Environmental management in Zimbabwe is regulated by three related agencies in the MENR namely:  National Environment Council (NEnvC);  Environmental Management Agency (EMA); and  Environmental Management Board (EMB). The organizational responsibilities and institutional arrangements in the MENR are as per Table 1 below.

Table 1 Environmental Regulatory Authorities in Zimbabwe

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Minister of Environment & Natural Resources

Permanent Secretary

Principal Director

Director Environment & Conservation Director Administration

EMA National Forestry Water Parks Commission

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The Environmental Management Act sets out the main responsibilities of these entities which can be summarized as follows.

National Environmental Council (NEnvC)

The functions of the Council as extracted from the Environmental Management Act are as follows:

1) to advise on policy formulation and give directions on the implementation of this Act; and 2) to advise on national goals and objectives and determine policies and priorities for the protection of the environment; and 3) to promote co-operation among public departments, local authorities, private sector, non-governmental organisations and such other organisations engaged in environmental protection programmes; and 4) to make recommendations to all appropriate persons and authorities regarding the harmonisation of functions related to the environment; 5) to review and recommend to the Minister guidelines for environmental management plans and environmental action plans; and 6) to review the national environmental plan; and 7) to review and recommend incentives for the protection of the environment; and 8) to perform such other functions as are assigned to it by the Minister under this Act. Environmental Management Agency (EMA)

The duties of the agency are stipulated in the Act and they are as follows:

a) to formulate quality standards on air, water, soil, noise, vibration, radiation and waste management; b) to assist and participate in any matter pertaining to the management of the environment;

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Zimbabwe Parks and Wildlife Management Authority (ZPWMA)

The main purpose of ZPWMA is to conserve Zimbabwe's wildlife heritage through effective, efficient and sustainable utilisation of natural resources for the benefit of present and future generations and stakeholders. According to the Parks Act 20-14 section Part II part 4 functions of Parks and Wild Life Management Authority among other shall be: (i) to control, manage and maintain national parks, botanical reserves and botanical gardens, sanctuaries, safari areas and recreational parks for the purposes set out reasonable, practicable and compatible with such purposes, to provide facilities for visitors thereto; (ii) to examine and report to the Minister from time to time upon—(i) the policy which should be adopted to give effect to the objects and purposes of this Act; and (iii) the conservation and utilisation of the wild life resource of Zimbabwe; (iv) the conservation and utilisation of the fish resource of Zimbabwe; and (v) the preservation and protection of natural landscapes, wild life and plants and the natural ecological stability of wild life and plant communities in national parks; and (vi) the preservation and protection of rare or endangered plant communities growing naturally in the wild in botanical reserves; and (vii) the propagation and cultivation of exotic and indigenous plants in botanical gardens; and (viii) the protection of animals or particular species of animals in sanctuaries; (ix) the preservation and protection of the natural habitat and wild life in safari areas and the facilities and opportunities given to the public for camping, hunting, fishing, photography, viewing of animals, bird watching and such other pursuits that may be permitted therein in terms of this Act; and (x) the preservation and protection of the natural features of recreational parks; and (xi) plans for the development of national parks, botanical reserves, botanical gardens, sanctuaries, safari areas and recreational parks; taking into account in particular the geography and geology of each area reported upon, research and management therein, the enjoyment, education, etc;

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Forestry Commission Some of the duties of Commission as spelt out in the Forestry Act 19-05 include: (a) the consideration of all questions and matters arising out of or relating to general forest policy and the making of reports and recommendations thereon to the Minister; (b) the control, management and exploitation of State forests, plantations and forest nurseries belonging to the State and such other land as may be acquired by the State for forestry purposes; (c) the establishment, maintenance, improvement, renewal and exploitation of plantations and forest nurseries; i. the exploitation of all forms of forest produce, including— ii. the manufacture of articles from forest produce and the sale and exportation of such articles; and iii. the production, sale and exportation of seed; and iv. the conduct of hunting or photographic safaris; (d). the survey of the forest resources of Zimbabwe; (e). advice and propaganda on all forestry matters; (f). conducting research and investigations into all matters pertaining to forestry and forest products; (g). the determination of whether the President should exercise any of his powers in terms of section thirty-five and to make a recommendation thereon to the President; (h). the investigation of any matter relating to the use or occupation of the Forest Estate and the making of recommendations thereon to the President where it considers such use or occupation is inconsistent with this Act etc;

2.4 Environmental Framework Legislation/Proclamation

The main laws and regulations of relevance to biodiversity conservation are summarized in this Section.

.4.1 Environmental Management Act [Chapter 20:27]

The Environmental Management Act [Chapter 20:27] was enacted in 2002 (Act 13 of 2002) and amended in 2006. The Act repeals the following former Acts:  Natural Resources Act [Chapter 20:13]  The Atmospheric Pollution Prevention Act [Chapter 20:03]  Hazardous Substances and Articles Act [Chapter 15:05]  Noxious Weeds Act [Chapter 19:07]

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2.4.2 Environmental Management Act Regulations Several Statutory Instruments (SI) to operationalize the Environmental Management Act, have been passed in terms of Section 140 of the Act. These regulations incorporate the modern principles of environmental management that include:  “polluter pays principle” The polluter shall bear the cost of measures to reduce pollution decided upon by public authorities to ensure that the environment is in an acceptable state, and should compensate citizens for the harm they suffer from the pollution;  ‚precautionary principle‛ Where there are threats of serious or irreversible damage lack of full scientific certainty shall not be used as a reason for postponing measures to prevent environmental degradation;  ‚strict liability principle‛ Any person who contravenes this Act or regulations shall be liable to the penalties prescribed thereafter;  ‚avoidance principle‛ It is preferable to avoid environmental damage as it can be impossible or more expensive to repair rather than prevent the damage

The following environmental regulations are applicable for the project.

(a) Environmental Management (Environmental Impact Assessment and Ecosystems Protection) Regulations, Statutory Instrument No. 7 of 2007

This SI deals with the regulation of the environmental impact assessment process and the protection of ecosystems. These regulations provide the method of carrying out the EIA. The developer has to submit a prospectus to the Agency which shall issue a licence if satisfied by the contents of the prospectus. The prospectus has to contain details of the environmental impacts of the project and the measures to be taken to contain or mitigate such impacts. In preparing an EIA the developer is obliged to consult widely with all stakeholders. The Agency will not issue a licence if it is not satisfied that the developer consulted widely with all stakeholders in the preparation of the EIA. (b) Environmental Management (Effluent and Solid Waste Disposal Regulations, Statutory Instrument No.6 of 2007 These regulations prohibit any person from disposing waste into a public stream or ground water without a licence. Every generator of waste (except households) is now required to come up with a waste management plan by the 31st December of each year which deals with quantity of waste; components of waste; goals for reduction in quantity and pollutant discharges of the waste; transportation and disposal of waste;

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(d) Environmental Management (Atmospheric Pollution Control) Regulation, Statutory Instrument No. 72 of 2009

These regulations relate to the management of ambient air quality and set emission standards for certain activities. They also outline procedures to be followed in the issuance of emission licences. Procedures to be employed in sampling of emissions are also outlined.

(e) Environmental Management (Hazardous Waste Management) Regulation, Statutory Instrument No. 10 of 2007

These regulations require that any person generating, storing, selling, transporting using, recycling, discharging or disposing waste to the environment have a licence from disposing waste into a public stream or ground water without a licence. Every generator of waste (except households) is required to come up with a waste management plan by the 31st December of each year which deals with quantity of waste; components of waste; goals for reduction in quantity and pollutant discharges of the waste; transportation and disposal of waste; and adoption of environmentally sound management of the wastes. It is an offence for any waste generator to fail to produce the waste management plan. The regulations also relate to waste collection and management by local authorities.

2.5 Other Relevant Legislation to the Biodiversity Conservation Project a) Land Acquisition Act [Chapter 20:10] The Act gives the authority to the President of the Republic of Zimbabwe to compulsorily acquire land for public good. It also sets out the procedure for acquisition as well as modes and assessment of compensation (Part V Section 1(a)). Biodiversity exists on land that may be privately owned or owned by the state and as such there are laws that govern the access to these lands. It is important to

24 July, 2013

Stakeholder Analysis Report understand the provision of the law in this regards. Government though National Parks proposed a Wild Life Based Land Reform Programme aimed at restocking farms that had wildlife before 2000.

b) Water Act [Chapter 20:24] The Act regulates the planning and development of water resources, and provides a framework for allocating water permits. Water bodies are home to aquatic biodiversity and water is the most common disposal medium for wastes which eventually harm aquatic life. The Water (Wastewater and Effluent Disposal) Regulations of 2000 which are associated with this Act specify what quality is acceptable in terms of effluent released into rivers. These regulations will need to be adhered to in the process silt flushing of silt traps at the tunnel intake.

c) National Museums and Monuments Act [Chapter 20:27]

The Act provides for the protection of all areas of historical and archaeological significance. It also provides for the conservation of ancient relics and pre-historic artefacts or objects. No excavation, blasting or drilling can be done on the historical areas. The Eastern Highlands area is rich in historical monuments. One of the monuments is call Ziwa monument in Nyanga. The property on the estate consist of terraces enclosure, pits enclose and passages smelting furnaces and grinding places. Nyanga Estate monument are build pit structure and include Nyangwe and Chawomera Fort. Other monuments in the eastern highlands include Nyahokwe, Matendera, kagumbudzi and Harleigh Farm monuments and relics. Also there is one of the Rock art national monuments in the Eastern Highlands region at Diana’s Vow rock painting (http://nmmz.co.zw/web2.0) During the implementation of the project archaeological artefacts may be encountered and BirdLife Zimbabwe and its associated community members will be required to disclose this to the Department of Museums and Monuments the discovery of such historical items. This will in turn help to have the artefacts and sites protected by the laws of the country.

d) Regional, Town and Country Planning Act [Chapter 29:12]

This Act provides for the planning of regions, districts and local areas with the objective of conserving and improving the physical environment

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Stakeholder Analysis Report

e) Parks and Wildlife Act [Chapter 20:14]

The Act establishes national parks and nature reserves, conserving timber resources, regulating trade in forest produce and regulating the hunting/trapping of animals and burning of vegetation.

f) Forest Act[Chapter 19:05] The Act provides for demarcating forests and nature reserves, conserving timber resources, regulating trade in forest produce, and regulating the burning of vegetation.

g) Rural District Councils Act [Chapter 29:13] The Act allows for the establishment of Rural District councils responsible for initiating and regulating development in rural areas. The project is located within the Nyanga Rural District Council (RDC), Mutasa RDC, Mutare RDC, Chimanimani RDC and Chipinge RDC administrated areas and RDCs who can be central coordinating stakeholders.

h) Communal Land Forest Produce Act [Chapter 19:04]

The Act controls the use of wood resources within communal lands. Such resources in communal lands should be used for domestic purposes by the residents only. The project contractors’ employees will need firewood for some purposes and the provisions of the act will be adhered to in the abstraction of these resources.

i) Trapping of Animals (Control) Act [Chapter 20:12]

The Act prohibits making, possessing or using certain types of traps, and specifies the purposes for which animal trapping is permitted.

j) Plant, Pests and Diseases Act [Chapter 19:08]

The Act provides for the eradication and prevention of the spread of plant pests and diseases.

k) Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act [Chapter 19:09]

The Act prohibits activities considered cruel to animals. Several new access roads will be created and the project construction and operating activities will introduce heavier traffic onto these rural roads. Measures, like stock-proof fencing which will direct animals to designated crossing places, will need to be put in place to prevent

26 July, 2013

Stakeholder Analysis Report animals inadvertently straying onto access roadways where they can be killed or injured.

l) Traditional Leaders Act29:17

This Act to provide for the appointment of village heads, headmen and chiefs; to provide for the establishment of a Council of Chiefs and village, ward and provincial assemblies and to define their functions; to provide for the issue of village registration certificates and settlement permits; to repeal the Chiefs and Headmen Act [Chapter29:01]. The Act also provides for as one of the duties of the local leaders responsible within their areas for—(a) performing the functions pertaining to the office of a chief as the traditional head of the community under his jurisdiction;(b) promoting and upholding cultural values among members of the community under his jurisdiction, particularly the preservation of the extended family and the promotion of traditional family life. In line with this the Communal Land and Forest and Produce Act controls the use of wood resources within communal lands. Such resources in communal lands should be used for domestic purposes by the residents only. The same Act also noted that it ensures that Communal Land is allocated in accordance with Part III of the Communal Land Act [Chapter 20:04] and ensure that the requirements of any enactment in force for the use and occupation of communal or resettlement land are observed; and others. It also ensures that the land and its natural resources are used and exploited in terms of the law and, in particular, controlling— (i) over-cultivation (ii) over-grazing (iii) the indiscriminate destruction of flora and fauna (iv) illegal settlements (v) abuse or misuse of land and natural resources in his area;.

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2.6 Regional and International Multilateral Agreements Zimbabwe has ratified several international conventions and protocols details of which are shown in Table below: Table 2 Multilateral Agreements Zimbabwe is Signatory to

Title Of Treaty/ Objective MINISTRY Convention Or Protocol RESPONSIBLE The United Nations The main aim of the protocol is to regulate levels of greenhouse gas Ministry of Framework Convention concentration in the atmosphere, so as to avoid the occurrence of climate Environment and on Climate Change change at levels that would harm economic development, or that would Natural (UNFCCC) impede food production activities. One of the ways of doing this is for Resources countries to work towards greater, energy efficiency and, in the process, Management and saving forests and vegetation (which serve as carbon sinks and M Environment reservoirs) and turning increasingly to the use of renewable sources of and Tourism energy. The Convention on A major objective of the convention is to ensure the conservation and MENRM and Biological Diversity sustainable use of biological diversity and the sustainable use of its MET (CBD) component parts. The Convention on Seeks to ensure that the international trade in species of wild fauna and MENRM and International Trade in flora does not threaten the survival in wilderness of the species MET Endangered Species of concerned. Species on the CITES lists are considered of conservation Wild Fauna and Flora concerns. (CITES) CL(2006) 25:SADC The Protocol on Forestry of 2002 aims to promote the development, MENRM and Protocol on Forestry conservation, sustainable management and utilisation of all types of MET forest and trees; trade in forest products and achieve effective protection of the environment, and safe-guard the interests of both the present and future generations. CL(2006)29: Kyoto Seeks to further reduce greenhouse gas emissions by enhancing the MENRM and Protocol to the United national programs of developed countries aimed at this goal and by MET Nations Framework establishing percentage reduction targets for the developed countries.

Convention on Climate Change CL (2000) 45: Ratification Seeks to develop Zimbabwe's National Environmental Policy and its MENRM and of the Zimbabwe Policy overall development plans. MET

CL (2006) 15: Convention Seeks to stem the progressive encroachment on and loss of wetlands now MENRM and on Wetland of and in future, recognizing the fundamental ecological functions of MET International wetlands and their economic, cultural, scientific and recreational value. Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar) CL (2006) 23: SADC The Protocol commits the SADC Member States to ‚promote the MENRM and Protocol on wildlife conservation of the shared wildlife resources through the establishment MET Conservation and Law of trans-frontier conservation areas‛. Enforcement. CL (2000) 24: SADC Seeks to emphasise the important role of fisheries in the social and MENRM and Protocol on Fisheries. economic well-being and livelihood of the people of the Region, notably MET in ensuring food security and the alleviation of poverty with the ultimate objective of its eradication. Southern Africa Seeks to find African solutions to the ecological and socio-economic MENRM and Biodiversity Network challenges that face the continent. MET (SABNET)

3.0 Study Findings

3.1. Defining of Terms

3.1.1. Stakeholder A stakeholder can be defined in various ways and but for the purpose of this assessment we shall use the definition by Gord Gibben (2012), who defined stakeholders, as: ‘’ Individuals and groups that are actively involved in the project or whose interests may be positively or negatively affected as a result of the project execution or project completion; they may also exert influence over the project and its results.’’

In this assessment the team looked at a stakeholder as anyone who will make use of natural resources, involved in the management and conservation of natural resources or those who have an impact on any aspect of biodiversity especially birds. Stakeholders can be either direct or indirect. In this case direct stakeholders are those organisations and people (Government Departments (RDC, DA, Agritex, National Parks and Forestry), NGOS, Parastatals, CBOs, Private sectors and communit members) whose actions and programmes have direct impact on biodiversity in general. Indirect Stakeholders are those who have some political power to influence the project or those who are interested in its outcomes.

3.1.2. Gaps, Hindrances and Driving Forces. In a project, hindrances, gaps and driving forces are often termed obstacles. In this report hindrances shall be taken to mean obstructions or stops while gaps shall mean unfilled space or divergence and driving force shall mean capacity to achieve things or the inner urge to attain a good. In all the 5 KBAs in the Zimbabwean Eastern Highlands gaps, hindrances, and driving forces were identified.

3.2. Key Biodiversity Areas of Zimbabwe The Eastern Highlands form a physical barrier between Zimbabwe and its eastern neighbour Mozambique and the range of mountains stretch over 300km with conjoined Nyanga, Vumba and Chimanimani mountains as part of this great barrier. The Eastern Highlands falls in all the 5 Agro- Ecological Regions of Zimbabwe and the project area is in region 1 with distinctive orographic features including the rainfall pattern that has a predominant rainfall type raised by the warm moist air from the Mozambique Channel that rises over the mountain range. This gives the area all year Figure 1Key Biodiversity Areas of Zimbabwe round rainfall feeding the numerous streams and rivers.

3.3.1. Population Distribution Manicaland Province has a total of 1 755 000 (923238 females and 831762 males according to Zimbabwe Statistic (2012). The current population of Nyanga according to the 2012 Population Census is 125 688 with about 32 359 households. Mutasa District has a population of 169 756 (79 825 males and 89 931 females) and 42479 households, Mutare District has a population of 188 243 (88 957 males and 99 286 females) and 48258 households; Chimanimani has a populations of 133 810(64 332 males and 69 478 females) and 32801 households; while Chipinge has a population of 300 792 (139 202 males and 161 590 females) and 66 403 households.

3.3.2. Ethnic Groups The people of Manicaland speak Shona’s Manyika dialect, but each district has their own sub-dialect. In Nyanga and Mutasa District they speak the Manyika dialect. In Chipinge and Chimanimani they speak Ndau. Mutare speak Bocha and Jindwi dialects. The province because of its proximity to Mozambique there are some areas with people using Mozambiquean languages that are diluted with Manyika or Ndau.

3.3.3. Water and Sanitation Zimbabwe is divided into six hydrological zones reflecting the country’s main river systems. A few perennial rivers surface in areas with mean annual rainfall greater than

800 mm and where there is contribution from groundwater. According to Zimbabwe State of the Environment Report of 1998, surface water resources (mostly rivers) account for 90% of the country’s water supply with a supplement from dams. In 1998 there were 140 large dams and 10 747 small dams. Because of recurrent droughts, over- exploitation, poor management and ecological degradation freshwater is increasingly becoming a scarce resource. Water Sector reforms since 1995, the new Water Act (1998) and the Zimbabwe National Water Authority (ZINWA) put emphasis on: • correction of skewed water distribution • environmental sustainability • stakeholder involvement Population distribution in Manicaland is 17% urban and 83% rural (Zimbabwe Statistic 2012). This is slightly different from the national average of 70% rural and 30% urban. In general Manicaland has a higher agricultural potential than other parts of the country except for the drier rain shadow areas of Makoni and Buhera.

There are a number of rivers in the province and as already been mentioned that the mountain range marks the watershed of many rivers. People draw water from the rivers for various purposes including domestic and agricultural.

3.3.4 Religious Practices and Beliefs A few people still practice traditional ways of worship as Christianity has the majority of people attending the Methodist Church, Seventh Day Adventist Church, Anglican Church and Roman Catholic Church. Some attend the Apostolic Churches which have various sects in the area. A higher proportion of the apostolic followers in the province practice polygamy and is quite prevalent among church members.

The People in Manicaland are predominantly Christians accounting for almost 80% of the community while a few people still practice African traditional ways of worship. Generally the community is highly superstitious. Some of the myths and tales date back from time immemorial of sacred hills and caves, pools with mermaids and other mysterious disappearance and happenings. One of the most told stories was that of people disappearing or wandering in the forests after venturing or saying things in the sacred forests in the province. As such there is high belief in supernatural powers that many places/sites or animals possess and the people respect this tradition.

Education Facilities Literacy levels in the province stands as high as 96%. This is a result of the high density of educational facilities when compared to the rest of the country. The cooler climate seems to have attracted early missionaries to set up missions which also prioritized

construction of educational facilities in the region. There are 822 primary schools and 298 secondary schools in the province.

Number of Schools in Manicaland Province

Table 3 Number of Schools in Manicaland Province

District Primary Secondary Buhera 140 55 Chimanimani 68 24 Chipinge 125 40 Makoni 170 60 Mutare 172 67 Mutasa 72 27 Nyanga 75 25 Total 822 298

3.3. Nyanga District Nyanga District is Manicaland Province, in north eastern Zimbabwe, close to the International border with Mozambique. Nyanga National Park in Nyanga District with about 115 kilometres (71 mi), by road, north of Mutare, the nearest large city. This location lies approximately 265 kilometres (165 mi), by road, east of Harare, the capital of Zimbabwe and the largest city in that country. Nyanga sits at an elevation of 5,509 feet (1,679 m), above sea level

Mount Nyangani, the highest mountain in Zimbabwe, lies about 20 kilometres (12 mi), southeast of the town. Its highest peak rises to approximately 2,600 metres (8,500 ft), above sea level. Nyanga is primarily a tourist town and is a popular tourist destination with its fishing, golf courses, mountain hikes and holiday resorts. The Mtarazi Falls, inside Nyanga National Park, are the highest waterfalls in the country, cascading about 760 metres (2,490 ft), from top to bottom. The surrounding areas also contain many Stone Age and Iron Age archaeological remains such as pit structures, stone forts, terraces and pathways.

The current population of Nyanga according to the 2012 Population Census is 125 688 with about 32 359 households. The Nyanga District is divided into 31 wards. The District is headed by a District Administrator and the Rural District Council is lead , by an appointed a Chief Executive Officer.

The economy of Nyanga District is mainly supported by agriculture, forestry, sawmilling and tourism. There is mining taking place but it is not that significant. Nyanga’s economic activities include Retail business which is highly developed in Nyanga town and there are small service centres in the rural areas providing low order services such as provision of basic commodities for households.

Nyanga was once a thriving agricultural area and the Land Reform programme saw most of the former white commercial farmers leaving the farms after their acquisition by the state. The new farmers are slowly picking up and the transition has seen a decline in agricultural production. Ministry of Agriculture through its extension services is helping farmers and training the new farmer in agricultural production. Most farmers are growing potatoes which is fast becoming popular as a cash crop. Almost all households grow maize for sadza the staple diet. Citrus fruit production is yet another major farming activity in the area and fruits such as apples, peaches, nectarines and grapes are produced.

Forestry

Pine, Eucalyptus and Wattle are the main species in the forestry plantations in the area. The plantations are mainly found in the former commercial farming areas. The trees are sawn into timber at local sawmills in the district. Sawmilling is a major trade in the area and there are many sawmills on most of the Figure 3 Logging Truck at Allied Saw Mills farms. The harvesting of the timber is done throughout the year and sawn timber is always available. The sawn timber is sold to most parts of the country from Manicaland; Nyanga contributes significantly to the soft timber demands of the country. There is also hardwood timber available in the district but the exploitation of the hardwoods is controlled by the Rural District Council which issues out the hardwood extraction permits after an operator has been given a permit by the Forestry Commission. The extraction of the soft woods is not controlled as the exotic tree species Figure 2 Smouldering Saw Dust hips at Allied Saw Mills

regenerate or can easily be grown in nurseries and they are also fast growing and maturing unlike the indigenous hardwoods. The hardwoods therefore need to be carefully extracted to prevent total loss of the indigenous trees. The main problem of sawmilling is disposing of the saw dust that is causing smoke or unsightly mountains of saw dust.

Fisheries

Fish farming is done on the commercial farms such as Claremont where trout is bred and reared. The rivers in the area are not that deep and have fast running water and as such there is little fish food in the fast flowing sections of the rivers. Trout fish thrives in the upper sections of the rivers where there are rapids. Nyanga Development Trust operates Nyanga Downs Fly Fishing Club which has been in existence since the 1990s. They raise and fish trout on the Gairezi River and club members do sport fishing on the ‘catch and throw back’ principle.

Tourism The Eastern Highlands offers scenic views and the fair climate that prevails in the area attracts tourists. The Nyanga National Park which is 47 000km² boasts of a wide variety of animals except the elephant, rhino and buffalo offers tourists an opportunity to view game and birds in this cool climate. Cecil John Rhodes himself found this place so fascinating that he desired to buy land and Rhodes Nyanga National Park was later established. Today, the Nyanga National Park formerly known as Rhodes Nyanga National Park has campsites, lodges and a hotel.

Education Facilities There are 75 primary schools and 25 secondary schools in Nyanga District. The schools are important in the project because information dissemination is made easier .

3.3.1 Nyanga National Park

Nyanga National Park was established in 1926 and is one of the oldest parks in Zimbabwe and coined one of key biodiversity area. It was first known as Rhodes Inyangani National Park, a bequest from Cecil Rhodes. The park extended to double its size through extensions in the 1970’s, 1980’s and 1990’s to Figure 4 Nyanga Parks in Relation to Other its current size of 472km with 40,000ha. Parks in Zimbabwe

The park is unique as it is characterized by highest land elevation in the country. All the hills are green and are intercepted by perennial rivers. Although, Nyanga is well known for its richness in plant species that are endemic to the Eastern Highlands, Acacia mearnsii (black wattle) was introduced to the park in 1902 and Pinus patula was introduced in 1923 (Worsley, 1994). Their introduction in the park and surrounding areas has had a profound effect on the vegetation. These trees have and are invading the montane grassland including the unique dwarf Brachystegia spiciformis woodland and rivers stretching from the area above Pungwe gorge up to Troutbeck passing through the Nyangombe River to Warrendale. According to Worsley (1994), over 40% of the park had been affected by the noxious plants. When these noxious plants invade grasslands they change the structure of the vegetation from open grassland to a mono- specific thickets and forests, they also affect the soil nitrogen and phosphorus status (Worsley, 1994).

Although there is no proper game census that has been conducted in the Park, the game that is in Nyanga Parks include kudu, duiker, bushbuck, reedbuck, waterbuck, bush pig, zebra, lion, wildebeest, impala, baboon, monkey, sable, civet cats and leopards. The Blue Swallow, Pungwe lizard and Bernard’s Dwarf Gecko. The waterbuck, zebra, wildebeest, impala and sable were introduced into the park Nyanga Park. Besides the invasion of the wattle tree and pines the Nyanga Parks is also under threat of wild fires and poaching of the animals from the local communities. Recently Zimbabwe has experienced unwanted wild fires threatening forests, plantations and wild animals and it is being blamed on the new farmers.

The national park is partly fenced and the access is restricted and people have to pay a fee to access. The Nyanga Parks is guarded and national Parks officers patrol the area. To the National Parks point of view the communities surrounding the Park are all potential poachers of animals for meat and fire wood. While the Nyanga Rural District Council (NRDC) also thinks the Parks sees all community members as potential poachers. As much as they work together well they have a strained relationship.

3.3.2. Stakeholders Consulted and Identified

Table 4 Nyanga Stakeholders Consulted and Identified

Stakeholder Interests in the contextual analysis Relationship with other stakeholders (SH) Status (partnership or conflict)

DA Gvt  Represents government in Coordination role through the all development activities traditional leaders  Overall responsible for traditional Chiefs RDC LGvt  Runs community affairs They are people in direct contact including management of the community activities environmental issues EMA Gvt  Regulates, enforcing and Monitoring , enforcing and monitoring Environ educating the communities on including air, water, soil, proper natural resource noise, vibration , radiation management and waste management ZRP Gvt  Criminal and Envtal law Enforcing of criminal and Enforcement environment laws in the community Agritrex Gvt  Works with the Guidance and promotion of community in food sustainable land use, food production and NRM for production and natural livelihood activities resources management Forestry Gvt  Promote agro forestry Promote agro forestry forestation Extension forestation and and afforestation afforestation Min of Gvt  Promote awareness in Promote education , Education NRM in the young environmental and biodiversity generation to children and willing to collaborate with others Claremont Pvt  crop, fruit and fish Not established but willing to Estate production participate in Biodiversity  ISO standards activities. Village Inn Pvt  Hospitality Is willing to host workshops and

Stakeholder Interests in the contextual analysis Relationship with other stakeholders (SH) Status (partnership or conflict)

promotes awareness through distribution of brochures/posters ZINWA Ps  Biodiversity of catchment Is willing to collaborate in the area management biodiversity activities Sanyatwe SSG  Community Biodiversity Has been involved with Village  need to be explored conservation of the blue swallow Tangwena  need to be explored Villages National  need to be explored Museums and Monuments

3.3.3. Gaps, Hindrances and Driving Forces. Nyanga KBA gaps, hindrances, and driving forces that were identified and are given below: Table 5 Nyanga Gaps, Hindrances and Driving Forces

Gaps Hindrances Driving Forces

 Lack of financial resources to:  The highest  Grazing, logging, o Fence some sections of concentration of increasing poverty, the park biodiversity in the non sustainable o Protect cultural sites KBA is the national resource exploitation outside the park area park. Conflicts over leading to habitat such as caves and biodiversity value degradation due to sacred hills may occur between pollution and over o Fully administrate the the community and exploitation, markets, park as funds from the park over central government and utilisation of the conservation fees paid biodiversity by tourist are not resources. sufficient  Trespassing of o Purchase of accessories humans and such as binoculars, GPS domestic livestock units and tents used in the park area. when on patrols or

Gaps Hindrances Driving Forces

study o Carry out research on the Blue Duiker and Blue Swallow as contained in the Nyanga National Park 10 Year Development Plan 2010-2020  Lack of human resources in the areas of: o Ecology o Bird Specialist o Research & Development  Information on bird conservation and the methods for bird conservation  Insufficient or poor knowledge and technologies necessary for sustainable management of biodiversity resources  Inadequate economic valuation of biodiversity resources. The parks authority has hunting quotas for big mammals and there are price tags for animals like Buffalo, Lion, Elephant and others. There are no price tags for the bird species and other animals hence there is little or no importance placed on these non priced animals.

Nyanga National Park

3.4. Mutasa District

Mutasa District is one of seven districts in the Manicaland Province of Zimbabwe. Mutasa District is located 57 km from Mutare and stretches up to the Honde Valley, which is about 100 km northeast of Mutare along a tarred road that branches off the Nyanga road.

Mutasa District economy is agro-based. Villagers practice semi-commercial agriculture. The district has several plantations and estates that provide employment. Villagers raise cattle, goats and chicken. And they grow maize, groundnuts, sugarcane etc. and have plantations of fruit trees in the fields. Some of the villages are small holder growers of coffee, tea and banana plantations. Large scale commercial plantations produce timber, coffee and tea.

Most of the district is covered by wireless or cell phone networks, although mountainous areas of the district have poor reception. Land telephone lines connect most of the business centres throughout the district. Villages and business centers with telephone services have access to the internet.

Mutasa District is in the Highveld, receiving high rainfall, hence there are a number of small to large dams in the district, the major ones being Osborne Dam and Nyawamba Dam. Pungwe–Mutare pipeline also pass through the district and the district is still to benefit from water points along the route. It is proving expensive for local communities to access the piped water from the Pungwe along the way to Mutare in terms of acquiring the right pipes for their irrigations. In Honde Valley, water supplied from by a number of small piped systems and motorised pumps serving small towns, growth points, commercial plantations, service centres and some villages, as well as direct abstractions from the rivers by riparian village communities not connected to developed installations.

Mutasa has about 15 (fifteen) primary schools and 17 (seventeen) secondary schools run by the Ministry of Education. There are only two tertiary institutions at Bonda and Honde valley mission.

3.4.1. Stapleford Forest /Allied Timbers Stapleford Forest is south of the Honde valley, 50 km north-east of Mutare, near the village of Penhalonga and forms part of the eastern border of Zimbabwe with Mozambique. It is commercial forestry plantations owned by the Allied Timbers which is a commercial branch of the Forestry Commission of Zimbabwe. The plantation falls within the Mutasa Rural District Council. The Mutasa Communal Land forms the northern and western borders of Stapleford. The highest point of 2,030 m (Mt Rupere) in the west of Stapleford forms a watershed, with the Odzani River flowing south-west and the Nyamahwarara River flowing north-east.

The site includes the three areas of indigenous rainforest and Brachystegia woodland found within Stapleford. There is a fairly large patch of montane rainforest on the south-eastern slope of a steep-sided valley beneath Mt Rupere, next to the John Meikle Forest Research Station. It contains six different forest-types and many interesting species. The area has not been checked from the ground so the exact size and site descriptions are not known. From vegetation maps, the forest and Brachystegia woodland appear to cover an area of 1,400 ha.

On the eastern border is a prominent mountain, Gurungwe, which peaks at 1,885 m and drops steeply to the Nyamahwarara valley at 700 m. The top and eastern slopes of Mt Chinyamariro, to the south of Stapleford, have a well-developed Syzygium forest. Most of this forest belongs to Allied Timbers, a commercial forest estate.

3.4.2. Stakeholders Consulted and Identified Table 6 Mutasa District Stakeholders Consulted

Stakeholder Interests in the contextual analysis Relationship with other

Status (SH) stakeholders (partnership or conflict)

Stakeholder Interests in the contextual analysis Relationship with other

Status (SH) stakeholders (partnership or conflict)

management ZRP Gvt  Criminal and Evn law Enforcing of criminal and Enforcement environment laws in the community Agritrex Gvt  Works with the community Guidance and promotion of in food production and sustainable land use, food NRM for livelihood production and natural activities resources management Forestry Gvt  Promote agro forestry Promote agro forestry Extension forestation and afforestation forestation and afforestation Min of Gvt  Promote awareness in NRM Promote education , Education in the young generation environmental and biodiversity to children and willing to collaborate with others John Ps  Biodiversity conservation Would want to share findings Meikles and tree production research of their research and Research appropriate technology in the Centre production. Honde  land use for agriculture Not established Valley and production Rupinda  wood for domestic villages  animals and birds for meat  medicinal plants  employment Eastern Ps  social and recreational club Not established Angling Society

3.4.3. Gaps, Hindrances and Driving Forces Mutasa KBA gaps, hindrances, and driving forces that were identified and are given below:

Table 7 Mutasa District Gaps, Hindrances and Driving Forces

Gaps Hindrances Driving Forces

 Lack of financial resources to:  The highest  Grazing, logging, o Fence some sections of concentration of increasing poverty, non the park biodiversity in the sustainable resource o Protect cultural sites KBA is in the exploitation leading to outside the park area Stapleford Forest habitat degradation due such as caves and sacred plantation and to pollution and over hills e.g. Mt some sacred exploitation, markets, o Purchase of accessories mountains such as such as binoculars, GPS Bvumba units and tents used  Trespassing of when on patrols or study humans and o Carry out research on domestic livestock bird species in the forest in the forest and also create a bird plantations. inventory  Lack of training on bird conservation.  Lack of reading materials on bird conservation  Lack of human resources in the areas of: o Ecology o Research & Development  Information on bird conservation and the methods for bird conservation  Insufficient or poor knowledge and technologies necessary for sustainable management of biodiversity resources

3.5. Mutare District The Mutare District is also in the Manicaland province. Mutare town lies north of the Vumba Mountains of the eastern block of Zimbabwe in the Manicaland Province. The town is about 8 km from the border with Mozambique, and is just 290 km from the Mozambican port of Beira and 290 km from Harare.

Despite its tropical location, the city has a temperate climate. The average annual temperature is 19 °C, surprisingly low for its moderate altitude (about the same as Harare which is 360 metres higher.) This is due to its sheltered position against the mountain ridge of Cecil Kop which encourages cool breezes from lower altitude to the east and south. The coldest month is July (minimum 6 °C and maximum 20 °C) and the hottest month is October (minimum 16°C and maximum 32 °C). The annual rainfall is 818 mm. Rain falls mostly in the months December to February although heavy showers are possible before and after this period. The wettest month on record was January 1926 which received 580 mm while January 1991 received only 24 mm.

The population is predominantly Shona, the majority of them speaking the Manyika dialect. According to the 2012 preliminary census data, Mutare has a population of 188 243; 88 957 being female and 99 286 males. This marks a rapid increase from a population of 69,621 in 1982 and 131,367 in 1992.

3.5.1. Vumba Forest The Vumba Mountains lie on the Zimbabwe-Mozambique border, approximately 25 km south east of Mutare covering about 3000ha. The Bvumba rise to Castle Beacon at 1911 metres, and are, together with the Chimanimani and Nyanga part of the Eastern Highlands in Zimbabwe bordering Mozambique. Referred to as the "Mountains of the Mist", (Bvumba is the Shona name for "mist".), as so often the early morning starts with a mist but clears by mid morning. Although lying mostly within Zimbabwe, the mountains extend north-east into Mozambique. These cool green hills shelter country hotels, a casino and golf course at the Leopard Rock Hotel and Botanical Garden with one of the best views in Africa. There are other private owned lodges like Seldom Seen where bird watching with local bird guides is among the activities. The mountains are also known for their coffee plantations.

Flora The mountains are dominated by savannah woodland, including Brachystegia / miombo. There are also extensive sub-montane grasslands, local mist-belts with mosses and epiphytic and lithophytic ferns and sub-montane evergreen forest in the deeper ravines.

The higher levels of the mountains are sparsely vegetated, with shrubs such as proteas, aloes and Strelitzia.

In the centre of the mountains lies the Bunga Forest Botanical Reserve and neighbouring Bvumba Botanical Garden. The latter is landscaped around a number of small streams and includes an important cycad collection, with 59 of the 189 known species.

Fauna

Although small in area, the mountains are a botanical paradise and home to some of the rarest butterflies in the region. The Bvumba mountains offer exciting and varied birding opportunities. The area is probably best known as one of the main breeding areas of Swynnerton's Robin, a rare specie which lives and breeds in small patches of forest, some on private land, others within the Bunga forest. Livingstones Turacos, Tauraco livinstonii are present in large numbers though their territorial calls may often be heard long before they are seen - the brilliant crimson wing feathers sometimes visible for miles as they glide from one patch of canopy to another. A smaller number of mammals inhabit the Bvumba, perhaps the most notable of which are the leopard and the samango (blue) monkey, the latter's range being very limited. Savannah woodland adjoining the Mozambique side of the range is home to several rare reptiles including Marshalls Leaf Chameleon, Rhampholeon marshalli Arnolds Skink, Proscelotes arnoldi and frogs.

Archaeology Chinhamapere Hill, on the Mozambique side of the mountains, has been a culturally important site since the Iron Age. There are well-preserved hunter-gatherer rock art paintings (comprising several human figures, some holding bows and arrows and others in trance) thought to be of around 8000 years in age, as well as contemporary ritual sites, used for rainmaking, divining and healing. There are at least 86 Stone Age sites in the Zimbabwean portion of the mountains, some of which also continue to play roles of cultural significance. This site was added to the UNESCO World Heritage Tentative List on August 20, 2008 in the Cultural category. It was proposed by Mozambique. The neighbouring community include Chigodora and Burma Valley communities.

The main activities of the area are citrus farming, mining, agriculture, hospitality and cattle ranching. Two of the largest food producers in Zimbabwe, Cairns Foods and Tanganda Tea, have their headquarters in Mutare. Over the past few years the city has suffered as a result of the collapse of the country's economy.

The main threats of this area are encroachment by alien wattle and pine species and fires.

3.5.2. Stakeholders Consulted and Identified

Table 8 Mutare Stakeholders Consulted and identified

Stakeholder Interests in the contextual analysis Relationship with other stakeholders

Status (SH) (partnership or conflict)

DA Gvt  Represents governments in Coordination role through the all development activities traditional leaders  Overall responsible for traditional Chiefs RDC LGvt  runs community affairs They are people in direct contact of including management the community activities environmental issues EMA Gvt  Regulates, enforcing and Monitoring , enforcing and monitoring Environment educating the communities on proper natural resource management ZRP Gvt  Criminal and Enforcing of criminal and Environmental law environment laws in the Enforcement community Agritex Gvt  Works with the Guidance and promotion of community in food sustainable land use, food production and NRM for production and natural resources livelihood activities management Forestry Gvt  Promote agro forestry Promote agro forestry forestation Extension forestation and and afforestation afforestation Min of Gvt  Promote awareness in Promote education , environmental Education NRM in the young and biodiversity to children and generation willing to collaborate with others Seldom  provide accommodation Good and workable relations that Seen and guided bird viewing promote biodiversity/working well and education with the Parks. Private  Providing accommodation Need to be established lodge and

Stakeholder Interests in the contextual analysis Relationship with other stakeholders

Status (SH) (partnership or conflict)

Hotels Chigodora  Villages Burma  Village Tikkie  Hywood trust The Green  fund National  need to be explored Museums and Monuments

3.5.3. Gaps, Hindrances and Driving Forces

Mutare KBA gaps, hindrances, and driving forces that were identified and are given below:

Table 9 Mutare Gapes, Hindrances and Driving forces

Gaps Hindrances Driving Forces

 Lack of financial resources to:  The highest  Grazing, logging, o Fence some sections of the concentration of increasing poverty, park that have fence broken biodiversity in non sustainable by fires and vandalism the KBA is in resource o Protect cultural sites and the Botanical exploitation wetlands outside the park Garden and leading to habitat o Fully administrate the park Reserve degradation due to as funds from central  Trespassing of pollution and over government and humans and exploitation, conservation fees paid by domestic markets, tourist are not sufficient livestock in the o Purchase of accessories such park area.

Gaps Hindrances Driving Forces

as binoculars, GPS units and tents used when on patrols or study o Carry out research on the birds and other species such as the samango monkey/Blue Monkey in the Vumba Botanical Gardens and Reserve  Lack of training on bird conservation.  Lack of reading materials on bird conservation  Lack of training on bird conservation.  Lack of reading materials on bird conservation  Lack of human resources in the areas of: o Ecology o Bird Specialist o Research & Development  Lack of information on bird conservation and the methods for bird conservation  Insufficient or poor knowledge and technologies necessary for sustainable management of biodiversity resources  Inadequate economic valuation of biodiversity resources. The parks authority has hunting quotas for big mammals and there are price tags for animals like Buffalo, Lion, Elephant and others. There are no price tags for the bird species and other animals hence there is little or no importance placed on these

Gaps Hindrances Driving Forces non priced animals.

3.6. Chimanimani District

Chimanimani District is another mountainous district in the province of Manicaland province of Zimbabwe. The area is distinguished by large peaks, carved from a rifted quartzite block, the highest reaching to 2440 m (8005 ft) and stretching for some 50 km (31 mi), forming the border with Mozambique. Between the village of Chimanimani and the border the ranges are gentler and more rounded. The national park is in the southernmost area of the Eastern Highlands, and is 150 km (93 mi) from the town of Mutare.

Figure 5 Chimanimani Much of the range is composed of quartzite ridges, with Monte Binga at 2436m the highest point in Mozambique, right after the border. Chimanimani is one of Zimbabwe's finest mountain wilderness areas and a very popular hiking destination. Close to the town are the scenic Bridal Veil Falls. There is a National Parks Sanctuary and arboretum near the village.

3.6.1. Chimanimani National Parks Chimanimani parks covers a magnificent Chimanimani Mountains, a massive barrier of ancient and jagged crystalline rock forming the border with Mozambique 17,100ha and the immediate surrounding populations is estimated at 25,000. The villages bordering the park are Chikukwa and Vhimba villages.

The breathtaking beauty and pristine environment of these mountains have always drawn adventurous travellers. At present the park provides only basic facilities, catering for the self-sufficient explorer. Hiking, rock climbing, birding, camping in caves among the sparkling waterfalls and natural swimming pools. This park is for those who want nothing more than to revel in the heart-soothing loveliness of nature. Local tour guides with excellent knowledge of the area’s specialised wild plants and animals offer hiking tours into the national park.

A pleasant walk takes visitors to the lovely Bridal Veil Falls – a favourite picnic spot – and in the hills above Chimanimani village there’s an Eland Sanctuary. The Outward Bound organisation has a facility at the foot of the mountain, and the challenging terrain is occasionally used by other organisations for team-building, super-fitness training and orienteering.

The main threats in Chimanimani community and reserve area is degradation from unsustainable small scale gold mining, alien fish species in Figure 6 River Water Polluted By Illegal Gold Paners the Bundi River, water pollutions from the gold miners and fires, particularly outside the National Park where ZPWMA and RDCs have no mandate to control it.

3.6.2. Stakeholders Consulted and Identified Stakeholders: ZPWMA local office; EMA local office; Chimanimani RDC; Chikukwa and Vhimba villages; Kew Botanic Gardens (UK);

Table 10 Chimanimani Stakeholders Consulted and identified

Stakeholder (SH) Interests in the contextual Relationship with other stakeholders

Status analysis (partnership or conflict)

Stakeholder (SH) Interests in the contextual Relationship with other stakeholders

Status analysis (partnership or conflict)

ZRP Gvt  Criminal and Env law Enforcing of criminal and Enforcement environment laws in the community Agritex Gvt  Works with the Guidance and promotion of community in food sustainable land use, food production and NRM for production and natural livelihood activities resources management Forestry Gvt  Promote agro forestry Promote agro forestry forestation Extension forestation and and afforestation afforestation Min of Gvt  Promote awareness in Promote education , Education NRM in the young environmental and biodiversity generation to children and willing to collaborate with others Outward Pvt  Adventure open in the Introducing people of all walks Bound wilderness school for of life to appreciation of nature team building, leadership courses k learning TSURO NGO  Promotion of small grain and OVP in 188 villages  nursery tree of fruits and indigenous trees  agro forestry plantation  animal impact project- planned grazing/controlled  watershed Area management  rain water harvesting – ground cover, trap water infiltration and increase water table CELUCT  community permaculture Willing to collaborate and works agriculture CBO that well with the RDC promote biodiversity 

Stakeholder (SH) Interests in the contextual Relationship with other stakeholders

Status analysis (partnership or conflict)

Chikukwa  members of CELUCT Willing to collaborate works well Village practising perma culture with other partners. principles Vhimba  need to be explored Village MICAIA  need to be explored Foundation (Mozambique). National  need to be explored Museums and Monuments

3.6.3. Gaps, Hindrances and Driving Forces Chimanimani KBA gaps, hindrances, and driving forces that were identified and are given below:

Table 11 Chimanimani District Gaps, Hindrances and Driving Forces

Gaps Hindrances Driving Forces

 Lack of financial resources to:  The highest  Grazing, logging, o Fence some sections of concentration of increasing poverty, non the park that have biodiversity in sustainable resource broken down by fire the KBA is in the exploitation leading to and vandalism sanctuary and habitat degradation o Protect cultural sites national park. due to pollution and outside the park area Conflicts over over exploitation, such as caves, pools and biodiversity markets, sacred hills in the value may occur Chimanimani Sanctuary between the and the National Park community and o Fully administrate the the park over Chimanimani Sanctuary utilisation of the and Park as funds from biodiversity central government and resources. conservation fees paid  Trespassing of

Gaps Hindrances Driving Forces

by tourist are not humans and sufficient domestic o Purchase of accessories livestock in the such as binoculars, GPS park area. units and tents used when on patrols or study. Equipment such as binoculars are obsolete and irreparable o Carry out research on the Blue Swallow which had been initiated.  Lack of training on bird conservation.  Lack of reading materials on bird conservation  Lack of human resources in the areas of: o Ecology o Bird Specialist o Research & Development  Information on bird conservation and the methods for bird conservation  Insufficient or poor knowledge and technologies necessary for sustainable management of biodiversity resources  Inadequate economic valuation of biodiversity resources. The parks authority has hunting quotas for big mammals and there are price tags for animals like Buffalo, Lion, Elephant and others. There are no price tags for the bird species and other animals hence there is little or no importance placed on these non priced animals.

3.7. Chipinge District The district is located in Manicaland Province, in south eastern Zimbabwe, close to the International border with Mozambique. Its main town, Chipinge, with an estimated population of 18,860 in 2012 is located about 170 kilometres by road, south of Mutare, the nearest large city and the location of the provincial headquarters with a Latitude of 20.2000 and Longitude of 32.6000.

The average annual rainfall in Chipinge is about 1,105 millimetres (43.5 in). The hot climate and high rainfall are well suited to agriculture. The local farmers grow tea in the Tanganda, coffee, bananas and macadamia nuts. The surrounding mountain slopes are covered with pine and acacia plantations. Dairy farming in Southdowns is also the main farming activity in the area which has prompted the establishment Figure 7 Craft Products from Natural Resources of cheese and other dairy products processing factories in the town. Some people also do some crafts using natural resources like baobab trees for mats, mukamba tree for wood carvings and drums and baskets.

One of Zimbabwe's most famous landmarks, the Birchenough Bridge is located on the Save River about 62 kilometres from Chipinge.

3.7.1. Chirinda Forest Chirinda Forest is a state forest in the southernmost tropical rainforest in Africa, covering the two rounded hilltops of Mount Selinda. Chirinda is administered by the Forestry Commission. It is situated 30 km south of Chipinge town, and is easily accessible along a tar road. It is one of the best researched forests in Zimbabwe, with scientific collections of flora and fauna being made as early as 1900. Figure 8Chirinda Forest

Mount Selinda rises to 1,200 m altitude from the surrounding plateau and Mozambican coastal plain. Being the only high ground from there to the Indian Ocean 200 km away to the east, it is frequently covered in cloud and mist and receives about 1,400 mm of orographic rain per year. The mists are important as the extra moisture, often occurring in the dry season, permits forest species to survive in an area which would otherwise be too dry for them. Chirinda Forest covers 950 ha, of which 606 ha is moist forest and the remainder bush land or woodland. The forest covers the south and south-eastern slopes that receive the moisture, being replaced by dense woodland on the drier northern slopes.

Chirinda is classified as a mid-altitude or sub montane forest and is a representative of a type that was previously widespread throughout the Eastern Highlands. It is an island surrounded by a sea of agricultural land. The forest has a well-developed structure, with the canopy reaching 40–55 m high. The woody species represent largely a mixture of elements from Afromontane and East African coastal forests, with some West African and Congo forest affinities.

Chirinda contains a giant specimen of Khaya anthotheca (VU), known as the Big Tree, measuring 54 m high and 5.25 m circumference around the base. The Big Tree is considered to be not less than 1,000 years old and is a National Monument. As with the birds, Chirinda is important in the distribution of forest reptiles and amphibians because it is intermediate between high and low altitudes.

The main threats in this area are from poaching of animal and firewood from locals and nationals bordering Mozambique where there are no very strict laws restricting poaching. Veld fires and increasing land distribution by traditional leaders is causing encroachment near the forest protected area.

The main constrain of the forestry staff was said to be financial resources for awareness activities and relation building with the local communities.

3.7.2. Stakeholders Consulted and Identified

Table 12 Chipinge Stakeholders Consulted and identified

Stakeholder Interests in the contextual Relationship with other stakeholders

Status (SH) analysis (partnership or conflict)

DA Gvt  Represents governments Coordination role through the in all development traditional leaders activities  Overall responsible for traditional Chiefs RDC Gvt  runs community affairs They are people in direct including management contact of the community environmental issues activities EMA Gvt  Regulates, enforcing Monitoring , enforcing and and monitoring Env educating the communities on proper natural resource management ZRP Gvt  Criminal and Env law Enforcing of criminal and Enforcement environment laws in the community Agritex Gvt  Works with the Guidance and promotion of community in food sustainable land use, food production and NRM production and natural for livelihood activities resources management Forestry Gvt  Promote agro forestry Promote agro forestry Extension forestation and forestation and afforestation afforestation Min of Gvt  Promote awareness in Promote education , Education NRM in the young environmental and biodiversity generation to children and willing to collaborate with others Mt. Selinda Church  need to be explored Mission- Hosiptal and

Stakeholder Interests in the contextual Relationship with other stakeholders

Status (SH) analysis (partnership or conflict)

school Chirinda  need to be explored Village Mapungwana  need to be explored Village Chako  need to be explored Village. Gwenzi  need to be explored Villages Chimana  need to be explored Village Vheremu  need to be explored Village Dimire  need to be explored villages

3.7.3. Gaps, Hindrances and Driving Forces Chipinge KBA gaps, hindrances, and driving forces that were identified and are given below:

Table 13 Chipinge Gaps, Hindrances and Driving Forces

Gaps Hindrances Driving Forces

 Lack of financial resources  The highest  Grazing, logging, to: concentration of increasing poverty, o Fence some sections biodiversity in the non sustainable of the park KBA is the resource exploitation o Protect cultural sites Chirinda Forest. leading to habitat outside the park area Conflicts over degradation due to such as caves and biodiversity value pollution and over sacred hills may occur exploitation, markets, o Fully administrate the between the park as funds from community and central government the park over and conservation fees utilisation of the

Gaps Hindrances Driving Forces

paid by tourist are not biodiversity sufficient resources and o Purchase of accessories traditional such as binoculars, GPS cultural sites units and tents used within the forest. when on patrols or  Trespassing of study  Lack of training on bird humans and conservation. domestic  Lack of reading materials on livestock in the bird conservation park area.  Lack of human resources in the areas of: o Ecology o Bird Specialist o Research & Development  Information on bird conservation and the methods for bird conservation  Insufficient or poor knowledge and technologies necessary for sustainable management of biodiversity resources  Inadequate economic valuation of biodiversity resources. The parks authority has hunting quotas for big mammals and there are price tags for animals like Buffalo, Lion, Elephant and others. There are no price tags for the bird species and other animals hence there is little or no importance placed on these non priced animals.

4.0 Local Area Livelihoods and Indigenous Knowledge Systems on Biodiversity Conservation

4.1. Local Area Livelihood Systems Livelihoods, environmental crisis and the social crisis are all closely linked. Livelihood in rural communities are heavily dependent on agricultural. Sustainable ecosystems that serve as the foundation for agriculture for food security should provide the resources that ensure sustainability. It is important to move towards restoration of natural ecosystems, agro forestry, agriculture and rural energy mobilizing in particular carbon offset mechanisms and all stakeholders from communities themselves, the private sector and civil society organizations.

There are some negative aspects emanating from the livelihood activities in all the areas of Eastern Highlands. Agriculture practices are leading to deforestation and encroachment on protected areas. Mining especially from small scale miners is directly linked to serious land degradation and water pollution. Timber plantation from small holder farmers and the new farmers is not sustainable since it is being carried unprocedurally and without control. On the other hand tourism promotes the safe guarding of the environment. Crafts that are being produced using natural resources have some on the baobab trees and ilala if not harvested sustainable. However, the community interviewed thinks they are being harvested sustainably.

4.2. Local Indigenous Knowledge systems The increasing attention indigenous knowledge is receiving by academia and the development institutions have not yet led to a unanimous perception of the concept of indigenous knowledge. None of the definitions is essentially contradictory; they overlap in many aspects. Warren (1991) and Flavier (1995) present typical definitions by suggesting:

Indigenous knowledge (IK) is the local knowledge, knowledge that is unique to a given culture or society. IK contrasts with the international knowledge system generated by universities, research institutions and private firms. It is the basis for local-level decision making in agriculture, health care, food preparation, education, natural-resource management, and a host of other activities in rural communities. (Warren 1991)

Indigenous Knowledge is one of the information bases for a society, which facilitates communication and decision-making. Indigenous information systems are dynamic,

and are continually influenced by internal creativity and experimentation as well as by contact with external systems. (Flavier et al. 1995: 479). In all the five areas visited there were some IKS that have been passed on through oral tradition. In some case the traditional knowledge was similar. For example the Fish eagle and the Stock birds are considered sacred bird to all the 5 KBAs.

Why is Indigenous Knowledge Important? In the emerging global knowledge economy a country’s ability to build and mobilize knowledge capital, is equally essential for sustainable development as the availability of physical and financial capital. (World Bank, 1997) The basic component of any country’s knowledge system is its indigenous knowledge. It encompasses the skills, experiences and insights of people, applied to maintain biodiversity and or improve their livelihood. Recently people have realized that significant contributions to global knowledge have originated from indigenous people, for instance in medicine and veterinary medicine with their intimate understanding of their environments. Indigenous knowledge is developed and adapted continuously to gradually changing environments and passed down from generation to generation and closely interwoven with people’s cultural values. Indigenous knowledge is also the social capital of the poor, their main asset to invest in the struggle for survival, to produce food, to provide for shelter or to achieve control of their own lives.

Today, many indigenous knowledge systems are at risk of becoming extinct because of rapidly changing natural environments and fast pacing economic, political, and cultural changes on a global scale and lack reference materials. Practices vanish, as they become inappropriate for new challenges or because they adapt too slowly if not recorded and documented. However, many practices in the Eastern Highlands are disappearing not only because of the intrusion of foreign technologies or development concepts that promise short-term gains or solutions to problems without being capable of sustaining them but because they are not documented. The tragedy of the impending disappearance of indigenous knowledge is most obvious to those who have developed it and make a living through it. But the implication for others can be detrimental as well, when skills, technologies, artifacts, problem solving strategies and expertise are lost.

There are sacred sites in the Eastern Highlands region that are under the custody of chiefs and spirit mediums. It was clear that there are some IKS and beliefs that are in the communities. For Example in the Nyanga Mountains, the disappearance of the Masaya children and other are associated with the IKS and mysteries of the mountains. For example in Chipinge the Chirinda Forest is believed by the local Chiefs that it is a sacred place. They believed there are spiritual lions in the forest. Although the foresters

at the office confirmed that they have seen some lions, they do not know if they are spirituals. The local elders also believe that there is a pool at the centre of the forest. One ranger argued that he had gone where they said is the pool but did not see it. Every year in Chirinda, the local Chief and elders go in the forest to do their rituals and ceremonies to their ancestors and Musikavanhu (God).

All the 5 KBA have some important sites that include hills, mountains springs, wetlands, open forests, rivers, and trees. These places or sites have long standing protection activities around them and as such these places may be exploited for the bird conservation project but with strict involvement and consultation with the keepers of these sites. The community structures already in existence need to be explored by BirdLife Zimbabwe and understand how they function and see if they are opportunities to take up in the conservation project. In Nyanga in most of the rivers are believed to have mermaids at some sites and in some rivers people are not allowed to do laundry or bath with soap or to draw water using metal tins or plastic containers used to store fuel.

Other stories of IKS that we gathered during this study:

Table 14 Stories of Indigenous Knowledge Systems

Aspect Norms and Values Narrative

Birds Totems  The Fish Eagle (Hungwe) is rarely seen, Bearers or foretellers of omen when seen it heralds something important is about to happen. One should not point a finger to it  Honeybirds directs people to beehives and also signals the start of rains  Heron makes sounds to signal the entrance of any intruder to a water body  Riti/Dendera signals rains Animals Totems  Baboon, Hippo, Lion, Elephants, Zebra and others.  Pangolin is sacred when seen it should be handed over to the chief of that area.  When bitten by a chameleon the wound would not heal so people avoid the chameleon and hence it gets protection as a vulnerable animal

Aspect Norms and Values Narrative

Plants Muzhanje and all wild fruit Muzhanje and other wild fruit trees are not trees supposed to be cut unnecessarily or used as fire wood. Sites Ziwa Ruins  Mt Nyangani is sacred one is not Cemeteries allowed to point a finger towards it Nyangani Mts  Dambos used for burial for newly born Dambos babies Gullivers (Claremont Estate)  Gullivers kopje has abundant wildlife River Pools Birds Fish Eagle  Sacred Go Away Bird  Security Hurekure  Security Animals Pangolin Should be taken to the chief when seen or Python found Plants Herbarium Mukamba Muonde Sites Mountains Some mountains have caves where chiefs are buried Birds Owls Associated with witchcraft and pest control Cuckoo Associated with rain Ground Hornbills and Riti Animals Pangolin  It is not allowed to kill and if you see it you take it to the chief.

Plants  Medicinal herbs  Ndima Forest Sites  Nyakwa village  Near Chimombe homestead in the sanctuary  Not pointing fingers at hills  Confluence of Rusitu River and Haroni River is a sacred forest with abundant biodiversity  Saurombe  Madzimambo area does not burn  Cashel Valley- Mbuya Mazhuwa/Sabhuku Manyika

Aspect Norms and Values Narrative

Birds Owls These birds are signals of bad omen Bats Haya, rainbird that should not be killed Haya Animals Baboons Snakes should not be killed Snakes Porcupine to be given to the chief Porcupine Baboons are sacred Lions Royal lions in Chirinda Forest Plants Big Trees Traditional rites under such trees

Sites Valley of Giants People are not allowed in the valley nor to Sacred Springs touch anything and traditional leaders to be Mt Selinda Forest consulted when getting into the valley Mermaid Pools A forest in Musikavanhu Burial sites for Chiefs

4.3. Knowledge Belief and Attitudes on Biodiversity This study has already pointed out that there is a close interdependence in the relationship between people, livelihood activities and agricultural biodiversity. Thus, the potentialities of agricultural biodiversity in any one agro-ecosystem are determined by a matrix of ‘human’ factors and knowledge, beliefs and feedback systems in addition to the underlying natural conditions.

This study managed to give a short test on Knowledge, beliefs and attitudes of some of the stakeholders and two school children (primary and secondary) that were interviewed.

Generally the stakeholders understood what biodiversity meant and nearly all the stakeholders interviewed had one or more biodiversity conservation activities that they are doing and were uncoordinated. There are no programs specifically meant for bird conservation. The conservation activities are mainly forest preservation, soil conservation and animals. Lack of ecological knowledge and resources were said to be the limiting factors.

The results from adult respondents on knowledge awareness and practices on biodiversity are overwhelmingly indicative that people are knowledgably and aware of biodiversity practices.

The results of the primary school indicated that the primary school pupils general have knowledge and are aware of biodiversity practices. Although the responses to the question No. 15, 16, and 20 would indicate that there are certain practices that they might not be very well vested with. This could be because the school is in an urban setting.

The responses by Risitu High School pupils are indicative of a broader knowledge and awareness of biodiversity practices. However, responses to questing 15 would be an indication that traditional ways of biodiversity conservation need to be promoted. These children come from different areas since they are boarders. The response to question No. 20 also indicates that there is need for further awareness initiative for communities to support their livelihoods without compromising biodiversity.

It was clear that 37 stakeholders interview were doing something in biodiversity conservation but lacked institutional coordination.

Table 15 Questions and Responses

Question Response Part III. 1. What biodiversity conservation  Control of invasive exotic trees activities are taking place in your area?  Agroforestry  Fire Prevention  Tree nurseries  Chemical disposal procedures  Rotten fruit dumps for wildlife  Snare removal  Conservation areas eg Claremont Estate  Anti poaching  Global Gap Compliance certification  Soil Conservation  Bird Sanctuaries  Animal Protection in the Park area  Trout farming  Fire awareness campaigns in community and schools  Wetlands rehabilitation and

protection  Weir construction  Water harvesting Part III. 2. Who coordinates and organises the  EMA activities?  Forestry Commission  National Parks  RDCs  NGOs  Parastatals  Traditional Leaders  Agritex  Education sector  DAs  Farmers  SHE Officers Part III. 3. Birds are part of biodiversity; what  National Parks conservation activities or programmes for bird  Ward 27 – Councillor Chitere conservation are being undertaken in your  Protection of migratory birds at area? Claremont  Stopping use of harmful pesticides e.g. Methylbromide, Paraquat (Purple Labels)  Birds taking advantage of water troughs on farms  Monitoring the Blue Swallow  Wetland protection  Dam construction Part III. 4. Who is coordinating and organising  Government Departments these bird conservation activities in your area  RDC if they are any?  Communities  EMA  Parks  Forestry  Farm security  SHE Department  BirdLife Zimbabwe

4.4 Capacity Building Needs All the stakeholders consulted that include National parks, Forestry, EMA, AGRITEX, Education etc. are doing something in biodiversity , the only constraint of desired activities is lack of financial resources, IKS, ecological and methodologies of bird conservation knowledge and skills to implement what they would want to do. The National Parks especially Nyanga has a 10 year Park strategic Management Plan that they produced with other stakeholders in the Districts; Set of the objectives of the Park Plan include among other things:  Objective 1 Management oriented monitoring and research of Principal Ecosystem Components (PECs) and Key Ecological Attributes (KEAs) carried out.  Objective 2: Strategic adaptive management systems for the long-term conservation of Nyanga National Park Ecosystem and Biodiversity developed and fully implemented.  Objective 3 Spread of Invasive-alien species reduced and afro-montane habitat conserved  Objective 4 Hydrological systems and biodiversity of Nyanga National Park conserved and monitored  Objective 5 Anthropogenic impacts on Nyanga National Park Ecosystems mitigated and managed. Of interest is the Action of Section D. Tourism Management Programme, Objective 4 (Appendix 7.9. B. that specified: Private, Public, Community Partnerships Promoted. The Nyanga National Parks want to develop a formal and structured Private Public Community Partnership and train to increase their appreciation and understanding of the opportunities and constraints in the biodiversity business ventures. This is clear that some stakeholders have plans and well laid out activities that can be done but the main challenge is resources to implement. This is an opportunity for BLZ to take up the planned activities and enhance activities that are already on the ground.

In the Nyanga National Park 10 Year Development Plan they have identified some species namely the Blue Swallow and the Blue Duiker that need to be studied and this presents an opportunity for BirdLife Zimbabwe to partner Parks in this study. The Park has some resource challenge which with cooperation and collaboration with other interested parties may be made possible.

The Forestry Extension Officer in Nyanga District has been doing some competitions with Better Schools Programme on environments and beautifying schools with

ornamental plants and trees. One school that is in Makoni District, Cheneka School was known to be the best in bird conservation activities. Initially the school bird conservation activities were initiated and supported by BLZ were binoculars were distributed and training of school children in bird conservation done. The activities have since declined due to lack of structured activities by BLZ. In Chipinge the Education Ministry DEO noted some competitions happening at his former school, Mt. Selinda on birds and other species. It is clearly evident that schools in the KBAs can become information and activity centres for the biodiversity capacity building project through the basic Environmental Science Teaching (BEST). Institutions of higher learning such as teachers colleges, polytechnic and universities can also be instrumental in research and development of biodiversity conservation technologies and methodologies.

In general the capacity needs that come up from the interview were expectation for BLZ as follows: BirdLife Zimbabwe  Workshops/training programmes on Environmental education- anti poaching, values of biodiversity, ecological aspects and bird species inventory at District and village levels.  Participatory mapping of bird habitats  Awareness programmes  Promotional –Flyers, brochures, posters etc  Engaging Communities  Provision of binoculars  Providing bird baths and shelter  IKS documentation and publications  Exchange visits to other areas in the Eastern Highlands (Sister KBAs)  Initiating and supporting site support groups  Literature on biodiversity for schools and villages  Documentation of IKS in all the KBA  Financial Support  Promoting biodiversity cultural activities  Providing binoculars

5. Conclusions and Recommendations

Generally all the people interviewed in the 5 KBAs namely Nyanga, Stapleford Forest, Vumba, Chimanimani and Chirinda welcomed the BLZ idea of stakeholder/ community based biodiversity conservation and management. They agreed on the need for collaborated community efforts in biodiversity conservation. The Eastern Highlands of Zimbabwe are rich natural and cultural heritage of biodiversity conservation.

The people still have some traditional beliefs which they still follow as evidenced by the presence of so many sacred sites. These sites have become haven for biodiversity species both flora and fauna. The Zimbabwe Parks and Wild Management Agent (ZPWMA) and other governmental agencies such as EMA, Forestry Commission, ZINWA and schools are more than ready to take up initiatives by BirdLife Zimbabwe in biodiversity conservation especially birds as most people felt that it was a fairly neglected concept which is specifically for birds.

Social and biodiversity synergy of local rules, regulations, law making, conservancies, livelihoods, and biodiversity conservation can be effective pathways to achieve social and ecological benefits of the Eastern Highlands. The reality on the ground with the traditional leaders’ roles and responsibilities, other government departments like the EMA, Police, RDC and Agritex roles and responsibilities seem not to synchronized well. They seem not to have harmony especially on the issue of natural resources use, culture and biodiversity management. There is need for a review on Traditional Leaders Act in order to be synchronised with other legislations.

There is oral Indigenous knowledge (IK) being passed on from one generation to the other in the Eastern Highlands. This IK is not yet being fully utilized in the development and biodiversity management process. Stakeholders, environmentalists and ecologists in their campaigns against wild fires, environmental degradation, poaching, pollution of water resources and overfishing which prominent in the area, should use IK as basis for understanding and appreciating new strategies on biodiversity management. Conventional approaches imply that development processes always require technology transfers from locations that are perceived as more advanced. This has led often to overlooking the potential in local experiences and practices. Indigenous knowledge can be relevant on three levels for the development process.  It is, obviously, most important for the local community in which the bearers of such knowledge live and produce.  Development agents (CBOs, NGOs, governments, donors, local leaders, and private sector initiatives) need to recognize it, value it and appreciate it in

their interaction with the local communities. Before incorporating it in their approaches, they need to understand it – and critically validate it against the usefulness for their intended objectives.  Lastly, indigenous knowledge forms part of the global knowledge. In this context, it has a value and relevance in itself. Indigenous knowledge can be preserved, transferred, or adopted and adapted elsewhere.

The development process interacts with indigenous knowledge. When designing or implementing development programs or projects, three scenarios can be observed:  relies entirely or substantially on indigenous knowledge,  overrides indigenous knowledge or,  Incorporates indigenous knowledge. Planners and implementers need to decide which path to follow. Rational conclusions are based on determining whether indigenous knowledge would contribute to solve existing problems and achieving the intended objectives. In most cases, a careful amalgamation of indigenous and foreign knowledge would be most promising, leaving the choice, the rate and the degree of adoption and adaptation to the communities. Foreign knowledge does not necessarily mean modern technology, it includes also indigenous practices developed and applied under similar conditions elsewhere. These techniques are then likely to be adopted faster and applied more successfully. To foster such a transfer a sound understanding of indigenous knowledge is needed. This requires means for the capture and validation, as well as for the eventual exchange, transfer and dissemination of indigenous knowledge. This can be done using community publication methods.

Indigenous knowledge on biodiversity issues needs to be incorporated in to the school’s curriculum of Zimbabwe. Currently there is absence or little IK on in the education system of Zimbabwe.

The fire awareness campaigns that were conducted by the District teams in all the KBAs are important and there is need for more information on the value of fauna and flora, ecological and bird habitats education that could benefit the life of birds in the communities.

The capacity to manage agricultural biodiversity also varies considerably within communities and depends on the ethnic group, social status, gender relations and age of the farmer. Different social groups of farmers within a community may use different varieties of the same crop, each adapted to optimise performance under his or her respective resource constraints. In Zimbabwe, the new farmers who lack resources to prepare their land early in the season use a higher proportion of early maturing

varieties than experienced farmers. It is therefore recommended that agriculture biodiversity management and alternative energy should be part of this capacity building project to contribute to food security and reduce dependence on the forests and reserve products for food.

6. References

BirdLife International (2013) Important Bird Areas factsheet: Stapleford Forest. Downloaded from http://www.birdlife.org on 14/07/2013 Chenje, M;Sola, L and Paleczny, D. (19981) The state of Zimbabwe’s Harare: Ministry Of Mines, Environment And Tourism. Chikunda, J. (2007) Zimbabwe’s better Environmental Science Teaching Programme: A Step Towards Education For Sustainable Development. Davis, S. (1994) Information Knowledge and power. IDS bulletine Elizabeth Cromwell (1999) Agriculture, Biodiversity and Livelihoods: Issues and Entry Points Final Report, Overseas Development Institute Elizabeth Cromwell. (2009)Agriculture, Biodiversity And Livelihoods: Issues And Entry Points, Overseas Development Institute Irwin (1979), Muller (1994), Mundy et al. (1984). Warren, D.M. (1991) Using Indigenous Knowledge in Africa and Diaspora Communities, Harare University of Zimbabwe World Agroforestry Centre. - See more at: http://blog.worldagroforestry.org/index. ZimStats : Preliminary Report 2012 Population Census