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ETHNICITY AND FOREST RESOURCE USE AND MANAGEMENT

IN CAMBODIA

BACKGROUND

The Community Forestry Working Group established a typological framework to examine the inter-related issues of ecology, tenure, and ethnicity in relation to forest resource perspectives, use and management by rural communities in Cambodia. The typology will serve as a base of knowledge and documentation and as a conceptual framework for understanding community resource use. This will be useful for defining appropriate objectives, strategies, and methodologies to support community forestry development interventions. Specifically, understanding and describing the three underlying typological topics (tenure, ethnicity, ecology) will be helpful for:

Establishing a framework for better identification and understanding of existing community forestry activities in Cambodia;

A possible identification of appropriate places or regions where community forestry would be relevant and useful for sustainable forest management and for improvement of people's livelihoods;

A useful instrument to design programs in a given region with community involvement.

INTRODUCTION

The population of Cambodia was estimated to be 11,437,656 in 1998. This population consists of different ethnic groups, including Khmer, Cham, Vietnamese, Chinese and hill tribes. Ethnic groups in Cambodian society possess a number of economic and demographic commonalties. For example, minority ethnic villages are more common among the poorest than among the richest quintile of villages (5.3 percent versus 3.2 percent) ( Ministry of Planning, 1999) . While commonalties exist, ethnic groups in Cambodia also preserve differences in their social and cultural institutions. The major differences among the various ethnic groups lie in historical, social organization, language, custom, habitant, belief and religion. (Ministry of Commerce, 1998) .

With an annual growth rate of 2.49 percent, Cambodia's population is increasing rapidly. A large majority of the population lives in rural areas and depends on natural resources, especially forest resources, for daily livelihood subsistence needs (Census 1998) . This paper explores information available regarding the relationship between the different ethnic groups in Cambodia and their forest resource dependency, use and management.

1. DEFINITIONS

1.1 Ethnicity

Ethnicity refers to a shared culture that has a range of distinctive behavioral and possibly linguistic features, which are passed on through socialization from one generation to another (David Crystal, 1993).

1.2 Ethnic Groups

An ethnic group is a group of people with characteristics in common that distinguish them from most other people of the same society. Members of one ethnic group may have ties of ancestry, culture, language, nationalities, or religion, combination of these characteristics. Most ethnic groups are minority groups with at least some values or institutions that differ from those of the larger society. Since ancient time, ethnic groups have resulted from migration, war, slavery, changed political boundaries, and other major movements of people. In some countries, the ethnic identification of a person may affect both social standing and access to power. Ethnic groups provide their members with a sense of belonging. They can bring variety and richness to a society by introducing their own ideas and ways of life. Some members of ethnic groups prefer to live with Page 2 of 11

members of the same group. But ethnic groups that cling to their old value and customs can also threaten national unity. In many parts of the world, neighboring ethnic groups dislike and distrust one another (Thomas F. Pettigrew, 1993).

2. ETHNIC GROUPS IN CAMBODIA

2.1 Khmer

The Khmer are the largest ethnic group in Cambodia, constituting more then 90 percent of the population (Ministry of Commerce, 1998) . The Khmer live throughout Cambodia, settled in fairly permanent villages near the major bodies of water in the Tonle Sap Basin-Mekong lowlands region (see Appendix A: Population and Distribution of Ethnic Groups in Cambodia ). Khmer villages, especially in central and southeastern Cambodia, usually include other ethnic groups or representatives of ethnic groups, typically including sizable Chinese communities (Ministry of Commerce, 1998).

The Khmer have several common ties of ancestry, culture, language, and religion. For example, most Cambodians are Theravada Buddhists and have long experience in wet-rice cultivation, animal rising, handicraft and fishing (Hanoi, 1993) . Ethnic Khmer speak several dialects of Khmer. Native Khmer words may be composed of one or two syllables. Khmer is uninflected, but it has a rich system of affixes, including infixes, for derivation. Generally speaking, Khmer has nouns, verbs, adverbs, and various kinds of words called particles. The normal word order is subject-verb-object. Khmer uses Sanskrit and Pali roots much as English and other West European languages use Latin and Greek roots to derive new, especially scientific, words. Khmer has also borrowed terms - especially financial, commercial, and cooking terms - from Chinese, French, and English as well. These latter borrowings have been in the realm of material culture, especially the names for items of modem Western technology. The language has symbols for thirty-three consonants, twenty-four dependent vowels, twelve independent vowels, and several diacritics (Ministry of Commerce, 1998) .

The all-pervasive guiding principle for Khmer social life is the notion of hierarchy. All social relations are hierarchically ordered. The hierarchy is primarily expressed in term of age. An "elder" is a person who authority through his/ she higher social status. The principles of status hierarchy and the social order are particularly manifest in the cultural ideas about gender relation. In general, men are regarded as superior to women. Even though both men and women are expected to show the degree of reserve and modesty which their status position entails, the behavioral demands are generally much stricter for women than men, and in particular fore younger women. Women demonstrate their high statue through proper behavior. This includes both proper comportment and correct action (Jan Ovesen, 1996).

2.2 Hill Tribe or Khmer Loeu

The Khmer Loeu is the "highlander" or "hill tribe" in Cambodia. The Khmer Loeu is found mainly in the northeastern provinces of Ratanakiri, Stung Treng, Mondulkiri and Kratie (see Appendix A: Population and Distribution of Ethnic Groups in Cambodia ). Most Khmer Loeu live in scattered temporary villages that have only a few hundred inhabitants. These villages usually are governed by a council of local elders or by a village headman. The Khmer Loeu cultivates a wide variety of plants, but the main crop is dry or upland rice grown by the slash-and-burn method and abandoned when the cultivated land in the vicinity is exhausted. Hunting, fishing, and gathering supplement the cultivated vegetable foods in the Khmer Loeu diet. Houses vary from huge multi-family longhouses to small single-family structures. They may be built close to the ground or on stilts. The major Khmer Loeu groups in Cambodia are the Kuy, Phnong, Stieng, Brao, Por, Jarai, and Rade (Ministry of Commerce, 1998). All but the last two speak Mon-Khmer languages. The Jarai and the Rade speak a Malayo-Polynesian language (Jefferson Fox,1997) . In the late 1980s, about 160,000 Kuy lived in the northern Cambodian provinces of Kampong Thurn, Preah Vihear, and Stung Treng as well as in adjacent Thailand (Ministry of Commerce, 1998).

2.3 Cham

The Cham people in Cambodia descended from refugees of the kingdom of Champa, which once ruled much of Vietnam between Gao Ha in the north and Bien Hoa in the south. Ethnically and linguistically the Cham are Malayo-Polynesian (The City Magazine, 1999) . Over the centuries, the Cham have intermarried with Malaysian Muslims who had migrated to Cambodia, and generally speaking the Malay and the Cham have now merged in to single group. They have managed to retain their ancestral language, mainly as an oral tradition, but Bahasa Malay is spoken between them. The Arabic alphabet, learned in Koran schools, is used in writing and for religious occasions (The City Magazine, 1999) . See Appendix A: Population and Distribution of Ethnic Groups Page 3 of 11

in Cambodia for information regarding population size and distribution in Cambodia.

Since Islam is so widespread among Cham, local tradition and lore are used alongside Koran (The City Magazine, 1999) . The Cambodian Chams are divided into two groups, the orthodox and the traditional, based on their religious practices. The orthodox group, which makes up about one-third of the total number of Chams in the country, were located mainly in the Phnom Penh - Oudong area and in the provinces of Takeo and Kampot. The traditional Chams were scattered throughout the midsection of the country in the provinces of Battambang, Kompong Thom, Kornpong Cham, Kompong Chhnang and Pursat (see Appendix A: Population and Distribution of Ethnic Groups in Cambodia ). The Chams of both groups typically live in villages inhabited only by other Chams; the villages may be along the shores of watercourses, or they may be inland. The inhabitants of the river villages engage in fishing and in growing vegetables. They trade fish to local Khmer for rice. The women in these villages earn money by weaving. The Chams who live inland support themselves by various means, depending on the villages. Some villages specialize in metalworking; others raise fruit trees or vegetables. The Chams also often serve as butchers of cattle for their Khmer Buddhist neighbors and are, in some areas, regarded as skillful water buffalo and ram breeders (Ministry of Commerce, 1998) .

2.4 Chinese

The Chinese in Cambodia form the country's largest ethnic minority. Sixty percent of the Chinese are urban dwellers engaged mainly in commerce; the other 40 percent are rural residents working as shopkeepers, as buyers and processors of rice, palm sugar, fruit, and fish, and as moneylenders (see Appendix A: Population and Distribution of Ethnic Groups in Cambodia for more details regarding population size and distribution). It is estimated that 90 percent of the Chinese in Cambodia are involved in commerce. In rural areas, the Chinese are moneylenders; as such, they wield considerable economic power over the ethnic Khmer peasants through usury. The Chinese in Cambodia represent five major linguistic groups, the largest of which is the Teochiu (accounting for about 60 percent), followed by the Cantonese (accounting for about 20 percent), the Hokkien (accounting for about 7 percent), and the Hakka and the Hainanese (each accounting for about 6.5 percent). Those belonging to certain Chinese linguistic groups in Cambodia tend to gravitate to certain occupations. The Teochiu, who make up about 90 percent of the rural Chinese population, run village stores, control rural credit and rice-marketing facilities, and grow vegetables. In urban areas they are often engaged in such enterprises as the import-export business, the sale of pharmaceuticals, and street peddling. The Cantonese, who are the majority Chinese group before the Teochiu migrations began in the late 1930s, live mainly in the city. Typically, the Cantonese engage in transportation and in construction, for the most part as mechanics or carpenters. The Hokkien community is involved in import-export and in banking, and it includes some of the country's richest Chinese. The Hainanese started out as pepper growers in Kampot Province, where they continue to dominate that business. Many moved to Phnom Penh, where, in the late 1960s, they reportedly had a virtual monopoly on the hotel and restaurant business. They also often operate tailor shops. In Phnom Penh, the newly arrived Hakka are typically folk dentists, sellers of traditional Chinese medicines, and shoemakers (Ministry of Commerce, 1998) .

2.5 Vietnamese

Vietnamese communities are scattered throughout southeastern and central Cambodia. They are concentrated in Phnom Penh, and in Kandal, Prey Veng, and Kompong Cham Kompong Chhnang provinces (see Appendix A: Population and Distribution of Ethnic Groups in Cambodia for more details). No close cultural or religious ties exist between Cambodia and Vietnam. The Vietnamese fall within the Chinese culture sphere, rather than within the Indian, where the Thai and the Khmer belong. The Vietnamese differ from the Khmer in mode of dress, in kinship organization, and in many other ways. For example the Vietnamese are Mahayana Buddhists while most of the Cambodians are Theravada Buddhists. Although Vietnamese live in urban centers such as Phnom Penh, a substantial number live along the lower Mekong and Bassac rivers as well as on the shores of the Tone Sap, where they engage in fishing (Ministry of Commerce, 1998) . Ethnic Vietnamese speak Vietnamese. Some speak Khmer also.

4. RELIGION OR BELIEFS

4.1 Khmer

Theravada Buddhism is the religion of virtually all ethnic Khmer. Buddhism originated in what are now north India and Nepal during the sixth century. Theravada Buddhism is a tolerant, non-prescriptive religion that does not require belief in a supreme being. Its precepts require that each individual take full responsibility for his own actions and omissions. Buddhism is based on three concepts: dharma (the doctrine of the Buddha, his guide to right action and belief); karma (the belief that one's life now and in future lives depends upon one's own deeds Page 4 of 11

and misdeeds and that as an individual one is responsible for, and rewarded on the basis of, the sum total of one's acts and omissions in all one's incarnations past and present); and sangha, the ascetic. Buddhism has been given official sanction as the State religion, with the Government actively promoting Buddhist ceremonies (Ministry of Commerce, 1998).

4.2 Hill Tribes

With the exception of Buddhism practiced by the Lao ethnic minorities, animist beliefs are widespread amongst the ethnic minority groups. As has been written regarding two highlander groups, the Kreung and Kavet, "the lives of all the people in both communities are heavily influenced by their Animist beliefs and related traditions. While the Kreung [..] and the Kavet [..] have somewhat different Animist practices, it is clear that the animist traditions of both villages influence virtually all important family and village activities. Neither Buddhism nor any other religion, apart from animism, seems to have had much, if any, influence on the Highlanders.." (Baird, 1996). Sacrifice to numerous animal spirits of the forest is common and performed regularly for any special event, such as a marriage, and the construction the new house or move to a new village location. At such events a feast is held and large quantities of rice alcohol consumed. The spirits are then believed to take possession of certain individuals who, in a trance, lose their own personality and take on that of the spirit, acting out the particular animistic trait. In case of illness, sacrifice is often the first action taken and comes before any consultation with traditional doctor. If the illness is widespread in a village a decision is often taken to burn the village and move (Pelham Roberts, 1990).

4.3 Cham

Most Cham are Muslims, who believe that individual selves are responsible to Allah (God) and that interpretation of the Koran is the responsibility of the individual. Muslims in Cambodia observe Islamic holidays and dietary laws, and pray to Mecca five times daily. Those laws consist mainly of abstaining from any pork meat or pork by-products (The City Magazine, 1999) .

4.4 Vietnamese

Most of Vietnamese practice Mahayana Buddhism, but some practice Catholic Kao Dai or Ba Hay.

4.5 Chinese

Many Chinese living in Cambodia practice Mahayana Buddhism. They often combine this with spirit worship, which includes Nektachun, Kung Se Im, Khong Mung and Mileck.

5. UTILIZATION AND MANAGEMENT OF FOREST RESOURCES

5.1 Khmer

Most of the Khmer ethnic group living in rural areas depend on the forest resources for livelihood and income generation. Khmer use forest resources for collection of timber and non-timber forest products (NTFPs), including cooking fuel, building and household materials, food traditional medicine, livestock feed, and transportation (see Appendix C: Types of NTFPs for more information regarding NTFP collection and use).

5.2 Hill Tribes

Forest Utilization

Hills tribes in Cambodia use the forest for swidden agriculture, which is the most important economic activity and the main food security for this ethnic group. In swidden agriculture, forest is cleared to establish field crops. The areas are farmed on average for 8 months a year (with a range of 5 to 10 months), and normally stay productive for 3 years (with a range of 2 to 6 years). It is estimated that for every hectare of active swidden land, 4-5 hectares will be fallow. One characteristic of swidden agriculture is that other crops are farmed alongside rice. These other crops can be used to supplement the diet, provide food security in time of rice shortage, or are sold for generation income (Gordon Paterson, 1996) . This indicates that the crop diversity of the highlanders remains extremely high. While it is important to recognize that not every crop variety is grown by every or even in every village, it is not unusual for a family to cultivate 60 to 100 crop varieties (not including rice) in a single one-hectare family field. Page 5 of 11

Some highlander families cultivate areas adjacent to each other. In some cases, each family has their own plot of land, but traditionally families worked their land together. While this practice is not as popular as in the past, nevertheless adjacent families, which are often related, still assist their neighbors with various agriculture tasks.

The Highlanders set up their fields so that it is possible to expand fields to adjacent forested lands each year. This makes it possible for villagers to situate first-year fields next to second-year fields. If one family's two fields are not adjacent to each other, the family will have to conduct ceremonies for the spirits in both areas. This is a costly and time-consuming option which villagers avoid whenever possible. The need to be able to expand to adjacent plots makes it impractical for large number of families to cultivate land next to each other. If families want to expend their field next to another family's field, they must first ask another family next to the land to be cultivated for permission. If an area is claimed which is not adjacent to other active fields, no permission is needed.

Forest Collection

The forest ecosystem is second only in importance for the subsistence economy to the swidden system. Detailed surveys in highland areas demonstrate that the value of NTFP is a critically important source of subsistence. All households rely on NTFPs as a source of foods, medicines and materials for building, and transportation. Handicrafts are also collected and hunted from the forests. Rattan, bamboo, fruits, medicines, vegetables and wild animals are hunted and collected (Gordon Paterson, 1997). See Appendix C: Types of NTFPs for more information regarding NTFPs collected.

The collection forests are integral to the village economy. Therefore, secure access to these forests and conservation of their resources are essential in land use planning for each village. This requires a perspective on land security which goes beyond the boundaries of the village and agricultural land, but focuses equally on old-growth forests on which villagers depend for their livelihood (Colm, 1997). Collection forests are usually outside the village communal boundaries and may be up to 1 or 2 days walk from the village. There are usually no clearly defined boundaries for these commons forest areas (Gorden Paterson, 1997).

Spirit Forest

Most highlanders believe in the mountainous and forest spirit and there are many places in which forest spirits where people pay respect to or celebrate praying ceremonies when there is any kind of sickness or bad luck. Spirits resident in the forest forbid cutting and other activities (Colm, 1997). See "Management" section below for additional details regarding the spirit forest areas of the highlander peoples.

Management

The traditional systems of forest management in upland areas are:

Forest fallows are used as a strategy to maintain soil fertility

Boundaries have developed over generations between communal swidden lands of neighboring villages. The boundaries are negotiated by elders from the neighboring villages and set by animal sacrifices. This system also allows equitable and flexible allocation of resources within the communal boundaries - speculation is prevented as any one family cannot cultivate land in two villages at the same time. Only members of the village have rights to cultivate within the communal boundaries - boundaries may be changed if there is disagreement between two villages, by renegotiation and sacrifice.

The village site may move but only within the communal village boundaries. If the village splits (due to population increase or conflict of elders) the breakaway group will look for new land. This may occur once in 2 or 3 generations.

Spirit forests are maintained within the communal boundaries and provide conservation of forest and wildlife. Village forest conservation areas tend to be old-growth forests that are used for hunting wildlife and collection of forest products. In other forests, resident spirits forbid cutting and other activities. Different forests are ruled by different spirits, each with their own taboos or spiritual regulations that effectively provide for forest and wildlife conservation (Colm, 1997).

The swidden system provides watershed protection and biodiversity conservation as it maintains a mosaic of forest at different stages of generation. Page 6 of 11

Where population has increased rapidly (usually due to immigration of outsiders) or the available fallow land has decreased (often due to encroachment by immigrants or commercial interests) the swidden system may revert to grassland (Gorden Paterson, 1997).

There are undoubtedly various Highlander systems designed to with forest fire and burning. The main reasons forest undergrowth is burnt are to clear the ground to facilitate hunting, and to make it easy to walk through areas. It is clear that the occurrence of forest fires in the dry season is the single most important factor contributing to poor forest regrowth in fallow swidden areas and the expansion of grasslands. Some Highlander groups in Kaleum district, Rattanakiri province, strictly control the indiscriminate use of fire, and all villagers there appear to be well aware that random burning can significantly effect how quickly forest regrowth takes place in fallow swidden fields (Ian G. Baird, 1996) .

Although highlander communities recognize rights to use and manage forest land for the benefit of the community from generation to generation, as yet there is no land title certificate issued by the government.

5.3 Cham

The Cham ethnic minority use forest resources to subsidize other source of livelihood staples, such as fishing. Forest resources are used primarily for fuel wood and construction materials. Additional research is required to better understand Cham traditional and current forest resource dependency and management systems.

5.4 Chinese

The Chinese ethnic minorities in Cambodia depend primarily on business for livelihood and income generation. Additional research is required to better understand Chinese traditional and current forest resource dependency and management systems.

5.5 Vietnam

The Vietnam ethnic minorities depend primarily on fishing and small business for livelihood and income generation, but additional research is required to better understand traditional and current forest resource dependency and management systems of the Vietnamese.

Appendix A: Population and Distribution of Ethnic Groups in Cambodia

No Name in Khmer Name in Approximate Areas of distribution English Population

Khmer 9,303,172 Everywhere Exµr

Cham 203,881 Phnom Penh, cam Kompong Cham, Kompong Chhnang, Kampotm, Kandal, Pursat, Battambang, Kompong Thom, Takeo

Vietnam 96,597 Phnom Penh, Kompong evotNam Cham, Prey Veang, Kompong Chhnang, Pusat , Candal

Chinese 47,180 Phnom Penh and Urban cin areas

Lao 21,805 Siem Reap lav Page 7 of 11

Thai Stung Treng éf

Tumpuen Rattanakiri TMBYn

Kuy Mondulkiri kYy

Strieng Kratie esÞóg

Kra Ay Preah Vihear RkaéG

Lmoun Pursat lµÜn

Brao Kompong Thom eRBA

Mil mIl

Phnong Pñg

Kreung eRKOg

Por B½r

Kravet kaevt

Shouch s¥Úc

Lun lun

Chrey RCay

Kachrouk karRcUk

Cola kULa

Khmer Ke Exµrex

Ahrach Gara:c

Kanung kanig

Po Ang Page 8 of 11

b:UGg;

Kachak kaquk

Chhung qug

Nong Nug

Rad r:ad

Samre sMEr

Kachhang kaqaMg

Morn mn

Thnal fñal

Arab Gara:b;

Kayoung kay:ug

Anong GaNg;

Silbre sIulERb

Kra Ul RkaG‘ul

Robel rU:Ebl

Jarai caray

(Ministry of Religions Affairs, 1992 and The Ethnic Minorities of Cambodia, 1997)

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(The Minorities of Cambodia, 1997)

Appendix B: Religions in Cambodia

Religion Number of Pagodas Temples or Churches

Buddhism 3,685 (5,0081 Monks)

Islam 202

Christianity 125

Chinese 75

Vietnam 3

(Ministry of Religions Affairs, 1999)

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Religion Buddhism Islam Christianity Other Not Stated Population 11,021,058 245,056 52,695 95,071 23,776

(Cambodian Population Census 1998)

Appendix C: Types of NTFPs

Category Example

Food Mushrooms, fruit, edible oil, edible plants, honey, root crops

Medical products Plants, vines, grass

Fuel Fuelwood, charcoal, rosin

Structural materials Rattan, bamboo, wood poles, vines

Animal products Honey, eggs, bird nests, reptile skins, feather and other decorative wildlife products

Live animals Elephants

Animal feed Grass for cows and buffalo

Ornamental plants Flower plants /vines

(Camille Bann, 1998)

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Bann, Camille.1998."The Economic Valuation of Tropical Forest Land Use Option" EEPSEA.

Crystal, David.1993."Cambridge Encyclopedia" Cambridge University Press, Great Britain.

Doody, Aine.1997."The Minorities of Cambodia" Cambodian Institute of Human Rights.

Fox, Jefferson.1997. "Customary Land-Use Practice and Resource Tenure Systems Among Krung and Tampuen Communities in Northeastern Cambodia".

Hanoi 1993."Ethnic Minorities in Vietnam" The GIOI Publisher.

Hedi, Jemai. 1999. "General Population Census of Cambodia 1998" UNFPA.

Ljunggren, Brje.1989. "Cambodia: A Country Profile" SIDA.

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Ministry of Religions Affairs.1999. Page 11 of 11

Ovesen, Jan.1996."When Every Household is an Island" Uppsala Research Reports in Cultural Anthropology, No15

Paterson, Gordon.1996."NTFP Project in Rattanakiri, Cambodia" NTFP

Pelham, Roberts.1990."Care Amidst Conflict", Health Unlimited.

Pettigrew, Thomas F.1993. " English Dictionary"

The City Magazine.1999."Principle" Issue 4.