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Supervisor, Facilitator and Arbitrator: UNIVERSITY of OSLO Supervisor, Facilitator and Arbitrator: a Study of the Involvement of the Minority Section of the League of Nations in the Forced Population Exchange between Greece and Turkey in 1923 Mads Drange Master’s Thesis in History Department of Archaeology, Conservation and History (IAKH) UNIVERSITY OF OSLO Spring 2017 II Supervisor, Facilitator and Arbitrator: a Study of the Involvement of the Minority Section of the League of Nations in the Forced Population Exchange between Greece and Turkey in 1923 III Copyright: Mads Drange 2017 Supervisor, Facilitator and Arbitrator: a Study of the Involvement of the Minority Section of the League of Nations in the Forced Population Exchange between Greece and Turkey in 1923 www.duo.uio.no Printing: Reprosentralen, Universitetet i Oslo IV Summary In January 1923 in the Swiss town of Lausanne, Turkey and Greece agreed to a forced population exchange involving more than 1.4 million people. According to the agreement, all Turkish nationals of the Greek Orthodox religion, and all Greek nationals of the Muslim religion, were supposed to move, resettling in Greece and Turkey respectively. The agreement had come into being as part of the negotiations between the new Turkish republic and the Allied nations after the Greco-Turkish war and it represented a pragmatic attempt to solve the refugee crisis in the region at the time. To ensure that the exchange was executed in accordance with the provisions of the agreement, a Mixed Commission was established consisting of Greek, Turkish and neutral members. The neutral members were appointed by the League of Nations’ Council. This thesis studies the role of the League of Nations in the execution of the Greco- Turkish population exchange. According to the agreement, the role of the League was solely to appoint neutral members to the Mixed Commission, but from the archival material of the Administrative Commissions and Minority Questions Section, it is clear that the involvement of the League extended far beyond what was laid out in the Lausanne agreement. There are several explanations to why the League became involved in the execution of the agreement. The tendency of the Greek and Turkish governments to hold it responsible for the work of the Mixed Commission is one reason, a concern for the stability of a region which had been in turmoil for decades is another. The involvement of the Minority Section in particular was also due to both a legal and a moral responsibility for the minorities involved in a time of high political, national and racial tension. The Minority Section represented a small but rather advanced bureaucratic body, and the findings in this thesis shows the relatively strong autonomy of the Secretariat, its capacity for implementation, and the way in which many individual bureaucrats were part of a network of internationalists believing in the League and international governance. V VI Acknowledgments Many years ago, I read the short story On the Quai at Smyrna by Ernest Hemingway. At the time, I knew little about Greek or Turkish history, and even less about the Greco- Turkish war. Still, Hemingway`s account of the drama unfolding after the burning of the Greek and Armenian quarters of Smyrna during the Greco-Turkish war made a strong impression on me. Reading the same story today is a very different experience. Between the lines of Hemingway’s story, I can seem to discern a strongly anti-Turkish sentiment, a lack of faith in the new international system and a stinging critique of the Allied forces’ failure to deal with the new Turkish republic. To me, this illustrates how studying history can alter one’s perspectives. I would very much like to thank my supervisors, Hanne Hagtvedt Vik and Carl Emil Vogt, for guiding me in the right direction. I would also like to thank Karen Gram-Skjoldager at the University of Aarhus for her valuable insights. Writing this thesis has taken me to archives, universities and historical sites in Greece, Turkey, Switzerland, Denmark and the United States. This would not have been possible without the support of the Department of Archaeology, Conservation and History at the University of Oslo, Fritt Ord and the Norwegian Centre for Human Rights and UNIFOR and Ryoichi Sasakawa Young Leaders’ Fellowship Fund - much gratitude to them. Mads Drange Oslo, March 2017. VII Abbreviations ABA All British Appeal BRC British Red Cross FG Friends of Greece. RSC Greek Refugee Settlement Commission ILO The International Labour Organisation LON League of Nations LONA League of Nations Archive LONC League of Nations Council LONOJ League of Nations Official Journal MC Mixed Commission NER The Near East Relief Organisation PCIJ Permanent Court of International Justice RAC Rockefeller Archive Centre SC Save the Children UN United Nations VIII Key persons Abraham, M – Canadian diplomat and army Major. Assistant Director of the Political Section in the League of Nations. Bey, Hamid – Turkish diplomat and member of the Mixed Commission for the Greek- Turkish population exchange. Blinishti, T.E. – Albanian diplomat and delegate to the League of Nations. Colban, Erik Andreas – Norwegian diplomat. Director of The Administrative Commissions and Minority Questions Section in the League of Nations Secretariat. Colocontronis, M.V. – Greek diplomat. Director of the Greek Secretariat in Geneva and delegate to the League of Nations. De Lara, Don Manuel Manrique – Spanish diplomat and army General. Neutral member of the Mixed Commission for the Greek-Turkish population exchange. de Rivas, Manuel – Chilean diplomat, neutral member of the Mixed Commission for the Greek-Turkish population exchange. Replaced Carl Marius Widding in 1928. Drummond, Eric – British politician and diplomat. The first Secretary General of the League of Nations (1920-1933). Ekstrand, Erik Einar – Swedish diplomat. Neutral member of the Mixed Commission for the Greek-Turkish population exchange. Eleftherios Venizelos – Greek politician and Prime Minister in different governments between 1910-1933. Gilchrist, Huntington – American academic and diplomat. Responsible for the Administrative Commissions in the Administrative Commissions and Minority Questions Section of the League of Nations. Henry Morgenthau – American diplomat, and former Ambassador to the Ottoman Empire. Founder of the Near East Relief Foundation and Director of the Greek Refugee Settlement Commission (1923-1933). Holstad, Hans Christian – Norwegian Diplomat. Neutral member of the Mixed Commission for the Greek-Turkish population exchange, replaced Ekstrand in 1926. Ishmet Pasha – Turkish Chief negotiator in during the Mudanya armistice and Lausanne Conference. Later minister of foreign affairs and the second President of the Turkish Republic. Jaquith, Harold C. – American foreign aid worker and lobbyist. Responsible for the relief work in Turkey and Greece in the Near East Relief. IX Metaxas, M.P. – Greek diplomat. Member of the Mixed Commission for the Greek- Turkish population exchange. Mustapha Kemal (Ataturk) – Turkish General and the first President of the Turkish republic. Nansen, Fridtjof – Norwegian scientist, explorer and diplomat. High Commissioner for refugees in the League of Nations. Phillip Noel Baker – British politician, academic and diplomat. The principal assistant of the first Secretary General of the League of Nations. Quiñones de León, Jose Maria – Spanish diplomat. Vice President ex officio of the League of Nations. Rosting, Hjalmar – Danish Diplomat. Responsible for minority questions in The Administrative Commissions and Minority Questions Section of the League of Nations. Viscount Ishii Kikujirō – Japanese diplomat. Vice President of the League of Nations. Widding, Carl Marius – Danish diplomat. Neutral member of the Mixed Commission for the Greek-Turkish population exchange. X Index 1.0 Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 1 1.1 Background ............................................................................................................................................ 2 1.1.1 The Treaty of Sèvres and the rise of Atatürk .................................................................... 2 1.1.2 The foundation of the League of Nations ........................................................................... 4 1.1.3 The Minority Treaties ................................................................................................................ 6 1.1.4 The Greco-Turkish Population Exchange Agreement................................................... 9 1.2 Existing literature............................................................................................................................. 11 1.3 Research question and limitations ............................................................................................ 17 1.4 Sources and methodology ............................................................................................................. 18 1.5 Structure .............................................................................................................................................. 21 2.0 The League of Nations and the Lausanne Treaty ........................................................ 23 2.1 The historical backdrop - Greece and Turkey ....................................................................... 23 2.2 The refugee situation .....................................................................................................................
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