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Challenges Faced by Muslim Women: an Evaluation of the Writings of Leila Ahmed, Elizabeth Fernea, Fatima Mernissi and Amina Wadud

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Challenges Faced by Muslim Women: an Evaluation of the Writings of Leila Ahmed, Elizabeth Fernea, Fatima Mernissi and Amina Wadud CHALLENGES FACED BY MUSLIM WOMEN: AN EVALUATION OF THE WRITINGS OF LEILA AHMED, ELIZABETH FERNEA, FATIMA MERNISSI AND AMINA WADUD by ANNE JOHANNA TUPPURAINEN submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF THEOLOGY in the subject RELIGIOUS STUDIES at the UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA PROMOTER: PROF H C STEYN JOINT PROMOTER: PROF G J A LUBBE MAY 2010 Student number: 3276-711-0 I declare that CHALLENGES FACED BY MUSLIM WOMEN: AN EVALUATION OF THE WRITINGS OF LEILA AHMED, ELIZABETH FERNEA, FATIMA MERNISSI AND AMINA WADUD is my own work and that all the sources that I have used or quoted have been indicated and acknowledged by means of complete references. REV A J TUPPURAINEN 02/06/2010 i ABSTRACT The subject and the scope of this study are the challenges faced by Muslim women in contemporary societies as presented by the four prominent authors: Leila Ahmed, Elizabeth Fernea, Fatima Mernissi and Amina Wadud. The methodology applied to the literary analysis is the feminist-qualitative research approach in religious studies with specific reference to Islamic feminist studies. Many Muslim women scholars criticise the study of Third World women as objects of study-cases who are rarely heeded as serious scholars. Misconceptions about Islam and Muslim women are common in Western society. Previous studies have not dealt with the issue satisfactorily and failed to provide a holistic picture. The challenges faced by Muslim women have been interpreted against a Western feminist framework, thus causing more harm than good. The resultant predicament is the subject of this study in which Muslim women’s own attitudes and responses to their present circumstances and future prospects are explored. How and why Muslim women are challenged? How do they envisage the resolution of these challenges? The purpose of this study is to provide a framework that can give an adequate account of challenges as seen by Muslim women and to evaluate strategies that can provide suitable solutions to these challenges. Firstly, an objective Giele/Smock/Engineer framework was developed with reference to the most pressing challenges (articulated in well-documented definitions and descriptions) faced by Muslim women in contemporary societies. These key issues of women’s rights on political participation, education, work, family, and social participation were discussed and analysed in the light of this women-centred approach with specific reference to the writings of four prominent women authors: Leila Ahmed, Elizabeth Fernea, Fatima Mernissi and Amina Wadud. Each author has brought her own particular perspective and area of expertise into the discussion – sometimes arguing among with the other authors in a virtual ‘roundtable’ discussion; at times joining hands in mutual agreement. Finally, Muslim women’s struggle against injustice was subjected to critical scrutiny with particular attention to common strategies and solutions that the four authors have used and developed in the light of the modern debate. It is in the latter discussion that the study reached its ultimate goal by determining how the challenges have been met. Moreover, Islamic feminism was assessed to determine how it related to and coped with social change and how effective it has been in seeking to assert rights of and find justice for women through historical, anthropological, socio-political and hermeneutical approach. Key terms: Feminism, Feminism in Islam; Gender in Islam; Islamic feminism; Muslim women; Rights of women; Social change; Social justice; Third World women; Women in Islam; Women’s studies; Women’s and gender studies; Women’s rights ii PREFACE Writing this thesis has been a long process over many years. Although it is my work and only I can be responsible for any shortcomings, there are many who have shared this study. Firstly, I wish to express my sincere gratitude to Prof H C Steyn, my promoter and supporter, who has faithfully and expertly guided my studies. She insisted at all times on a high standard of academic excellence, with particular reference to methodology and women’s studies, and her thoughtful patient guidance and encouragement enabled me to persevere and bring this project to fruition. Prof G J A Lubbe, my co-promoter and adviser, who carefully tracked my progress since my first introduction to Unisa eight years ago, did not abandon me even after his retirement. He has brought a male perspective to this work. He kept his watchful eye on Islamic studies during this project and broadened my understanding of Muslim women’s issues through the studies of male authors, such as Asghar Ali Engineer. I also thank the library staff at the Unisa Library, South Africa; Toronto University Library, Canada; Leuven University Library, Belgium; and Centre for Gender Studies in Jyväskylä University, Finland for giving me access to their facilities. A special word of thanks is also due to the subject librarian (Religious Studies) at Unisa, Ms M-L Suttie, for her unstinting and able assistance in obtaining the books and articles required for the study. I was a fortunate recipient of a one-year scholarship from the University of South Africa which helped me in my research project. I am also much obliged to the Continental Theological Seminary which allowed me to write this thesis while part of the faculty as well as to my students of religious studies in Belgium and West Africa whose questions and comments have focused and deepened my thinking and understanding throughout the years. Credit is also due to the late Mrs Maralyn Mathias who assisted with English language intricacies and Mr Oswald Davies and Mrs Eleanor Lemmer who skilfully edited the English text. Last but not least, I would like to thank my parents (my father, Eero who taught me perseverance and my mother, Liisa who cooked and baked for us during the crucial last three months releasing me to complete this work) and my parents-in-law, uncles and aunts, and my sister, Taina, who inspired and supported me far more than words can say. Finally, the most critical pillar of support who I cannot fail to mention is my husband, Riku, who also successfully completed his own doctoral thesis at Unisa during this period (2007). I learnt from his example how to be a mature academician in a never- ending learning curve. To complete the circle, there remains my three-year-old son, Alex Richard, who may have good reason to be truly grateful that the challenge of this work has been met. iii CONTENTS Statement i Abstract ii Preface iii Contents iv CHAPTER ONE PROBLEM FORMULATION, AIM, THEORETICAL AND METHODOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Problem formulation 3 1.3 Aim of the research 8 1.4 Theoretical and methodological considerations 10 1.4.1 Feminism in the West 15 1.4.2 Third World feminism: K Jayawardena (1986), C T Mohanty (et al 1991) and H Afshar (1996) 21 1.4.3 Islamic feminism: M Badran (2002b, 2009), M Cooke (2001), Z Mir-Hosseini (1996a) and S Shaikh (2003b) 26 1.4.4 A framework of understanding 32 1.4.5 Personal background 33 1.5 Layout of the thesis 38 CHAPTER TWO RESEARCH FRAMEWORK 2.1 Introduction 41 2.2 United Nations’ research and Freedom House statistics on the status of women 41 2.3 A state theory: G Myrdal (1968, 1970) and C Johnson (1982) 45 2.4 A citizenship theory and rights: V M Moghadam (1999) and A Roy (2005) 47 2.5 A model of ‘life options’: R L Blumberg (1975), J Z Giele and A C Smock (1977) 52 2.6 Gender justice: A A Engineer (2001b) 56 2.7 ‘Five life challenges’ 60 2.7.1 Civil rights 62 2.7.1.1 Political rights 64 2.7.1.2 The right to inherit 69 2.7.1.3 The right to own property 72 2.7.1.4 The right to bear witness 74 2.7.2 Educational rights 75 2.7.3 Work-related rights 79 iv 2.7.4 Family rights 82 2.7.4.1 Age of marriage and choice of partner 83 2.7.4.2 Control over fertility 85 2.7.4.3 The right to spousal maintenance 86 2.7.4.4 Rights in a polygamous union 89 2.7.4.5 Divorce and custody rights 91 2.7.5 Rights to cultural expression 95 2.7.5.1 The veil (hijab) 95 2.7.5.2 Socialisation 99 2.8 Conclusion 101 CHAPTER THREE AUTHORS’ BIOGRAPHICAL DETAILS AND WORK 3.1 Introduction 103 3.2 Leila Ahmed 104 3.3 Elizabeth Fernea 112 3.4 Fatima Mernissi 118 3.5 Amina Wadud 127 3.6 Conclusion 134 CHAPTER FOUR ANALYSIS OF THE FOUR AUTHORS’ WORK 4.1 Introduction 136 4.2 Civil rights 136 4.2.1 Political rights 136 4.2.2 The right to inherit and to own property 141 4.2.3 The right to bear witness 143 4.3 Educational rights 145 4.4 Work-related rights 149 4.5 Family rights 155 4.5.1 Age of marriage and choice of partner 155 4.5.2 Control over fertility 158 4.5.3 The right to spousal maintenance 161 4.5.4 Rights in a polygamous union 163 4.5.5 Divorce and custody rights 166 4.6 Rights to cultural expression 169 4.6.1 The veil (hijab) 169 4.6.2 Socialisation 172 4.7 Conclusion 176 v CHAPTER FIVE EVALUATION OF PROPOSED SOLUTIONS AND THEIR IMPLEMENTATIONS 5.1 Introduction 179 5.2 Moving from challenges towards solutions 179 5.2.1 Civil rights issues 180 5.2.1.1 Political rights 180 5.2.1.2 The right to inherit and to own property 186 5.2.1.3 The right to bear witness 188 5.2.2 Educational rights 191 5.2.3 Work-related rights 196 5.2.4 Family rights 201 5.2.4.1 Age of marriage and choice of partner 203 5.2.4.2 Control over fertility 205 5.2.4.3 The right to spousal maintenance 207 5.2.4.4 The right in a polygamous union 209 5.2.4.5 Divorce and custody rights 212 5.2.5 Rights to cultural expression 215 5.2.5.1 The veil (hijab) 216 5.2.5.2 Socialisation 220 5.3 Implementing proposed solutions 224
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