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In Sisterhood and Struggle: Black and White Feminisms in the United States During the United Nations Decade for Women, 1975-1985

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In Sisterhood and Struggle: Black and White Feminisms in the United States During the United Nations Decade for Women, 1975-1985 In Sisterhood and Struggle: Black and White Feminisms in the United States During the United Nations Decade for Women, 1975-1985 Inaugural Dissertation zur Erlangung des Doktorgrades der Philosophie an der Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München Vorgelegt von Bettina Listl, M.A. aus Schrobenhausen Oktober 2015 Erstgutachter: Prof. Dr. Michael Hochgeschwender Zweitgutachterin: PD Dr. Ursula Prutsch Datum der mündlichen Prüfung: 04.02.2016 Table of Contents Abbreviations iv Acknowledgements vi Introduction 1 I. Social Movement Theory: Understanding Second Wave Feminisms in the United States 30 1. Second Wave Origins: Developing Feminist Consciousness 31 2. Keeping it Together: Constructing a Collective Identity 38 3. Political Opportunity Structures and Resource Mobilization Theories 43 4. Framing, Discourse, and Resources 53 II. International Women’s Year and the First UN World Conference in Mexico City, 1975 59 1. The United Nations and Women’s Rights 59 2. Preparing for the First UN World Conference on Women 67 3. The Governmental Conference and the World Plan of Action 75 4. The International Women’s Year Tribune 79 5. Whatever Happened in Mexico? Mixed Receptions at Home 88 6. Inviting Feminist Activism: The National Women’s Agenda 93 7. Feminist Theory Production during the Mid-1970s 97 7.1 White Feminist Theory 98 7.2 Black Feminist Theory 102 i III. Defending Their Turf: The National IWY Conference in Houston, 1977 110 1. Mobilizing for Women’s Rights 110 2. The Houston Conference: A Peak in Black Feminist Organizing 117 3. Post-Conference Disillusionment: The Carter Administration and Women’s Rights 124 4. The National Plan of Action and Feminist Activism 128 5. In Black and White: Women of Color Claim Their Feminism 138 IV. Mid-Decade Limbo: The Second UN World Conference in Copenhagen, 1980 146 1. Not the Seventies, not yet the Eighties: Political Background 147 2. The UN Plans a Second World Conference on Women 149 3. Cold War Politics in Copenhagen: An American Perspective 150 4. American Feminists Prepare for the Mid-Decade Forum 159 5. Global Connections: Forum ’80 163 6. Framed as Failure: Conference Media Coverage in the US 172 7. Feminist Activism in the Early 1980s 176 7.1 The Loss of the ERA 177 7.2 Black Feminists Re-Organize 187 8. A Paradigm Shift in Feminist Theory 192 V. A Change in Perspective: The Third UN World Conference in Nairobi 201 1. Reagan’s America: A New Era 202 2. Preparations for the Final UN Conference and Forum 208 3. International Tensions and Political Will at the End of the Decade 214 4. Voyage to Kenya: American Feminists Organize for Forum ’85 220 ii 5. Conflicts of the Past and Strategies for the Future 230 6. The Emergence of a Global Feminism: News From Nairobi 236 7. Same Issues, New Tactics: Feminist Activism in the 1980s 241 8. Intersecting Standpoints: Feminist Theory after 1985 252 Conclusion 260 Bibliography 269 Archival Sources 269 Primary Literature 292 Secondary Literature 311 iii Abbreviations AAUW American Association of University Women BWA Black Women’s Agenda BWOA Black Women Organized for Action BWPA Black Women’s Plan of Action CEDAW Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women CONGO Conference of Non-Governmental Organizations CRC Combahee River Collective CSW Commission on the Status of Women ECOSOC Economic and Social Council EEOC Equal Employment Opportunity Commission ERA Equal Rights Amendment FAO Food and Agriculture Organization (UN) GA General Assembly ICAW International Council of African Women IWTC International Women’s Tribune Center IWY International Women’s Year NABF National Alliance of Black Feminists NARAL National Abortion Rights Action League NBFO National Black Feminist Organization NCNW National Council of Negro Women NGO Non-Governmental Organization NOW National Organization for Women NPA National Plan of Action NWA National Women’s Agenda NWAC National Women’s Agenda Coalition NWCC National Women’s Conference Committee NWPC National Women’s Political Caucus iv NWSA National Women’s Studies Association PCSW President’s Commission on the Status of Women PrepCom Preparatory Committee SCSW State Commission on the Status of Women SNCC Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee TWWA Third World Women’s Alliance UN United Nations UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization UNICEF United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund WAA Women’s Action Alliance WHO World Health Organization WPA World Plan of Action YWCA Young Women’s Christian Association v Acknowledgements Researching and writing this dissertation was an extraordinary privilege that enriched my life in countless ways and would not have been possible without the unwavering support of numerous people. I want to thank my advisor, Prof. Dr. Michael Hochgeschwender, for patiently guiding me through this process. His constructive criticism, helpful suggestions, and encouragement were vital for the development of my work. I would also like to thank the Bayerische Amerika Akademie for supporting my research with a generous travel grant. Since this study relies on archival material, I am grateful to all the institutions and organizations that gave me access to their collections and records. Finally, tribute must be paid to my family and friends for their unending love, support and strong encouragement. I could not have done this without the help and understanding of my parents Christa and Johann Listl and my friends Katrin Trometer, Martina Ruiß, Stefanie Drobnik, Ellen Boschert, Ramona Rid, Annka Liepold, Cybèle Cochran, Stephanie Hood and Nina Weisser. Special thanks go to my StaBi-Buddy Veronika Heft who kept me sane during the final months and became my personal Wonder Woman. vi Introduction I first became aware of feminism when a friend’s older sister told us about the women’s movement and the importance of what she called “woman power.” 1 At eleven years old, what stuck with us was not the political dimension of the subject, but the personal. It meant friendship and solidarity. It took me many more years, experiences of my own, and knowledge about the history of the systemic gender discrimination that women have endured for so long to understand sexism and be able to articulate my feminist consciousness. As an outspoken feminist I dealt with the ridicule and contempt from many of my teenage peers. During the late 1990s feminism, just like typewriters, seemed anachronistic to many people my age. Everyone was equal already, so what was the point? Being a feminist was associated with prudishness, sullenness, and dogmatism. Gender discrimination was shrugged off as trivial by young men and women alike. However, I do not think that most of these women repudiated the feminist label because they did not support feminist goals. It was rather a combination of a lack of knowledge, fear of being stereotyped, a desire to be likeable, and a belief in their personal strength. It turns out that knowledge and experience are key determinants in developing a feminist consciousness. Most of my friends who sternly rejected the feminist label throughout school and college claim it now without hesitation. What has happened in their late 20s and early 30s that suddenly raised their consciousness? In a nutshell: work, motherhood, and marriage. After a sheltered existence in the educational system and egalitarian youthful relationships, life in the “real world” exposed them to a degree of inequality between men and women that they did not anticipate. 1 This was in 1993, shortly before the Spice Girls entered the scene and infused popular culture with the highly marketable concept of “girl power,” which was not only used to sell music, but also fashion and cosmetics. While I cannot say that we were immune to the messages that reached us over the media in the form of youth magazines and TV, we generally did prefer the term “woman power” and rejected fashion styles and behavior that we perceived as too “girlish” or did not correspond with our less commercial musical taste. 1 It is hard for me to tell whether feminism actually has lost much of its negative stigma or my perception is tainted because of my personal circumstance and the media I choose to consume. 2 Irrespective of my own experience though, feminism is definitely not dead and discussions about its meaning regularly garner a lot of public attention .3 A case in point was the media frenzy that surrounded the movie release of Suffragette in October 2015. When Hollywood actress Meryl Streep, who stars in the movie alongside Helena Bonham Carter, Carey Mulligan, Romola Garai, and Anne Marie Duff, refrained from calling herself a feminist during a promotional interview, she sparked quite the outrage. The film addresses the British suffrage movement and its turn from peaceful protest to violent militancy. It depicts events in the years between 1912 and 1913 and is told from the perspective of Mulligan’s working-class character to convey the struggles of ordinary women instead of those from the middle and upper-classes who are most often associated with the voting rights movement. 4 What can be inferred from the trailer is that Streep’s role as Emmeline Pankhurst, one of the movement’s leading figures, is a rather minor one. 5 Nevertheless, as the movie’s most famous actress, Streep was central to its promotion. Thus, Time Out London interviewed her as well as Mulligan, Garai, and Duff for their October 2015 issue and posted interviews and pictures online. Among other things, every actress was asked the question: “Are you a feminist?” All but Streep answered “yes.” She said instead: “I’m a humanist, I’m for nice easy balance.” 6 As soon as Streep’s statement appeared online, feminist 2 I want to acknowledge at this point that my idea of feminism is affected by my experiences as a white, Western European woman of middle-class background with access to higher education.
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