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Response of the Larval Zebrafish to Spinal Cord Injury: Labeled Lesions, Two-Photon Axotomy and Recovery of Visuomotor Behaviors

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Response of the Larval Zebrafish to Spinal Cord Injury: Labeled Lesions, Two-Photon Axotomy and Recovery of Visuomotor Behaviors Response of the Larval Zebrafish to Spinal Cord Injury: Labeled Lesions, Two-Photon Axotomy and Recovery of Visuomotor Behaviors A Dissertation Submitted to the Department of Biology In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy In the field of Biology Northeastern University Boston, MA By Sucharita Saha July 2012 1 Abstract Spinal cord injuries can result in near total loss of function below the spinal-level of damage, due to the interruption of descending neural commands. A number of approaches are being tested to enhance axonal regeneration and assess the recovery of spinal cord function although, to date, no effective regeneration has been observed following complete spinal transection. Given the limited functional recovery seen in a variety of studies, and a lack of understanding of underlying molecular mechanisms, a system that enables faster and more precise analyses is needed. We attempt here to lay a foundation for such studies in larval zebrafish. Three distinct strategies were employed to assess restoration of the zebrafish descending motor control system after spinal injuries. First, we followed anatomical regeneration using the labeled-lesion technique. Second, we assessed functional recovery based on a suite of larval locomotor behaviors. Third, we used in vivo two-photon microscopy to observe axonal behaviors immediately after precision axotomies. The suite of visuomotor assays used documented a descending motor control system that proved fairly robust, even in the presence of substantial axonal injuries. In contrast, however, the motility and elongation of individual severed axons proved limited as did the larger scale regeneration of major brainstem nuclei into spinal cord. While this fits with an emerging view of limited regeneration in lower vertebrates, it is surprising that these limitations were so substantial in robustly developing young larval zebrafish. 2 Acknowledgements Completing my graduate studies would not have been possible without the guidance and the support of many individuals who in one way or another have contributed to this dissertation. While I may not mention their names explicitly, I hope at one time or another I will have individually expressed to you my gratitude. This acknowledgement gives particular mention to those individuals without whom completion of this dissertation would have not been possible. First and foremost, I offer my sincerest gratitude and my warmest thanks to my advisor, Prof. Donald O’Malley. He has enriched my growth as a student and a researcher in a way that has immensely enhanced my intellectual growth. Thank you for your support, advice, supervision, and for your crucial contributions to this study. Besides my advisor, I would like to acknowledge the rest of my dissertation committee: Profs. Fred Davis, Rich Marsh, Erin Cram and Marc Hammarlund. Thank you for the insightful comments and encouragement you all have provided. My collaborators on the 2-photon imaging from Prof. Charles DiMarzio’s Optical Science Laboratory provided expert technical advice. Joe Kerimo was instrumental in developing the laser axotomy technique and Zhenhua Lai helped me to acquire long-term data time points. I would like to thank the National Science Foundation (NSF) for their financial support towards part of my graduate studies through the Integrative Graduate Education and Research Training (IGERT) award in inter-disciplinary Nanomedicine Science and Technology. I would like to thank Profs Srinivas Sridhar, Mansoor Amiji, Mary Jo Ondrechen and Latika Menon for providing a tremendous opportunity to be part of the program. In particular, I would like to thank Prof. Menon for letting me be a part of her research group while investigating the application of nanoarray technologies to spinal stimulation and regeneration. While the research conducted is not part of this dissertation, it contributed significantly to my development as a researcher. I would like to acknowledge the many opportunities of presenting the research at various conferences. 3 While each of my mentors along the way has provided me directions, the late Prof. Norma B. Slepecky of Syracuse University truly ignited my intellectual curiosity in science. She was my first mentor in the field of neuroscience and was instrumental in helping me learn important scientific methods. She sparked my interest in scientific research and left me with a lifelong gift that I diligently strive to retain. For my colleagues, Kristin Severi and Rebecca Westphal with whom I enjoyed many stimulating discussions. Kristin: I sincerely thank you for providing me the larvae for an entire semester towards conducting my experiments, as well as for the constant supply of breeding fish that you brought in over time. Furthermore, I would be remiss if I did not mention the names of some of the many undergraduate students that have worked to care for the fish in our laboratory. Especially, I want to mention Maggie Moyer, Demetrious Roumis, Navin Nathan and Alexandra Lorden, who have contributed tremendously to this work in various ways. I would like to thank Maggie, Navin and Alexandra for contributing towards behavioral data collection. Demetrious has collaborated with me on imaging studies and Navin has helped in setting up behavior experiments. Their support is acknowledged. I would also like to thank Patricia Hampf for all her help and guidance in handling my laboratory teaching activities. Janeen Greene helped with administrative matters many times during my graduate studies. Her help is acknowledged. Thank you to my son, three years old little Aritro, who brought me a new found happiness at the end of each day. I am sorry for the days I had to leave you crying at the door, and be away from you for long periods of time. You are the brightest ray of sunshine in my life. My parents and my family deserve a special mention for instilling in me the strong sense of responsibility, but more importantly for encouraging me to chart my career path. Thank you for raising me to be the person that I am. This thesis is in part dedicated to my grandfather, the late Bonomali Prasad Saha, whom I loved dearly. I am sure he will be proud of my achievements. For my husband, and my dearest friend, Prateep, my mere expression of thanks does not suffice. Without his encouragement, I simply would not have completed this degree. I thank him for the countless ways he has supported me and kept my spirits high during difficult times. 4 Table of Contents Abstract……………………………………………………………………………………………2 Acknowledgements…………………………………………….………………………………….3 List of Tables……………………………………………………………………………………...7 List of Figures………………………………………………………………..................................8 1. Introduction …………………………………………………………………………..……...10 1.1 General Problem of Spinal Cord Injury …………………………………………………10 1.2 Role of Neurogenesis and Axonal Regeneration………………………………………...12 1.3 Lower Vertebrate Models………………………………………………………………..13 1.3.1 Studies on Larval Lamprey…………………………………………….…………..13 1.3.2 Adult Lamprey……………………………………...……………………………...16 1.3.3 Adult Zebrafish and Goldfish……………………….……………………………..17 1.3.4 The Larval Zebrafish Model……………………….………………………………20 1.4 Central Aims……………………………………………………………………………..23 2. Cell-Specific Regeneration of Larval Zebrafish Descending Neurons ……………………...29 2.1 Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………...29 2.2 Methods…………………………………………………………………………………..32 2.2.1 Fish Husbandry…………………………………………………………………….32 2.2.2 Proximal Micropipette Axotomy (Labeled Lesion) ……………………………….33 2.2.3 Distal Spinal Labeling……………………………………………………………...33 2.2.4 High-Resolution Confocal Imaging and Analysis…………………………………34 2.3 Results……………………………………………………………………………………34 2.3.1 Regeneration Patterns of Reticulospinal Neurons…………………………………34 2.3.2 Regenerative Rates of Ro & Mi Cells……………………………………………...35 2.3.3 Regenerative Capacity of the nMLF…………………………………………….....36 2.3.4 Morphological Observations……………………………………………………….37 2.4 Discussion………………………………………………………………………………..38 2.4.1 Limits to Determination of Regeneration……………………………………….…38 2.4.2 Actual Time Course and Extent of Regeneration………………………………….41 5 3. Dynamics of Injured Axon Endings in the Descending Motor Control System …………….54 3.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………………………54 3.2 Methods…………………………………………………………………………………..57 3.2.1 Retrograde Labeling of Descending Neurons……………………………………...57 3.2.2 Two-Photon Laser Scanning Microscope and Axotomy…………………………..58 3.2.3 Calcium Imaging…………………………………………………………………...60 3.2.4 Data Analysis……………………………………………………………………....60 3.3 Results……………………………………………………………………………………61 3.3.1 Response to 2-Photon Axotomy…………………………………………………...61 3.3.2 Fluorescence and Calcium Responses to Axotomy………………………………..61 3.3.3 Shapes of Axon Terminals Post-Axotomy………………………………………...62 3.3.4 Dynamic Responses of Axon Terminals…………………………………………...64 3.3.5 Mauthner Cell Response to Axotomy……………………………………………...67 3.4 Discussion………………………………………………………………………………..68 3.4.1 Acute and Time-Lapse Response to Focal Axotomy……………………………...68 3.4.2 Efficacy of Axonal Regeneration…………………………………………………..70 3.4.3 Conclusions………………………………………………………………………...71 4. Disturbances of Visuomotor Functioning after Rostral Spinal Axotomy……………………87 4.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………………………87 4.2 Methods…………………………………………………………………………………..90 4.2.1 High Speed Imaging……………………………………………………………….90 4.2.2 Behavioral Assays…………………………………………………………….........91 4.2.3 Behavioral Analysis………………………………………………………………..93 4.3 Results………………………………………………..…………………………………..95
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