SECONDARY CITIES and SMART CITIES: a CASE STUDY * of KHON KAEN, THAILAND ** Pechladda Pechpakdee

Social Science Asia, Volume 6 Number 4, p: 73-89

SECONDARY CITIES AND SMART CITIES: A CASE STUDY * OF KHON KAEN, THAILAND ** Pechladda Pechpakdee

Abstract

By exploring the definitions, theories, conceptual frameworks and criteria of secondary cities, this paper aims to discuss the interrelationship of five factors of secondary cities in the northeast of Thailand and Khon Kaen city. In particular, this paper will analyze the interrelationships of policy and smart city development at the state and local level. This research has employed both qualitative and the quantitative data from secondary sources to find the factors that contribute to the development of secondary cities in the northeast. After indicating the factors, this paper discusses the development of Khon Kaen smart city as one of the secondary cities supported by the Thai government. The findings of this paper illustrate that the development of Khon Kaen smart city is related to the development of secondary cities in the northeast. There are three aspects to discuss the related issues between secondary and smart cities, as follows: 1. a smart city is a secondary shift of infrastructure development in Khon Kaen, following the first shift of infrastructure development under the First National Development Plan; 2. Khon Kaen and other selective smart cities are considered from seven secondary cities based on the centralized view of the government; and 3. a smart city is essential for state or government security.

Keywords: Secondary City, Smart City, City Municipality, Khon Kaen, THAILAND

* This paper is excerpted and developed from the research titled “The Factors of the Secondary Cities in the Northeast, Thailand” ** Assistant Professor Dr., Department of Urban Architecture, Faculty of Architecture, Urban Design, and Creative Arts, Mahasarakham University, Thailand E-mail: [email protected]

Received: 10/12/2019; Revised: 22/02/2020; Accepted: 03/03/2020

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I. Introduction economic relations from the region and national levels, and also from neighboring There are currently more than countries. For instance, Chiang Mai is not 2,400 cities globally with populations only one of the main secondary cities in between 150,000 and 5 million, which the north of Thailand but it is also one of could be loosely described as secondary the main destinations for international cities. Nearly two thirds of these cities are tourism, which has led to many benefits located in Africa and Asia. Secondary for the state revenues. This paper cities range in form and size, from 150,000 illustrates that policy and development to 5 million people, and perform a wide plans are important factors in determining range of functions in national and the role and promotion of these cities. international systems of cities (Robert, Currently, smart cities are related to the 2014). government‘s Thailand 4.0 initiative, which aims to support the growth of Saskia Sassen, a social scientist, technology and the development of the recommends that small cities could be digitalized ecosystem, which is expected to considered as the basis of global be scaled up across the nation in the near development (Sassen, 2012). Meanwhile, future. the United Nations in its predictions for the growth of urban communities in 2030 This paper starts by defining the predicts that medium-sized cities and large concepts of secondary cities and smart cities with a population of no less than 5 cities. The findings of this paper are drawn million people will play a significant role from a larger research project that in the urban economic growth of examines the factors of secondary cities in developing countries. In China, some the northeast. It will then examine the secondary cities have populations of over 5 regional hub of administration and service million. Consequently, secondary cities of the state, both in the past and present. will play an important role as catalysts and Next, it will analyze the plans and policies secondary hubs in facilitating localized of national development in the northeast, production, transportation, transformation, the hub of transportation and logistics, or transfer of goods, people, trade, population and density in urban areas, and information, and services between sub- the revenues of urban and population. national, metropolitan, national, regional, Based on the research findings, all of these and global systems of cities (Robert, factors should be considered together. The 2014). A primary city is defined as ―the movement of a smart city and the Khon leading city in its country or region, Kaen development based on the five disproportionately larger than any others in factors of a secondary city will be the urban hierarchy‖ (Goodall, 1987). discussed. The first infrastructure However, the definition of secondary city development policies in 1961 resulted in is still ambiguous (Rondinelli, 1983). In Khon Kaen's economic development, the last two decades, the literature on which was followed by the accumulation urban studies has only emphasized the size of resources and population over 60 years and power of cities in major cities. Even after the First National Development Plan. though the numbers of secondary cities are The argument is that the infrastructure growing, only a handful of studies have development was used to guarantee the investigated the path of urban development security of the state against the threat of of secondary cities. the Communist Party of Thailand (CPT). In Thailand, the roles of secondary This paper considers that urban cities are to support growth of population, studies require a sufficient amount of infrastructure development, social and studies from a broad range of aspects to

Official Journal of National Research Council of Thailand in conjunction with 74 Journal of Politics and Governance Social Science Asia, Volume 6 Number 4, p: 73-89 best understand the concept of secondary that urban development needs more cities and the interrelationships with the research and studies of the role, the state. Therefore, this paper focuses on relationships, and the city systems of cities Khon Kaen municipality as the study area. around the country, together with their This paper is divided into three sections. plans and policies. It is hoped that the The first section investigates the discussions of this paper would be of definitions and the concepts of a secondary benefit for both technocrats and academics city and a smart city. The second section in planning and initiating urban development discusses the findings of five factors of the policy. secondary city in the northeast, excerpted from the research project. Additionally, the II. Objectives smart city as the latest concept of urban (1) To discuss the interrelationship of five development in Thailand is also explored factors of the secondary cities in the and discussed, together with the factors of northeast of Thailand and Khon Kaen the secondary cities based on the research city, from past to present. findings. The last section argues that the (2) To understand the interrelationship of movement of Khon Kaen smart city Khon policy and smart city development Kaen is related to the development towards between the state and local level. the secondary city in three aspects: 1. the second shift of infrastructure; 2. selective III. Research Methods smart cities are from the secondary cities; This research employed both and 3. a smart city for state security or qualitative and quantitative data from government security. primary and secondary sources. The key actors who play an important role in In summary, this paper will discuss developing Khon Kaen into a smart city the interrelationship of policy and smart were interviewed. The secondary data city development between the state and includes population, urban revenues, local level. Khon Kaen city is one of the history of city settlement, urban contexts, secondary cities in the northeast of and so on. Figure 1 presents the data Thailand and it is one of selective smart collected in this research. cities cases. It should, however, be noted

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Figure 1: Details of Data Collection Method in the Research

In Thailand, the economic power of governance and service. The national secondary cities could be measured from economic and social development plans the context of trade center and the average are investigated because they are one of income of the population. The population the most important factors in promoting size and income of the municipality are the transportation hubs at the regional important criteria to categorize the levels level, both land and air transport. These of local administration. Quantitative data factors are considered and compared are employed to determine out the size of among the northeastern provinces, which the cities and the urban hierarchy system. indicates that Khon Kaen is one of the However, although secondary cities do not most important secondary cities in the have a large population, they do have northeast. Currently, the concept of the major roles and functions. Hence, we need smart city is employed in some of to understand the path of development and Thailand‘s leading provinces. Following power of these cities as the centers of these factors of secondary cities from the

Official Journal of National Research Council of Thailand in conjunction with 76 Journal of Politics and Governance Social Science Asia, Volume 6 Number 4, p: 73-89 research, this paper employs these datasets cities have a population of less than to discuss the movement of Khon Kaen 750,000 people, although they are still smart city. Finally, this paper argues that called secondary cities (World Bank, 2008, these factors are related to the driving p.51). forces to move Khon Kaen, as one of selective secondary cities from the Some studies suggest that government, towards smart city pilot secondary cities cannot be determined by projects in Thailand. the population size but should be considered based on their roles in the IV. Scope of the Study national and global city system (Abdel- This research focuses on the area of Rahman et al., 2004). Angel defines Khon Kaen city municipality as one of the secondary cities as having roles and secondary cities in the northeast of networks that are connected to the Thailand. metropolitan areas (Angel et al., 2012, p.146). Friedman suggest that a secondary city is centered and semi-structured within V. Literature Review the economic geography of the region (1) Definition of a Secondary City (Friedmann, 1986, p.71). However, the Patrick Gedds was the first scholar secondary city still does not have a to consider the potential of cities and he prevalent international agreement (Song, explained the size of the cities on the basis 2013, pp.1-5). of the second city system, or secondary cities (Gedds, 1915; Soo 2004). The term According to the World Bank ‗secondary cities‘ was used by Rondinelli Development Report, based on the new (1983), which he defined as second cities economic geography (NEG), secondary from a settlement of cities with a cities differ in each country (World Bank, population of at least 100,000 but not 2008, 2). The World Bank indicates that a including the largest city in the country primary city is the center of the country (Rondinelli, 1983, pp.47-48). Hence, while and is a metropolitan area that is combined primary cities would usually be capital with neighboring cities. Primary cities lead cities in each country or region, secondary in all aspects, including politics, government, cities are second-tier level cities based on economy, communication, culture, and the the city's potential and the size of its central university. Meanwhile, a secondary population (Goodall, 1987). city plays an increasingly important role in the region, both economically and socially, In the past, research tended to and it helps to maintain the city system in focus on the development of policies to each country (World Bank, 2008, p.51). stimulate the economy of rural areas around secondary city areas (Rondinelli, There are many patterns of secondary 1983; Mason, 1989). However, there is no cities. Most of them are defined by geography, exact number to define the population size economics, and city functions (Robert, of a secondary city. For example, UN- 2014, pp.28-34). There are three broad Habitat identifies a second city as having a categories of the secondary cities as population between 100,000 and 500,000 follows: people (UN-Habitat, 2008, p.13). In contrast, the World Bank defines a secondary city 1. Sub-national cities that are as having a population from the thousands centers of local government, to the millions. There are more than 4,000 industry, agriculture, tourism, cities around the world that have a total and mining; population of over 100,000 people (Angel 2. City clusters that are et al., 2012). Meanwhile, around 2,400 associated with expanded,

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satellite and new town cities intelligence and innovation that surround large urban institutions and processes within metropolitan regions; cities; and (3) the smart systems, 3. Economic trade corridors that urban technologies, the Internet, are urban growth centers or broadband networks and e-services poles planned or developing of cities. (Komninos, 2014, p.23) along major transport corridors. A smart city uses information and In summary, a second city can be communications technology (ICT) defined by the size of its population, and to enhance its livability, by its roles and functions (e.g. logistics workability, and sustainability. infrastructure, service, tourism, etc.). (Smart Cities Council, 2014) However, there are no exact population or Therefore, a smart city can be defined economic criteria to define these cities. as the development of the urban space to (2) Definition of a Smart City enable a technology-enabled approach for The smart city concept has sustainable development. Examining the developed over the last three decades, smart city models, this paper intends to following technological growth and focus the smart city initiatives from innovation in urban development. This Giffinger‘s (2007) model under the six term was employed in urban development, dimensions that encapsulate the three main planning, and IT at the end of 1980s to the issues of sustainable development from the early-1990s. The first reference to the term UN: economy, social and environment. ‗smart city,‘ based on Google Scholar, is The six dimensions of smart city are found in 1988–1990. This term is used to governance, economy, mobility, environment, capture innovations in urban mobility people, and living (Ginger, 2007; Das, A. sustained by information technologies, the et al., 2019), as follows: use of IT for the provision of city services, 1. Smart Governance: which and better performance of cities in refers to the smart government environmental, economic, and social in the urban space, associated objectives (Hall, 1988; Raynal, 1988 cited with technology for service from Komninos, 2018). There are various delivery and resource viewpoints of smart city concept, for utilization with respect to example: government policy. The smart city ‗connects the 2. Smart Economy: which is the physical infrastructure, the IT technology and innovation that infrastructure, the social can escalate business and infrastructure and the business service growth, employment, infrastructure to leverage the and urban growth. collective intelligence of the city. 3. Smart Mobility (or Smart (Hartley, 2005, pp.27-34) Transportation): which enhances the transportation An analysis of the ontology of networks with improved, many formal definitions of ‗smart embedded real time monitoring city‘ and ‘intelligent city‘ reveals and control systems. that three blocks of entities 4. Smart Environment: which characterize this concept: (1) the provides smart innovation and city, citizen, user, activities and ICT to incorporate natural infrastructure and flows in cities; resource protection and (2) the information, knowledge, supervision, such as a waste-

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product management systems, Khon Kaen, including: 1. the city as the sensor-based pollution control, administrative center of the Government and so on. and service from the past and present; 2. 5. Smart People: which the northeast development plan, which has encourages the creativity and had a second impact on the city; 3. the city the innovation introduced by as a transportation hub at the regional individuals in society. level, both land and air; 4. urbanization 6. Smart Living: which improves and population; and 5. the average lifestyles and quality of life in incomes of the municipality and the the urban spaces. average income of the population. Based on the research findings, all of these Ginger (2007) pointed out that factors of the secondary city must be these components are interconnected to scrutinized together (Pechpakdee, 2016). provide smart services to the people living In the discussions, the first argument is in the city. In addition, smart government that these five factors could be considered systems help to successfully execute smart as the major keys to gear up from a city missions. In Thailand, the recent focus secondary city to smart city. Hence, this on smart cities is part of the government‘s section will illustrate the party of Khon Thailand 4.0 initiative, which is a new Kaen development through the lenses of economic model that aims to transform five factors of a secondary city. The next Thailand into a high-income nation. The section will discuss the movement of smart Digital Economy Promotion Agency is city and Khon Kaen‘s development, in the tasked with supervising the smart city following aspects: 1. the second shift of initiative and develop more smart cities. infrastructure; 2. selective smart city in The pilot projects are Phuket, Chiang Mai secondary cities; and 3. smart city for state and Khon Kaen. Phuket was the first city security or government security. to lead the initiative and was selected because it is one of the biggest tourist (1) The city as the administrative cities in the world and therefore already and service center for the has a well - developed technology government infrastructure. Chiang Mai was chosen to Based on the research findings, the promote smart agriculture as one of the results show that there are secondary cities main industries of the area, as well as to in the following municipalities in the support tourism from the local heritage and northeast of Thailand: Udon Thani natural attractions. Khon Kaen was chosen municipality, Khon Kaen municipality, as a medical hub, a transportation hub, and Nakhon Ratchasima municipality, and a MICE (i.e., meeting, incentives, Ubon Ratchathani municipality. These convention, and exhibition) city. These cities not only have an outstanding cities are qualified for the smart city pilot population but they are also centers of projects because of their readiness for governance and services for the these roles, such as transportation hubs. surrounding cities, both in the past and in the present. Since the establishment of Thesapibal (or Monthon) during the reign VI. Findings: Five Factors to make of King Rama V (1868–1910), this city Khon Kaen a Secondary City in the has been a regional center for government Northeast of Thailand administration and centralized power under the Ministry of Interior via a After defining secondary cities, this government official who acts as a section aims to discuss the research results representative of the King (Bunnag, 1978). of the study of secondary cities in The state originally divided the central northeastern Thailand and in particular

Official Journal of National Research Council of Thailand in conjunction with 79 Journal of Politics and Governance Social Science Asia, Volume 6 Number 4, p: 73-89 power and the administration into various regional level, both land and air. After towns throughout Siam, in the northeast 1961, the North East Development Plan the main cities are Nakhon Ratchasima, received assistance and support from the Ubon Ratchathani, and Udon. These three World Bank and the National Economic major cities were centers of administration Development Plan No. 1. and services in Isan (i.e. the northeast region) and they continue to maintain the These developments were a response role of the main city of the provincial to the growth of a communist-inspired group. This is the concept of clustered regional separatist movement in the provinces from locations and roles. northeast that was led by the CPT, which According to the Ministry of Interior included the study area. This led the Thai (2003), the Provincial Office of Strategy government to assert much more direct Management (OSM) was established to act control than had been the case hitherto, at the operational level to host the strategic including the stationing of a military corps coordination of the plans and projects at in the northeast. Hence, partly because of the provincial level. The operational the resistance movement, the government centers of the five provincial groups in the greatly intensified its development northeast are: Udon Thani, Sakon nakonn interventions to pave the way for the rapid Khon Kaen, Nakhon Ratchasima, and integration of the area with the external Ubon Ratchathani Province. Interestingly, market, including the involvement of unlike the three main cities, Khon Kaen extra-local actors and agencies in local city was previously still a small town that development (Parnwell, 2005). Additionally, depended on Monthon Udon because of its the forests were cleared for state security smaller population and fewer resources and the settlement of villages was (Pechpakdee, 2016). This can be seen as managed by the Royal Thai Army. The an example that the dynamics of the communist insurgency threatened the state, growth of the secondary cities in which responded by clearing these areas developing countries is mainly related to for village settlement and roads during the public administration (Rondinelli, 1983) 1970s to flush out CPT supporters (McCargo, 2002, p.56). (2) National development plan and infrastructure Remarkably, after the 1st National development Economic Development Plan in Khon In the 1960s, the priorities of Kaen city, the city benefited from Field development in the northeast of Thailand Marshal Sarit Thanarat‘s (who served as were water supply, irrigation, flood prime minister at that time) policy and control, transport facilities, expansion of development plan for the northeast region. agricultural services, marketing, increase Consequently, Khon Kaen has well- of power supply and promotion of industry developed infrastructure such as roads, and commerce. These priorities date to dams, and Khon Kaen University is the when Thailand began to change its leading higher educational institute in the economy in the mid-1950s under the northeast. These state plans have led to a leadership of Field Marshal Sarit Thanarat highly-educated population who earn more and the influence of the United States. revenues, have a better quality of life, and Parnwell (2005) argued that creating the a diverse range of occupations. Khon Kaen basic infrastructure in the 1970s required city later become a hub city for a broad significant physical and social changes. range of activities. This city has also The national economic and social attracted public institutions and investment development plans are important factors in from the private sectors for trading and promoting the transportation hubs at the services. Subsequently, the average income per capita higher in Khon Kaen

Official Journal of National Research Council of Thailand in conjunction with 80 Journal of Politics and Governance Social Science Asia, Volume 6 Number 4, p: 73-89 than other cities. However, it could be b. Rail network argued that this development in the northeast of Thailand was only been In the reign of King Rama V (or conducted for the interests of state King Chulalongkorn), the construction of security. the first state railway began, namely the Northeast Railway, which ran from (3) A transportation hub at the Bangkok to Nong Khai in the Northern regional level, both land and air line and to Ubon Ratchathani in the Eastern line. This railway line made an a. Friendship Road (Mittraphap important contribution to this region‘s Road) economic and social development (Sunanhta Charoenpanyaying 2014). The In 1958, the Friendship Road Northeast Railway runs through eight (Mittraphap Road), a major US aid project, provinces in the northeast: Nakhon was constructed as the first road to span Ratchasima, Buriram, Surin, Si Sa Ket, the region and enhance a rapid connection Ubon Ratchathani, Khon Kaen, Udon between Bangkok and Nongkhai, the Thani and Nong Khai. This line serves a northeastern border province to Lao PRD. large number of people and it led to The United States was a large aid donor to immense socioeconomic changes, both the northeast for military and security from trading and travelling to work in reasons in the 1960s and 1970s. Bangkok. This line also led to the growth Mittraphap Road has also had a wide of the railroad community, with new impact on the economy of the northeast, occupations developing in the main cities which the railway system had been unable with railway stations and the expansion of to do. Due to car transportation, there is no demand for products, services, and new need to change products, which is required occupations such as hotels, restaurants, in rail transportation. This cities in the small business operators, mills, and ice northeast region along the Mitraphap Road plants in Nakhon Ratchasima, Mueang, have benefited from the transportation Khon Kaen, Muang, Udon Thani And business, and they have consequently Ubon Ratchathani (Theerasasawat, 2007, become a major source for the processing pp.112-125). and sale of agricultural products, such as Nakhon Ratchasima city, Khon Kaen city, c. Airport and Udon Thani city. There are nine airports in the The Friendship Road was a major northeast of Thailand: Buriram, Khon infrastructure development in the northeast Kaen, Nakhon Phanom, Nakhon Ratchasima, that opened the region to the outside world Roi Et, Udon Thani, Ubon Ratchathani, via transportation and logistics. Apart from Sakon Nakhon and Loei. Two international serving the national security purposes airports are in Ubon Ratchathani and Udon and promoting rural, economic and Thani (Wijitnopparat, 2012). Khon Kaen communication development in the region, International Airport will be opened in this road network has been an important 2021. However, for Nakhon Ratchasima means for the northeastern people to seek Province, this location is unsuitable for both temporary and permanent job flights to Bangkok. opportunities in Bangkok (Gebhardt, 2005; Myers, 2005). The Northeastern Railway has had no additional construction since 1956. Instead, three main cities—Udon Thani, Khon Kaen, and Ubon Ratchathani—have

grown because they have become major

Official Journal of National Research Council of Thailand in conjunction with 81 Journal of Politics and Governance Social Science Asia, Volume 6 Number 4, p: 73-89 airport hubs in the region. Additionally, and income of the municipality. Basically, international airports have been built in cities with a larger population might have Khon Kaen and Udon Thani, which means more revenue. There are three levels of the that they are able to connect with the city municipalities. The four largest city center and other cities. Robert reported municipalities are Udon Thani municipality, that an airport is an important element to Khon Kaen municipality, Nakhon Ratchasima show the relationship of a regional city to municipality, and Ubon Ratchathani the capital, and also to cities around the municipality. The population density of world (Robert, 2014, pp.36-40). Air these cities is between 2,000-3999 people transportation has not only reduced the per square kilometer (Sathitpongsathaphon, cost and time of transportation but it has 2015, pp. 10-5). Following the First also increased the accumulation of capital National Development Plan, Khon Kaen and resources of the secondary cities along has grown and developed as one of the the economic corridor (Song, 2013). Thus, main centers of the northeast of Thailand. an airport is an important element that Khon Kaen‘s location is attractive for represents the relationship between public institutions and it has led to secondary cities and cities in the world and investment from the private sector for address the transport needs from both local trading and services. residents and tourists. Geographically, Khon Kaen city d. Urbanization and population municipality is located in the center of the northeast of Thailand. Its position at the The current global population of intersection of the East-West Economic 7.3 billion is expected to reach 8.5 billion Corridor (EWEC), supported by The Asian by 2030, 9.7 billion in 2050 and 11.2 Development Bank (ADB), has led it to billion in 2100. In total, 55 percent of the develop transportation routes connecting world‘s population lives in urban areas, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, and Vietnam. which is expected to increase to 68 percent In the near future, there will be a high- by 2050 (United Nations, 2015). There are speed rail connection between Thailand, enormous disparities between primary Laos, and China. Consequently, Khon Kaen cities and secondary or tertiary cities in city is a regional hub for transportation and many countries. In Thailand, this problem logistics. In 2016, Khon Kaen City had a of inequality has existed for a long time. population of 120,045 who lived within an For example, in 1969 Bell found that area of about 46 sq. km. As its urban area the large surplus transfers from the has expanded beyond this administrative poor northeast region led to the boundary, Khon Kaen city municipality is underdevelopment of the region because now surrounded by four municipalities. most of the producers were exploited by Khon Kaen urban area is about 280 sq. km, low wages and poor agricultural returns with a population of 256,000 (Khon Kaen (Bell, 1969). In Thailand, it could be city municipality, 2017). The next section argued that there is a large gap between will discuss population and urbanization, Bangkok, the capital city, and other using quantitative data to determine the secondary or tertiary cities. size of these cities. It will also describe the urban hierarchy system. As described earlier, there is no exact figure to identify the size of population of secondary cities. Nevertheless, secondary cities are always defined on the size of their population and income. In Thailand, the levels of local administration are categorized on both the population size

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e. The average income of the Development Plan. Infrastructure development municipality and the average income of has impacted on the growth of Khon the population Kaen‘s socioeconomics and urbanization. This paper found that there were five The economic power of secondary factors of secondary cities: first, the cities could be measured from the level of regional hub of administration and service trade and the average income of the of the state, both in the past and present; population. Based on the data of second, plans and policies of national urbanization of the city municipality, in development in the northeast; third, hub of 2012–2013 the average income of Nakhon transportation and logistics; fourth, Ratchasima municipality was the highest population and density in urban area; and top 10 city in Thailand (Phongsathaphon, finally, the urban revenues and population. 2015, 10-5). Three of Kohn Kaen‘s These factors should be considered municipalities are in the high ranks in the together. The next section will discuss the northeast of Thailand: Nakhon Ratchasima smart city movement and Khon Kaen‘s city municipality, Udon Thani city development as a secondary city. municipality, and Khon Kaen city municipality. In addition, considering the average income of the population per VII. Discussion: Khon Kaen Gearing Up capita in the main cities in the northeast in From a Secondary City towards a 2015, Khon Kaen city municipality had the Smart City highest income per capita per year at more This section discusses Khon Kaen‘s than 9,999.99 Thai Baht. development from a secondary city towards a smart city in three aspects: 1. the Although Khon Kaen city did not second shift of infrastructure; 2. selective previously have an important role or smart city in secondary cities; and 3. smart influence in administration, such as city for state security or government Monthon Nakhon Ratchasima, Monthon security. Udon Thani, and Monthon Ubon

Ratchathani, it currently has the highest (1) The second shift of infrastructure: income per capita in the northeast. This light rail transit, high-speed rail, could be considered to be a result of transit- oriented development infrastructure development and also its Parnwell (2005) argued that the first position as a regional center for education, shift of the northeast was from the basic government institutions, financial and infrastructure in the 1970s, which led to services. These factors are related to Khon significant physical and social changes. Kaen‘s physical connectivity and mobility This paper further argues that the from its road, air, and rail networks. movement of local people in Khon Kaen In summary, at present there are thanks to the immense effort that has been four main secondary cities in the northeast put into the Light Rai Transit is an of Thailand which are considered as the example of the dramatic shift towards secondary cities: Nakhon Ratchasima city secondary cities that can be seen municipality, Khon Kaen city municipality, throughout Thailand. Public transport Udon Thani city municipality, and Ubon infrastructure in Khon Kaen—such as a Ratchathani city municipality. In the reign new 26km light rail line—is being funded of King Rama V, unlike the other three and spearheaded by the Khon Kaen City largest cities, Khon Kaen city was only a Development, formerly known as Khon small town under Monthon Udon Thani. Kaen Think Tank (KKTT), which is a After Marshall Sarit‘s era, Khon Kaen city group of Khon Kaen‘s 20 leading was the initial choice for the First National businessmen. This group of business

Official Journal of National Research Council of Thailand in conjunction with 83 Journal of Politics and Governance Social Science Asia, Volume 6 Number 4, p: 73-89 leaders remembers well that ―mobility such as transportation service through drives the city‖, but are no longer content TOD in Chiangmai, Phuket, and Rayong to wait for the benevolence of the central province. The alliances of city development government to provide a solution companies are becoming stronger thanks (Pechpakdee, 2018), for example: to knowledge transfer and meetings because the founders have flexible roles as For Khon Kaen, if we work members of business associations (e.g., together to find a way to chamber commerce, real estate association, develop and solve problems and the Federation of Thai Industries) at by ourselves based on provincial level. Unlike the fixed structure academic principles, which of the government, the formation and Khon Kaen already has many pattern of city development organization is academic sources to support more flexible because of cooperation in local. We should lead our between the business sector and province to have a proper technocrats. It could be argued that the development plan. Thailand LRT with TOD—as an infrastructure today, there are two traps. development from a local initiative, The first is the middle-income KKTT—has led to the widespread trap. And another thing, with expansion of urban development. This thought, means that we development has many advantages for always need to rely on others. urban physical planning and design, and (KKTT, 2017) also for local creation. In practice, planning, policies, and implementation Both the Light rail transit (LRT) continue rely on the fixed structure and and High-Speed Rail development should be considered as part of the concept of centralized state. Transit- Oriented Development (TOD), (2) Selective smart cities in which includes the plans and designs to secondary cities: an bring people, activities, buildings, and (un)intentional tension between public spaces together through easy the top and bottom walking and cycling to connect between Policy and development plans are the transit station service to the rest of the important factors in determining the role city (Calthorpe, 1993). The Khon Kaen and promotion of a city. The Thailand 4.0 model is based on private-sector driven initiative has been introduced by the development in cooperation with the government as part of its smart city policy technocrats from Khon Kaen University to to support the development of technology implement an ambitious plan based on the and the digital ecosystem and it is provincial development path in Thailand. expected to be scaled up at the national This model has already widely spread out level. The concept of a smart city in in many secondary cities based on the Thailand can be traced back to Yingluck‘s semi-formal alliance of KKTT members Government in 2013. Nakhon Nayok and networks, including Chiangmai, was appointed as a pilot province Phuket, and Pitsanulok province. by the Ministry of Digital Economy and Generally, the founders in each city Society (MODES), formerly known as development company are drawn from the Ministry of Information and Communication provincial tycoon families. Technology (MICT). After the 2014 coup, Air Chief Marshall Prajin Juntong served There are many urban development as the Minister of Transport (MOT) from initiatives in these provinces. This August 2014 to August 2015. Inspired by a prototype could be seen as a good sign of visit to a small smart town in Stockholm, the urban development at provincial level,

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Juntong pursued his interest in smart city Kaen University. This project could be and smart mobility, and set up a working seen as a leader of local cooperation. In group to develop a plan to formulate a theory, the Ministry of Interior (MOI) has smart city policy for Thailand. created a syndicate (sahakarn in Thai) for cooperation between different local In 2015, Khon Kaen city municipality authorities, such as between Tambon attempted to find a new idea for urban Authority Organizations (TAOs), and development. Khon Khaen university was between municipalities and Provincial the local institution who took the lead in Authority Organizations (PAOs). In the design of the well-publicized ―Khon practice, however, it is hard to see Kaen Special City‖ development blueprint. evidence of this syndicated project of Meanwhile, Air Chief Marshall Prajin collective development in the local Juntong, as a Minister of MOT, came to authorities‘ management of their resources Khon Kaen on his first official visit and because of the complicated processes of gave strong verbal support for the LRT bureaucracy involved (Pechpakdee, 2014, project, although legal permission for the p.161). LRT‘s operation was still required. KKTT was granted an opportunity to present their It could also be argued that the ideas about transforming Khon Kaen into a central governments—both civil and coup smart city, beginning with a light rail government—have introduced plans, system. In a debriefing session, they policies, and development concepts from emphasized smart mobility, while not the top down, as illustrated in the overlooking the importance of other development path. This paper finds that aspects of a smart city. They selected 10 there are three causes of tension between locations in seven pilot provinces of the the central state and Khon Kaen‘s smart city, based on a study from development. First, the phrase ―Khon Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok that Kaen model‖, as the name of initiative was commissioned by the central movement from Khon Kaen development government. The implication is that all from KKTT, implies two distinct smart cities would be under the oversight meanings: politically, the Khon Kaen of central government agencies (Suradech model refers to a group in the provinces Taweesaengsakulthai et al. 2019). Khon who were allegedly amassing forces and Kaen province was found to be one of the weapons to terrorize the citizenry against most suitable provinces for a smart city the government and who were arrested on and it has also been included in the 23 May 2014. However, in this case this country‘s 12th National Social and term refers to the city‘s unique private- Economic Plan (2017–2021). sector driven approach to infrastructure Khon Kaen city municipality and development (Pechpakdee, 2018). Second, the local universities had already launched during the change from a special city to the local concept of the Special City as an smart city, Khon Kaen needs to urban solution that included local compromise its needs and introduce participation. Additionally, based on the initiatives to meet the needs from the top urbanization and comprehensive plan, for legal support, both for the process and Khon Kaen city municipality sought for for the budget. Finally, LRT and smart city the cooperation from the annex in Khon Kaen have encountered some municipalities by signing a memo of friction from both the central government understanding (MOU) for urban mobility, and local people for bureaucratic sustainable housing, clean energy, waste development and lack of trust, management, ICT, and local governance respectively. Suradech, who was one of coordinated by the technocrats at Khon key leaders in KKU and a leading

Official Journal of National Research Council of Thailand in conjunction with 85 Journal of Politics and Governance Social Science Asia, Volume 6 Number 4, p: 73-89 technocrat in KKU, critiques that this about the smart city because smart devices development seems very optimistic and its are used to monitor the system, which effects are still too far ahead to see. impacts on privacy and rivals the role of This development has been fraught the state and the government, at local, with difficulties because of the national, and international levels. lacking competency for implementation (Taweesaengsakulthai et al., 2019, pp.144– In brief, this paper finds that the 154). Although KKTT and other teams smart city is the latest concept of urban aim for self-reliance for the local initiative, development for state security, which can Khon Kaen teams have encountered with be regarded from international to local the same old problems. Accordingly, Khon level. At the international level, the United Kaen illustrates a selective smart city that States and the West are losing the power is implemented from the top with battle with China, such as in HSR and in (un)intentional tensions between the the smart city. At the national level, the central state and local development. smart city in Thailand is guided by China. At the local level, the selective smart city (3) Smart city for state security or from secondary cities are under the control government security of DEPA and the state. Based on the six pillars of the smart city (i.e., governance, During the 1970s, infrastructure economy, mobility, environment, people, development in the northeast (e.g., dams, and living), this paper argues that smart universities, and roads) was implemented governance and smart people at the local to ensure the security of the state level are ignored by the government. This (McCargo, 2002). For example, the leads to the following questions: without Mittraphap Road, or Friendship Road, is a smart people and smart governance, who strategic route that was built with US are we smart for? And, how can Khon support to guard against the threats from Kaen and other secondary cities redesign the CPT. Politically, because Prayuth‘s themselves as smart cities in their own (formerly the leader of the coup way? government) government has experienced some problems in gaining acceptance from VII. Conclusion developed countries in the West, it has In summary, this paper is excerpted sought cooperation by turning to China from a larger research project that over the United States and the West. For examines the factors of secondary cities in instance, the smart city in Phuket is being the northeast of Thailand by exploring the developed in cooperation with Huawei, definitions, theories, conceptual frameworks, China. In particular, a methodology has and criteria of secondary cities. been formulated to support the smart city Interestingly, in Thailand the smart city is service prioritization and service the latest concept of urban development. recommendations for stakeholders in other However, there are limited sources of provinces (Huawei, 2019). According to academic studies about both secondary the Digital Economy Promotion Agency cities and smart cities at the provincial (DEPA), the development of smart cities is level in Thailand. one of the government‘s top priority and is Based on the research findings considered national agenda with a view to from the factors of secondary cities in the using digital technology and innovation to northeast, this research states that the five give people a better quality of life with less factors of secondary cities should be social disparity and more equitable considered together. Hence, this paper development in all regions of the country employs the interrelationship of the five (ibid.). In practice, there are some worries factors of the secondary cities in the

Official Journal of National Research Council of Thailand in conjunction with 86 Journal of Politics and Governance Social Science Asia, Volume 6 Number 4, p: 73-89 northeast to discuss the development path was not a major city in the northeast. of Khon Kaen city. Remarkably, the smart However, after the First National cities selected by the government in Development Plan in 1961, Khon Kaen Thailand are also secondary cities in each became a hub for transportation, medicine, region. This paper argues that the and education. development of these secondary cities has been influenced by the national In summary, this paper investigates development plans and by their roles as smart city as the latest urban development transportation hubs. These factors lead to concept at national and local levels. The urbanization, the attraction of various arguments about the movement of smart people and investment. Subsequently, city and Khon Kaen development could be these secondary cities are ready in many considered in three aspects: 1. the second aspects for further development as smart shift of infrastructure; 2. selective smart cities. cities are related to the development path towards the secondary cities; and 3. smart In Thailand, urban development city for state security or government has been centralized by the state. In the security. Finally, this paper asks without past, the King had the supreme power to smart people and smart governance, who govern the state. For example, King Rama V are we smart for? The state should focus introduced the regional system (monthon on these two important pillars for smart thēsāphibān in Thai) by dividing provinces cities in both Khon Kaen and in other into 18 clusters. Interestingly, before the secondary cities across the country. First National Development Plan that was introduced by Marshall Sarit, Khon Kaen

Acknowledgement I would like to express my special thanks of gratitude to the Faculty of Architecture, Urban Design, and Creative Arts, Mahasarakham University for the research funds in 2004. This work aims to strengthen the foundation of urban studies research and urban development in Thailand

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