Buried Ancestral Drainage Between Lakes Erie and Ontario

Buried ancestral drainage between Lakes Erie and Ontario

JEAN-JACQUES FLINT Department of Geological Sciences, Brock University, St Catharines, Ontario, Canada L2S 3A1 J. LOLCAMA Interra Technology Inc., 6850 Austin Boulevard, Austin, Texas 78731

ABSTRACT system. The only other known buried channel extending from Lake Erie to Ontario is the Erigan channel, first identified and named by Spencer The bedrock topography for the eastern Niagara Peninsula of (1907). Spencer also recognized the presence of several other bedrock Ontario and for adjacent areas of New York was reconstructed using valleys in the Niagara Peninsula that he interpreted as tributaries to the more than 7,600 well records and geophysical data. This topography Erigan. Spencer's reconstruction of the bedrock topography was based on reveals an elaborate system of buried channels dominated by three a limited number of well records, and as a result, many aspects of the main passageways connecting Lake Erie to Lake Ontario. These buried topography have remained unsolved. For example, no outlets into channels are the Erigan, Crystal Beach, and St. Davids. The Erigan, Lake Ontario were identified for the Erigan, and no connections between with a depth near 150 ft below Lake Erie water level, precludes the the tributary valleys and the Erigan channel were demonstrated. Conse- existence of a lake in the Erie basin. North of the Niagara Escarpment, quently, some investigators (Flint, 1971; Horberg and Anderson, 1950) the Erigan channel bifurcates into three outlets that extend into Lake considered the Dundas buried gorge, at the western end of Lake Ontario, Ontario. The extensive widths and differences in elevation of the to represent the route for the Lake Erie drainage. This path was initially outlet valleys suggest that the Erigan channel was active at least three proposed by Spencer (1907) but later abandoned in favor of the Erigan times. Elevations in two of the outlets indicate that water levels in the channel, which he considered to represent the outlet for the Lake Erie ancestral Lake Ontario were similar to those of the present-day lake. watershed during preglacial time. A more northern route was proposed by The third outlet requires water levels at least 30 ft lower than present Spencer (1907) for the drainage of the Upper Great Lakes through the conditions. Laurentian River valley between Georgian Bay and the north shore of The Crystal Beach channel originates west of Buffalo and trends Lake Ontario (Fig. 1). north along part of the present-day course of the Niagara River. At Over the past few decades, extensive data have become available, and Niagara Falls, it changes to a southwesterly direction to join the Eri- detailed bedrock surveys of areas within the Niagara Peninsula have been gan channel near its southern end. The Crystal Beach system received published. To date, however, no over-all re-evaluation of the buried bed- inflow from Lake Erie through at least 4 inlets with bed elevations rock topography has been undertaken. The purpose of this investigation is only 10-30 ft below the present Lake Erie water level. This suggests to produce a bedrock topographic map using as much of the available data the existence of an ancestral Lake Erie similar to present-day as possible and to re-examine the significance of the buried Erigan system conditions. and its implications for the drainage history of the Great Lakes. Limited retreat in the waterfall of the Erigan channel indicates that during the active period of the Crystal Beach and Erigan drainage PREVIOUS WORK systems, only the Lake Erie watershed emptied through the Niagara Peninsula. The Upper Great Lakes may have drained through the Reconstruction by Spencer (1907) of the bedrock valleys in the buried Laurentian valley between Georgian Bay and Lake Ontario. Niagara Peninsula is shown in Figure 2. In terms of the Erigan drainage Drainage of the Upper Great Lakes through the Niagara Penin- system, Hughes (1970) identified a north-south bedrock depression ex- sula may have first occurred through the St. Davids buried channel. tending to Lake Ontario from the base of the Niagara Escarpment where The limited retreat of the St. Davids waterfall suggests a history of the Erigan channel exits. She attributed its origin to glacial scouring, only a few thousand years. Its channel above the Niagara Escarpment however. This bedrock low, as well as one to the east and another possible probably occupied part of the bedrock depression formed by the Crys- one to the west, was identified by Lolcama (1980). They were interpreted tal Beach drainage system, but at a higher elevation. as outlets for the Erigan channel. Bedrock maps of Feenstra (1981a, 1981b, 1981c, 1981d) also showed a valley to the west and the north- INTRODUCTION south bedrock low but did not indicate the presence of an outlet to the east. The gorge of the St. Davids buried channel, extending from the The drainage of the Upper Great Lakes is now channeled through the Whirlpool on the Niagara River to the town of St. Davids, was recognized Niagara River, which originated -12,500 yr ago (Lewis, 1969; Calkin and as early as 1841 by Lyell (1845). Forrester (1926) established the presence Brett, 1978). Prior to this, the St. Davids buried channel that extends from of a buried channel below the escarpment from the town of St. Davids to the Whirlpool section of the Niagara River to Lake Ontario may have the Niagara River. More recently, Hobson and Terasmae (1969) showed served as a passageway during the Sangamon Interglacial (Hobson and that the main outlet extends due north from St. Davids to Lake Ontario, Terasmae, 1969). With a gorge approximately one-half the length of the whereas the bedrock channel outlined by Forrester was possibly a smaller Niagara gorge, it is difficult to explain its existence for a longer period than branch. Hobson and Terasmae (1969) also obtained a 14C date of 22,800 that of the Niagara River unless a limited discharge passed through this yr B.P. for organic material present in the sediments of the St. Davids

Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 97, p. 75-84, 6 figs., January 1985.

75

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Figure 1. Regional drainage pattern (after Spencer, 1907).

gorge. They interpreted this as evidence that the gorge was partly exposed oriented almost perpendicular to the Erigan channel and located west of during the middle Wisconsin but probably formed during the Sangamon the town of St. Johns West (Fig. 3). Interglacial. Reconstruction of the St. Davids channel above the Niagara The well and borehole data in New York State were obtained from Escarpment has been less successful. Kindle and Taylor (1913) suggested the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (1952, 1973), the New York State that a bedrock low, extending from Niagara Falls, New York, to the Department of Transportation in Buffalo, the Buffalo Sewer Authority Whirlpool, may have been eroded by a river in the St. Davids channel. (Calkin and others, 1978), the New York State Power Authority, and the Upstream, from Niagara Falls to Lake Erie, the location of the St. Davids town or city engineers for Niagara Falls, Wheatfield, Tonawancla, and drainage system remains unknown. North Tonawanda. Ground-water well data were obtained from a number In addition to these investigations, Sanford (1954, 1956), Owen of private drilling companies and from Johnston (1964) and La Sala, Jr. (1972), and Hobson and Gagne (1975) published maps on the bedrock (1968). Well data were also provided by P. Calkin (State University of topography of selected areas in the Niagara Peninsula. Feenstra (1981a, New York at Buffalo). 1981b, 1981c, 198Id), on the basis of data to 1975, published a series of A total of -7,600 wells to bedrock, drilled before 1982, were col- maps for the entire Niagara Peninsula. A useful review of bedrock topog- lected. Wells that did not reach bedrock were ignored, unless the y indi- raphy maps of the: Niagara Peninsula was compiled by Karrow (1973). cated depths greater than those of surrounding wells that reached bedrock. In order to detect possible inaccuracies, various checks were performed, SOURCE OF THE DATA including field identification of—5% of the wells. The bedrock topography reconstructed at 20-ft contour intervals is shown in Figure 4. It should be The data used in this investigation were obtained mainly from exist- noted that the reliability in the topography is proportional to the well ing published records of oil and gas wells, ground-water wells, geotechni- density. This is easily observed in certain areas of New York where few cal boreholes, ancl geophysical data to 1982. In addition, a gravity survey data were available, resulting in a coarser drainage texture that is more was conducted spxifically for this project. Locations of the data are shown apparent than real. in Figure 3. The oil and gas well data in Ontario were obtained from the Canada GEOLOGY AND GENERAL BEDROCK TOPOGRAPHY Department of Energy, Mines and Resources, and the ground-water well data were provided by Environment Ontario. Geotechnical borehole data General were obtained from the Canada Seaway Authority, the Ministry of Trans- portation and Communication, and the Engineering Department of the The over-all bedrock topography shown in Figure 4 generally reflects city of St. Catharines. the north-south succession of lithologic units present in the Niagara Penin- Owing to the lack of borehole information where the Erigan channel sula. This succession is best exemplified by the east-west orientation of the crossed the Niagara Escarpment, a gravity survey was conducted to locate Niagara Escarpment and to a lesser extent by the Onondaga Escarpment the position of the buried waterfall. The survey consisted of two traverses (Chapman and Putnam, 1966). Lithologic units present in the Niagara

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Figure 2. Buried drainage pattern in the Niagara Peninsula (after Spencer, 1907).

Peninsula were described by Bolton (1957), Bolton and Liberty (1955), including most of the path followed by the Erigan, Crystal Beach, and St. and Telford and Tarrant (1975); they are briefly summarized below. Davids channels above the Niagara Escarpment, as well as portions of the The lowest unit is the Ordovician Queenston Formation, which un- present-day Niagara gorge. Less pronounced north-south and east-west derlies the area from Lake Ontario to the Niagara Escarpment and consists alignments are also observable in the bedrock topography of the Erigan of soft, calcareous shales. The Silurian Cataract and Clinton Groups are and Niagara gorges above the escarpment. Joint-set measurements under- exposed along the face of the Niagara Escarpment, which is capped by the taken during the dewatering of the American Falls (American Falls Inter- resistant Lockport Dolostone. Overlying this sequence and south of the national Board, 1974) and by Humarian (1975) for parts of the Niagara Niagara Escarpment, the Guelph Formation is characterized by moder- gorge revealed the presence of four principal joint directions corresponding ately resistant dolostone. This unit is overlain by the Salina Formation, a with these valley alignments. These similarities emphasize the strong influ- thick and easily weathered argillaceous dolostone with evaporite interbeds. ence of the jointing on the orientation of bedrock valleys in the Niagara It extends a short distance inland from the Lake Erie shoreline. Along the Peninsula. north shore of Lake Erie, the cuesta known as the Onondaga Escarpment is actually capped by the Bertie Formation, composed of resistant dolo- Erigan Channel stone, overlain by the Devonian limestones from the Bois Blanc and Onondaga Formations. The entrance to the Erigan channel is situated east of Lowbanks A southerly dip of-40 ft/mi was obtained for these units from wells along the north shore of Lake Erie, as originally proposed by Spencer taken along a north-south traverse in the vicinity of the Erigan channel. (1907). The bedrock elevation at the entrance is at 405 ft or less, well Kindle and Taylor (1913) measured a dip of 29 ft/mi for units along the below the present-day Lake Erie water level of 572 ft. Other inflow Niagara gorge. channels into the Erigan are through the Crystal Beach and the ancestral Except for the lithologies exposed along the Niagara Escarpment and Grand River buried channels. It remains to be established whether these at the top of the Onondaga Escarpment, most units are covered by a thick channels were active contemporaneously with the Lowbanks entrance. blanket of glacial and postglacial sediment. This is especially true of the North of Lowbanks, the Erigan valley widens as it passes over the area underlain by the Salina Formation. It is also true for the lower portion Salina Formation. The inflow from the Crystal Beach channel, as well as of the Onondaga Escarpment, despite a relief of nearly 150 ft attesting to local watersheds, may have contributed to the widening of the bedrock its past prominence as an earlier divide. valley. The Erigan channel also bifurcates into two branches to form a An extensive valley system has produced a deeply eroded topography bedrock island with north-northeast direction. This high and a small iso- dominated by three major channel networks—the Erigan channel, the St. lated bedrock rise just north of Wainfleet are probably formed by a more Davids channel, and the Crystal Beach channel. Numerous small buried resistant dolomitic member within the Salina Formation. Elevations of valleys define the outline of local watersheds, providing additional insight 420 ft and 410 ft for the western and eastern branches, respectively, into the time span and complexity of events that may have taken place to suggest that the main channel was to the east, whereas the western branch produce the observed topography. represented a smaller arm. Also apparent from both the major channels and the smaller tributar- The Erigan valley south of Fonthill has an elevation of 415 ft and ies is the strongly preferred alignment of N40°E to N60°E and, to a lesser may represent the highest level of the channel bed. At Fonthill, the Erigan extent, N50°W. These alignments recur in many of the buried valleys, changes to an easterly direction with elevation of 405 ft before regaining a

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northerly path at 390 ft. A topographic low present northwest of Fonthill channel further bifurcates into the Fifteen Mile Creek and Martindale is separated from the Erigan channel by a bedrock high immediately north Pond suboutlets. The eastern channel divides into the Port Weller and of Fonthill. This low raises the possibility that the Erigan crossed the Virgil suboutlets. This results in a total of five potential pathways lor the Niagara Escarpment through a double path reminiscent of the two water- Erigan to empty into Lake Ontario. A cross section of the bedrock topog- falls separated by Goat Island on the present-day Niagara River. The bed raphy from the Jordan Harbour outlet to Youngstown, New York (Fig. 4, elevation for the western arm is at 480 ft, or -80 ft higher than for the line E-W) is shown in Figure 6. eastern channel, indicating that this branch was abandoned long before the In the case of the northern and eastern outlets, the bedrock :opog- over-all channel became inactive. raphy shows a rise in elevation from the bedrock depression to On account of the restricted size of the Erigan valley between Font- approximately three-fourths of the way toward Lake Ontario. The chan- hill and St. Johns West, no wells to bedrock coincide with the presumed nels deepen again past this point. The bedrock rise is on the order of 40 to center of the channel, even though numerous boreholes to bedrock are 95 ft and coincides with the divide produced by the bedrock high extend- available along the valley walls. A gravity survey near the town of St. ing between the escarpment and the Lake Ontario shoreline. Associated Johns West was, therefore, conducted, consisting of 2 traverses nearly with these changes, the valley width of the two outlets decreases down- perpendicular to the Erigan channel and -0.6 mi apart (Fig. 3). The data stream, reaching a minimum at the bedrock divide. Farther downstream, from the southern traverse indicate the presence of a valley -0.25 mi in the valley widths increase following the bedrock deepening. Superimposed width and at an elevation close to the 380- to 410-ft level observed on these changes, the width of the northern and eastern channels narrows upstream. The northern traverse, in contrast, shows a floor elevation of as they bifurcate into suboutlets. Near Thorold, the eastern outlet is joined between 150 and 220 ft. The 190- to 230-ft drop present between both by a small buried channel that originates above the Niagara Escarpment. traverses indicates that the Erigan channel crosses the Niagara Escarpment Below the escarpment, this channel bifurcates into two branches separated somewhere along Ihe 0.6-mi distance separating both surveys. A probable by a bedrock high. Both branches empty into the eastern arm of the Erigan reconstruction of the bedrock profile following the thalweg of the Erigan and may be partly responsible for the local widening of this outlet. channel in the vicinity of the waterfall is shown in Figure 5. Wells located The Jordan Harbour channel differs from the other two outlets in along the Erigan valley and data from the Decew exposure along the that its valley width remains essentially constant and its depth is uniform, Niagara Escarpment (Bolton, 1957) were used to determine elevations of increasing only in the vicinity of the Lake Ontario shoreline. the various stratigraphic units. A partial profile of the Niagara River is also Elevation of the Jordan Harbour outlet is near 160 ft, whereas the shown for comparison. Fifteen Mile Creek and Martindale Pond suboutlets of the northern chan- From the base of the waterfall to the opening of the embayment at nel, measured along the bedrock high, are both at -200 ft. The Port the Niagara Escarpment, the Erigan channel drops from an elevation of Weller and Virgil suboutlets of the eastern channel are at an elevation of 220 ft into an apparent depression at 120 ft. Hughes (1970) first noted this 215 ft (Fig. 6). depression and considered it to be formed by glacial scouring. It may also The substantially lower elevation of the Jordan Harbour channel correspond to an earlier plunge pool or be the result of hydraulic scouring compared to the other outlets suggests that this channel was active when analogous to the Cataract Basin present on the Niagara River at the base of the other two outlets were abandoned or not yet formed. This is further the escarpment (Ki ndle and Taylor, 1913). supported by the fact that the combined cross-sectional area of the three The Erigan channel divides, beyond this depression, into the western outlets is significantly greater than that of the Niagara River. To maintain (or Jordan Harbour), northern, and eastern outlets (Fig. 4). The northern the three outlets simultaneously, in spite of their elevation differences, a

600 r NIAGARA RIVER

500

LU LUu

300 O

200

IOO

4 5

I 2 DISTANCE IN MILES km

Figure 5. Longitudinal profile and geology of the Erigan channel and Niagara River in the vicinity of their waterfalls.

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considerable discharge would be required. Although the elevation for the can be concluded that the ancestral Lake Ontario present when the north- northern channel is lower than that of the eastern outlet, the difference ern channel was active must have been similar to the existing lake level. may not be sufficient to provide unequivocal evidence for separate epi- Using the same reasoning for the eastern channel, the elevation of 215 ft sodes. It appears more probable that these outlets were also active during suggests a slightly higher lake level. Only the Jordan Harbour outlet, with separate episodes, because the combined cross-sectional area of the north- a floor elevation of 160 ft or less, indicates a significantly lower lake level, ern and eastern outlets is still larger than the Niagara River. This suggests at least 30 ft below present conditions. It should be clear that the base level that the Erigan channel underwent at least three phases of activation, each may not have been static in time, especially if the Erigan was active during characterized by a different outlet. In contrast, the concordance in eleva- interglacial periods, when factors such as isostatic readjustment create tions of the suboutlets and the decrease in valley width present at the rapid changes in elevation. bifurcation of the main channel into suboutlets suggest that the suboutlets within each main outlet were active concurrently. St. Davids Channel It is impossible to resolve the sequence of events that led to the formation of the observed topography in the outlets from the data availa- Kindle and Taylor (1913) suggested that the topographic low passing ble. The downstream valley narrowing and the rise in the channel bed through the city of Niagara Falls, New York, to join with the buried gorge present along the northern and eastern channels indicate a reversal in the above the Whirlpool could represent the remains of the St. Davids chan- topography not easily explained by a single phase of development. This nel. From the sparse well records available in this area, an elevation suggests that the outlets either underwent major modifications following ranging between 575 and 580 ft seems likely. Figure 4 indicates the their formation or developed utilizing a pre-existing valley system that they presence of another topographic low coinciding with the present course of modified. If the eastern and northern channels occupied the remains of a the Niagara River. This low, first recognized by Spencer (1907), was pre-existing watershed, its outlet was probably through Jordan Harbour, considered to have been formed by an older valley trending southwest. Its as this channel is lower in elevation and does not experience the reversal in elevation varies between 560 and 570 ft. A third and lowest valley extends topography observed in the other two outlets. Utilization of westward- through the city of Niagara Falls, Ontario, with an elevation of 545 ft. draining valleys by the northern and eastern channels could account for Whether the St. Davids channel bifurcated into three small branches sep- the observed topography. Alternatively, modification of the northern and arated by bedrock highs forming islands is not known. If so, the channels eastern channels when the Jordan Harbour channels was active is also must have rejoined in the vicinity of the Whirlpool. possible. Re-excavation of these outlets by local streams draining into the The path followed by the St. Davids drainage system upstream of this Jordan Harbour outlet could account for the reverse topography. The area is also unknown. A bedrock low extends from Crystal Beach to Thorold watershed with its double path below the escarpment also sug- Niagara Falls, but, with a floor elevation between 480 and 500 ft, this gests a multiple period of exposure, at least for the eastern outlet. channel is well below the bedrock near Niagara Falls and therefore was The elevation of the outlets constitutes relicts of pre-existing base probably not formed by the St. Davids waters. The absence of a bedrock levels; therefore, it may be possible to reconstruct the water level of the channel associated with this system raises the possibility that the St. Davids lakes present when the outlets were active. The bathymétrie map (Lower waters were flowing on glacial or interglacial sediments above the bedrock Niagara River, 1977) of the lower Niagara River shows a variation in bed topography, thus leaving little permanent trace of a channel position. elevation from 185 to 190 ft, whereas Lake Ontario average low water Downstream from the Whirlpool, the St. Davids River has eroded a datum is 242.8 ft above sea level (Fig. 6). The elevation of the northern deep gorge extending to the Niagara Escarpment. The topography of the channel is 200 ft and is almost identical to the bottom elevation of the channel reveals the presence of a small depression, —30 ft deep, upstream Niagara River. Assuming that hydrologie conditions were comparable to of the town of St. Davids and possibly representing an old plunge pool. those of the lower Niagara River when the Erigan channel was active, it Downstream, the bedrock rises to an elevation of 380 ft, followed farther

W E

i 1 3 km 5 HORIZONTAL DISTANCE (MILES)

Figure 6. West-east section of the bedrock topography from the Jordan Harbour buried channel to Youngstown, New York, line W-E in Figure 3.

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north by a drop of 120 ft as the channel emerges from the escarpment. Niagara River and originating at Niagara Falls. This valley was first identi- Although this area represents a small segment of the entire gorge, it sug- fied by Spencer (1907), who considered it to be part of the Falls-Chippawa gests that the water level of the St. Davids River was >380 ft, resulting in a system joining with the Erigan near Fonthill. Near the town of Fraser, the significant drop in elevation at the escarpment. The present-day Niagara Crystal Beach channel appears to bifurcate into two branches separated by River displays similar fluctuations in bedrock elevation along its course an elongated bedrock high. The southern branch, with elevation of -450 (Spencer, 1907; Kindle and Taylor, 1913; Philbrick, 1970). Farther up- ft, probably served as the main passageway. A low in the bedrock extends stream, near the Whirlpool, Spencer (1907) reported the drilling of a well due west of the northern branch to connect with the Erigan channel near reaching an elevation of 269 ft without encountering bedrock. It is evident Fonthill. Spencer (1907) considered this valley to represent part of the from these data that the exact elevation of the bedrock in the St. Davids Falls-Chippawa buried channel (Fig. 2). It is doubtful, in view of the data gorge remains uncertain and that additional data are needed before an now available, that this pathway served as a main inlet into the Erigan. accurate estimate of its average elevation can be made. Between Fraser and Wainfleet, where it joins the Erigan, the Crystal Past the escarpment, the St. Davids extends almost due north at an Beach channel takes on significantly different characteristics. Its valley elevation close to 185 ft near Lake Ontario. In addition to this main becomes narrow, with canyonlike walls in some localities. In addition, a channel, Hobson a nd Terasmae (1969) confirmed the presence of a branch number of buried channels, originating along the north shore of Lake Erie, extending northeast in the direction of Youngstown, New York, as origi- enter the Crystal Beach channel along this length; two of these pathways nally proposed by Forrester (1926). The data indeed show a topographic are located near Port Colborne, and two more are present opposite Long low at an elevation of 215 ft, slightly higher than at the main outlet. The Beach. data also reveal the presence of another possible valley, halfway between It is apparent that the Crystal Beach represents a complex valley the Youngstown channel and the Escarpment, with a direction parallel to system characterized by variable topographic properties. These properties, the Youngstown cutlet. The absence of wells farther east makes it impossi- however, provide a partial insight into the possible sequence of events that ble to estimate its elevation or path beyond that shown in Figure 4. With may have led to its formation. Except for the westerly inlet at Long Beach an elevation of -220 ft only a short distance from the main branch, this and the Fort Erie inlet, all other inlets to the Crystal Beach system have channel appears higher than the other two outlets. The difference in bed nearly the same elevation of 540-560 ft. This similarity is too extensive to elevations suggests that each of the drainage channels was active during be entirely coincidental and suggests that they served simultaneously as different periods of time. One possible explanation for their development, outlets for the Lake Erie waters into the Crystal Beach channel. Partition- but by no means the only one, is that the early St. Davids channel initially ing of the flow may account for the subdued erosion above the Onondaga bifurcated into a number of smaller outlets following pre-existing topo- Escarpment and the narrow valley width along portions of the Crystal graphic lows. Beach channel. It is doubtful, however, that this alone could explain all variations in valley widths. The most noticeable valley narrowing occurs Crystal Beach Channel between the two Port Colborne inlets, where upstream and downstream of this section the valley widens. Local tributaries joining the Crystal Beach The Crystal Beach channel originates near Crystal Beach, along the channel also appear to be oriented away from this section. These topo- north shore of Luke Erie. It extends across the Onondaga Escarpment graphic properties indicate that the Crystal Beach channel occupied the through a narrow channel with floor elevation close to 540 ft. On account pre-existing valleys of two watersheds draining in opposite directions and of either its short life span or its lack of erosive power, the Crystal Beach with divides between the Port Colborne inlets. channel must have been unable to significantly cut through the Onondaga It is not clear whether the westerly Long Beach inlet, with inflow Escarpment. The elevation also implies that the ancestral Lake Erie exist- directly into the Erigan, was active concurrently with the other outlets. Its ing during this phase was at least 540 ft and probably closer to 570 ft, an elevation of 480 ft is between 60 and 80 ft lower than that of the other elevation almost identical to the present-day lake level of 572 ft. inlets. If this channel was part of the Crystal Beach system, its elevation A closed bedrock depression below the escarpment with elevation of indicates that it captured the flow from Lake Erie as the other inlets 440 ft indicates the possible remains of a plunge pool. The rapid change in remained at higher elevations. Alternatively, its development could be elevation suggests that the Crystal Beach channel crossed the Escarpment associated with the Erigan channel and represent the relict of ari aban- through a waterfall ~ 100 ft high. Farther downstream, the channel extends doned inlet existing concurrently with the Lowbanks entrance to the eastward before taking a north-northwest direction from the southern end Erigan. of Grand Island to Chippawa, Ontario. The valley becomes wider, with a floor elevation be:ween 480 and 500 ft as it passes over the Salina Forma- HISTORY AND HYDRAULIC COMPARISON tion. The increased width may also be caused by the junction of several tributaries originating to the east. Their concordant elevation and integra- The major buried channels crossing the Niagara Peninsula have been tion with the Crystal Beach valley suggest that they were active concur- considered separately. Comparison of physical dimensions among the St. rently with this ¡system. The topographic low between Fort Erie and Davids, Erigan, and Crystal Beach channels with those of the Niagara Buffalo now occupied by the Niagara River may have served as another River provides some information into the time span and discharges that outlet for the anojstral Lake Erie waters. Modification of the bedrock by created them. the Niagara River and possibly by the St. Davids makes it difficult, how- The length of the Niagara gorge, as measured from the escarpment to ever, to determine whether this passageway was opened when the Crystal the Horseshoe Falls, is -6.8 mi, the St. Davids is 3.25 mi, and the Erigan Beach was active. re-entrance 2.85 mi. The bedrock elevation of the Niagara River above the The Crystal Beach channel turns to a southwesterly direction at Falls is close to 550 ft, whereas the Erigan has a maximum floor elevation Chippawa. It is joined by a small, buried valley now occupied by the of 415 ft. Although the exact path followed by the St. Davids channel

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upstream of the Whirlpool is unknown, of the three possible channelways factor as the flow (1.2 to 1.8), values of 0.55 to 0.36 ft/yr are obtained a range of elevations between 545 and 580 ft is suggested. These elevations using the present rate of 0.3 ft/yr. From these data, 28,000 to 42,000 yr indicate that little difference exists between the Niagara River and the St. would be required to erode the Erigan gorge. Even though these data are Davids, whereas the Erigan channel is at least 130 ft lower than these two only approximations, they represent a more realistic time span than that other channels. derived from the recession of the Horseshoe Falls. On the basis of these data and using recession rates for the Horseshoe In terms of the over-all characteristics of the Erigan-Crystal Beach Falls, it is possible to estimate the time required to erode the St. Davids channels, two phases are evident from the bedrock topography. During the and Erigan gorges. Modern rates of recession for the Niagara River are Lowbanks phase, the ancestral Lake Erie water level was controlled by the relatively well known from repeated surveys of the Horseshoe Falls under- 415-ft elevation occurring inland along the Erigan channel. As this eleva- taken between 1842 and 1950, giving estimates ranging from 4.2 to 2.2 tion is 157 ft lower than the present-day Lake Erie level (572 ft), most of ft/yr (American Falls International Board, 1974). An extensive discussion the ancestral Lake Erie depression must have been exposed. Only the of the factors affecting the recession of the Falls was published by Philbrick eastern and deepest part of the lake may have been occupied by a small (1974). Using these rates, Calkin (1966) calculated that 4,000 to 8,000 yr lake or swamp. This phase may be in sharp contrast to conditions prevail- were necessary to form the St. Davids gorge and, on the basis of the same ing when the Crystal Beach channel was active. The waterfalls along this assumptions, 3,600 to 6,800 yr are needed to account for the position of channel indicate a minimum ancestral Lake Erie water level at 540 ft. This the Erigan waterfall. suggests that a lake probably very similar in extent to today's Lake Erie The above observations indicate that, like the Niagara River, the St. existed at that time. Davids gorge was eroded relatively quickly, producing a deep canyon, The bedrock topography of the Niagara Peninsula west of this study with little time for tributaries to develop. This deduction is difficult to and of Lake Erie does not reveal the presence of other major buried valleys reconcile with the possibility that the St. Davids served as the outlet through which the Lake Erie watershed could have drained (Karrow, channel between Erie and Ontario during the Sangamon Interglacial. The 1973; Wall, 1968; and Hobson and others, 1969). This raises the possibil- time span of 10,000 to 50,000 yr (Lamb, 1977) for this interglacial is ity that the Erigan system drainage may ultimately represent the remains of certainly in excess of the period required to produce the St. Davids gorge, a preglacial watershed, as suggested by Spencer (1907), but modified by as described above. If active during the Sangamon, with a discharge sim- glacial action and by the resumption of drainage during periods of glacial ilar to that of the Niagara River, the St. Davids channel must have been retreat. abandoned relatively quickly and the Upper Great Lakes drainage re- routed. The remote possibility exists that the St. Davids was abandoned in DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS favor of another path such as the Crystal Beach channel. It is doubtful, however, that the flow through the Crystal Beach channel was ever com- The bedrock topography of the Erigan-Crystal Beach system indi- parable to the discharge of the present Niagara River. In addition, the cates that drainage between Lakes Erie and Ontario must have existed for multiple inlets associated with the Crystal Beach channel would have a considerable period of time. The elevation of this channel system, almost resulted in an even lower flow through its eastern section. The remaining 135 ft below that of the Niagara River, and the presence of multiple outlets uncertainty on the depth of the St. Davids gorge and its possible high into Lake Ontario are in sharp contrast to the limited retreat of the water- elevation may indicate that a lower discharge passed through this drainage fall along the Niagara Escarpment. This indicates that, when active, only a system, requiring a longer period of time for its formation. limited volume of water flowed between Lake Erie and Ontario compared In the case of the Erigan-Crystal Beach channels, the extensive tribu- to present-day conditions. tary system and the 130-ft-lower level of their channels compared to the During the previous glaciation, following the retreat of the Wisconsin Niagara or St. Davids suggest a period of activity considerably in excess of ice from the Ontario depression, part of the drainage of the glacial Upper the few thousand years derived from the retreat of their waterfall. To Great Lakes was initially routed through the Niagara Peninsula and account for this apparent paradox, only a restricted volume of water through the Chicago outlet (Prest, 1970; Hough, 1963). Further retreat of passing through the Erigan would allow an increase in the time during the ice and isostatic lowering of the land in northern Ontario resulted in which this system was active and limit the retreat of its waterfall. the opening of several northern outlets (Trent and Ottawa River Valleys in A major reduction in the flow could be achieved if the Upper Great Fig. 1) capturing part, and later all, of the flow from the Upper Great Lakes did not empty into Lake Erie. A runoff of 20,000 cfs for the Lake Lakes. In the late phases of déglaciation, isostatic uplift raised the elevation Erie drainage basin alone is estimated from the discharge of the Niagara of the northern outlets, restoring drainage to the south. The above phases River less the inflow from the St. Clair-Detroit River. To evaluate the could have been shorter or possibly eliminated if the bedrock low, known recession rate associated with this flow, comparison with the American as the Laurentian valley, extending from Georgian Bay to Toronto (Fig. 1), Falls, which has a smaller discharge than that of the Horseshoe Falls, is had been used as a route for the outflow of the glacial Upper Great Lakes. more appropriate. Recession rates of 0.6 ft/yr (Spencer, 1907), 0.2 ft/yr Its elevation, slightly above 400 ft (White and Karrow, 1971), provides a (Gilbert, 1907), and 0.3 ft/yr (American Falls International Board, 1974) pathway lower than the northern outlets; also, its position south of these have been proposed for the American Falls and correspond to a flow channels would have resulted in an earlier abandonment of the southern ranging from 11,000 to 16,000 cfs (International Niagara Working Com- drainage occurring during the initial phase of déglaciation. mittee, 1977; Philbrick, 1974). On the basis of these data, the runoff from It can only be speculated that the accumulation of drift caused the the Lake Erie watershed alone appears to be 1.2 to 1.8 times greater than Laurentian valley to remain unused during the last déglaciation. Fluvial or the flow of the American Falls. Although it is not known what effect a lacustrine sediments of the Don Formation along the north shore of Lake higher discharge would have on the rate of recession of the American Ontario (Freeman, 1978; Karrow, 1969; Terasmae, 1960) suggest that this Falls, if it is assumed that the rate of recession is increased by the same route was probably active during Sangamon time. This indicates that the

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drainage of the Upper Great Lakes was routed through the Laurentian 1981b, Bedrock topography of the Grimsby area, southern Ontario: Ontario Geological Survey Preliminary Map P. 2401, River and only the Lake Erie watershed drained through the Niagara 1981c, Bedrock topography of the Dunnville area, southern Ontario: Ontario Geological Survey Preliminary Map P. 2402. Peninsula. Lake Michigan and Georgian Bay, with a present water level of I981d, Bedrock topography of the Welland-Fort Erie area, southern Ontario: Ontario Geological Survey Prelimi- 580 ft, would have been almost 180 ft lower. Georgian Bay, with a large nary Map P. 2403. Flint, R. F., 1971, Glacial and Quaternary geology: New York, John Wiley and Sons, 892 p. portion of its basin above the 400-ft elevation, would be considerably Forrester, G. C., 1926, Origin of the buried Whirlpool-St. Davids Gorge: American Journal of Science, v. 12, ?. 244-248. Freeman, E. B., 1978, Geology of the greater Toronto region, in Curie, A. L., and Mackasey, W. O., Toronto '78, field reduced. Less drastic reductions would result on the aerial extent of Lake trips guidebook: Geological Association of Canada, p. 84-92. Michigan and Huron. The 70-mi-long Straits of Machinac connecting Gilbert, G. K., 1907, Rate of recession of Niagara Falls: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 306. Hobson, G. D., and Gagne, R. M., 1975, Seismic refraction survey, eastern Niagara Peninsula, Ontario, 30LM: Canada these lakes, with a water depth ranging between 150 and 200 ft (Hough, Geological Survey Paper 75-1C, p. 227-229. Hobson, G. D., and Terasmae, J., 1969, Pleistocene geology of the buried St. Davids gorge, Niagara Falls, Ontario: 1958), would undoubtedly take the appearance of a river channel, the Geophysical and palynological studies: Geological Survey of Canada Paper 68-67,7 p. depth of which may reflect the base level induced by the Laurentian River. Hobson, G. D., Herdendorf, G. E., and Lewis, C.F.M., 1969, High resolution reflection seismic survey in wsstcm Lake Erie: Great Lakes Research Conference, 12th, Proceedings, p. 210-224. The recent compilation of buried organic sediments in the Michigan Pen- Horberg, L., and Anderson, R. C., 1950, Bedrock topography and Pleistocene glacial lobes in central Urited States: Journal of Geology, v. 64, p. 101-116. insula by Rieck and Winters (1982) revealed that the lowest pre-existing Hough, J. L., 1958, Geology of the Great Lakes: Urbana, Illinois, University of Illinois Press, 313 p. base level occurs at an elevation close to 400 ft, coinciding with the 1963, The prehistoric Great Lakes of North America: American Scientist, v. 51, p. 84-109. Hughes, R. J., 1970, The glaciation of the Short Hills, St. Catharines, Ontario [M.Sc. thesis]: Hamilton, Ontario, McMaster Laurentian level. It is therefore probable that, while the Erigan-Crystal University, 136 p. Humarian, H., 1975, Past and present stability and evolution of the Niagara gorge in the vicinity of the Niigara Glen, Beach system was active, only the Lake Erie watershed drained through Niagara Falls, Ontario [M.Sc. thesis]: Waterloo, Ontario, University of Waterloo, 148 p. the Niagara Peninsula and the Upper Great Lakes emptied into Lake International Niagara Working Committee, 1977, A report to the Niagara Board of Control concerning Amsrican Falls flows: Niagara Board of Control, 10 p. Ontario using the Laurentian River. It is also evident that if the St. Davids Johnston, R. H., 1964, Ground-water in the Niagara Falls area. New York: New York State Water Resourcts Commis- sion Bulletin G.W-53,93 p. was eroded by a flow similar to the present-day Niagara River, the Lauren- Karrow, P. F., 1969, Stratigraphic studies in the Toronto Pleistocene: Geological Association of Canada, Proceedings, tian River must not have been opened when this channel was active. The v. 20, p. 4-16. 1973, Bedrock topography in southwestern Ontario: A progress report: Geological Association of Canada, St. Davids channel may represent the only period, other than at present, Proceedings, v. 25, p. 67-77. Kindle, E. M„ and Taylor, F. B., 1913, U.S. Geological Survey, Geological Atlas, Niagara Folio 190. when the Great Likes have emptied through the Niagara Peninsula. Lamb, H. H., 1977, Climate, volume 2, Climatic history and the future: London, Methuen and Co. Ltd., p. 8:5. LaSala, A. M., Jr. 1968, Ground-water resources of the Erie Basin, New York: New York Water Resources Commission Basin Planning Report ENB-3, 114 p. Lewis, C.F.M., 1969, Late Quaternary history of lake levels in the Huron and Erie basins: Great Lake» Research ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Conference, 12th, Proceedings, p. 250-270. Lolcama, J. L., 1980, The bedrock topography of the buried Erigan River system, southern Ontario [B.Sc. thesis]: St. Catharines, Ontario, Brock University, 50 p. The authors are indebted to the many organizations and individuals Lower Niagara River, 1977, Ocean and Atmos. Admin. Natl. Ocean Survey, chart 16816. Lyell, C., 1845, Travels in North America in the years 1841-42; with geological observations on the Un ted States, who kindly provided subsurface data for this project. The assistance of Canada and Nova Scotia: New York, Wiley and Putnam. Owen, E. B., 1972, Geology and engineering description of the soils in Welland-Port Colbome area, On tar o: Canada J. Greenhouse and M. E. Monier-Williams (University of Waterloo), who Geological Survey Paper 71-49, 5 p. performed all gravity reduction and model calculation for the gravity Philbrick, S. S., 1970, Horizontal configuration and the rate of erosion of Niagara Falls: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 81, p. 3723-3732. surveys, is acknowledged. This project was in part supported by a grant 1974, What future for Niagara Falls?: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 85, p. 91-98. Prest, V. K., 1970, Quaternary geology of Canada, in Geology and economic minerals of Canada: Department of Energy, from the National. Research Council of Canada. P. E. Calkin and S. S. Mines and Resources, p. 677-764. Philbrick reviewed the original manuscript and offered many helpful Rieck, L. R., and Winters, H. A., 1982, Low-altitude organic deposits in Michigan: Evidence for pre-Woodfor lian Great Lakes and paleosurfaces: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 93, p. 726-734. suggestions. Sanford, B. V., 1954, Haldimand County and parts of Brant, Wentworth, and Lincoln Counties Ontario: Canada Geological Survey Paper 53-30, 2 maps. 1956, Welland County Ontario: Canada Geological Survey Paper 55-20,2 maps. REFERENCES CITED Spencer, J. W., 1907, Falls of the Niagara: Their evolution and varying relations to the Great Lakes; characteristics of the power and effects of its diversion: Canada Geological Survey of Canada Publication 970,490 p. American Falls International Hoard, 1974, Preservation and enhancement of the American Falls at Niagara: Final report Telford, P. G., and Tarrant, G. A., 1975, Paleozoic geology of the Welland-Fort Erie area, southern Ontari x Ontario Division of Mines Preliminary Map P. 980. to the International Jont Commission, Appendix C - Geology and rock mechanics, 71 p. Bolton, T. E„ I9S7, Silurian stratigraphy and paleontology of the Niagara Escarpment in Ontario: Canada Geological Terasmae, J., 1960, A palynological study of Pleistocene Intergladal beds at Toronto, Ontario, Canada Gtologi al Survey Bulletin 56, p. 24-40. Survey Memoir 289,145 p. Bolton, T. E„ and Liberty, II. A., 19SS, Silurian stratigraphy of the Niagara Escarpment, Ontario: Michigan Basin U S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1952, Seismic survey of Grand Island: Waterways experiment station, Vicksburg, Mississsippi, 8 p. Geological Society, Annual Field Trip. p. 18-38. Calkin, P. E., 1966, Late Pleistocene history of northwestern New York, in Geology of New York Guidebook: New York U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Buffalo district, 1973, Review of reports on Lake Erie-Lake Ontario waterway, New York, Appendix B—Geology, soil, and materials: State Geological Association, 38tb Annual Meeting, p. 58-68. Calkin, P. E., and Brett, C. E., 1978, Ancestral Niagara River drainage: Stratigraphic and paleontologic setting: Geological Wall, R. E., 1968, A sub-bottom reflection survey in the central basin of Lake Erie: Geological Society o' America Bulletin, v. 79, p. 91-106. Society of America Buletin, v. 89, p. 1140-1154. Calkin, P. E., Dennis, S. H., Stoiber, G. A., and Weir, G. M„ 1978, Geotechnical report on the proposed Scajaquada White, O. L.,and Karrow, P. F., 1971, New evidence for Spencer's Laurentian River: Great Lakes Research C)nference, 14th, Proceedings, p. 394-400. Tunnel Interceptor Sever, Buffalo, New York: Buffalo Sewer Authority, 36 p. Chapman, L. J., and Putnam, D. F., 1966, The physiography of southern Ontario: Toronto, Ontario, University of Toronto Press, 386 p. MANUSCRIPT RECEIVED BY THE SOCIETY APRIL 16,1984 Feenstra, B. H., 1981a, Bedrcck topography of the Niagara and Niagara-on-the-lake area, southern Ontario: Ontario REVISED MANUSCRIPT RECEIVED AUGUST 28,1985 Geological Survey Preliminary Map P. 2400. MANUSCRIPT ACCEPTED AUGUST 30,1985

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