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Chola Naval Activity The Cholas are well-known for their sustained naval policy from the days of Rajaraja to Kulottunga I A relatively small state at his accession, hardly recovering from the effects of the Rashtrakuta invasion, the Chola kingdom grew under him into an extensive and well-knit empire efficiently organized and administered, rich in resources, and possessed of a powerful standing army and navy, well tried and equal to the greatest enterprises. Prepared by Gautam Mukhopadhyay, Ramakrishna Mission Vidyamandira, Belur Math Howrah Rajaraja In a third campaign, a naval expedition, he overran the northern part of Ceylon, forcing Mahendra V to take refuge in the hill country in the south-east of the island. Anuradhapura was destroyed, and Polonnaruva became the capital of a Chola province. Towards the end of his reign, he is credited with the conquest of 12000 islands in the open sea, usually identified with the Maldive islands, by a successful maritime operation. The magnificent Shiva temple Rajarajesvara at Tanjore, completed in 1010, fittingly commemorates the glory of his reign which came to an end with his death in 1014. Prepared by Gautam Mukhopadhyay, Ramakrishna Mission Vidyamandira, Belur Math Howrah Rajendra I Rajaraja formerly installed Rajendra as ‘yuvaraja’ in 1012. Rajaraja encouraged Sri Mara Vijayottungavarman, the Sailendra ruler of Sri Vijaya and Kataha across the Bay of Bengal, to build a Buddhist vihara at Negapatam. The vihara was called Chudamani vihara. Rajendra I established a new capital in Tiruchirapalli district named Gangaikondacholapuram in 1022. Prepared by Gautam Mukhopadhyay, Ramakrishna Mission Vidyamandira, Belur Math Howrah Early in his reign in 1018 he installed his son Rajadhiraja I as yuvaraja . He invaded Ceylon and completed the conquest of the island begun by his father. Ceylon became a mandalam or province of the Chola Empire. Mahendra V was taken prisoner and transported to the Chola country where he died twelve years later. Prepared by Gautam Mukhopadhyay, Ramakrishna Mission Vidyamandira, Belur Math Howrah Thereafter his Mahendra V’s son Kassapa became the centre of Sinhalese resistance against the Tamil power After a war of six months in which a great number of Tamils were killed by the Sinhalese force, he made himself king of the southern half of the island, Rohana He ruled as Vikramabahu I for twelve years from 1029. Prepared by Gautam Mukhopadhyay, Ramakrishna Mission Vidyamandira, Belur Math Howrah The Kadaram campaign (1025-26) This was followed by the most raining of all Chola raids, the Kadaram campaign in AD1025-26 when no less than 12 areas in south -east Asia were conquered by the Chola fleet. The Kadaram campaign was successful Prepared by Gautam Mukhopadhyay, Ramakrishna Mission Vidyamandira, Belur Math Howrah Conquerred areas Sri Vijaya (Palembang in Sumatra), Pannai (Ponnani in the east coast of Sumatra), Malaiyur (on the northern shore of the Singapore Strait), Maiyuradingam (central part of the Malay peninsula), Ilangasoka (south of Kedah in the Malay peninsula), Mapappallam (Talaing country in lower Burma), Mevilingbangam (not properly identified), Valaippanduru (not properly identified), Talaittakkollam (Takua-pa in Thiland), Madamalingam (west coast of the Malay peninsula), Manakkavaram (Nicobar Island) and Kadaram (Kedah on the west coast of the Malay peninsula). Prepared by Gautam Mukhopadhyay, Ramakrishna Mission Vidyamandira, Belur Math Howrah Though the conquered areas were not annexed to the Chola Empire, the campaign certainly speaks of the power of the Chola fleet at its zenith. The relations between Sri Vijaya and the Chola Empire had been quite friendly in the time of Rajaraja and in the early years of Rajendra’s reign when Rajendra’s friendship was sought also by the ruler of Kamboja . In a copper inscription of Rajendra I dated 1020 clearly states about offering of gifts by the king of Kamboja to the Chola monarch. Another inscription found in Chidambaram also supports the fact. Prepared by Gautam Mukhopadhyay, Ramakrishna Mission Vidyamandira, Belur Math Howrah Reason behind the expedition The Chola monarchs sent embassies, partly diplomatic and partly commercial, to china which reached that country in 1016, 1033, and 1077 AD. Rajendra’s war against Sri Vijaya occurred in 1025, which is between the dates of the first and second embassies to China. K.A.N. Sastri says that whether it was rendered necessary by an attempt on Sri Vijaya’s part to obstruct the Chola intercourse with China or was simply the result of Rajendra’s desire to win glory by extending his ‘digvijaya’ to the countries across the sea, we cannot say. Prepared by Gautam Mukhopadhyay, Ramakrishna Mission Vidyamandira, Belur Math Howrah Kadaram and the capital Sri Vijaya itself were sacked and king Sangrama Vijayottungavarman, Mara Vijayottungavarman’s successor, was taken captive. The campaign apparently ended with the restoration of the kingdom to its ruler subject to his acknowledging Chola suzerainty. A fragmentary Tamil inscription from Sumatra bearing the date 1088 shows that active intercourse between the Chola kingdom and Sri Vijaya was maintained continuously for several generations. Prepared by Gautam Mukhopadhyay, Ramakrishna Mission Vidyamandira, Belur Math Howrah Post-Rajendra phase Ceylon Vijayabahu ultimately succeeded in the ouster of the Cholas from the island in 1070 that coincided with Kulottunga I’s accession to throne. South -east Asia There are some references in the Kalingattupparani of Jayangodar to Kulottunga’s launching maritime ventures in South-east Asia, but these are not corroborated by specific epigraphic materials. However, the Chola aggressive attitudes towards the sea are not seen after the end of Kulottunga’s reign in 1120 AD. Prepared by Gautam Mukhopadhyay, Ramakrishna Mission Vidyamandira, Belur Math Howrah Kulottunga’s achievements Up to 1115 the extent of the Chola Empire remained undiminished under Kulottunga, except for the loss of Ceylon, and included the entire country south of the Krishna and Tungabhadra extending at least up to the Godavari on the east coast. The emperor maintained diplomatic relations with distant kingdoms like Kanauj in northern India, Kamboja in Indo-China, and with Kyanzittha, ruler of Pagan. But towards the end of his reign troubles arose in several parts of his territory. Prepared by Gautam Mukhopadhyay, Ramakrishna Mission Vidyamandira, Belur Math Howrah Motives behind the Expeditions Views of the Historians D.N. Jha – “Feudal Social Formation in Early India” It is stated that the main purpose of the naval invasions by the Chola kings was actually political and they wanted to expand their political control beyond the sea. So it was actually a part of their imperialistic policy or ‘digvijaya’. Prepared by Gautam Mukhopadhyay, Ramakrishna Mission Vidyamandira, Belur Math Howrah G.W. Spenser “Politics and Expansion: The Chola Conquest of Srilanka and Srivijaya” According to him actually the Chola economy was based on plundering. Criticism It is impossible to accept that an empire did survive only depending upon the wealth gained from only plundering. Prepared by Gautam Mukhopadhyay, Ramakrishna Mission Vidyamandira, Belur Math Howrah N. Karashima – “Ancient and Medieval Commercial Activities in the Indian Ocean” & Y. Subbarayalu – “South India under the Cholas” Chola attitude towards economic activities and particularly to mercantile groups would go to show the awareness of the Cholas of the importance of commerce. This, in its turn, the Cholas undertook the maritime expeditions to South-east Asia not for short-term plunder motive, but with a long-range view of minimizing the role of Sri Vijaya as the intermediary between the Choals and Sung China. Prepared by Gautam Mukhopadhyay, Ramakrishna Mission Vidyamandira, Belur Math Howrah Tansen Sen “Buddhism, Diplomacy and Trade: The Realignment of Sino-Indian Relation 600-1400 ” He analyses the Sung sources demonstrates that the Chola rulers involved prominent Muslim Arab merchants in course of as many as three Chola missions. It was this appreciation of the importance of trade on a long-term basis that prompted Kulottunga I to abolish tolls and customs at a time when he consciously enhanced the status of the port of Visakhapattinam and so that he was titled by ‘Sunganadavirttachola’. Prepared by Gautam Mukhopadhyay, Ramakrishna Mission Vidyamandira, Belur Math Howrah Conclusion The maritime activities of the Cholas were launched to serve their economic interest, and nothing else. Ceylon was actually the only exception. The Tamil merchants became more active after the weakness of the Arabian merchants in Indian Ocean. It was a unique feature in Indian history of early medieval period. Prepared by Gautam Mukhopadhyay, Ramakrishna Mission Vidyamandira, Belur Math Howrah.
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