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Ethiopia and the Beginnings of the UNESCO World Heritage Programme 1960- 1980

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Ethiopia and the Beginnings of the UNESCO World Heritage Programme 1960- 1980 Ethiopia and the beginnings of the UNESCO World Heritage programme 1960- 1980 D i s s e r t a t i o n zur Erlangung des akademischen Grades Doctor philosophiae (Dr. phil.) eingereicht an der Philosophischen Fakultät der Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin von M.A. Marie Huber Die Präsidentin der Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin Prof. Dr.-Ing. Dr. Sabine Kunst Die Dekanin der Philosophischen Fakultät Prof. Dr. Gabriele Metzler Gutachter/innen Erstgutachter: Prof Dr. Andreas Eckert Zweitgutachterin: Prof Dr. Sandrine Kott Verteidigt am 19.12.2017 Vorsitzende der Promotionskommission: Prof. Dr. Birgit Aschmann In der Arbeit wird die historische Genese des UNESCO Welterbe-Programms zwischen 1960 und 1980 untersucht, insbesondere im Hinblick auf die Rolle der sogenannten Entwicklungsländer in diesem Prozess. Die UNESCO engagierte sich in vielen dieser Länder im Bereich des Kultur- und Naturschutzes, zu einem Zeitpunkt an dem der Aufbau eines nationalen Erbes für diese Länder von besonderer Bedeutung war. Die Schlüsselkonzepte des Welterbediskurses: Nationales Erbe, Denkmalpflege und Humanität, sind europäischen Ursprungs und westlicher Natur. In Bezug auf die Entwicklungsländer gestaltete sich die Etablierung eines nationalen Erbes und die Konstruktion eines historischen Narratives in den meisten Fällen als Zusammenarbeit zwischen internationalen Experten und nationalen politischen Eliten. Außerdem galt vielen der involvierten Akteure Kulturtourismus in Entwicklungsländern, angeregt durch Altertümer und wilde Natur, als entscheidende Einnahmequelle für Devisen. Identifikation, Institutionalisierung und Ausübung von Denkmalpflege zu finanzieren war vielfach Bestandteil von Entwicklungshilfeprogrammen und Äthiopien ist ein besonders anschauliches Beispiel für diese Praxis. Die Welterbekonvention wurde in Äthiopien ab 1977 mit großem Erfolg umgesetzt, gleichzeitig jedoch herrschte ein Mangel an entsprechend ausgebildeten Fachkräften – Archäologen, Denkmalpfleger oder Kunsthistoriker– im Land um die Vorhaben tatsächlich umzusetzen. Das wirtschaftliche Potential von Kulturtourismus wurde als vielversprechend gelobt und Gelder für Denkmalpflege und Artenschutz wurden teilweise nur unter der Prämisse der touristischen Erschließung bereitgestellt. Äthiopiens Rolle in der Entstehungsphase des Welterbe-Programms ermöglicht es, die komplexen Prozesse der Wissensproduktion und Politisierung zu verstehen, die den Welterbe-Diskurs so maßgeblich prägen. This dissertation looks into the historic genesis of the UNESCO World Heritage Programme, and gives a special relevance to the role of so-called developing countries in this. UNESCO was highly active in the field of conservation in these countries at a time that the establishment and promotion of a national heritage was perceived desirable by them. National heritage, conservation and humanitarianism – key concepts promoted in the World Heritage discourse – are European in their origin and Western in their nature. In the context of so-called developing countries, the establishment of a nation’s heritage was often a hybrid effort of international experts and national political elites, serving evolving national narratives. On a more concrete level, many actors involved saw cultural tourism, stimulated by monuments and wildlife, as a crucial source of foreign currency for these countries. Funding the identification and institutionalisation of heritage, and the conservation and management of heritage sites, was a practise occurring within and alongside other forms of technical assistance and developmental aid. Ethiopia provides a particular vivid example of these events. Ethiopia implemented the World Heritage Convention in 1977, with great effort and success. At the same time, the country was confronted with a skills-shortage crisis, due to there being at that time few native Ethiopian archaeologists, conservators, or art historians. The economic potential of heritage tourism in Ethiopia was appreciated early on and funds for conservation were sometimes raised entirely based upon the argument that the conservation of monuments would foster tourism, and development. Understanding the links between Ethiopia and the World Heritage programme during it’s initial phase provides insights into the complex processes of knowledge production, and politics, that constitutes the World Heritage discourse. List of Abbreviations .................................................................................................................................................................... 4 Introduction .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 5 Key concepts and literature review .................................................................................................................................. 7 Decolonisation and the first UN Development Decade ................................................................................. 9 Heritage, knowledge and power ....................................................................................................................................... 16 The heritage debate in Africa and Ethiopia: heritage in service of nation building ............ 22 Periodisation .................................................................................................................................................................................... 26 Synopsis ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 27 Source material and methodological questions ................................................................................................. 29 1. Heritage-making as a development activity of ..................................................................................................... 31 UNESCO in the 1960s and 1970s ............................................................................................................................................. 31 1.1 How universal heritage became part of UNESCO ..................................................................................... 32 Cultural conservation ......................................................................................................................................................... 33 Natural conservation ........................................................................................................................................................... 36 Bringing together natural and cultural heritage in the World Heritage Convention .. 38 1.2 Universal heritage as a Western discourse ....................................................................................................... 40 UNESCO as a knowledge-producing authority ............................................................................................. 41 The Monuments Campaign .......................................................................................................................................... 42 Monuments as icons of civilisation ........................................................................................................................ 44 1.3 Universal heritage as part of the development discourse .................................................................. 46 Conservation as a Western science .......................................................................................................................... 47 Heritage-making as development aid for nation-building ................................................................. 48 Development programmes and UNESCO’s organisational growth ............................................. 51 The “conservator’s gaze” and the developing world ................................................................................ 54 2. Ethiopia and UNESCO: a strategic teamwork ........................................................................................................ 57 2.1 UNESCO’s interest in Ethiopia ................................................................................................................................... 58 Ethiopia’s relevance as a diplomatic hub ........................................................................................................... 58 Diplomatic misunderstanding ..................................................................................................................................... 59 2.2 Ethiopia’s interest in UNESCO .................................................................................................................................. 61 Foreign experts in Ethiopia: key actors for state modernisation and diplomacy ............ 62 Practical difficulties of international cooperation .................................................................................... 64 Ethiopia as a voice for developing and African countries in UNESCO .................................... 66 2.3 UNESCO-Ethiopian communication and cooperation ...................................................................... 68 General conditions and problems of communication .......................................................................... 69 The power of having the last word: the Ethiopian government’s control over UNESCO operations .............................................................................................................................................................
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