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Saudi Arabia

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arid,sparselypopulatedkingdomoftheMiddleEast.

ExtendingacrossmostofthenorthernandcentralArabianPeninsula,Saudi Arabiaisayoungcountrythatisheirtoarichhistory.Initswesternhighlands, alongtheRedSea,liestheHejaz,whichisthecradleofandthesiteof thatreligion'sholiestcities,and.Inthecountry'sgeographic Prominent escarpmentofthe heartlandisaregionknownasNajd(“Highland”),avastaridzonethatuntil TuwayqMountains, recenttimeswasarichpasticheofwarringandfeudingBedouintribesandclans. justsouthof, Totheeast,alongthePersianGulf,arethecountry'sabundantoilfieldsthat, SaudiArabia. sincethe1960s,havemadeSaudiArabiasynonymouswithpetroleumwealth. Jane Lewis/Stone Thosethreeelements—religion,tribalism,anduntoldwealth—havefueledthe country'ssubsequenthistory.

ItwasonlywiththeriseoftheSa'udfamily(AlSa'ud)—aNajdigroupforwhichthecountryis named—anditseventualconsolidationofpowerintheearly20thcenturythatSaudiArabiabegan totakeonthecharacteristicsofamoderncountry.ThesuccessoftheSa'udswasdue,inno smallpart,tothemotivatingideologyofWahhabism,anaustereformofIslamthatwas embracedbyearlyfamilyleadersandthatbecamethestatecreed.Thisdeepreligious conservatismhasbeenaccompaniedbyaubiquitoustribalism—inwhichcompetingfamilygroups vieforresourcesandstatus—thatoftenhasmadeSaudisocietydifficultforoutsidersto comprehend.EnormousoilwealthhasfueledhugeandrapidinvestmentinSaudiArabia's infrastructure.Manycitizenshavebenefitedfromthisgrowth,butitalsohassupportedlavish lifestylesforthescionsoftherulingfamily,andreligiousconservativesandliberaldemocrats alikehaveaccusedthefamilyofsquanderingandmishandlingthecountry'swealth.Inaddition, civildiscontentincreasedafterthePersianGulfWar(1990–91)overthecountry'sclosetiestothe West,symbolizednotablybytheU.S.troopsstationedinSaudiArabiauntil2005.

Inthemid20thcentury,mostofSaudiArabiastillembracedatraditional lifestylethathadchangedlittleoverthousandsofyears.Sincethen,thepaceof lifeinSaudiArabiahasacceleratedrapidly.Theconstantflowofpilgrimsto MeccaandMedina(vastthrongsarrivefortheannualhajj,andmorepilgrims Pilgrimsonthehajj visitthroughouttheyearforthelesserpilgrimage,the 'umrah )hadalways filltheGreatMosque, Mecca,SaudiArabia. providedthecountrywithoutsidecontacts,butinteractionwiththeoutside Nabeel Turner— worldhasexpandedwithinnovationsintransportation,technology,and Stone/Getty Images organization.Morerecently,petroleumhaswroughtirreversibledomestic

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changes —educationalandsocialaswellaseconomic.Modernmethodsofproductionhavebeen superimposedonatraditionalsocietybytheintroductionofmillionsofforeignworkersandby theemploymentofhundredsofthousandsofSaudisinnontraditionaljobs.Inaddition,tensof thousandsofSaudistudentshavestudiedabroad,mostintheUnitedStates.Television,radio, andtheInternethavebecomecommonmediaofcommunicationandeducation,andhighways andairwayshavereplacedtraditionalmeansoftransportation.

SaudiArabia,onceacountryofsmallcitiesandtowns,hasbecomeincreasinglyurban; traditionalcentressuchasJiddah,Mecca,andMedinahavegrownintolargecities,andthe capital,Riyadh,aformeroasistown,hasgrownintoamodernmetropolis.Manyoftheregion's traditionalnomads,theBedouin,havebeensettledincitiesoragrariancommunities.The sedentarypopulationofthecountryviewsthosefewBedouinwhomaintainthetraditionaldesert lifestylewithdeepambivalence.Theyare,atthesametime,thelinktothecountry'spastand itssolidfoundation.InthewordsofSandraMackey,anAmericanwriterandtraveler:

Psychologically,theBedouinrepresentstothepresentdaySaudiwhattheWestern cowboyfolkherorepresentstoanAmerican.AndlikeAmericans,theSaudishave createdfromtheBedouin,idealizedasadesertwarrior,apowerfulprototypethat influencestheirvaluesystemandtheirpatternsofbehavior.Nomatterhowmuchthe variousgeographicregionsofSaudiArabiamaydifferorhowfaraSaudiisremoved fromthedesert,theBedouinethosisthebedrockoftheculture.

Land

ThecountryoccupiesaboutfourfifthsoftheArabianPeninsula.Itisborderedby Jordan,Iraq,andKuwaittothenorth;bythePersianGulf,Qatar,theUnited ArabEmirates,andOmantotheeast;byaportionofOmantothesoutheast;by Yementothesouthandsouthwest;andbytheRedSeaandtheGulfofAqabato thewest.LongrunningborderdisputeswerenearlyresolvedwithYemen(2000) andQatar(2001);theborderwiththeUnitedArabEmiratesremainsundefined. Aterritoryof2,200squaremiles(5,700squarekm)alongthegulfcoastwas sharedbyKuwaitandSaudiArabiaasaneutralzoneuntil1969,whenapoliticalboundarywas agreedupon.Eachofthetwocountriesadministersonehalfoftheterritory,buttheyequally shareoilproductionintheentirearea.ThecontroversyovertheSaudiIraqiNeutralZonewas legallysettledin1981bypartition,yetconflictbetweenthetwocountriespersistedand preventedfinaldemarcationontheground.

Relief

TheArabianPeninsulaisdominatedbyaplateauthatrisesabruptlyfromtheRed SeaanddipsgentlytowardthePersianGulf.Inthenorth,thewesternhighlands areupwardof5,000feet(1,500metres)abovesealevel,decreasingslightlyto 4,000feet(1,200metres)inthevicinityofMedinaandincreasingsoutheastward Desertlandscape nearRiyadh,Saudi tomorethan10,000feet(3,000metres).MountSawda',whichissituatednear Arabia. inthesouth,isgenerallyconsideredthehighestpointinthecountry. W Robert Moore— Estimatesofitselevationrangefrom10,279to10,522feet(3,133to3,207 National Geographic/Getty metres).Thewatershedofthepeninsulaisonly25miles(40km)fromtheRed Images Seainthenorthandrecedesto80miles(130km)neartheYemenborder.The coastalplain,knownastheTihamah,isvirtuallynonexistentinthenorth,exceptforoccasional wadideltas,butitwidensslightlytowardthesouth.Theimposingescarpmentthatrunsparallel totheRedSeaissomewhatinterruptedbyagapnorthwestofMeccabutbecomesmoreclearly continuoustothesouth.

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Towardtheinterior,thesurfacegraduallydescendsintothebroadplateauareaoftheNajd, whichiscoveredwithlavaflowsandvolcanicdebrisaswellaswithoccasionalsand accumulations;itslopesdownfromanelevationofabout4,500feet(1,370metres)inthewest toabout2,500feet(760metres)intheeast.Therethedrainageismoreclearlydendritic(i.e., branching)andismuchmoreextensivethanthatflowingtowardtheRedSea.Totheeast,this regionisboundedbyaseriesoflong,lowridges,withsteepslopesonthewestandgentleslopes ontheeast;theareais750miles(1,200km)longandcurveseastwardfromnorthtosouth.The mostprominentoftheridgesaretheTuwayqMountains(JibalTuwayq),whichrisefromthe plateauatanelevationofsome2,800feet(850metres)abovesealevelandreachmorethan 3,500feet(1,100metres)southwestofRiyadh,overlookingtheplateau'ssurfacetothewestby 800feet(250metres)andmore.

TheinterioroftheArabianPeninsulacontainsextensivesandsurfaces.Amongthemistheworld's largestsandarea,theRub'alKhali(“EmptyQuarter”), whichdominatesthesouthernpartofthe countryandcoversmorethan250,000squaremiles(647,500squarekm).Itslopesfromabove 2,600feet(800metres)neartheborderwithYemennortheastwarddownalmosttosealevel nearthePersianGulf;individualsandmountainsreachelevationsof800feet(250metres), especiallyintheeasternpart.Asmallersandareaofabout22,000squaremiles(57,000square km),calledAlNafud( nafud designatingasandyareaordesert),isinthenorthcentralpartof thecountry.Agreatarcofsand,AlDahna',almost900miles(1,450km)longbutinplacesonly 30miles(50km)wide,joinsAlNafudwiththeRub'alKhali.Eastward,astheplateausurface slopesverygraduallydowntothegulf,therearenumeroussaltflats( sabkhah s)andmarshes. Thegulfcoastlineisirregular,andthecoastalwatersareveryshallow.

Drainage and soils

Therearevirtuallynopermanentsurfacestreamsinthecountry,butwadisarenumerous.Those leadingtotheRedSeaareshortandsteep,thoughoneunusuallylongextensionismadebyWadi AlHamd,whichrisesnearMedinaandflowsinlandtothenorthwestfor100miles(160km) beforeturningwestward;thosedrainingeastwardarelongerandmoredevelopedexceptinAl NafudandtheRub'alKhali.Soilsarepoorlydeveloped.Largeareasarecoveredwithpebblesof varyingsizes.Alluvialdepositsarefoundinwadis,basins,andoases.Saltflatsareespecially commonintheeast.

Climate

Therearethreeclimaticzonesinthekingdom:(1)desertalmosteverywhere,(2)steppealong thewesternhighlands,formingastriplessthan100miles(160km)wideinthenorthbut becomingalmost300miles(480km)wideatthelatitudeofMecca,and(3)asmallareaofhumid andmildtemperatureconditions,withlongsummers,inthehighlandsjustnorthofYemen.

Inwinter,cyclonicweathersystemsgenerallyskirtnorthoftheArabianPeninsula,moving eastwardfromtheMediterraneanSea,thoughsometimestheyreacheasternandcentralArabia andthePersianGulf.SomeweathersystemsmovesouthwardalongtheRedSeatroughand providewinterprecipitationasfarsouthasMeccaandsometimesasfarasYemen.InMarchand April,someprecipitation,normallytorrential,falls.Insummer,thehighlandsofAsir('Asir), southeastofMecca,receiveenoughprecipitationfromthemonsoonalwindstosupporta steppelikestripofland.

Winters,fromDecembertoFebruary,arecool,andfrostandsnowmayoccurinthesouthern highlands.Averagetemperaturesforthecoolestmonths,DecemberthroughFebruary,are74°F (23°C)atJiddah,58°F(14°C)atRiyadh,and63°F(17°C)atAl.Summers,from JunetoAugust,arehot,withdaytimetemperaturesintheshadeexceeding100°F(38°C)in

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almostallofthecountry.Temperaturesinthedesertfrequentlyriseashighas130°F(55°C)in thesummer.Humidityislow,exceptalongthecoasts,whereitcanbehighandveryoppressive. Thelevelofprecipitationisalsolowthroughoutthecountry,amountingtoabout2.5inches(65 mm)atJiddah,alittlemorethan3inches(75mm)atRiyadh,and3inchesatAlDammam. Thesefigures,however,representmeanannualprecipitation,andlargevariationsarenormal.In thehighlandsofAsir,morethan19inches(480mm)ayearmaybereceived,fallingmostly betweenMayandOctoberwhenthesummermonsoonwindsprevail.IntheRub'alKhali,a decademaypasswithnoprecipitationatall.

Plant and animal life

MuchofSaudiArabia'svegetationbelongstotheNorthAfrican–Indiandesertregion.Plantsare xerophytic(requiringlittlewater)andaremostlysmallherbsandshrubsthatareusefulas forage.ThereareafewsmallareasofgrassandtreesinsouthernAsir.Althoughthedatepalm (Phoenix dactylifera )iswidespread,aboutonethirdofthedatepalmsgrownareinAl Sharqiyyahprovince.

Animallifeincludeswolves,hyenas,foxes,honeybadgers,mongooses,porcupines,baboons, hedgehogs,hares,sandrats,andjerboas.Largeranimalssuchasgazelles,oryx,leopards,and mountaingoatswererelativelynumerousuntilabout1950,whenhuntingfrommotorvehicles reducedtheseanimalsalmosttoextinction.Birdsincludefalcons(whicharecaughtandtrained forhunting),eagles,hawks,vultures,owls,ravens,flamingos,egrets,pelicans,doves,andquail, aswellassandgrouseandbulbuls.Thereareseveralspeciesofsnakes,manyofwhichare poisonous,andnumeroustypesoflizards.Thereisawidevarietyofmarinelifeinthegulf. Domesticatedanimalsincludecamels,fattailedsheep,longearedgoats,salukis,donkeys,and chickens.

People

Ethnic groups

Althoughthecountry'stribesareoftenconsidered“pure”Arabs—certainlythey arethedescendantsofthepeninsula'soriginalethnicstock—acertaindegreeof ethnicheterogeneityisevidentamongboththesedentaryandnomadic populationsofSaudiArabia.Variationshavedevelopedbecauseofalonghistory Bedouinwomanwith Arabiancamels ofregionalismandtribalautonomyandbecausesomelocalitieshavebeen (dromedaries)near subjectedtoimportantoutsideinfluences.Thus,theproximityofsubSaharan Mada'in… AfricaalongtheRedSealittoralandtheconstanthistoricalinfluxofpeoples Lynn Abercrombie fromIran,Pakistan,andIndiaalongthePersianGulfcoasthavelefttracesofthe physicaltypescharacteristicofthosepeoplesamongthenativepopulation.Likewise,thehajjto Meccahaslongbroughthundredsofthousandsofpeopleannuallyfromvariousethnicgroupsto thecountry.AbouthalfofallpilgrimstravelfromArabcountriesandhalffromAfricanandAsian countries.Asmallnumberofsuchvisitorshavesettledinandaroundtheholycitiesthroughout theyears,eitheroutofreligiousdevotionorbecausepenurypreventedtheirreturnhome.

Sincethe1960s,anincreasingnumberofoutsidershaveenteredandleftSaudiArabia.Bythe early21stcentury,theestimatednumberofforeignworkerswasbetweenonefourthandone fifthofthecountry'stotalpopulation,despiteeffortsbytheSaudiauthoritiestoencourage citizenstooccupypositionstypicallyheldbyforeigners.Atfirst,mostexpatriatedworkerswere Arab,suchasYemenis,Egyptians,Palestinians,Syrians,andIraqis.Increasingnumbersofnon ArabMuslimssuchasPakistanishavebeenemployed,ashavelargenumbersofnonMuslim KoreansandFilipinos,whohavebeenhiredundergroupcontractsforspecifiedperiods.Most specializedtechnicalworkersareEuropeansandAmericans.

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Languages

ArabicisaSemiticlanguageofnumerousvernaculardialectsthatoriginatedontheArabian Peninsula.TherearethreemaindialectgroupsinSaudiArabia—intheeastern,central,and westernpartsofthecountry—thoughthesearenotalwaysclearlydiscerniblefromoneanother becauseofthepervasivenessoflocalvariations.Therearevariousdegreesofmutual intelligibilityamongdialectgroups,butsomedifferencesarequietpronounced.Thewritten language,ModernStandard,isderivedfromClassicalArabic,thelanguageoftheQur'an, andisusedasaliterarykoinewithinthekingdomandthroughoutthebroaderArabworld. VariousdialectsofArabicfromotherregionsarealsospokenbyexpatriateworkers,asare numerousothernonArabiclanguagessuchasPersian,Urdu,Pashto,Tagalog,andKorean. Englishiswidelyunderstood.

Religion

SaudiArabiaisthebirthplaceofIslam,andmostofitsnativesareadherentsof themajoritySunnibranch.Inmoderntimes,theWahhabiinterpretationofSunni Islamhasbeenespeciallyinfluential,andMuslimscholarsespousingthatsect's viewshavebeenamajorsocialandpoliticalforce.Wahhabism,asitiscalledin TheProphet's Mosque,Medina, theWest(membersrefertothemselvesas muwahhidun ,“unitarians”), isastrict SaudiArabia. interpretationoftheHanbalischoolofIslamicjurisprudenceandisnamedfor AP ibn'AbdalWahhab(1703–92),areligiousscholarwhosealliancewith IbnSa'udledtotheestablishmentofthefirstSa'udistate.Thecurrent governmentofSaudiArabia(i.e.,theSa'udfamily)haslargelyreliedonreligion—includingits closeandcontinuingtiestoWahhabismanditsstatusasthecustodianofMeccaandMedina,the twoholycitiesofIslam—toestablishitspoliticallegitimacy.ThekingissupposedtoupholdIslam andapplyitspreceptsand,inturn,issubjecttoitsconstraints.Butattimesheandtheroyal familyhavecomeundercriticismforfailingtodoso.

Shi'ites,adherentsofthesecondmajorbranchofIslam,makeupasmallportionofthe populationandarefoundmostlyintheoasesofAlHasaandAlintheeasternpartofthe country.MostareIthna'Ashari,althoughthereremainsmallnumbersofIsma'ilis.Theonly Christiansareforeignworkersandbusinessmen.Thecountry'soncesmallJewishpopulationis nowapparentlyextinct.Otherreligionsarepracticedamongforeignworkers.Publicworshipand displaybynonMuslimfaithsisprohibited.PublicdisplaysbynonWahhabiMuslimgroups, includingbyotherSunnisects,havebeenlimitedandevenbannedbythegovernment.Sufism, forinstance,isnotopenlypracticed,noriscelebrationoftheProphet'sbirthday( mawlid ). Shi'iteshavesufferedthegreatestpersecution.

Settlement patterns

Fourtraditionalregionsstandout—theHejaz,Asir,Najd,andAlHasa(transliteratedmore preciselyasAlHijaz,'Asir,Najd,andAlAhsa',respectively).TheHejaz,inthenorthwest, containsMeccaandMedina,aswellasoneofthekingdom'sprimaryports,Jiddah.Asiristhe highlandregionsouthoftheHejaz;itscapital,Abha,liesatanelevationofabout8,000feet (2,400metres).SubregionsinAsirareformedbytheoasisclusterof—ahighlandarea northofYemen—andbythecoastalplain,theTihamah.Najdoccupiesalargepartoftheinterior andincludesthecapital,Riyadh.AlHasa,intheeastalongthePersianGulf,includesthe principalpetroleumproducingareas.

Nomadism,theformoflandusewithwhichthekingdomistraditionallyassociated,hasbecome virtuallynonexistent,andthepatternofextensivelandusetraditionallypracticedbythe nomadicBedouinhasbeensupplantedbythehighlyintensivepatternsofurbanlanduse.More

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thanfour fifthsofSaudiArabia'stotalpopulationliveincities,andalmostalloftherestlivein governmentsupportedagriculturalenterprises.

ThemajorareasofpopulationareinthecentralHejaz,inAsir,incentralNajd,andnearthe PersianGulf.

Thelargesttownsarecosmopolitanincharacter,andsomeareassociatedwith dominantfunctions:MeccaandMedinaarereligious,Riyadhispoliticaland administrative,andJiddahiscommercial.(AlZahran),nearthePersian GulfcoastinAlSharqiyyahprovince,istheadministrativecentreofSaudi TheKingdomTower (centrebackground) Aramco(ArabianAmericanOilCompany),andnearbyAlKhubarandAlDammam incentralRiyadh, areimportantcommercialcoastaltowns.AlJubaylontheGulfand'onthe SaudiArabia. RedSeaaretheterminuspointsofoilandgaspipelines,andlargepetrochemical Peter Macdiarmid— Reuters/Corbis industrialcomplexesarelocatedinboth.OtherlargecitiesincludeAlTa'if,Al Hufuf,Tabuk,Buraydah,AlMubarraz,KhamisMushayt,Najran,Ha'il,Jizan,and Abha.

Demographic trends

Amajordemographicthemesincetheearly20thcenturyhasbeenthegovernment'spolicyof settlingtheBedouin.Thispracticehaslargelybeensuccessful,thoughsedentaryBedouinremain stronglyattachedtotheirtribalaffiliation.Asecondmajorthemehasbeenaninfluxofforeign workers(firstforeignArabsandlaterworkersfromotherregions)sincethe1950s;noexact numbersareavailable,butitisgenerallyagreedthattheseforeignworkershavenumberedin themillions.SomeArabs,particularlyearlyarrivals,havebeennaturalized,butmostare temporary,albeitoftenlongterm,residents.Moreover,mostoftheseareunaccompaniedmales whohavelefttheirfamiliesintheirnativeland;thissituationisparticularlytrueforlowerpaid workers.AlthoughlargenumbersofSaudicitizenstravelabroadforschoolorholiday,the numberofthosesettlingabroadisrelativelysmall.

Thankspartlytothegovernment'spoliciespromotinglargefamiliesandpartlytoitslarge investmentinhealthcare,thecountry'sbirthrateiswellabovetheworldaverage.Thenational deathrateismarkedlybelowtheworldstandard.Asaresult,SaudiArabia'soverallrateof naturalincreaseismorethantwicetheworldaverage,anditspopulationisextremelyyoung, withroughlytwothirdsunder30yearsoldandabouttwofifthsyoungerthan15.Lifeexpectancy averagesabout75years.

Economy

Fueledbyenormousrevenuesfromoilexports,theeconomyboomedduringthe1970sand'80s. Unlikemostdevelopingcountries,SaudiArabiahadanabundanceofcapital,andvast developmentprojectssprungupthatturnedtheonceunderdevelopedcountryintoamodern state.Duringthattime,unemploymentwasallbutnonexistent—largenumbersofforeign workerswereimportedtodothemostmenialandthemosthighlytechnicaltasks—andper capitaincomeandgrossdomesticproduct(GDP)percapitawereamongthehighestinthenon Westernworld.

Longrangeeconomicdevelopmenthasbeendirectedthroughaseriesoffiveyearplans.The firsttwofiveyearplans(1970–75and1976–80)establishedmostofthecountry'sbasictransport andcommunicationsfacilities.Subsequentplanssoughttodiversifytheeconomy;toincrease domesticfoodproduction;toimproveeducation,vocationaltraining,andhealthservices;andto furtherimprovecommunicationsroutesbetweenthedifferentregionsofthecountry.Butthe economicboomwasnotwithoutaprice.Asworldoilpricesstagnatedinthe1990s,government

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policiesencouraginglargerfamiliesledtoamarkedincreaseinpopulation.GDPpercapita actuallybegantofallinrealterms,andthekingdom'syoung,highlyeducatedworkforcebegan tofacehighratesofunemploymentandunderemploymentforthefirsttime.However,those trendsreversedasoilpricesagainrose.Inaddition,fiveyearplansweredirectedtoward increasingtheshareofprivateenterpriseintheeconomyinanefforttomoveawayfrom dependenceonoilexportsandtogeneratejobs.

Agriculture

Atitsfounding,thekingdominheritedthesimple,tribaleconomyofArabia. Manyofthepeoplewerenomads,engagedinraisingcamels,sheep,andgoats. Agriculturalproductionwaslocalizedandsubsistent.Thekingdom'sdevelopment planshavegivendomesticfoodproductionspecialattention,andthe Irrigatedalfalfa governmenthasmadesubsidiesandgenerousincentivesavailabletothe fields,SaudiArabia. George agriculturesector.AgriculturenowcontributesonlyasmallfractionoftheSaudi Steinmetz/Corbis GDPandemploysacomparableproportionoftheworkforce.

Lessthan2percentofthetotallandareaisusedforcrops.Ofthecultivatedland,abouthalf consistsofrainfeddryfarming(mostlyinAsir),twofifthsisintreecrops,andtheremainderis irrigated.Mostoftheirrigatedareas—inthedistrictsofRiyadhandAlQasim,forexample,and nearAlHufufinAlSharqiyyahprovince—utilizeundergroundwater.

Thekingdomhasachievedselfsufficiencyintheproductionofwheat,eggs,andmilk,among othercommodities,thoughitstillimportsthebulkofitsfoodneeds.Wheatistheprimary cultivatedgrain,followedbysorghumandbarley.Dates,melons,tomatoes,potatoes, cucumbers,pumpkins,andsquasharealsoimportantcrops.

Twomajorconstraintsoncultivationarepoorwatersupplyandpoorsoil.Concreteandearth filleddamshavebeenbuilt,primarilyinthesouthwest,tostorewaterforirrigationandasa meansoffloodcontrol.Agriculturalexpansionhasbeengreatinirrigatedareas,whilethe amountoflandgiventorainfedfarminghasdecreased.Substantialresourcesofsubterranean waterhavebeendiscoveredinthecentralandeasternpartsofthecountryandexploitedfor agriculture;however,theseundergroundaquifersaredifficulttorenew.

Resources and power

Petroleum

TheeconomyofSaudiArabiaisdominatedbypetroleumanditsassociated industries.Intermsofoilreserves,SaudiArabiaranksfirstinternationally,with aboutonefifthoftheworld'sknownreserves.Oildepositsarelocatedinthe east,southwardfromIraqandKuwaitintotheRub'alKhaliandunderthewaters AlShaybahoilfield, southeasternSaudi ofthePersianGulf. Arabia. George ThediscoveryofoilchangedtheentireeconomicsituationofSaudiArabia.As Steinmetz/Corbis earlyas1923,IbnSa'udgrantedanoilprospectingconcessiontoaBritish company,butthisconcessionwasneverexploited.Althoughoilwasdiscoveredin1938,World WarIIcurtailedoilproducingactivitiesuntilnearitsend.TheRasTanurarefinerywasopenedin 1945,andrapidexpansionoftheoilindustryfollowedtomeetincreasingpostwardemand.

In1951theArabianAmericanOilCompany(Aramco)discoveredthefirstoffshorefieldinthe MiddleEast,atRa'sAlSaffaniyyah,justsouthoftheformerSaudiArabia–Kuwaitneutralzone, andoilwasdiscoveredinthezoneitselfin1953.Al Ghawar,justsouthofDhahranandwestof

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Al Hufuf,isoneoftheworld'slargestoilfields.ThefirstportionoftheAl Ghawaroilfieldwas discoveredat'AynDarin1948.IntensiveexplorationoftheRub'alKhalibeganin1950,andoil fieldswerefinallydiscoveredintheareainthe1970s.

In1950AramcoputintooperationtheTransArabianPipeLine(Tapline),whichranfromAl QaysumahinSaudiArabiaacrossJordanandSyriatoitsMediterraneanterminalatSidon, Lebanon.Thelinewasinoperationonlysporadicallyduringthe1970s,andin1983itceasedto functionbeyondsupplyingarefineryinJordan.In1981Petroline,builttocarrycrudeoil,was completedfromAlJubaylonthePersianGulftoYanbu'ontheRedSea,andthisgreatly shortenedthedistancetoEuropeandobviatednavigationthroughthegulfandtheStraitof Hormuz.PetrolinewasbuiltbytheGeneralPetroleumandMineralOrganization(Petromin),a governmentownedcorporation.Aramcoconstructedamassivegasgatheringsystemand, paralleltoPetroline,apipelinefortransportingnaturalgasliquids,whichreachedYanbu'in 1981.

Duringthe1970sandearly'80s,SaudiArabiagraduallyacquiredcompleteownershipofAramco, andin1984AramcohaditsfirstSaudipresident.In1988thecompanywasrenamedSaudi Aramco.

Other resources

Othermineralresourcesareknowntoexist,andthegovernmenthaspursuedapolicyof explorationandproductioninordertodiversifytheeconomicbase.Geologicreconnaissance mappingofthePrecambrianshieldinthewesthasrevealeddepositsofgold,silver,copper, zinc,lead,iron,titanium,pyrite,magnesite,platinum,andcadmium.Therearealsononmetallic resourcessuchaslimestone,silica,gypsum,andphosphorite.

Scarcityofwaterisaperennialprobleminthekingdom.SaudiArabiahasthelargestsingle desalinationprogramintheworld,whichmeetsmostdomesticandindustrialneeds.Underwater aquifersprovidealimitedamountofpotablewater,andagreatdealofenergyhasbeen committedtoconstructingdamsforwaterstorageandtodevelopingwaterrecyclingplants.

Thekingdomhasreliedincreasinglyonelectricity,andelectricalproductionhasgrownrapidly sincethe1970s.Originallyhighlydecentralized,electricalproductionwasslowlycentralized understatecontrolduringthelatterhalfofthe20thcentury.In2000electricalproductionwas consolidatedunderasinglecorporationinanefforttodevelopacomprehensivenationalgrid. Mostofthekingdom'sgeneratorsarepoweredbynaturalgasanddieselfuel.

Manufacturing

Themanufacturingsectorhasexpandedwidelysince1976,whenthegovernmentestablishedthe SaudiBasicIndustriesCorporation(Sabic)inordertodiversifytheeconomy.Itsinitialgoalwasto expandthemanufacturingpotentialofsectorsoftheeconomyrelatedtopetroleum.Sincethen manufactures,manyassociatedwithSabic,haveincludedrolledsteel,petrochemicals, fertilizers,pipes,copperwireandcable,truckassembly,refrigeration,plastics,aluminum products,metalproducts,andcement.Smallscaleenterpriseshaveincludedbaking,printing, andfurnituremanufacturing.

Finance

TheSaudiArabianMonetaryAgency(SAMA)wasestablishedin1952asthe kingdom'scentralmoneyandbankingauthority.Itregulatescommercialand developmentbanksandotherfinancialinstitutions.Itsfunctionsincludeissuing,

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MinistryofFinance buildinginRiyadh, regulating,andstabilizingthevalueofthenationalcurrency,theriyal;actingas SaudiArabia. bankerforthegovernment;andmanagingforeignreservesandinvestments.As Diane Rawson—Photo anIslamicinstitution,ithasanonprofitstatus.UnderIslamiclaw,bankscannot Researchers chargeinterest,buttheydochargefeesforlendingandpaycommissionon deposits.Moneysupplyandthetempoofbusinessaredominatedbygovernmenteconomic activity,thoughthegovernmenthasincreasinglyfavouredexpansionoftheprivatesector.

Anumberofcommercialbanksoperateinthecountry,someofwhicharejointventuresbetween Saudicitizensandforeignbanks.(Likeallenterprises,banksdoingbusinessinthecountry requireaSaudipartner.)Others,however,arewhollyownedbySaudis.Bankingregulations traditionallyhavenotbeenstringentlyenforced,andprivatebankshaveshowngreatflexibility andcreativityininterpretingIslamicbankingregulations.Moreover,despitetheubiquityof banksinthecountry,largenumbersofcitizensandexpatriatescontinuetorelyonmoney changers,bothfortheirconvenienceandfortheanonymitythattheyprovide.

Trade

Exportsconsistalmostentirelyofpetroleumandpetroleumproducts.Majorimportsare machineryandtransportequipment,foodstuffsandanimals,andchemicalsandchemical products.TheprincipaltradingpartnersaretheUnitedStates,Japan,SouthKorea,andChina. TheprincipalsourcesofimportsaretheUnitedStates,Japan,Germany,Italy,theUnited Kingdom,andTaiwan.

Services

Theservicesectorgrewdramaticallyinthesecondhalfofthe20thcenturywiththeinfluxof revenuederivedfrompetroleumsalesandbecauseoflargelevelsofgovernmentspending. Nearlythreefifthsofworkersareengagedinservicerelatedoccupations,includingcivil administration,defense,wholesaleandretailsales,andhospitalityandtourism.Thesesectorsof theeconomyaccountforroughlyonefourthofGDP.

ThehospitalityindustryhastraditionallybeenstrongonlyinandaroundtheholycitiesofMecca andMedina,withtheannualinfluxofpilgrims.However,inthe1960s,largenumbersof expatriates—somewiththeirdependents—begantoarriveinthecountry,andfacilitiesbeganto springuptomeettheirneeds.Onlyinthelate20thcenturydidthegovernmentactivelyseekto attracttouriststoSaudiArabiawiththeconstructionofanumberofcoastalresortsanda relaxationofvisarequirementsforenteringthecountry.Tourismunassociatedwithreligious observance,however,remainsanextremelysmallpartofGDP.

Labour and taxation

Thekingdomhastraditionallyreliedonlargenumbersofforeignlabourers,who,attheheightof theirinflux,accountedforroughlytwothirdsofthelabourforce.Mostofthesehavebeen unskilledorsemiskilledworkersfromotherpartsoftheMiddleEastandfromSouthAsia,while Westerners,particularlyAmericans,havefilledthemosthighlyskilledpositionsinthecountry. WorkersinSaudiArabiahavefewlegalrights,andtheyarenotpermittedtoorganizeanddonot havetherighttostrike.

Rapidpopulationgrowthsincethelate20thcenturyhasincreasedthenumberofnativeSaudis enteringthelabourforce.Beginninginthe1990s,thegovernmentrespondedbyencouraginga policyof“Saudiization”(inwhichemployerswererequiredtohirefewermigrantworkers),but highlyeducatedyoungSaudisseemedunwillingtoengageinoccupationsthathadbeen traditionallyfilledbyexpatriatesandwerethereforeconsideredmenial.Femalecitizens

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traditionallyhavehadlimitedemploymentopportunitiesoutsidethehome,withmost occupationsbeingrestrictedtomen.Manyforeignwomenhavebeenemployedasdomestic servants.

Roughlythreefourthsofgovernmentrevenuesarederivedfromtheproceedsofoilexports. Remainingrevenuesareraisedthroughtariffs,licensingfees,andtheproceedsofgovernment investments.Foreigncompaniesarerequiredtopayanincometax,butexemptionsareoften granted.Saudicitizensarerequiredtopaythe zakat ,anobligatorytaxonMuslimsthatisusedto helpthelessfortunateinsociety.

Transportation and telecommunications

Thecountry'sroadsareallpaved,andtheautomobileisacommonformoftransport.Taxisare foundincitiesandmostlargetowns.Womenarenotpermittedtodrive.Thefirstcoasttocoast roadconnection,fromAlDammamonthegulftoJiddahontheRedSea,bywayofRiyadh,was openedin1967;itincludesaspectaculardescentofthewesternescarpmentfromAlTa'ifto Mecca.Acauseway,openedin1986,connectsthekingdomwiththeislandnationofBahrain.A railroadpassingthroughAlHufufconnectsRiyadhandAlDammam.

Seaportcapacityhasbeengreatlyexpanded.MajorcargoportsareJiddah, Yanbu',Diba,andJizanontheRedSeaandAlDammamandAlJubaylonthe gulf.Thecountryhasmanysmallairportsandairfields.Thenationalairline, Terminalbuildingat SaudiArabianAirlines(formerlySaudia;founded1945),providesbothdomestic DhahranInternational Airport,Dhahran, andinternationalservice.ThechiefinternationalairportsareatDhahran, SaudiArabia. Riyadh,andJiddah. The J. Allan Cash Photolibrary Radiobroadcastsbeganinthekingdomin1948,andthefirsttelevisionstation wasestablishedin1965.Allbroadcastsareoperatedbythestate,andprogrammingfocuseson religiousandculturalaffairs,news,andothertopicsthatareviewedasedifyingbythe government.Radioandtelevisionservicesarewidelyaccessible,asistelephoneservice.The governmenthasinvestedsignificantresourcesinupdatingandexpandingthecountry's telecommunicationsinfrastructure,andlargeportionsofthetelephonegridhavebeendigitized. Cellulartelephoneserviceiswidespread,andaccesstotheInternetisavailableinallmajor populationcentres.

Government and society

Constitutional framework

SaudiArabiaisamonarchyruledbytheAlSa'ud,afamilywhosestatuswasestablishedbyits closetieswithandsupportfortheWahhabireligiousestablishment.Islamiclaw,theShari'ah,is theprimarysourceoflegislation,buttheactualpromulgationoflegislationandimplementation ofpolicyisoftenmitigatedbymoremundanefactors,suchaspoliticalexpediency,theinner politicsoftherulingfamily,andtheinfluenceofintertribalpolitics,whichremainstronginthe modernkingdom.

Thekingdomhasneverhadawrittenconstitution,althoughin1992thekingissuedadocument knownastheBasicLawofGovernment(AlNizamalAsasilialHukm),whichprovidesguidelines forhowthegovernmentistoberunandsetsforththerightsandresponsibilitiesofcitizens.The kingcombineslegislative,executive,andjudicialfunctions.Asprimeminister,hepresidesover theCouncilofMinisters(MajlisalWuzara').Thecouncilisresponsibleforsuchexecutiveand administrativemattersasforeignanddomesticpolicy,defense,finance,health,andeducation, whichitadministersthroughnumerousseparateagencies.Appointmenttoanddismissalfromthe

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councilareprerogativesoftheking.TheBasicLawofGovernmentpavedthewayin1993forthe establishmentofanewquasilegislativebody,theConsultativeCouncil(MajlisalShura),which includesmanytechnicalexperts;allmembersareappointedbytheking.TheConsultative Councilhasthepowertodraftlegislationand,alongwiththeCouncilofMinisters,promoteitfor theking'sapproval.

Intheend,however,allmajorpolicydecisionsaremadeoutsidetheseformalapparatuses. Decisionsaremadethroughaconsensusofopinionthatissoughtprimarilywithintheroyal family(comprisingthenumerousdescendantsofthekingdom'sfounder,IbnSa'ud),manyof whomholdsensitivegovernmentposts.Likewise,theviewsofimportantmembersofthe 'ulama' (religiousscholars),leadingtribalsheikhs,andheadsofprominentcommercialfamilies areconsidered.

Local government

Thekingdomisdividedinto13administrativeregions( manatiq ),whichinturnaredividedinto numerousdistricts.Regionalgovernorsareappointed,usuallyfromtheroyalfamily,andpreside overoneormoremunicipalcouncils,halfofwhosemembersareappointedandhalfelected. Withtheircouncils,thegovernorsareresponsibleforsuchfunctionsasfinance,health, education,agriculture,andmunicipalities.Theconsultativeprincipleoperatesatalllevelsof government,includingthegovernmentofvillagesandtribes.

Justice

TheShari'ahisthebasisofjustice.JudgmentusuallyisaccordingtotheHanbalitraditionof Islam;thelawtendstobeconservativeandpunishmentsevere,includingamputationforcrimes suchastheftandexecutionforcrimesthataredeemedmoresevere(e.g.,drugtraffickingand practicingwitchcraft).

In1970theMinistryofJusticewasestablished;itsworkisassistedbyaSupremeJudicialCouncil consistingofleadingmembersofthe 'ulama' .Therearemorethan300Shari'ahcourtsacrossthe country.Rapidchangessincethemid20thcenturyhaveproducedcircumstances—suchastraffic violationsandindustrialaccidents—notencompassedbytraditionallaw,andthesehavebeen handledbytheissuanceofroyaldecrees.Thesedecreeshaveevolvedintoabodyof administrativelawthatisnotdirectlydrawnfromIslamicprecepts.Avenuesofappealare available,andthemonarchisboththefinalcourtofappealandthedispenserofpardon.

Political process

Participationinthepoliticalprocessislimitedtoarelativelysmallportionofthepopulation. Therearenoelectionsfornationalbodies,politicalpartiesareoutlawed,andwomenhavefew politicalrights.Powerrestslargelyinthehandsoftheroyalfamily,whichgovernsthrougha processthat—despitethepoliticalandeconomicchangessincethelate20thcentury—differs littlefromthetraditionalsystemoftribalrule.Tribalidentityremainsstrongandisstillan importantpillarofsocialcontrol;despitetheexistenceofamodernstatebureaucracy,political influenceisfrequentlydeterminedbytribalaffiliation.Tribalsheikhs,therefore,maintainahigh degreeofauthoritywithinthetribeandaconsiderabledegreeofinfluenceoverlocaland nationalevents.

Thetribalhierarchyinthecountryiscomplex.Thereareanumberofsmaller,lessinfluential tribesandahandfulofveryinfluentialmajortribes.TheSa'udfamily,althoughnotatribe strictlyspeaking,behaveslikeoneinmanyrespects.Althoughtherulingfamilycametopower largelythroughitsmartialskillandreligiousties,itscontinuedhegemonyhasbeenbasedonthe

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traditionalviewinArabiansocietythatleadersowetheirpositionstotheirabilitytomanage affairs.Justasthetribalsheikhleadsthetribe,sohastheSa'udfamilyruledthecountry—by placatingrivalfactions,buildingabroadconsensus,andsquelchingextremevoices.(Early OrientalistsusedtheLatinphrase primus inter pares ,“firstamongequals,”torefertosuchan arrangement.)Themediumforthisprocessisthetraditional diwan ,aninformalcouncilinwhich theseniormale(whetherheisasheikhatthetriballevelorthekingatthenational)hears outstandinggrievancesanddispensesjusticeandlargess.Intheory,anymalecitizenmaymake hisvoiceheardinthe diwan .

Inthissystem,successiontothethroneisnotdirectlyhereditary,though,undertheBasicLawof Government,thekingmustbeasonorgrandsonofIbnSa'ud.Traditionallytheheirapparent, whoisalsodeputyprimeminister,hasbeendeterminedbyaconsensusoftheroyalfamily,but since1992hehasbeenappointedbytheking(confirmationbythefamilyoccurringonlyafter themonarch'sdeath).Inthesameway,throughconsensus,thefamilymaydeposethemonarch, aswasseeninKingSa'ud'sdepositionin1964.

ThefamilyhasalsoreliedheavilyonitslongrelationshipwiththeWahhabireligioushierarchyto maintainsocialandpoliticalcontrol.Thecrownappointsallmajorreligiousfunctionaries,who arealmostexclusivelyselectedfromWahhabi 'ulama' ;inturnitissupportedbythatsect.Most majorthreatstothepoliticalstatusquohavecomeeitherfromdissidentfactionswithinthe religiouscommunityorfromgroupsthatappealinsomewaytoIslamicvalues.Manyofthese groupshaveoperatedabroad,andanumberhavebeeninvolvedinpoliticalviolence.

Security

Militaryserviceisvoluntary.Thearmyaccountsforaboutthreefifthsofthetotalmilitaryforce. ItexperiencedrapidmodernizationespeciallyaftertheArabIsraeliWarof1967.Theairforce wasequippedlargelybytheBritishuntilthe1970s,whenthekingdombegantobuyaircraftfrom theUnitedStates.Itisnowoneofthebestequippedforcesintheregion,withseveralhundred highperformanceaircraft;likewise,groundforceshavelargenumbersofstateoftheartmain battletanks.ArmyofficersaretrainedatKing'Abdal'AzizMilitaryAcademyjustnorthof Riyadh.MajorairbasesareatRiyadh,Dhahran,HafaralBatin(partoftheKingKhalidMilitary City)neartheborderwithIraqandKuwait,TabukinthenorthwestnearJordan,andKhamis MushaytinthesouthwestnearYemen.Allthreearmedservices—army,airforce,andnavy—are directedbythedefenseminister,whoisalsotheseconddeputyprimeminister.

TheNationalGuard,whichhasroughlythesametroopstrengthasthearmy,isessentiallyan internalsecurityforce,thoughitcansupporttheregularforcesfornationaldefense.Oneofits primarypeacetimetasksistoguardthecountry'soilfields.Itisadministeredseparately,andits commanderreportstothecrownprince.Thearmedforcesemployexpatriatepersonnelin supportandtrainingpositions.

Thekingdomhasseveralinternalsecurityorgans,includingtheCoastGuard,FrontierForce,and acentralizednationalpoliceforce.AlloftheseorganizationsreporttotheMinistryofthe Interior,whichalsosupervisesthecountry'sintelligenceandcounterintelligencebodies.Police interactionwithcivilians,particularlywithforeigners,hasoftenbeendescribedasheavy handed,butreportsofhumanrightsabusesarefarlessnumerousandseverethanthosereported inothercountriesoftheregion.ThereisalsoareligiouspoliceforceattachedtotheCommittee forthePromotionofVirtueandthePreventionofVice.KnownastheMutawwa'un(colloquially, Mutawwa'in),thisforceoperatesinplainclothesandenforcessuchIslamicpreceptsasensuring thatwomenareproperlyveiled,thatshopscloseduringprayer,andthatthefastiskeptduring Ramadan.Imposingimpromptucorporalpunishmentforinfractionsisanacceptedpartoftheir duty.

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Health and welfare

Agreatdealofattentionhasbeengiventohealthcare,andthenumbersofhospitalbeds, physicians,andnurseshaveincreasedgreatly.Inadditiontonumeroushealthinstitutes, hospitals,andhealthcentres,anetworkofdispensariesservingcommunitiesof10,000ormore peoplehasbeensetup,complementedbyasystemofmobilehealthservicesreachingsmall communitiesandtheremainingnomadicpopulations.Thegovernmenthasalsobeguntotrain Saudistoreplaceforeignmedicalpersonnel.Ofseriousconcernareahighrateoftrachomaand occasionaloutbreaksofmalaria,bilharzia(schistosomiasis),andcholera.Outbreaksofserious diseasessuchasmeningitishaveoccurredduringthehajj.

Housing

Becauseofthekingdom'sgeographicdiversity,awidevarietyoftraditional housingtypeswereembraced.Theserangedfromtheconventionalblacktents oftheBedouinandmudbrickdwellingsofagrarianvillagestothelofty,ornate townhousesfoundinurbancentresalongthecoast.Sincetheadventofoil wealth,thegovernmenthasinvestedheavilyinhousingconstruction.Itprovides Muddwellingswith lowinterestorinterestfreeloanstocitizenswishingtopurchaseorbuild crenellatedrooftops typicalofNajran,Asir homes.Homesinnewerareasareequippedwithstandardutilities(suchas region,SaudiArabia. water,sewerage,andelectricity)aswellasmanytechnicalconveniences,such Peter Ryan/Robert asInternetaccessandcableandsatellitetelevision.Townsinsomeruralareas, Harding Picture however,remainfarremovedfrompowerandwaternetworks. Library

Education

Educationisfreeatalllevelsandisgivenhighprioritybythegovernment.Theschoolsystem consistsofelementary(grades1–6),intermediate(7–9),andsecondary(10–12)schools.A significantportionofthecurriculumatalllevelsisdevotedtoreligioussubjects,and,atthe secondarylevel,studentsareabletofolloweitherareligiousoratechnicaltrack.Girlsareable toattendschool(allcoursesaresegregatedbygender),butfewergirlsattendthanboys.This disproportionisreflectedintherateofliteracy,whichexceeds85percentamongmalesandis about70percentamongfemales.

Highereducationhasexpandedataremarkablepace.Institutionsofhighereducationinclude theKingSa'udUniversity(formerlytheUniversityofRiyadh,foundedin1957),theIslamic University(1961)atMedina,andtheKing'Abdal'AzizUniversity(1967)inJiddah.Othercolleges anduniversitiesemphasizecurriculainsciencesandtechnology,militarystudies,religion,and medicine.InstitutesdevotedtoIslamicstudiesinparticularabound,andschoolsforreligious pedagogyarelocatedinseveraltowns.Womenreceivecollegeinstructioninsegregated institutions.Manyforeignteachersareemployed,especiallyintechnicalandmedicalschools. Largenumbersofstudentstravelabroadforuniversitystudy.

Cultural life

Cultural milieu

TheculturalsettingisArabandMuslim.Topreservethecountry'spuristreligiousposition,many proscriptionsofbehaviouranddressareenforced.Alcoholicbeveragesareprohibited,for example,andthereisnotheatreorpublicexhibitionoffilms.EducatedSaudisarewellinformed onissuesoftheArabworld,theMuslimworld,andtheworldatlarge,butpublicexpressionof opinionaboutdomesticmattersisnotencouraged.Therearenoorganizationssuchaspolitical partiesorlabourunionstoprovidepublicforums.

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Daily life and social customs

SaudiArabia'spopulationhastraditionallybeencomposedofnomads,villagers,and townspeople.Pervadingthistriad,however,isthepatrilinealkinshipprinciple,and superimposedonallistheadministrativeorganizationcentredontheroyalfamily.Thekinship principleispervasiveinSaudisociety,andtheextendedfamilyisastrongsocialunit.Villages constitutelocalservicecentresandcontainmembersfrommorethanonetribalaffiliation, thoughonegroupmaytendtobedominant.Citiesarenottriballyorganized,thoughthe importanceofkinshipaffiliationendures,andlocalaffairstendtobedominatedand administeredbyafewfamilies.Socialstratificationismoreclearlydevelopedinthecitiesthan elsewhere.Beforetheeffectsofoilwerefeltontheeconomy,statuswasamatteroflineage andoccupationratherthanofwealth;withthedevelopmentoftheoilindustry,however,wealth andmaterialpositionhaveacquiredanadditionalsocialvalue.Thenewtechnologyandindustry haveproducedagrowingmiddleincomeeconomicgroupoftechnocratsthatisincreasingly awareofthewideninggapbetweentherulingfamiliesandtherestofthepopulation.Thishas ledtodiscontentand,insomecases,outbreaksofcivilunrest.

MostSaudiscontinuetodressinatraditionalfashion.Formenthisconsistsofananklelength shirtknownasa thawb (or dishdashah ),whichisusuallywovenofwhitecotton.Thetraditional headcoveristhekaffiyeh(sometimesknownasa ghutrah ),abroadclothfoldedandheldin placebyacamel'shaircordknownasan 'iqal .Thetimehonoureddressforwomenconsistsofa thawb beneathwhichiswornaloosefittingpairofslacksknownasa sirwal .Inpublicwomenare expectedtobefullyveiled,however,andalongblackcloakknownasan 'abayah isworn.Aveil calleda hijab coversthehead,andanotherknownasa niqab coverstheface.AmongBedouin, women'sclothingisoftenquiteornateandhastraditionallyconsistedofabeautifulpanoplyof handcraftedsilverjewelry.

CuisineinSaudiArabiaisbroadlysimilartothatofthesurroundingPersianGulfcountries,and Turkish,Persian,andAfricancultureshaveheavilyinfluencedculinarytastes.Islamicdietary customsarecloselyobserved;forinstance,porkisnotconsumed,wineiseschewed,andeven rituallylicitanimalssuchaslambsmustbeslaughteredinaprescribedfashion.Adishconsisting ofastuffedlamb,knownas khuzi ,isthetraditionalnationalfavourite.Kebabsarealsopopular, asis shawarmah ( shwarma ),amarinatedmeatdishoflamb,mutton,orchickenthatisgrilledon aspitandservedeitherasanentréeorasandwich.AsinthecountriesofthePersianGulf, makhbus ( machbous ),aricedishwithfishorshrimp,isextremelypopular.Flat,unleavened breadisastapleofvirtuallyeverymeal,asareallvarietiesoffreshfruit.Dates,eitherfreshor candied,areubiquitous.Coffee,servedstrongandhotintheTurkishstyle,isthetraditional beverage.

InaccordancewiththeWahhabiinterpretationofIslam,onlytworeligiousholidaysarepublicly recognized,'IdalFitrand'IdalAdha.ThecelebrationofotherIslamicholidays,suchasthe Prophet'sbirthday( see mawlid )and'Ashura'—animportantholidaytoShi'ites—aretoleratedonly whencelebratedonasmallscaleatthelocallevelbutareotherwisecondemnedasdangerous innovations.PublicobservanceofnonIslamicreligiousholidaysisprohibited,withtheexception ofSeptember23,whichcelebratestheunificationofthekingdom.(Itisalsotheonlyholiday celebratedontheWesterncalendar.)

The arts

Forathousandyears,artisticexpressionusuallyperpetuatedancientforms.Fromthe18th centuryonward,thestrictWahhabireligiousoutlookdiscouragedintellectualdeviationfrom acceptedpuristpositions.Withtheadventofthepetroleumindustrycameexposuretooutside influences,suchasWesternhousingstyles,furnishings,andclothes,and,atthesametime,local

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craftsmenfoundthemselvesincompetitionwithimportedgoods.

MusicanddancehavealwaysbeenpartofSaudilife.Nativemusic,ofwhichthereareseveral types,isgenerallyassociatedwithpoetryandissungcollectively.Instrumentsincludethe rababah ,aninstrumentnotunlikeathreestringfiddle,andvarioustypesofpercussion instruments,suchasthe tabl (drum)andthe tar (tambourine).Ofthenativedances,themost popularisamartiallinedanceknownasthe 'ardah ,whichincludeslinesofmen,frequently armedwithswordsorrifles,dancingtothebeatofdrumsandtambourines.

NativeBedouinpoetry,knownas nabati ,isextremelypopular.Ithassimilaritiestotheclassical qasidah ,orode,ofwhichthecentralandeasternregionsofthecountryarethetraditional birthplace.ManyofthegreatmastersofpreIslamicArabicpoetrydweltinwhatisnowSaudi Arabia,andthetwostyles, qasidah and nabati ,differlargelyintheformer'suseofClassical Arabicasamedium. Nabati poetryiscomposedinthevernacularandhasastrongmusical quality.

Visualartsaredominatedbygeometric,floral,andabstractdesignsandbycalligraphy,the latterasophisticatedandlearnedenterprise.Notmuchdiversityisseenintraditional architecture;typicalfeaturesaredecorativedesignsondoorsandwindowsandwideuseof crenellatedwalls.Thewaveofchangestartinginthe1960sinfluencedarchitecturalstyles,and starklinearmotifsbecamecommoninofficeandresidentialbuildings.Thespectacularairport terminalsatJiddahandRiyadh,however,aretestimonytothepersistenceandworthof traditionalstyles.

Cultural institutions

TheKingFahdNationalLibrary(founded1968)islocatedinRiyadh,asistheNationalMuseum (1978).Thereareanumberofsmallerlibrariesandmuseumsthroughoutthecountry,mostlyin thelargertownsandcities.TheSocietyforArtsandCultureswasfoundedin1972tocoordinate andsupporttraditionalArabianartforms.TheKingFaysalFoundation(1976)supportsliterary, educational,andculturalprograms.TheannualJinadiriyyahHeritageandCulturalFestivalbrings togetherthousandsnearRiyadhtopartakeintraditionalpastimessuchascamelracing,artsand crafts,andtraditionalsonganddance.

Sports and recreation

Saudisvalueanumberoftraditionalandmodernpastimes.Football(soccer)is extremelypopular.ManySaudisalsoparticipateinactivitiessuchasscuba diving,windsurfing,andsailing.Thetimehonouredpursuitofcamelracing developedanewfollowinginthe1970s.Duringthewinter—thecoolestpartof Competitorsinthe King'sCamelRace, theyear—racesareheldweeklyattheRiyadhstadium.TheannualKing'sCamel Riyadh,SaudiArabia. Race,begunin1974,isoneofthesport'smostimportantcontestsandattracts animalsandridersfromthroughouttheregion.Falconry,anothertraditional © Jodi Cobb— pursuit,isstillpracticed,althoughithascomeunderincreasinglystrict National Geographic/Getty regulationbecauseseveralspeciesonwhichthefalconpreyshavebecome Images endangered.

ThegovernmentofSaudiArabiahasencouragedsportsandathleticsbyconstructingsportsand recreationfacilitiesinallmajorurbanareas.TheSaudiArabianOlympicCommitteewas organizedin1964andwasrecognizedinternationallythefollowingyear.Ithassentathletesto theSummerGamessince1972buthasnotfieldedateamfortheWinterGames.Thecountry alsosendsathletestotheAsianGames.

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Media and publishing

SeveraldailyandweeklynewspapersarepublishedinArabicandinEnglish.Althoughnewspapers andperiodicalsaremostlyprivatelyowned,editorsfrequentlypracticeselfcensorship.Criticism ofthegovernmentandoftheroyalfamilyisfrownedupon,andonoccasionjournalistshave beendismissedforstatementsseenasantigovernmentoragainstreligion.Thegovernment heavilysubsidizesthepublishingindustry,includingperiodicalandacademicpresses.Radioand televisionbroadcastingisoperatedbytheMinistryofInformation.

JoshuaTeitelbaum

History

ThisdiscussionfocusesonSaudiArabiasincethe18thcentury.Foratreatmentofearlierperiods andofthecountryinitsregionalcontext, see Arabia.

ThecoastalpartsoftheterritorythatwastobecomeSaudiArabiaparticipatedinthebroad trendsofArabianPeninsulahistoryintheIslamicperiod—theriseofIslaminwesternArabiain the7thcentury,thecreationandexpansionofthevariousIslamicempirestothe10thcentury, theestablishmentofseparateandusuallysmallMuslimstatesintheperiodleadingtothe15th century,andtheorderingoftheArabMiddleEastconductedbytheOttomanEmpirestartingin the16thcentury.CentralArabiawaslinkedcommerciallyandintellectuallywithwesternArabia andtheFertileCrescentbutwasoftenisolatedfromgeneralpoliticalandmilitarytrends becauseofitsremotenessandrelativepoverty.Inthemiddleofthe18thcenturyincentral Arabia,anallianceofMuslimWahhabireligiousreformersandtheSa'udidynastyformedanew stateandsocietythatresultedinthecreationofthreesuccessiveSa'udikingdoms,includingthe moderncountryofSaudiArabia,officiallyproclaimedin1932.

The Wahhabi movement

Origins and early expansion

AsthepopulationoftheoasistownsofcentralArabiasuchas'Uyaynahslowlygrewfromthe16th totheearly18thcentury,the 'ulama' (religiousscholars)residingthereincreasedinnumberand sophistication.Muhammadibn'AbdalWahhab,thefounderoftheWahhabimovement,wasborn in'Uyaynahin1703toafamilyofreligiousjudgesandscholarsandasayoungmantraveled widelyinotherregionsoftheMiddleEast.Itwasuponhisreturnto'Uyaynahthathefirstbegan topreachhisrevolutionaryideasofconservativereligiousreformationbasedonastrictmoral code.Histeachingwasinfluencedbythatofthe14thcenturyHanbalischolarIbnTaymiyyah, whocalledforthepurificationofIslamthroughtheexpulsionofpracticesthathesawas innovations,includingspeculativetheology,Sufism,andsuchpopularreligiouspracticesassaint worship.

Therulerof'Uyaynah,'UthmanibnMu'ammar,gladlywelcomedthereturningprodigalandeven adheredtohisdoctrines.Butmanyopposedhim,and'AbdalWahhab'spreachingwasputtoa numberofseveretests.ThechiefoftheAlHasaregion,whowasoftheinfluentialBanuKhalid tribe,threatenedtowithholdgiftsto'Uthman,oreventogotowarwithhim,unless'Abdal Wahhabwasputtodeath.

'Uthman,unabletofacethisdangerbutunwillingtokillhisguest,decidedtodismiss'Abdal Wahhabfromhisterritory.'AbdalWahhabwenttoAlDir'iyyah,some40miles(65km)away, whichhadbeentheseatofthelocalprinceMuhammadibnSa'udsince1726.In1745people

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flockedtotheteachingofthereformer.Theallianceoftheologianandprince,dulysealedby mutualoathsofloyalty,soonbegantoprosperintermsofmilitarysuccessandexpansion.

Onebyone,theenemiesofthenewunionwereconquered.Theearliestwarsbrought'Uyaynah andportionsofAlHasaunderWahhabicontrol,buttheoasistownofRiyadhmaintaineda stubbornresistancefor27yearsbeforesuccumbingtothesteadypressureofthenewmovement. By1765,whenMuhammadibnSa'uddied,onlyafewpartsofcentralandeasternArabiahad fallenundermoreorlesseffectiveWahhabirule.

MuhammadibnSa'ud'ssonandsuccessor,'Abdal'AzizI(reigned1765–1803),whohadbeen largelyresponsibleforthisextensionofhisfather'srealmthroughhisexploitsascommanderin chiefoftheWahhabiforces,continuedtoworkincompleteharmonywithMuhammadibn'Abd alWahhab.Itwasthelatterwhovirtuallycontrolledtheciviladministrationofthecountry, while'Abdal'Azizhimself,laterincooperationwithhiswarlikeson,Sa'udI(1803–14),busied himselfwiththeexpansionofhisempirefarbeyondthelimitsinheritedbyhim.Meanwhile,in 1792,Muhammadibn'AbdalWahhabdiedattheageof89.Wahhabiattacksonsettledareashad beguntoattracttheattentionofofficialsoftheOttomanEmpire,thedominantpoliticalforcein theregion.In1798anOttomanforceinvadedAlHasa,thoughitlaterwascompelledto withdraw.QatarfelltotheSa'udisin1797,andtheyalsogainedcontrolthroughlocalalliesover BahrainandpartsofOman.

Struggle with the Ottomans

In1801theWahhabiscapturedandsackedtheShi'iteholycityofKarbala'inOttomanIraq, plunderinganddamagingimportantreligiousbuildings.Inthefollowingyear,Sa'udledhis father'sarmytothecaptureofMeccaitselfintheHejaz,whichwasalsounderOttomancontrol. ItwassoonafterSa'ud'sreturnfromthisexpeditionthathisfatherwasassassinatedbyaShi'ite inthemosqueofAlDir'iyyahinrevengeforthedesecrationofKarbala'.

ConflictbetweentheOttomansandtheWahhabisofArabianowbrokeoutinearnest.In1804 Sa'udcapturedMedina,andtheWahhabiempireembracedthewholeofArabiadowntoYemen andOman.Yearafteryear,Sa'udvisitedMeccatopresideoverthehajjpilgrimageastheimam oftheMuslimcongregation.Butthetidewassoontoturntohisdisadvantage.Thesultanofthe OttomanEmpire,preoccupiedinotherdirections,consignedtoMuhammad'Ali,thevirtually independentviceroyofEgypt,thetaskofcrushingthosetheOttomansviewedasheretics.An EgyptianforcelandedontheHejazcoastunderthecommandofMuhammad'Ali'ssonTusun. Sa'udinflictedaseveredefeatontheinvaders,butreinforcementsenabledTusuntooccupy MeccaandMedinain1812.Thefollowingyear,Muhammad'Aliassumedcommandofthe expeditionaryforceinperson.Intheeast,Britainseverelycurbedthemaritimeactivitiesofthe Qawasimdynasty,whowerealliesoftheWahhabis,in1809.

Sa'uddiedatAlDir'iyyahin1814.Hissuccessor,hisson'AbdAllahibnSa'ud,wasscarcelyofhis father'scalibre,andthecaptureofAlRa'sinAlQasimregionbytheEgyptiansin1815forcedhim tosueforpeace.Thiswasdulyarranged,butthetrucewasshortlived,andin1816thestruggle wasrenewed,withIbrahimPasha,anotherofMuhammad'Ali'ssons,incommandoftheEgyptian forces.Gainingthesupportofthevolatiletribesbyskillfuldiplomacyandlavishgifts,he advancedintocentralArabia.Joinedbymostoftheprincipaltribes,heappearedbeforeAl Dir'iyyahinApril1818.FightingendedinSeptemberwiththesurrenderof'AbdAllah,whowas senttotheOttomancapitalofConstantinople(Istanbul)andbeheaded.LocalWahhabileaders alsowereexecuted,AlDir'iyyahwasrazed,andEgyptiangarrisonswerepostedtotheprincipal towns.TheSa'udfamilyhadsufferedheavylossesduringthefighting.Afewhadmanagedto escapebeforethesurrender;therestweresenttoEgyptfordetentionalongwithdescendantsof Muhammadibn'Abdal Wahhab.TheWahhabiempireceasedtoexist,butthefaithlivedonin

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thedesertandinthetownsofcentralArabiaindefianceofthenewrulersoftheland.

Second Sa'udi state

ThedynastywasrestoredandthesecondSa'udistatebegunin1824whenTurki(1823–34),a grandsonofMuhammadibnSa'ud,succeededincapturingRiyadhandexpellingtheEgyptian garrison.Thereafter,Riyadhremainedthecapitalofthestate.Turkitriedtomaintainfriendly tieswiththeOttomangovernorsofIraq,asheacceptednominalOttomansovereignty,andwith theBritish.AlHasaandHa'ilfellagaintotheSa'udisby1830asthetownmilitiasofcentral Arabia,whichformedthebasesoftheSa'udiarmy,overcamethenomadictribes.Literature, commerce,andagricultureflourisheddespitethecrushinglossestosocietyoccasionedbythe returnofcholera.

In1834Turkiwasmurderedbyanambitiouscousin,whothenwasdeposedandexecutedby Turki'ssonFaysal(1834–38;1843–65).FaysalhadbeencarriedawayintocaptivityinEgyptin 1818buthadescapedin1828torejoinhisfatherandplayaprominentpartinreestablishing Wahhabirule.HerefusedtopaytheEgyptiantribute,andin1837anEgyptianexpeditionary forceenteredRiyadh.FaysalwascapturedthefollowingyearandreturnedtoCairo.Khalid,son ofSa'udandbrotherof'AbdAllah,wasinstalledasrulerofNajdbytheEgyptiansonthe conditionthatherecognizeEgyptianhegemony.

ThesubservienceofKhalidtohisEgyptianandOttomanmasterswasincreasinglyresentedbyhis Wahhabisubjects,andin1841hiscousin,'AbdAllahibnThunayan,raisedthestandardofrevolt. Riyadhwascapturedbyaboldcoup;itsgarrisonwasexpelled;andKhalid,whowasinAlHasaat thetime,fledbyshiptoJiddah.'AbdAllahresistedwhenFaysalreappearedin1843,onlytobe overpoweredandslain.SoFaysalresumedhisreignafteraninterruptionoffiveyearsandruled basicallyunchallenged,despiteoccasionaltribaluprisingsandfrictionwiththetownspeopleof AlQasim,untilhisdeathin1865.TheHejazremainedinOttomanhands,whilenorthernArabia (theprovinceofJabalShammar)waslocallyautonomousbutacknowledgedthesupremacyof Riyadh.FaysalreestablishedSa'udiauthorityforashorttimeinBahrainandforalongertimein AlBuraymiandtheOmanhinterland.HeextendedhisinfluenceasfarasHadhramautandthe frontiersofYemen.OnlyBritishinterventionstoppedtheextensionofdirectSa'udipowerover thewesternshoreofthegulf.

AdministrationunderFaysalwassimpleandinvolvedfewpeople,mostlymembersoftheroyal familyanddescendantsofMuhammadibn'AbdalWahhab.Justiceintheprovinceswasenforced byofficialsappointedbyRiyadh;eventhetribespaidtaxes;andthewritingofpoetryandhistory flourished.

Death of Faysal

In1865,whenhispowerwasanacknowledgedfactorinArabianpolitics,Faysaldied.Hissons disputedthesuccession.Hiseldestson,'AbdAllah,succeededfirst,maintaininghimselfagainst therebellionofhisbrotherSa'udIIforsixyearsuntiltheBattleofJudah(1871),inwhichSa'ud triumphed.'AbdAllahfled,andSa'udtookpower.Butduringthenextfiveyearsthethrone changedhandsnofewerthanseventimesinfavourofdifferentmembersoftheSa'udfamily. Droughtin1870–74exacerbatedthecivilwar'seffectsastheunityoftheWahhabicommunity disintegrated.Meanwhile,'AbdAllahhadappealedtotheOttomangovernorinBaghdad,who cametohisassistancebuttookadvantageofthesituationtooccupytheprovinceofAlHasafor theempirein1871—anoccupationthatlasted42years.

The Rashidis

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Sa'udIIdiedin1875,and,afterabriefintervalofchaos,'AbdAllah(as'AbdAllahII)returnedto thethronethefollowingyearonlytofindhimselfpowerlessagainsttheRashidiemirsofJabal Shammar,withtheircapitalatHa'il.TheRashidishadruledtheresince1836,firstasagentsfor theSa'udfamily,butsubsequentlytheybecameindependent,withstronglinkstotheOttomans andgrowingwealthfromthecaravantrade.Muhammadibn'AbdAllahalRashid(reigned1869– 97)wasundoubtedlythedominantfigureinArabianpoliticswhen'AbdAllah(nowas'AbdAllahII ibnSa'ud)returnedtoRiyadhforhisthirdspellofauthority.AtfirsttheRashidisrefrainedfrom anyforwardaction,buttheysoonintervenedinthechaoticaffairsoftheWahhabistate.Andit wasnotlongbefore'AbdAllahwaspersuadedtojoinIbnRashidatHa'il(ostensiblyasaguestbut intruthasahostage),whilearepresentativeoftheRashidiswasappointedgovernorofRiyadhin 1887.'AbdAllaheventuallywasallowedtoreturntoRiyadhandevenwasnamedgovernorofthe cityin1889.'AbdAllahdidnotlivetoenjoyhisrestorationforlong,however;hediedinthe sameyear,leavingtohisyoungestbrother,'AbdalRahman,thealmosthopelesstaskofreviving thedynasty.

'AbdalRahmanwassoonembroiledinhostilitieswiththeRashidis.TheBattleofAlMulaydah(in AlQasim)settledtheissuebetweenthemdecisivelyin1891,and,forthesecondtimeinaspace of70years,theWahhabistateseemedtobecompletelydestroyed.'AbdalRahmanfledwithhis familytotakerefugeinKuwaitastheguestofitsrulers.UnlikethefirstSa'udiregime,which wasendedbyexternalconquest,thesecondSa'udistatefellchieflybecauseofinternaldisputes betweenmembersoftheroyalfamily.

Ibn Sa'ud and the third Sa'udi state

'Abdal'Aziz(knowncommonlyasIbnSa'ud),thesonoftheexiled'AbdalRahman,took advantageofhisnewlocationtoacquireusefulknowledgeofworldaffairs,whilethenew Rashidiprince,'Abdal'Azizibn'AbdMit'ab,alienatedthepopulationofNajd.In1901theyoung IbnSa'ud(hewasabout22to26yearsold)salliedoutofKuwaitwithaforceof40followerson whatmusthaveseemedaforlornadventure.OnJan.15,1902,withaselectbodyofonly15 warriors,hescaledthewallsofRiyadh,surprisedanddefeatedtheRashidigovernorandhis escortbeforethegateofthefortofMismak(Musmak),andwashailedbythepopulaceastheir ruler.

ThefollowingyearswitnessedthedevelopmentofthestrugglebythethirdSa'udistateto expanditscontrolonceagainovermostoftheArabianPeninsulaandtherebyreestablishthe gloriesofthefirstSa'udistateinthe18thcentury.ThefirstchallengewasfromtheRashidis, whosepowerwasbynomeansspentandwhoreceivedsubstantialhelpfromtheOttomansin menandmaterial.In1904IbnSa'uddefeatedacombinedRashidiandOttomanforcebut afterwardallowedtheOttomanstoplacegarrisonsincentralArabiaforoneyear.IbnRashid continuedthestruggle,buthewaskilledinbattlein1906,andthenceforthIbnSa'ud,who securedthewithdrawalofOttomantroopsfromAlQasimin1906,becametheundisputedmaster ofcentralArabia.IbnSa'udbenthimselftothetaskofregainingthewholerealmofhis ancestors.HewascautiousenoughtocontinueacknowledgingOttomanoverlordship(evenifonly inname),and,bycultivatingcontactswithBritain,hehopedtobalanceeachpoweragainstthe other.

Meanwhile,hebusiedhimselfwiththereorganizationofthecountry'sadministration,including theinceptionofaplandesignedtoensurethestabilityandpermanenceofhismilitaryforce.In 1912heestablishedthefirstIkhwan(“Brethren”)colonyonthedesertwellsofAlArtawiyyah, peopledentirelybyBedouin.Thecolonyformedamilitantcantonmentdedicatedtotheservice ofGodandprince.Duringthenextdecade,nearly100similarcoloniesorganizedaroundtribal groupidentitywerefoundedthroughoutthecountry,providingIbnSa'udwithaformidable militaryforce.Atthesametime,however,theSa'udimilitaryalsoincludedsoldiersrecruited

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fromthetownsandsettledareas.

IbnSa'ud'sfirstmajorconquestinNajdwasthetakingofAlHasaprovincefromtheOttomansin 1913,althoughhewasagaincompelledtoreaffirmOttomansovereigntyoverallofhisterritory in1914.DuringWorldWarI(1914–18),hewasaidedbyBritishsubsidies,buthemanagedby adroitdiplomacytoberelativelyquiescent,thoughsurroundedbyenemies.In1919,however,he struckhisfirstblow,againstHusaynibn'AlioftheHejaz,whosearmywasannihilatedbythe Ikhwan.In1920IbnSa'ud'ssonFaysalcapturedtheprovinceofAsirbetweentheHejazand Yemen.In1921IbnSa'uddefeatedtheforcesofMuhammadibnTalal,thelastRashidiemir,and annexedthewholeofnorthernArabia,occupyingAlJawfandWadiAlSirhaninthefollowing year.KuwaitexperiencedborderraidsandaSa'udiblockadeoverpaymentofcustomsduties. Meanwhile,FaysalIand'AbdullahI,thesonsofHusaynibn'Ali,hadbeenplacedonthethrones ofIraqandTransjordan,respectively,bytheBritishgovernment.TheseterritoriesandtheHejaz servedasaformidableBritishprotectedcordonaroundthenorthernandwesternbordersofthe Wahhabistate,thoughincidentsalongtheborderwerefrequent.

In1923theBritishgovernmentinvitedalltherulersconcernedinthesesporadichostilitiesto attendaconferenceinKuwaitandifpossibletosettletheirdifferences.TheBritishalsomadeit clearthatthesubsidiestheretoforepaidtoIbnSa'udandHusaynibn'Aliwouldbeterminated.

Theconferenceendedincompletedisagreement,andinSeptember1924theWahhabisattacked theHejaz.TheycapturedAlTa'ifafterabriefstruggle,butthiswasfollowedbyamassacreof thecity'smalecivilians.TheSa'udisoccupiedMeccawithoutopposition.IbnSa'udthenlaidsiege toJiddahandMedina,whileHusaynibn'Aliabdicatedhisthroneinfavourofhisson'Ali.Bythe endof1925,bothMedinaandJiddahhadsurrenderedtotheSa'udis.TheAl'Aqabah–Ma'an districtadjacenttothenorthernHejazwasoccupiedbyTransjordantopreventitsfallinginto Wahhabihands.OnJan.8,1926,IbnSa'ud,whohadadoptedthetitlesultanofNajdin1921,was proclaimedkingoftheHejazintheGreatMosqueofMecca.In1927healsochangedhistitleof sultantokingofNajdanditsdependencies,thetwopartsofhisdualkingdombeing administeredforthetimebeingasseparateunits.Inthesameyear,theTreatyofJiddah, negotiatedbetweenIbnSa'udandaBritishspecialenvoy,SirGilbertClayton,placedSa'udi relationswithGreatBritainonapermanentfootingastheBritishfullyacknowledgedSa'udi independence.AseriesofMuslimconferencessponsoredbytheSa'udisintheHejazlegitimized theirpresenceasrulers.

AssociatingwithChristianpowersputIbnSa'udinanawkwardpositionwiththemorereligious elementsinNajd.Moreover,hisallegedcomplaisanceoverBritishinvolvementinandprotection ofIraqandTransjordan,bothofwhichtheIkhwanthoughtripeforconquest,createdtension withhismilitarysupporters.Incidentsontheirfrontierscreatedastateofvirtualthough undeclaredwar,inwhichBritishaircraftplayedapartindiscouragingWahhabiincursions.Ibn Sa'udalsoonseveraloccasionsviolentlysuppressedpoliticalandmilitaryoppositionbythe Ikhwan.

In1928and1929,FaysalalDawish,SultanibnBijad,andotherleadersoftheIkhwan,accusing IbnSa'udofbetrayingthecauseforwhichtheyhadfoughtandopposingthetaxesleviedupon theirfollowers,resumedtheirdefianceoftheking'sauthority.Therebelssoughttostopthe centralizationofpowerinthehandsofthekingandkeepthepurityofWahhabipracticesagainst whattheysawasinnovationsadvocatedbyIbnSa'ud.Themajorityofthepopulationralliedto theking'sside,andthis,withthesupportoftheNajdi 'ulama' ,enabledhimtodefeattherebels. Thecivilwar,however,draggedoninto1930,whentherebelswereroundedupbytheBritishin Kuwaititerritoryandtheirleadershandedovertotheking.Withtheirdefeat,powerpassed definitivelyintothehandsoftownspeopleratherthanthetribes.

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IbnSa'udwasatlastfreetogivehisundividedattentiontothedevelopmentofhiscountryand totheproblemsofforeignpolicythatbesethimonallsides.Aboveall,hewasconcernedto assertandmaintainthecompleteindependenceofhiscountryandinittheexclusivesupremacy ofIslam.Aslongasthesefundamentalobjectivesremainedinplace,hewasnotonlyreadyto cooperatewithallnationsbutpreparedtoregardwithsympathysomeofthepracticesthathad takenrootintheHejazandotherareasastheresultofforeigncontacts.Thebanonmusic,for example,wasprogressivelycircumventedbytheradio,whichwasalsousedasatooltounitethe kingdomandincreasemilitaryefficiency.Andsothelatitudinarianspirit,slowlyatfirstbutwith everincreasingmomentum,lessenedafewoftheinhibitionsofthepuritanregime.

Ontheotherhand,IbnSa'udrigorouslyopposedtheinterventionofanyforeigngovernment whateverintheinternalpoliticsoftheregime.Yet,asidefrommembersoftheroyalfamily,and NajdiandHejazimerchants,manyoftheking'schiefadviserswereforeignMuslims.Someofthe foreignadviserswerepoliticalrefugeesfromtheirhomelandsandservedIbnSa'udformany years.

The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

ThehistoryoftheKingdomofSaudiArabiabeginsproperlyonSept.23,1932,whenbyroyal decreethedualkingdomoftheHejazandNajdwithitsdependencies,administeredsince1927 astwoseparateunits,wasunifiedunderthenameoftheKingdomofSaudiArabia.Thechief immediateeffectwastoincreasetheunityofthekingdomandtodecreasethepossibilityof Hejaziseparatism,whilethenameunderscoredthecentralroleoftheroyalfamilyinthe kingdom'screation.Noattemptwasmadetochangethesupremeauthorityofthekingasthe absolutemonarchofthenewregime;indeed,hispowerwasemphasizedin1933byhischoiceof hissonSa'udasheirapparent.

Foreign relations, 1932–53

FromthedateofitsestablishmentinSeptember1932,SaudiArabiaenjoyedfullinternational recognitionasanindependentstate,althoughitdidnotjointheLeagueofNations.

In1934IbnSa'udwasinvolvedinwarwithYemenoveraboundarydispute.Anadditionalcauseof thewarwasYemen'ssupportofanuprisingbyanAsiriprinceagainstIbnSa'ud.Inasevenweek campaign,theSaudisweregenerallyvictorious.HostilitieswereterminatedbytheTreatyofAl Ta'if,bywhichtheSaudisgainedthedisputeddistrict.DiplomaticrelationswithEgypt,severed in1926becauseofanincidentontheMeccanpilgrimage,werenotreneweduntilafterthedeath ofKingFu'adofEgyptin1936.

Fixingtheboundariesofthecountryremainedaproblemthroughoutthe1930s.Intribalsociety, sovereigntywastraditionallyexpressedintheformofsuzeraintyovercertaintribesratherthan infixedterritorialboundaries.Hence,IbnSa'udregardedthedemarcationoflandfrontierswith suspicion.Nevertheless,themajorityofthefrontierswithIraq,Kuwait,andJordanhadbeen demarcatedby1930.Inthesouth,noagreementwasreachedontheexactsiteofthefrontiers withtheTrucialStatesandwiththeinteriorofYemenandMuscatandOman.

AfterSaudiArabiadeclareditsneutralityduringWorldWarII(1939–45),BritainandtheUnited StatessubsidizedSaudiArabia,whichdeclaredwaronGermanyin1945,andthisthusenabled thekingdomtoentertheUnitedNationsasafoundingmember.IbnSa'udalsojoinedtheArab League,buthedidnotplayaleadingpartinit,sincethereligiousandconservativeelementin SaudiArabiaopposedcooperationwithotherArabstates,evenwhenSaudissharedcommon views,asinoppositiontoZionism.IntheArabIsraeliWarof1948,SaudiArabiacontributedonly onebattalion.

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Internal affairs, 1932 –53

AlthoughoilhadbeendiscoveredinAlHasaneartheshoresofthePersianGulfbeforeWorldWar II,itwasnotexploiteduntilafter1941.Staterevenuesbeforethewarwerederivedprimarily fromthepilgrimage,customsduties,andtaxes—whichdecreasedasaresultoftheworld economicdepressionofthe1930s.After1944largenumbersofforeignoilworkersarrivedinthe country,andAramco(theArabianAmericanOilCompany)wasestablishedasajointventure betweenanumberofAmericanoilcompaniesandtheSaudigovernment.Thecountrywasitself unabletosupplytheoilcompanywithsufficientskilledworkers,andoilproductionwaslargely managedandundertakenbyforeigners.Whenin1949AramcopaidmoretaxestotheU.S. governmentthantheyieldtoSaudiArabiainroyalties,theSaudileadershipobtainedanew agreementin1950thatrequiredAramcotopayanincometaxof50percentofthenetoperating incometotheSaudis.

Thesuddenwealthfromincreasedproductionwasamixedblessing.Culturallifeflourished, primarilyintheHejaz,whichwasthecentrefornewspapersandradio,butthelargeinfluxof outsidersapparentlyincreasedxenophobiainapopulationalreadynotedforitsdistrustof foreigners.Thedisturbanceoftraditionalpatternscausedbytheculturalchanges,newwealth fromincreasedproductionofoil,inflation,andthemovementofthepopulationtothemajor citieswasreflectedinthegovernment,whichhadbecomeincreasinglywastefulandlavish. Despitethenewwealth,extravagantspendingledtogovernmentaldeficitsandforeign borrowinginthe1950s.

IbnSa'ud,whohadbeenbroughtupinthestrictpuritanicalfaithoftheWahhabis,viewedthis floodofwealthandtheconsequentchangingmoreswithdistasteandbewilderment.Hediedon Nov.9,1953.

King Sa'ud ibn 'Abd al-'Aziz

IbnSa'udwassucceededbyhiseldestsurvivingson,Sa'ud,withhissecondson,Faysal(thetwo haddifferentmothers),declaredheirapparent.Thetwohalfbrotherswereremarkably different.Sa'udhadbeenheirapparentsince1933;hehadmanytiesamongthedeserttribes. Faysal,whohadlivedchieflyinthecitiesoftheHejaz,hadoftenbeenabroadinhispostas Saudiforeignminister.Sa'udthusrepresentedwhatsoonwouldbecometheancienrégime,while thoseadvocatingmodernizationsupportedFaysal.

Meanwhile,moneycontinuedtopourintothecountry.Therewasanenormousincreaseinthe populationofthetowns,notablyofRiyadhandJiddah.Thecharacteroftheseurbansocieties waschangedbeyondallrecognitionbyalargeinfluxofbourgeoisiefromneighbouringcountries. Thefreerlifestyleofimmigrantwiveswastoleratedtoacertaindegree,butsuchliberalization wasnotextendedtoSaudiwomen.Roads,schools,hospitals,palaces,apartmentbuildings,and airportsreplacedtheoldalleywaysandmudbrickhouses.Weavingandothercraftscontinued, buttheyweremodifiedbytheuseofnewpatternsandmaterials.

Attheroyalcourt,therewasconstantrivalrybetweenSa'udandFaysal.InMarch1958,asa resultofpressurefromtheroyalfamily,Sa'udissuedadecreetransferringallexecutivepowerto Faysal.InDecember1960,however,Faysalwasobligedtoresignasprimeminister,andtheking himselfassumedtheoffice.In1962–63Faysalwasoncemoregivenexecutivepowers.Finally,on Nov.2,1964,thefamilycollectivelydeposedSa'udandproclaimedFaysalking.TheNational Guard,theroyalprinces,andthe 'ulama' hadsupportedFaysalinthestruggleforpoweragainst Sa'ud.FaysalwassimplymorecompetentthanSa'ud:itwashewhodevelopedtheministriesof governmentandestablishedforthefirsttimeanefficientbureaucracy.

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Foreign affairs under Sa'ud and Faysal

SincethefrontierbetweenSaudiArabiaandOmanhadneverbeendemarcatedandtherewas thepossibilityofdiscoveringoilinthearea,in1952SaudiArabianforcesoccupiedtheoasisof AlBuraymi,whichBritainfeltbelongedtoOmanandtheemirateofAbuDhabi(AbuZabi)—both ofwhichenjoyedBritishprotection.InJuly1954theBritishandSaudigovernmentsagreedto submitthedisputetoanarbitrationtribunal.ItconvenedinGenevainSeptember1955,butthe negotiationsbrokedown,andBritishofficeredforcesfromOmanandAbuDhabireoccupiedthe oasis.DuringtheSuezCrisisin1956,SaudiArabiabrokeoffrelationswithBritain,andtheywere notreestablisheduntil1963.InSeptember1961,followingtheIraqiclaimtosovereigntyover Kuwait,SaudiArabiasenttroopstoKuwaitinresponsetoarequestfromitsruler.

SinceWorldWarII,theUnitedStateshadbecomethemostinfluentialforeignpowerinSaudi Arabia.Americaninterestwasdirectedtowardtheoilindustry,whichwasownedbyU.S. companies.In1960SaudiArabiahelpedfoundtheOrganizationofthePetroleumExporting Countries(OPEC).TheSaudisfavouredtheUnitedStatesintheColdWarwiththeSovietUnion, buttheyopposedAmericansupportofIsrael.

AsaresultoftherisetopowerofEgypt'sPanArabnationalistpresidentGamalAbdelNasser, SaudirelationswithEgyptwereoftenstrained.Egyptianpropagandamadefrequentattackson theSaudisystemofroyalgovernment.WhenEgyptiantroopsweresenttoNorthYemenin1962, tensionbetweenSaudiArabiaandEgyptbecamemoreacute.TheSaudishelpedtheYemeni royalistsagainsttheEgyptianbackedYemenrepublic.KingFaysalultimatelyagreedtoassist Egyptwithfinancialaid,providedNasserwithdrewhistroopsfromYemen.

Faysal,leaderofthelargestconservativeArabstate,continuedtowarnagainstthedangerof communistinfluenceinArabandMuslimcountries.SaudiArabiaalsoactedagainsttheUnited States,however,asaresultofU.S.assistancetoIsraelduringtheArabIsraeliWarof1973.The SaudisandotherAraboilproducersorganizedashortlivedoilboycott,andthepriceofoil worldwidequadrupled.

TheSaudigovernmentgaineddirectownershipofonefourthofAramco'scrudeoiloperationsin 1973.Ultimately,theSaudisachievedcompletecontrolofthecompanyand,therefore,over theirchiefeconomicresource.By1984thepresidentofAramcowasaSaudicitizen.

HarrySt.JohnBridgerPhilby WilliamL.Ochsenwald JoshuaTeitelbaum

Reigns of Khalid and Fahd

Domestic and foreign policy until the Persian Gulf War

OnMarch25,1975,KingFaysalwasassassinated;hewassucceededbyhishalfbrother,Crown PrinceKhalid,andPrinceFahdwasmadecrownprince.Duringthenewking'sreign,economic andsocialdevelopmentcontinuedatanextremelyrapidrate,revolutionizingtheinfrastructure andeducationalsystemofthecountry.

AfterthesigningoftheEgyptianIsraelipeaceagreementonMarch26,1979,SaudiArabiajoined mostoftheotherArabnationsinseveringdiplomaticrelationswithEgypt.( See CampDavid

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Accords.)TheestablishmentoftheIslamicRepublicofIranin1979andthesubsequentIran Iraq War(1980–90)alsocausedtheSaudimonarchyseriousconcern—owinginnosmallparttothe largeShi'iteminorityineasternSaudiArabia(thesamesectthatpredominatesinIran)that riotedin1979and1980insupportofIran'srevolution.ThekingdomthereaftersupportedIraqin itswarwithIran.

TheonlydramaticdomesticchallengetothemonarchysinceWorldWarIItookplacein November1979whentheHarammosque(GreatMosque)inMecca,theholiestsiteintheworld forMuslims,wasseizedbyfollowersofaSaudireligiousextremist,Juhaymanal'Utaybi,whohad beeneducatedbytheSaudireligiousestablishmentandwasaformermemberoftheNational Guard.JuhaymanprotestedwhathesawastheunIslamicbehaviouroftheSaudiroyalfamily. TherebelsoccupiedthemosquefortwoweeksbeforetheyweredefeatedbyNationalGuard troops.

OnJune13,1982,KingKhaliddied,andCrownPrinceFahd,whohadlongbeeninfluentialinthe administrationofaffairs,succeededtothethrone.FahdmaintainedSaudiArabia'sforeignpolicy ofclosecooperationwiththeUnitedStatesandincreasedpurchasesofsophisticatedmilitary equipmentfromtheUnitedStatesandBritain.Inthe1970sand'80s,thecountryhadbecomethe singlelargestoilproducerintheworld,andthegovernmentplayedamajorroleindetermining OPECpolicyonoilproductionandpricing.OilrevenueswerecrucialtoSaudisocietyasits economywaschangedbytheextraordinarywealthchanneledthroughthegovernmentand derivedfromoiloperations,notwithstandingadownturninoilpricesandproductioninthemid 1980s.Urbanization,masspubliceducation,thepresenceofnumerousforeignworkers,and accesstonewmediaallaffectedSaudivaluesandmores.Whilesocietychangedprofoundly, however,politicalprocessesdidnot.Thepoliticalelitecametoincludemorebureaucratsand technocrats,butrealpowercontinuedinthehandsofthedynasty.

The Persian Gulf War and its aftermath

SaudipoliticalleadershipwaschallengedwhenIraq,afterhavingrejectedattemptedSaudi mediation,reasserteditsearlierclaimsandinvadedneighbouringKuwaitonAug.2,1990, precipitatingthePersianGulfWar(1990–91).TheKuwaitigovernmentfledtoSaudiArabia,and KingFahddenouncedtheIraqiinvaders.FearingthatPresidentSaddamHusseinofIraqmight invadeSaudiArabianext(despiteSaudiassistancetoIraqduringtheIranIraqWar),theSaudis, breakingwithtradition,invitedtheUnitedStatesandothercountriestosendtroopstoprotect thekingdom.ThiswasdoneafterFahdhadreceivedtheapprobationofthekingdom'shighest rankingreligiousofficial,Sheikh'Abdal'AzizibnBaz,whoagreedthatnonMuslimscoulddefend Islam'sholiestplaces.BymidNovembertheUnitedStateshadsent230,000troops,whichwere themostimportantpartofthecoalitionforcethatultimatelyincludedsoldiersfrommanyother countries.TheSaudisadroitlycoordinatedArabandMuslimcontingentsandalsoestablished diplomatictieswithChina,theSovietUnion,and,later,Iran.KingFahdexpandedhisgoal beyondtheprotectionofSaudiArabiatoincludetheliberationofKuwaitand,ifpossible,the overthrowofSaddamHussein.

WithapprovalfromSaudiArabiasecuredinadvance,thecoalition,withsome800,000troops (morethan540,000fromtheUnitedStates),attackedIraqbyaironJan.16–17,1991.Saudi pilotsflewmorethan7,000sortiesandwereprominentinthebattlesaroundtheSauditownof Ra'sal.InthefourdaygroundwarthatbeganonFebruary24,Sauditroops,includingthe NationalGuard,helpeddefeattheIraqisanddrivethemoutofKuwait.Despitetheclearmilitary victory,thefullimplicationsofthewarforSaudiArabiawerenotimmediatelyknown.

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Yetastimeworeon,thatcardinalevent,inwhichafellowArabstatethreatenedtorendyears oftheroyalfamily'saccomplishmentsasunder,seemedtobeaturningpointformanyaspectsof Saudipolitical,social,andeconomiclife.Acertainmalaisesetin,withvariousgroups questioningthewisdomoftheroyalfamilyanddemandingaccountability.Manycitizens questionedhowaregimethathadspentsuchvastsumsondefensewould,intheend,be requiredtocallonthehelpofnonMuslimoutsiderswhenitfeltthreatened.Intheinternal politicalsphere,twooppositionmovementsemerged,oneIslamistandtheotherliberaland modernist,andforcedFahdtoundertakeseveralinitiatives.

TheeconomicimpactofthePersianGulfWarwasconsiderable,asSaudiArabiahousedand assistednotonlyforeigntroopsbutalsoKuwaiticivilianswhileatthesametimeexpelling YemenisandJordanians,whosecountrieshadsupportedIraqdiplomatically.SaudiArabia purchasednewweaponsfromabroad,increasedthesizeofitsownarmedforces,andgave financialsubsidiestoanumberofforeigngovernments.HigherSaudioilproductionand substantiallyhigherpricesintheworldoilmarketprovidedsomecompensationfortheSaudi economy.However,grossdomesticproductpercapitagrewonlymarginallythroughthe1990s andinrealtermsactuallyfellinsomeyears.Alanguideconomy—inacountryperceivedas otherwisebeingextremelywealthy—combinedwithagrowthinunemploymenttocontributeto thekingdom'ssenseofmalaise.Thisdisquietaddedtoasubsequentriseincivilunrest.

OneofthefirstresultsofthealteredsituationinSaudiArabiawasKingFahd'sMarch1,1992, issuanceofthreeimportantdecrees:theBasicLawofGovernment;theConsultativeCouncil Statute;andtheRegionsStatute.WhereasFahdwasrespondingtodemandsforgreater governmentalaccountability,thefirstandseconddecreescontainedanumberofquasi constitutionalclauses.ButsincethegovernmenthadoftenstatedthattheQur'anandthe sunnah (practices)oftheProphetwerethecountry'sconstitution,hewasatpainstostatethatthere hadnotbeena“constitutionalvacuum”inSaudiArabiaandthatthenewlawsconfirmedexisting practice.

TheSaudidilemmawastorespondtodissentwhilemakingasfewactualchangesinthestatus quoaspossible.TheBasicLawofGovernmentchangedtheprocessusedtoselecttheheirtothe thronebyextendingcandidatestothegrandchildrenofIbnSa'ud,enshrinedtheking'srightto choosehisheir,establishedarighttoprivacy,andprohibitedinfringementsofhumanrights withoutjustcause.TheConsultativeCouncilStatutesetupanadvisorybodyof60(later expandedto120)membersplusachairman.Whileconvokingacouncilgavetheappearanceofa steptowardamorerepresentativegovernment,thecouncilactuallywasappointedbytheking andcouldbedissolvedbyhimatwill.

Fahdmadeitclearthathedidnothavedemocracyinmind:“Asystembasedonelectionsisnot consistentwithourIslamiccreed,which[approvesof]governmentbyconsultation[ shura ].”

The Islamist opposition

AfterthePersianGulfWar,SaudiArabia'sIslamistoppositiongrewmoreinfluential.Itwasnot madeupofextremistslikeJuhayman;instead,highlyeducatedacademicsandIslamicpreachers fromthelowerranksoftheestablishment 'ulama' formeditscore.Itwasalooseagglomeration ofvarioustrends,butthemainspokesmenweretwocharismaticpreachers,Salmanal'Awdah andSafaralHawali.Theirmaingrievancewasthattheregimefailedtoactaccordingtowhat theoppositiondefinedasproperIslamicnormsinforeignanddomesticaffairs.Criticismofthe governmentwasnotallowedinSaudiArabia,butinSeptember1992agroupassociatedwiththe

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twoclericspublishedadaring,lengthy,anddetaileddocumentcalledthe “Memorandumof Exhortation,”inwhichtheytooktheregimetotaskforhavinganoverfinancedmilitarythatdid notliveuptoexpectations,forglorifyingdecadentandWesternizedlifestyles,andfornot allowingdissentingIslamistopinionstobeexpressedinprintandontheairwaves.

Theregimetriedtorelyonclericswithwhomithadclosetiestoreigninthedissidents,butto noavail.Thekingdom'sfirstorganizedSunniIslamistoppositiongroup,theCommitteeforthe DefenseofLegitimateRights(CDLR),wasestablishedin1993.ThecommitteewasnotaWestern stylehumanrightsorganization—asitsEnglishlanguagesobriquetmightsuggest—butanIslamist oppositiongroupthatdemandedthattheregimeactaccordingtothestrictIslamicnormson whichthecountryhadbeenfounded.Itsoriginalmemberswereclericsanduniversityfaculty, anditwasquicktodisseminateitsmessageviatelephonefacsimileand,later,theInternet.

TheIslamistchallengethatfacedtheregimewasanespeciallytroublingoneinasmuchasthe regimeitselfhadrisentopowerandmaintaineditsstatusbyappealingtothosesameIslamic symbols.ThisattackthreatenedtounderminetheSa'udfamily'sverylegitimacy,andthefamily reactedbyoutlawingthecommitteeandarrestingitsmembers.Thegroupthereafteroperated abroad,inLondon,untilitsplitin1996.

Meanwhile,in1994thefirstmassIslamistdemonstrationwasheldinthecentralArabiancityof Burayda,followingthearrestofalHawali.Itwasledbyal'Awdah,whowasarrestedduringthe demonstration.WhileonecouldnotconcludethatIslamistoppositionwasrampant,thefactthat suchalargedemonstrationwasheldatallwasanindicationthatallwasnotrightinthecapital. Thedemonstrationwasfollowedbyafurthercrackdownondissent.

Thedissidentscondemnedtheregime'ssupposedunIslamicpractices.Ofparticularconcernto themwasthepresenceofU.S.troopsandthoseofothernonMuslimcountriesonSaudisoil,a presencethat—giventheproximityofthetwoholycities—theydeemednotonlyanaffrontto theirreligionbutasituationdesignedonlytoprotecttheregime.InNovember1995anexplosion rockedthecentralRiyadhheadquartersofaU.S.governmentgroupthattrainedmembersofthe SaudiNationalGuard.TheexplosionkilledfiveAmericansandtwoIndians.Threehitherto unknownorganizationstookresponsibilityfortheoperation,andallofthemdemandedthe withdrawalofU.S.forcesfromthekingdom.Whiletherewasnoprovenconnectionbetweenthe bombersandtheknownleadersoftheSaudiIslamistmovement,inMay1996Saudiauthorities arrestedandexecutedfouryouthswhoclaimed—intelevisedconfessions—tohavebeen influencedbytheCDLRandbytheviewsofanAfghanistanbasedSaudiIslamistfinancier,Osama binLaden.

InJune1996amassiveexplosionrippedthroughanapartmentcomplexhousingU.S.AirForce personnel.NineteenU.S.servicememberswerekilled,andhundredswereinjured.Thisbombing remainedunsolved,butU.S.andSaudiauthoritiessuggestedthatIranianbackedSaudiShi'ites wereinvolved.

Althoughtheystillactivelycampaignedfromabroad—particularlyontheInternet—Islamists maintainedalowprofilewithinthekingdomthroughoutthe1990s.IndicationswerethatCrown Prince'AbdAllah(Abdullah)—whohadeffectivelyrundaytodayaffairsafterFahdsuffereda strokein1995—hadeitherreachedsomekindofagreementwithIslamistleadersorhadbeen grantedsomeformofgraceperiodbythem.In1999thegovernmentorderedthereleaseofthe oppositionclericsalHawaliandal'Awdah,and,althoughtherewerenoindicationsofthe conditionsoftheirrelease,thetwothereafterrefrainedfrompubliclycriticizingtheroyal family.

Farmoreominouswasthedevelopmentoutsidethekingdomofanetwork,whichwasassociated

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withbinLaden,knownasal Qaeda.Althoughtherewerenodirectattacksagainsttheregime eitherathomeorabroad,alQaedastagedanumberofviolentattacksagainstU.S.targets throughouttheworld.TheseattacksculminatedintheSeptember11terroristattacksin2001,a majorityofwhoseparticipantswerecitizensofSaudiArabia.

Foreign policy since the end of the Persian Gulf War

SaudiArabiaowedatremendousdebttothecountrieswhoseforceshaddefeatedIraq, particularlytotheUnitedStates.Thekingdomrepaidthisdebtinpartbypurchasinglarge quantitiesofweaponsfromAmericanfirmsandbysupportingtheU.S.ledpeaceprocess betweenIsraelandthePalestinians.Intheaftermathofthewar,however,thekingdomalso soughttocultivatecloserrelationswithotherregionalpowers,particularlywithIran.

SaudiArabiaplayedabehindthescenesroleinIsraeliPalestinianpeacenegotiationsby persuadingSyriatoattendtheOctober1991MadridConference,whichopenedthepostwar peacedialogueintheregion;SaudiArabiaheldobserverstatusattheconferenceandwasactive inanefforttosoftenSyria'spositionagainstIsrael,thoughwithlittleavail.Followingthesigning oftheOsloAccordsbetweenIsraelandthePalestineLiberationOrganization(PLO)in1993,the governmentovercameitsangeratPLOchairmanYasir'ArafatforhavingsupportedIraqduring thePersianGulfWarandpledgedlargesumsofmoneytosupportthedevelopmentofthe PalestinianAuthority.In1994theSaudis,encouragedbytheUnitedStates,ledtheGulf CooperationCouncilinwithdrawingfromalongstandingArabLeagueboycottofcompanies eitherdirectlyorindirectlydoingbusinesswithIsrael.

WithIraqseeminglychastenedbythePersianGulfWar,Saudiworriesoverregionalsecurity turnedtoIran,which,sincetheIslamicrevolution,hadpurportedlysoughttoexportthe revolutiontoothercountriesintheregionwithsignificantShi'itepopulations,suchasIraq, Lebanon,Bahrain,andSaudiArabia.InstronglyopposingIran,theSaudigovernmentalso followedtheU.S.policyof“dualcontainment”(i.e.,isolatingbothIranandIraq),inwhichthe UnitedStatessoughttodepictIranasa“rogue”statethatsupportedterrorism.

By1996,however,SaudiArabia'ssenseofobligationtotheUnitedStatesforitssupportduring thewarhadbeguntowane.Saudileaders,particularlythenewlypowerful'AbdAllah,beganto developcloserrelationswithIran.'AbdAllah,keentoputadistancebetweenhispoliciesand theunpopularproWesternpoliciesofFahd,apparentlyassessedthattheUnitedStateswould continuetosupporttheSa'udfamily,despiteU.S.antipathytowardIran,andsoturnedhis attentiontoimprovingregionalrelations.SoondignitariesfromIranandSaudiArabiawere exchangingvisits,andthetwocountries'leaderswerecooperatinginseveralmatters.The kingdomalsoresolvedseverallongstandingborderdisputes;theseactionsincludedsignificantly reshapingitsborderwithYemen.

Intheend,however,thegreatesthurdletoU.S.Saudirelationscamefromwithinthekingdom— fromtheSaudicitizenswhoparticipatedintheSeptember11attacksandotheractsofterrorism againsttheUnitedStates.TheperceptionofmanyAmericanswasthattheroyalfamily,through itslongandcloserelationswiththeWahhabisect,hadlaidthegroundworkforthegrowthof militantgroupslikealQaedaandthataftertheattackshaddonelittletohelptrackthe militantsorwardofffutureatrocities.Thatviewpointwasreinforcedwhenin2003theSaudi governmentrefusedtosupportortoparticipateintheIraqWarbetweenU.S.ledforcesand Iraq,anactionseenbysomeasanattemptbytheroyalfamilytoplacatethekingdom'sIslamist radicals.ThatsameyearSaudiandU.S.governmentofficialsagreedtowithdrawallU.S.military forcesfromSaudisoil.Thecountryunderwentapeacefulpowertransitionin2005,when, followingFahd'sdeathonAugust1,'AbdAllahascendedthethrone.Also,inDecember,Saudi ArabiaformallyjoinedtheWorldTradeOrganization.

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JoshuaTeitelbaum

Additional Reading

Land and people

Overviewsandgeneralreferenceworksinclude DAVID E.L ONG , The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (1997); J.E. PETERSON , Historical Dictionary of Saudi Arabia (1993); HUSSEIN H AMZA B INDAGJI , Atlas of Saudi Arabia (1978), withthematic,regional,andcitymaps.Meccaisthesubjectof F.E.P ETERS ,Mecca: A Literary History of the Muslim Holyland (1994);and GERALD D EG AURY , Rulers of Mecca (1954,reissued1980).Also usefulis ANGELO P ESCE , Jiddah: Portrait of an Arabian City ,rev.ed.(1977).Ananthropological approachistakenin S ORAYA A LTORKI , Women in Saudi Arabia: Ideology and Behavior Among the Elite (1986);and WILLIAM L ANCASTER , The Rwala Bedouin Today (1981),acasestudy.Alsoofimportanceare DONALD P OWELL C OLE , Nomads of the Nomads: The Al Murrah Bedouin of the Empty Quarter (1975, reissued1988);and MOTOKO K ATAKURA , Bedouin Village: A Study of a Saudi Arabian People in Transition (1977).Architectureandartaretreatedin G.R.D.K ING , The Historical Mosques of Saudi Arabia (1986),astudyofmosquearchitecture;and SAFEYA B INZAGR , Saudi Arabia: An Artist's View of the Past (1979),apictorialperspectiveofSaudiArabia'scultureandpeople.

AnimportantannualsurveyofeventsinSaudiArabiacanbefoundintheSaudiArabiachapters of BRUCE M ADDY WEITZMAN (ed.), Middle East Contemporary Survey (annually,from1976).

Economy and government

Theeconomyisexaminedin ALI D.J OHANY , MICHEL B ERNE ,and J.W ILSON M IXON ,J R., The Saudi Arabian Economy (1986); ADNAN M.A BDEEN and DALE N.S HOOK , The Saudi Financial System, in the Context of Western and Islamic Finance (1984); A.R EZA S.I SLAMI and ROSTAM M EHRABAN K AVOUSSI , The Political (1984); JOHN R.P RESLEY , A Guide to the Saudi Arabian Economy ,2nded.(1989); ARTHUR N.Y OUNG , Saudi Arabia: The Making of a Financial Giant (1983),ahistoricalsurveyoftheimpactofoil;TIM N IBLOCK (ed.), State, Society, and Economy in Saudi Arabia (1982); FOUAD A LFARSY , Saudi Arabia: A Case Study in Development ,rev.andupdated(1989);and DONALD M.M OLIVER and PAUL J.A BBONDANTE , The Economy of Saudi Arabia (1980).Policystudiesarefoundin RAGAEI E LM ALLAKH , Saudi Arabia, Rush to Development: Profile of an Energy Economy and Investment (1982); HASSAN H AMZA H AJRAH , Public Land Distribution in Saudi Arabia (1982),ontransformationoflandownership; ROBERT E.L OONEY , Saudi Arabia's Development Potential: Application of an Islamic Growth Model (1982); WILLIAM B.Q UANDT , Saudi Arabia in the 1980s: Foreign Policy, Security, and Oil (1981),adiplomaticstudy;and ROBERT D.C RANE , Planning the Future of Saudi Arabia: A Model for Achieving National Priorities (1978),witha summaryofthefiveyearplans.AmorerecentstudyofSaudioilpolicyis NAWAF E.O BAID , The Oil Kingdom at 100: Petroleum Policymaking in Saudi Arabia (2000).Furtherbibliographic informationcanbefoundin HANS JÜRGEN P HILIPP , Saudi Arabia: Bibliography on Society, Politics, Economics (1984),inEnglishandGerman;and FRANK A.C LEMENTS , Saudi Arabia ,rev.ed.(1988).

Defenseissuesarewellcoveredin NADAV S AFRAN , Saudi Arabia: The Ceaseless Quest for Security (1985,reissued1988);and ANTHONY H.C ORDESMAN , Saudi Arabia: Guarding the Desert Kingdom (1997).

Cultural life

AfullscholarlyhistoryoftheMuslimpilgrimage—thehajj—stillremainstobewritten,butits historyinthe16thand17thcenturiesisadmirablyanalyzedin SURAIYA F AROQHI , Pilgrims and Sultans: The Hajj Under the Ottomans, 1517–1683 (1994);the20thcenturyhajjisthesubjectof DAVID E DWIN LONG ,The Hajj Today: A Survey of the Contemporary Muslim Pilgrimage (1979).Thepilgrimageas reflectedinliteratureisverywellpresentedin F.E.P ETERS , The Hajj: The Muslim Pilgrimage to

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Mecca and the Holy Places (1994).Politicsandsocietyinthehomeofthehajj,Mecca,inthe 18thandearly19thcenturiesareadmirablycoveredin WILLIAM O CHSENWALD , Religion, Society, and the State in Arabia: The Hijaz Under Ottoman Control, 1840–1908 (1984).

Women'sliteratureisthefocusof SADDEKA A REBI ,Women and Words in Saudi Arabia: The Politics of Literary Discourse (1994).Ahistoricalapproachtowomeninthekingdomistakenin ELEANOR A BDELLA DOUMATO , Getting God's Ear: Women, Islam, and Healing in Saudi Arabia and the Gulf (2000).

History

Themostimportanthistoricalworksinclude KAMAL S ALIBI , A History of Arabia (1980); ABDELGADIR M AHMOUD ABDALLA , SAMI A LSAKKAR ,and RICHARD T.M ORTEL (eds.), Sources for the History of Arabia ,2vol.(1979), symposiumproceedings;and H.S T.J.B.P HILBY , Sa'udi Arabia (1955,reprinted1972).Amore interpretivediscussionispresentedin JOSEPH K OSTINER ,“TracingtheCurvesofModernSaudiHistory,” Asian and African Studies ,19(2):219–244(July1985). R.B AYLY W INDER , Saudi Arabia in the Nineteenth Century (1965,reprinted1980),remainsthedefinitiveworkonthatperiod.ThelifeofIbnSa'ud, thefounderofthemodernSaudistate,isdiscussedsympatheticallyin MOHAMMED A LMANA , Arabia Unified: A Portrait of Ibn Saud ,rev.ed.(1982).Othertreatmentsinclude DAVID H OLDEN and RICHARD J OHNS , The House of Saud (1981),adetailedhistoryoftheyears1902–80; HAFIZ W AHBA , Arabian Days (1964); and AMEEN R IHANI , Ibn Sa'oud of Arabia: His People and His Land (1928,reprinted1983). CHRISTINE M OSS H ELMS , The Cohesion of Saudi Arabia: Evolution of Political Identity (1981),combinespolitical geography,history,anddiplomacyfortheearly20thcentury.EarlySaudiforeignrelationsare discussedin JACOB G OLDBERG , The Foreign Policy of Saudi Arabia: The Formative Years, 1902–1918 (1986).Workscoveringthesametimeinclude JOHN S.H ABIB , Ibn Sa'ud's Warriors of Islam: The Ikhwan of Najd and Their Role in the Creation of the Sa'udi Kingdom, 1910–1930 (1978); MADAWI A LR ASHEED , Politics in an Arabian Oasis: The Rashidi Tribal Dynasty (1991); JOSHUA T EITELBAUM , The Rise and Fall of the Hashimite Kingdom of Arabia (2001);and CLIVE L EATHERDALE , Britain and Saudi Arabia, 1925–1939: The Imperial Oasis (1983). JOSEPH K OSTINER , The Making of Saudi Arabia, 1916–1936: From Chieftaincy to Monarchical State (1993),isthebestscholarlydiscussionofthekingdom'sformativeyears. ThekingdominthereignsofSa'udandFaysaliscoveredin SARAH Y IZRAELI , The Remaking of Saudi Arabia (1997),whichfollowsKostiner'sapproach.HistoriesofAramcoandU.S.Saudiforeign policyinclude IRVINE H.A NDERSON , Aramco, the United States, and Saudi Arabia: A Study of the Dynamics of Foreign Oil Policy, 1933–1950 (1981); AARON D AVID M ILLER , Search for Security: Saudi Arabian Oil and American Foreign Policy, 1939 –1949 (1980);and ROBERT V ITALIS , America's Kingdom: Mythmaking on the Saudi Oil Frontier (2006).RecentimportantstudiesofSaudipoliticsand SaudiU.S.relationssincetheterroristattacksofSept.11,2001include DORE G OLD , Hatred's Kingdom: How Saudi Arabia Supports the New Global Terrorism (2003); RACHEL B RONSON , Thicker than Oil: America's Uneasy Partnership with Saudi Arabia(2006);and THOMAS L IPPMAN , Inside the Mirage: America's Fragile Partnership with Saudi Arabia (2004).Twoimportantinternalissuesinthe postWorldWarIIperiodareanalyzedin AYMAN A LYASSINI , Religion and State in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (1985);and ALEXANDER B LIGH , From Prince to King: Royal Succession in the House of Saud in the Twentieth Century (1984).Alaterstudyofthesuccessionis SIMON H ENDERSON , After King Fahd: Succession in Saudi Arabia ,2nded.(1995).Moreoninternalissues,suchaspoliticaldissent,can befoundin MORDECHAI A BIR , Saudi Arabia: Government, Society, and the Gulf Crisis (1993); MAMOUN F ANDY , Saudi Arabia and the Politics of Dissent (1999);and JOSHUA T EITELBAUM , Holier than Thou: Saudi Arabia's Islamic Opposition (2000).

WilliamL.Ochsenwald JoshuaTeitelbaum

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