Europe’S Contending Identities: Supranationalism, Ethnoregionalism, Religion, and New Nationalism Edited by Andrew C

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Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-03633-8 - Europe’s Contending Identities: Supranationalism, Ethnoregionalism, Religion, and New Nationalism Edited by Andrew C. Gould and Anthony M. Messina Index More information

Index

2+3+2 arrangement, 222 anti-discrimination laws and policies, 147 , Affective Identifi cation, 39–41 203–5 , 238–9 . See also Racial Equality affective support for Europe, 39 , 40 Directive (RED) age anti-immigrant parties and groups and ethnic phobias, 157–9 , 166 cultural concerns of, 70–1 and European identity, 38–9 , 49 in ethnoregionalism, 21 Agrarian parties, 130 euroscepticism of, 70–1 Aleinikoff, Thomas, 45 future of, 78 Alesina, Alberto, 83–4 on identity and political community, 76 Alighieri, Dante, 197 infl uence of, 71–2 Alleanza Nazionale (Italy), 136 politicization of assimilation issues by, 77 alliances shaping EU policy, 229–30 rise of, 203 American identity, 45 , 52 and super diversity, 70–6 Amiraux, Valerie, 207 anti-Semitism, 208 Amsterdam, Netherlands, 54 , 58–9 al-Aqqad, Abbas Mahmoud, 198 Anderson, Benedict, 4 , 8 Arabic language, 14 Anglophobia in Scotland Aragonesista (Spain), 127 and age, 157 , 158 , 166 ascriptive traits in national identity, 31 , civic nationalism and, 155–6 43–4 , 46–7 and education, 159–61 , 168 Asian Britons and friendship, 161 identity of, 172 , 173–4 , 179–82 , 183 , 236–7 impact of knowledge on, 161 pro-Europe attitudes of, 24 and Islamophobia, 147 , 156 in the Scottish Parliament, 142–3 measuring, 149–56 second-generation, 174 multivariate analysis of, 165–7 and social history, 171 , 183 and nationalism/identity, 162–4 , 166 , in the visual identity diagram, 177–9 , 180–1 167 , 237–8 visual identity task, 178 and political parties, 164 assimilation of immigrants, 1 , 21 , 45 , 48 , and religion, 154 , 161–2 206–13 in the Scottish Social Attitudes Survey asylum (2003), 145–6 and assimilation, 206 and social exclusion, 154 , 162 , 167 and concerns about unity, 57 Anglo-Saxon vs. Continental values, 222–3 EU criteria for, 238

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© in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-03633-8 - Europe’s Contending Identities: Supranationalism, Ethnoregionalism, Religion, and New Nationalism Edited by Andrew C. Gould and Anthony M. Messina Index More information

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asylum (cont.) British national identity, 171–2 , 173–4 , and European identity, 49 179–82 , 183 , 236–7 in group identity, 33–4 British Social Attitudes Survey, 156 harmonizing, 210–13 Brussels, Belgium, 54 and nationalism, 163 Bruter, Michael, 2 and radical right parties, 216 Budge, Ian, 113 in Scotland, 143 Bulgaria, 219 , 222 , 229 Augenstein, Daniel, 5 Bush, George H.W., 219 Australia, 45 Austria Caeiro, Alexandre, 188 banking in, 228 Canada, multiculturalism in, 45 diversity in, 55 Canary Islands (Spain), ethnoregionalist Eurosceptics in, 20 parties in, 106 in the Racial Equality Directive, 216–18 capitalism, 97 , 220–1 , 223 , 226 , 229 radical right parties in, 24 , 203–4 , 205 , 238 Carey, Sean, 71 , 72 Austrian People’s Party, 216 Carnegie, Dale, 194 Cassidy, Clare, 177 Balcerowicz, Leszek, 229 Castiglione, Dario, 2 , 204 al-Banna, Hassan, 192 , 197 , 198 Catalonia, 13 , 21 , 51 , 106 Barzini, Luigi, 170 Catholicism, 15 , 161 Basque Herri Batasuna, 130 Catholic/Protestant confl ict, 153 , 161–2 Basque National Party (PNV), 60 , 127 , center-periphery cleavage 132 , 135 and ethnoregionalist parties, 121 , 124 , Basque region (Spain), 21 , 97 , 106 , 107 130 , 138 Baumann, Gerd, 173 in European identity, 138 Bechhofer, Frank, 76 and the left-right wing continuum, 134 Beck, Nathaniel, 114 Central Europe, 130 , 219–20 Belgium centrist ethnoregionalist parties, 131 , boycott of Austria by, 217 132–3 , 235 decentralization in, 103 Centristes de Catalunya (CC) (Spain), 127 ethnoregionalist parties in, 62–5 , Cerutti, Furio, 4–5 69–70 , 102 Chapel Hill Expert Survey (1984–2002) identity trends in, 34 , 36 84 , 86–9 role of in the Racial Equality Directive, 218 Charter of Fundamental Rights (1999), 238 Benefi ts factor, 39–40 Checkel, Jeffrey, 3 Berezin, Mabel, 240 Chirac, Jacques, 220 Blair, Tony, 92 , 217 Christian Democrats, 20 , 122 Bleich, Erik, 203 Christianity, 14–15 , 195 Bloque Nacionalista Galego (BNG) (Spain), Churches Commission for Migrants in Europe 127 , 134–6 , 137–8 , 234 (CCME), 214 Bohle, Dorothee, 223 Cinnirella, Marco, 171 Bosnian ethnoregionalist parties, 111 citizenship al-Bouti, M. Sa’id Ramadan, 197 access to, 48 Bowen, John, 187 birth defi ning, 236 Bowler, Shaun, 112 and immigration, 206 Bradford, United Kingdom, 54 political, and European identity, 21 Brandt, Willy, 197 and political community, 7 Breton Democratic Union, 60 public opinion on tests for, 72 Breully, John, 144 and race, 207 Brewer, Marilynn, 181 and the Racial Equality Directive, 205 Britain. See United Kingdom (UK) tests required for, 73 British Commission for Racial Equality Citrin, Jack, 2 , 46 (CRE), 214 civic identity, 2 , 5 , 31 , 47–8 , 183

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civic nationalism, 44 , 143–4 , 155–6 , 163 “Cunningham amendment,” 91 civics courses, public opinion on, 72–6 Czech Republic, 224 cohort replacement, 38–9 Czeckoslovakia, 51 collective identity, 30–3 , 43–4 , 45 Committee of Regions, 103 , 113 , 124 Damijan, Jo ž e, 228 Committees of Inquiry (on xenophobia), 214 Dardanelli, Paolo, 90 , 92 , 93 , 95 Common Market, 90 decentralization communist infl uences on Islamic elites, 196 , and ethnoregionalist parties, 23 , 61 , 100–8 , 197 , 198 , 199 116–17 , 126 , 232–3 communitarians, 5 in EU elections, 113–15 Community Action Programme to Combat and the European Parliament, 105–8 , 110 , Discrimination, 216 116–17 Comparative Manifesto Research Project, measuring, 109–11 119–20 Delanty, Gerard, 8 , 13 compartmentalization in identity choice, 33–4 Delors, Jacques, 221 Confessional parties, 130 Demertzis, Vais, 10 confl ict democracy ethnic, 16–17 , 155 , 206 in European identity, 5 historical, 13 and Islam, 188 in identity choice, 3–4 , 31 , 33–4 loss of faith in, 53 perceptions of, 154–5 , 159 Democratic Forum of Germans religious, in Scotland, 153–5 , 161–2 (Romania), 130 conservative parties, 130 , 232 Denmark Conservative Party (UK), 91–3 , 96 , 142 , assimilation into, 45 165 , 168 church attendance in, 15 “constitutional patriotism,” 31 diversity in, 55 , 58–9 constructivists, 5 Euroscepticism in, 38 Consultative Commission on Racism and identity trends in, 34 , 36 Xenophobia (EU), 215–16 , 218 Maastricht Treaty (1992) in, 6 consultative referendum (2005), 127 radical right parties in, 203 , 238 Continental vs. Anglo-Saxon values, Derrida, Jacques, 222–3 222–3 Descartes, René , 192 , 197 Converg è ncia Democrà tica de Catalunya Deutche Press-Agentur (Hamburg), 217 (CDC) (Spain), 130 De Winter, Lieven, 61 , 85 , 106 , Converg è ncia I Uni ó (CiU) (Spain), 127 , 125 , 130 130 , 133 Diamantopoulou, Anna, 217 Coppieters, Maurits, 132 D í ez Medrano, Juan, 31 cosmopolitanism, 39 , 158 , 236 District Magnitude measure, 112 Council of Ministers (EU), 214 , 215–16 diversity, 241 . See also multiculturalism ; super Cronbach’s Alpha levels, 177 diversity cultural diversity, 241 . See also diversity ; cultural, 6 , 44 , 48 , 49 , 82 , 149 multiculturalism and economic growth, 84 cultural heterogeneity, 241 . See also diversity ; ethnic, 16–17 , 84 multiculturalism of ethnoregionalist parties, cultural identity, 2 , 57–8 , 74–6 120 , 125 cultural pluralism. See multiculturalism of the EU population, 84 culture in European identity, 6 and assimilation, 45 in homogeneous regions, 55–6 common values in, 5 and immigration, 49 , 51 fear of losing, 41 , 236 linguistic, 13–14 , 48 and ideology, 187 policies and identity choice, 34 jurisdiction over, 41–3 , 236 religious, 14–15 , 189 as a non-factor, 13–18 social, 16

274 Index

dual mode identifi cation English, the. See also Anglophobia in Scotland emotional, 38 Euroscepticism of, 32 of ethnic minorities, 172 Islamophobia of, 163 nationalism in, 235 loyalties of, 167 and political authority, 42–3 in Scotland, 144–9 , 152 , 153 , 165 trends in, 34–9 , 49 , 235–6 environmental policies, 221 Duverger’s Law, 111 Equal Opportunity Directive, 218 equality. See also Racial Equality Eastern Europe, 241 . See also Estonia ; Directive (RED) Slovenia in civic vs. ethnic nationalism, 144 banking in, 227–8 ethnic, in Scotland, 146 capitalism in, 220 , 223 gender, 205 , 215 , 223 ethnoregionalist parties from, 9 , 128 , 130 monitoring, 239 expansion of the EU into, 6 , 219–20 Esquerra Republicana de Catalunya (ERC) non-Soviet identity in, 239 (Spain), 127 Eastern Orthodoxy, 15 Estonia economic crisis, 10–12 , 241 and the European Social Model, 25 economic utilitarianism and European neo-liberalism in, 220–1 , 223–5 , 226 , 229 identity, 7–8 opposition to the EU in, 224–6 economics political continuity in, 229 and diversity, 84 trade and investment deliberalization, and EU imposed national policy 224 , 226 changes, 229 and the United Kingdom, 229–30 in EU support, 87 ethnic identity in identity choice, 41 , 236 of Asian Britons, 179 of integration, 57 , 61–9 , 72 , 122–3 , in fi rst and second-generation 233 , 234 immigrants, 173 and phobias, 149 , 152 , 167 in “imagined communities,” 44 and policymaking, in integration, 233 and political identity, 33 in regional autonomy, 89 , 90–1 , 97 , 107 as a social identity, 30–1 and “social dumping,” 222 ethnic minorities and state size, 81 anti-immigrant sentiment and protections education for, 218 and ethnic phobias, 159 , 160 , 166–7 , 168 in civic vs. ethnic nationalism, 144–5 jurisdiction over, 41–3 , 236 discrimination against, 206 Edwards, Erica, 71 ethnic and racial confl ict among, 206 electoral systems, 111 , 116 forming emotional ties, 147 elites. See also Muslim elites friendship with, 159–61 , 165 , 166 , 168 consensus of and state size, 229 identity choices of, 33 and ethnoregionalism, 23 languages of, 13–14 in European integration, 52 multicultural approaches to, 204 and identity, 29 , 32 , 39 and social history, 183 and inclusive nationalism, 145 statistics by country, 17 post-socialist, 223 and supra-national identity, 184 and the Racial Equality Directive, 218 in the UK, 171–2 regional, and size of states theory, 84 ethnic phobias, 241 . See also Anglophobia in embedded neoliberal capitalism, 223 Scotland ; Islamophobia ; Islamophobia in emotions in identity, 31 , 32–3 , 41 Scotland ; xenophobia employment opportunities, 18 , 208 ethnicity. See also race Engels, Friedrich, 197 and citizenship in Germany, 207 England. See United Kingdom (UK) in identity, 16–17 , 47–8 , 171 English language, 14 , 44 Muslim elites on, 189

Index 275

ethnonationalism. See ethnoregionalism/ future of, 78 ethnoregionalists ideology of, 120 , 124–5 , 131 , 138 ethnoregionalism/ethnoregionalists on immigration, 62–5 , 66 , 67–8 , 69 cyclical, 84 as independentists, 120 defi ned, 60 infl uence of, 71–2 in European identity, 9–10 , 23 on integration, 61–9 , 76–8 , 100–8 , 118–19 , exclusionary, 72 120–34 , 138 , 232 extreme-left and the BNG, 135 on the left-right continuum, 120 , 124–5 , Galician, 135 131–4 , 233–5 against homogenizing, 21 and regional autonomy, 124 and identity, 8–9 , 51 , 235–8 in regional politics, 104–5 , 106 on “imagined” communities, 61 and strategic competition models, 122 , 123 and multi-level governance, 83–91 Eurobarometer surveys vs. nationalism, 8–9 on British identifi cation with the EU, 170 , 173 persistence of, 20–1 on discrimination, 205 in phobias, 168 on dual mode identifi cation, 235 policy issue preferences of, 75–6 on ethnoregionalism, 23 , 106 pro-EU stance of, 82 , 84–6 on European elections, 19 progressive, 132–3 on European identity, 34–41 and public opinion, 23 on European institutions, 41–3 of radical right parties, 218 on party elite cues, 86–9 in Scotland, 23 Eurobonds, 241 and size of states theory, 83–6 Europe for Freedom and Democracy, 137 social history in, 235 euro, the, 6 , 71 , 221 and sovereignty, 71 European Central Bank, 71 and super diversity, 60–9 European Commission, 214 , 217–18 , 225 , 227 supporting the EU, 87 , 98 European Constitutional Treaty, 6 , 127 , 136 , and supranationalism, 232 , 236 137 , 234 on Turkey in the EU, 235 European Council, 205 , 213 , 218 and the welfare state, 125 European Council for Fatwa and Research and xenophobia, 144 , 156 (ECFR), 188–9 ethnoregionalist parties European Court of Justice, 13–14 , 216 , 230 and center-periphery cleavage, 121 , 124 , European Elections Manifesto (2009), 132 130 , 138 European Free Alliance, 127 , 136 , 137 , 235 from Central Europe, 130 European Free Alliance-Democratic Party of in coalitions, 112 , 132–3 the Peoples of Europe (EFA-DPPE), 132–3 coherence of, 130–4 European identity cues of and EU support, 86–9 center-periphery cleavage in, 138 and decentralization, 23 , 61 , 100–8 , defi ned, 3 , 21–2 116–17 , 126 , 232–3 distinctiveness of, 4–5 defi ned, 60–1 , 108 , 128 in the economic crisis, xvii , 10–12 diversity of, 120 , 125 in e Pluribus Europa , 52 Eastern European, 9 , 128 , 130 of the ethnoregionalist party family, 118–19 , on economic policy, 233–4 122–3 , 128 , 137 electoral support for, 72 impediments to, 22 in EP elections, 100 , 105–8 , 109 , 111–18 and national identity, 2 , 5 , 8–9 , 30 , and ethnophobias, 164 44 , 183–4 as Europhiles, 23 , 61 , 84–5 , 97 , 106 , necessity of, 6–8 118–20 , 121 , 128 , 131 political, 204 , 218 Euroscepticism of, 84–5 , 87 , 118–20 , 123 , in political community, 2 127 , 130–2 , 134–8 public opinion on defi ning, 44 family of, 120 , 128 , 129 , 133 trends in, 34–41

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European Network against Racism Fabbrini, Sergio: Compound Democracies , 52 (ENAR), 216 Farrell, David, 112 European Parliament Favell, Adrian, 18 in decision making, 113 federalism/federalists, 2 , 120 , 127 and domestic decentralization, 105–8 , 110 , Federations of Islamic Organizations of 116–17 Europe (FIOE), 188–9 elections, 19–20 , 100 , 102 , 105–8 , 109 , Feldmann, Magnus, 223 111–18 fi nancial aid to new member states, 222 and ethnoregionalist parties, 23 , 100 , fi nancial crisis. See economic crisis 105–8 , 114 Finland, 106 , 110 , 130 , 133 , 224 and Islamic organizations, 188 Flanders, 21 , 51 , 106 and the Racial Equality Directive, Flemish Interest (Belgium), 69 214–18 Fligstein, Neil, 52 “second-order” nature of elections, 102 Foner, Nancy, 208 European Popular party, 132–3 Ford Report, 214 European Regional Development Fund foreign policy, 41–2 , 43 , 100 , 232 (ERDF), 103 , 106 Forza Italia (Italy), 136 European Social Model (ESM) France defi ned, 221 civic national identity in, 31 in EU expansion, 221–3 decentralization in, 103 EU threat to, 229 disapproval of Austria by, 217 and the fi nancial crisis, 10 diversity in, 55 free market economy and the, 229–30 on the Equal Opportunity Directive, 218 and neo-liberalism, 239 ethnoregionalist parties in, 60 , 67–8 , in political culture, 10 102 , 112 Europeanization. See integration, European European Constitutional Treaty vote in, 6 Europeanness. See European identity and immigration, 45 , 56 , 209 Europhiles nationalism in, 30 ethnoregionalist parties as, 23 , 61 , 84–5 , 97 , public opinion of the EU in, 11–12 106 , 118–20 , 121 , 128 , 131 race relations in, 206–7 identity choice of, 47–8 , 52–3 on the Racial Equality Directive, 218 Lega Nord as, 137 radical right parties in, 24 , 203 , 238 regionalists as, 82 , 87 Fredrickson, George, 206 , 208 Eurorealists, 120 free market economy Eurosceptics/Euroscepticism in Estonia, 223–4 , 225 of anti-immigrant actors, 70–1 and the European Social Model, 229–30 defi ned, 120–1 and social cohesion, 221 and ethnoregionalist parties, 84–5 , 87 , Freedom Party (Austria), 203–4 , 205 , 213 , 118–20 , 123 , 127 , 130–2 , 134–8 216–18 and European identity, 2 , 7 Freedom Party (The Netherlands), 20 in European Parliamentary elections, 20 friendship and ethnic phobias, 159–61 , 165 , and political solidarity, 25 166 , 168 trends in, 38 Front National (France), 209 in the UK, 32 , 38 , 40 Fukuyama, Francis, 196 and utilitarianism, 7–8 Eurostars, 18 Gabel, Matthew, 82 , 86 EU Structural Fund operations, 103 Galicia (Spain), 134–6 Eusko Alkartasuna (EA) (Spain), 127 Gandhi, Mohandas K., 194 , 196 , 198 Evans, Geoffrey, 170 Gellner, Ernest, 144 “Evrigenis Report,” 214 Gelman, Andrew, 88 exclusivity, 43–4 , 70 , 241 gender equality. See sex discrimination laws expansion of the EU, 124 , 219–20 , 221–3 , Germany 229 , 239 asylum policy in, 210

Index 277

banking in, 228 Hussein, Taha, 198 citizenship in, 207 Hutnik, Nimmi, 172 identity in, 31 , 34 , 36 , 40–1 and immigration, 45 , 55 , 213 Iberia, 186 Islam in, 186 identity L ä nder party, 111 and attitudinal variables, 180 nationalism in, 30 birthplace in, 46 , 147–8 public opinion of the EU in, 12 center-peripheral cleavage in, 138 race relations in, 207 centrality of, 177–80 radical right parties in, 203 , 238 collective, 30–3 , 43–4 , 45 Gerring, John, 104 cultural, 2 , 57–8 , 74–6 al-Ghaz ā l ī , Ab ū H ā mid Muhammad ibn and diversity, 182 Muhammad, 192 , 197 , 200 group dynamics of, 32 , 97 , 172 G ó mez-Reino, Margarita, 85 , 106 , 107 , and political community, 54 125, 130 psychology of, 33–4 Good Thing factor, 39–40 regional, 8 , 9–10 , 51 , 77 , 116–17 Gr ä zin, Igor, 225–6 social, 30–3 , 172 , 173 , 175 , 177 , 184 Great Britain. See United Kingdom (UK) supranational, 8–9 , 30–1 , 77 , 171 Greece, 11–12 , 36 , 40 terminal, 54–5 , 72 Greek infl uences on Muslim elites, 195 , territorial, 72–6 , 125 196 , 197 identity choice Green, David, 38 , 52 dominance in, 33 Green party, 132 economics in, 41 , 236 Greskovits, Bé la, 223 fear about the EU in, 42 group identity and membership, 31–4 , foundations of nationality in, 47 97 , 172 and immigration, 50 and multiculturalism, 50 Habermas, J ürgen, 44 , 45 , 222–3 and multiple affi liations, 33–4 Haider, J ö rg, 203 , 216 and political identity, 41–3 , 52–3 Hanson, Stephen, 187 prioritizing, 38 , 47–8 harmonization of policies, 210–13 , 223–4 , and public policy, 49–52 229–30 ideology health and safety regulations, 221 and culture, 187 Hefner, Robert, 188 of ethnoregionalist parties, 120 , 124–5 , Hemingway, Ernest, 231 131 , 138 Herzegovina, 111 and identity, 9 heterogeneity. See diversity and Muslim elites, 186–7 , 195–7 , 199 Hofman, J.E., 172 , 177 , 182 and religion, 187 Hollinger, David, 45 and support for integration, 131–4 , 137–8 Holmes, Douglas, 204 “imagined” nations/communities, 4–5 , 21 , 34 , homogeneity, 5 , 69 , 70 , 76 , 84 43–9 , 61 Hooghe, Liesbet immigrants. See also anti-immigrant parties on Euroscepticism, 71 and groups on identity, 76 assimilation of, 1 , 6 , 21 , 45 , 206–13 on integration, 41 , 52 , 77 , 82 , 84–6 , 124 cultural barriers for, 18 , 149 , 208 on normative content of identity, 32 on European institutions, 173 Reginal Authority Index, 110–11 fi rst and second-generation, 173 on regionalist parties, 131 integration of, 208–9 Hugo, Victor, 192 , 198 languages of, 14 human rights, 5 , 173 , 196 multicultural approaches to, 204 Hungarian Domestic Alliance, 130 multiple identities of, 52 Hungary, 12 , 20 “otherness” of, 57–8 Huntington, Samuel, 192 , 196 protections for, 218

278 Index

immigrants (cont.) nationalism in, 40 in the Racial Equality Directive, 204 Northern, voting system of, 102 and radical right parties, 24 , 203 public opinion of the EU in, 11–12 rights of and harmonization proposals, 210 public votes on EU projects in, 6 social stratifi cation of, 16–17 Sinn Fein, 130 and terminal identity, 54–5 Islam. See also Muslims immigration anti-modernist, political, 185 as a cultural threat, 21 , 41 , 48 in Europe, 186 ethnoregionalist parties on, 62–5 , 66 , 67–8 , in European politics, 15 69 , 148 and immigration, 24 fears about, 41 , 149–53 infl uencing elites, 195–8 and identity, 10 , 49 , 209 liberalism and, 185 , 188 identity choice in, 50 and non-Muslim Europeans, 239–40 and Islam, 24 Islamophobia in Scotland policy, 41–2 , 57 , 203–4 , 206 , 209–13 and age, 157–9 , 166 and political community, 7 and Anglophobia, 147 , 156 post-WWII, and diversity, 10 , 16 , 58–9 , 70 , factors in, 157–62 , 166–7 , 168 203 , 206 and friendship, 165 public opinion of in Scotland, 59 measuring, 149–56 public support for, 49 multivariate analysis of, 165–7 and race, 206–8 and nationalism, 24 , 155–6 , 163 , 237–8 and radical right parties, 203–4 , 209 , and political parties, 164 218 , 238 and religion, 154–5 , 161 , 162 social consequences of, 57 in the Scottish Social Attitudes independence. See regional autonomy Survey, 145–6 “Independence in Europe” option, 89 , 91 and social exclusion, 167 integration, European and terrorism, 152 anti-immigrant parties on, 71 Italy and decentralization, 100 decentralization in, 103 and diversity, 57 dual-identity in, 171 domestic resistance to, 221 ethnonationalist parties in, 60 , 106 economic and political, 57 , 61–9 , 72 , 85 , identity trends in, 34–5 , 36 122–3 , 233 , 234 Lega Lombarda, 136 elites in, 52 Lega Nord party, 102 , 110 , 130 , 134 , ethnoregionalist parties on, 61–9 , 76–8 , 136–8 , 234 100–8 , 118–19 , 120–34 , 138 , 232 public opinion of the EU in, 12 fears about, 57 salience of cultural threats in, 57 and identity choice, 52–3 South Tyrolean People’s Party, 130 and ideology, 131–4 , 137–8 Ivarsfl aten, Elisabeth, 57 models of, 125–7 neoliberalistm shaping, 220 Japanese-Americans, 33 political parties in, 82 John Paul II (pope), 196 process of, 122 , 124 Joint Declaration against Racism and public opinion on, 85–90 Xenophobia , 214 secular, 15 Jolly, Seth, 130 social-cultural, 16 jurisprudential reasoning, schools of, terminal identities threatened by, 72 187 , 200 International Social Survey Program (ISSP) (2003), 46–9 Kahn Commission, 215–16 Iqbal, Muhammad, 197 , 198 Kahn, Jean, 215 Ireland Kaina, Viktoria, 6 , 7–8 immigrants in, 55 Kantner, Cathleen, 6–7 Muslims in, 24 , 185–6 , 197–9 , 200 Karolewski, Ireneusz, 6 , 7–8

Index 279

Katz, Johathan, 114 Lipset, Seymour, 122 , 125 Katzenstein, Peter, 3 , 15 Lisbon Treaty (2009), 6 , 137 , 234 Keating, Michael, 124 Lutz, Wolfgang, 38–9 Kellas, James, 143–4 Luxembourg, 102 Keman, Hans, 113 Lynch, Peter, 85 , 125 al-Khatt ā b, Umar ibn, 197 King, Martin Luther, Jr., 196 , 198 Maalouf, Amin, 196–7 Klaus, Vaclav, 229 Maastricht Treaty (1992), 6 , 103 , 113 , 234 Klausen, Jytte, 186 , 189 , 190 Mahfouz, Naguib, 198 Kousser, Thad, 102 , 111 , 113 Mair, Peter, 120 Kritzinger, Sylvia, 38–9 majoritarian election systems, 112 Kymlicka, Will, 76 Malik, ibn Anas ibn Malik ibn ‘Amr al-Asbahi, 197 , 200 labor M â liki school of jurisprudential reasoning, ethnoregionalist parties on, 69 187 , 200 immigrant, 206 Malta, 15 and intra-European migration, 17–18 Mandaville, Peter, 188 and languages, 18 Mandela, Nelson, 194 , 196 , 198 migration and the ESM, 221–2 Mannheim Eurobarometer Trend File, 83 , and transnational capital, 223 86–9 , 97 Laitin, David, 14 , 44 Marks, Gary languages on Euroscepticism, 71 in assimilation, 45 , 48 , 208 on identity, 32 , 76 extra-European, 14 on integration, 41 , 52 , 77 , 82 , in identity, 13–14 , 46 84–6 , 122 insularity of, 20–1 Regional Authority Index, 110–11 and labor, 18 Marseille, France, 54 as a national and cultural threat, 41 Marson, Karin, 177 tests for, 73 Martin-Mu ñ os, Gema, 196–7 Latvia, 11–12 Marx, Karl, 197 Laurence, Jonathan, 186 Marxist-Leninist infl uences on Muslim Le Pen, Jean-Marie, 203 , 204 , 218 elites, 196 Lebo, Mathew, 71 A’la Maududi, Sayyid Abul, 197 leftist parties McConnell, Jack, 143 and antidiscrimination policy, 205 , 206 McCrone, David, 76 BNG as, 135 McLaren, Lauren, 72 ethnoregionalist, 131 , 132–3 , 235 Meardi, Gugliemo, 223 and immigration restrictions, 209 Meguid, Bonnie, 111 left-right continuum Mencinger, Jo že, 227 , 230 and center-periphery cleavage, 134 Men é ndez-Alarcó n, Antonio, 2 , 4 and ethnoregionalist parties, 120 , 124–5 , merger in identity choice, 34 131–4 , 233–5 Michel, Louis, 217 and integration, 126 migration, intra-European, 17–18 , 57 , 204 , “legitimacy defi cit,” 2 210–13 Leith, Murray, 142–3 minorities. See ethnic minorities Leslie, Peter, 60 modernism infl uencing Muslim elites, 195 Liberal Democrats (UK), 93 , 164 Money, Jeanette, 209 liberal infl uences on Muslim elites, 196 , More, Thomas, 195 , 197 197–8 , 199–200 Movement for a Better Hungary liberal-republicanism, 5 (Jobbik ), 20 Liberals, 84 , 122 , 130 Mudde, Cas, 120 Likert measures of attitudes and identity, 174 , Muhammad (the Prophet), 192 , 194 , 197 175–6 , 179–82 , 184 M ü ller-Rommel, Ferdinand, 108

280 Index

multiculturalism. See also diversity Nasr, Vali, 196 and culture retention, 173 nation building and group identity, 32 and identity, 1 , 49 , 50 , 182 , 236 National Front (France), 204 in “imagined” communities, 45 , 48 national governments, 100 , 112 integralist approach to, 204 national identity public support for, 49 in Anglophobia, 166 and the Racial Equality Directive, 204 and asylum, 163 and radical right parties, 204 conceptions of, 47 , 236 in the regional autonomy movement, 82 during the economic crisis, 10–12 in Scotland, 142–3 , 149 and European identity, 2 , 5 , 8–9 , 30 , and solidarity, 45 44 , 183–4 as a threat, 41 Eurosceptical parties using, 71 “multiculturalist nationalism,” 45 exclusionary or inclusive, 82 multi-level governance and ethnoregions, “fan’s test” for, 33 83–91 , 232–3 and immigration, 49 multiple identities. See also dual mode in Islamophobia, 151 , 166 identifi cation mass conceptions of, 46–9 age and, 38–9 and multiculturalism, 49 and center-peripheral cleavage, 138 normative content of, 43–5 in confl ict, 3–4 prioritizing of, 42–3 , 52 of ethnoregionalist parties, 138 and public opinion, 29 in “imagined” communities, 43–4 in Scotland, 147–9 , 153 of immigrants, 52 as as social identity, 30–1 and nationalism, 51 symbols of, 144–5 political meaning of, 41–3 trends in, 34–41 prioritizing of, 33–4 , 36 , 52 National Opinion Research Center reconciling, 172 (NORC), 46–9 and social identity, 184 nationalism. See ethnoregionalism/ Munir, David, 194 ethnoregionalists Muslim elites nations changing political ideologies and civic or ethnic, 44 religion, 186–7 EU as, 3 , 4–5 , 29 diplomacy toward, 199 “imagined”, 4–5 , 21 , 43–9 ethical and jurisprudential reasoning of, minority cultures within, 52 187 , 199 sub-national dependency on, 83–4 infl uences on, 189–95 , 196–200 , 239–40 and transnational religious interviews with, 189–92 organizations, 186 in Ireland and Iberia, 186 nativism, 10 , 21 and national leaders, 199 neocorporatist capitalism, 223 and politics, 24 , 185–6 , 190 neo-liberalism on transnationalism, 189 and the ESM, 239 Muslim immigration, 6 , 21 , 54–5 in Estonia, 220–1 , 223–5 , 226 Muslims. See also Islamophobia in Scotland EU threat to, 229 assimilation of, 208 of new member states, 222–3 communities of, 185–6 shaping integration, 220 confl icting loyalties of, 152–3 and social cohesion, 239 and cultural racism, 207 Net Attachment factor, 39–40 perceived loyalties of, 167 Net Pride factor, 39–40 in Scotland, 144–9 Netherlands in secular Europe, 47 assimilation into, 45 social exclusion of, 153 , 162–4 Dutch National Bureau against Racism, 214 transnationalism of, 188 in EP elections, 102 in the UK, 33 , 143 extremists in, 20

Index 281

identity trends in, 34 , 36 in national governments and EP Muslim belief and practice in, 186 elections, 112 Muslim immigrants in, 54 and political nationalism, 164 salience of cultural threats in, 57 positions of in political space, 18–19 vote on European Constitutional in Scottish devolution, 91–4 , 96 Treaty, 6 support for EU by, 85 New Labor Party (United Kingdom), 217 political space, EU as, 18–20 , 240 Nice Treaty (2001), 6 politics Niessen, Jan, 217 in group identity, 32 Nieuwe, Vlaamse Alliantie (Belgium), and identity choice, 41–3 132–3 and Muslims, 15 , 24 , 185–6 , 190 Nogueira, Camilo, 135 regional, 106–7 Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs), and religion, 188 205 , 214–15 Portugal norms of group membership, 43–4 in EP elections, 102 Northern League (Italy), 60 , 69 Muslim elites in, 189 , 197–9 , 200 Norway, 6 , 45 public opinion of the EU in, 11–12 role of in the Racial Equality Ordeshook, Peter, 111 Directive, 218 Ottolenghi, Emanuele, 1 post-functional theory of integration, 82 Powell, Enoch, 203 “Padania,” 21 preference ordering. See voting behavior Pakistanis in Scotland, 145 , 147–9 , 155 Presbyterians, Islamophobia of, 161 Palme, Olof, 197 pro-European, defi ned, 120–1 parochialism, cultural, 156–62 , 168 protest votes in EP elections, 103 Parti Socialiste (France), 217 Protestantism, 15 partisan preferences, 241 . See also political Protestants and Catholics, 153 parties ; voting behavior psychology and identity, 171–2 , 177 People’s Party-Freedom Party (EU), 218 public opinion permissive consensus, 6 on assimilation of immigrants, 48 Phinney, Jean, 173 on defi ning Europeanness, 44 Plaid Cymru (Wales), 60 , 66 , 85 , 127 . during the economic crisis, 10–12 See also Wales (UK) on economic union, 29 , 82 Plato, 195 , 197 in Estonia, 226 Poland, 15 and ethnoregionalism, 23 policy domains, 41–3 , 49 and European integration, 52–3 , 71 political community, 3 , 7 , 54 , 72 of the European Union, 19 political identity and Euroscepticism, 7 defi ned, 3 and identity, 2 , 4 , 29 and ethnic identity, 33 on integration, 235 insularity of, 20–1 on mandatory civics courses, 72–6 and nationalism, 4 on multiculturalism, 49 non-factors in, 12–18 on national solidarity, 72 prioritizing of, 30 on policy jurisdiction, 41–3 political infl uences on Muslim elites, 197 in political space, 18–19 political integration, 57 , 61–9 , 72 , 122–3 in Slovenia, 227 political opportunity structure, 89 , 91 , 97 trends in, 22 political parties, 241 . See also ethnoregionalist public policy, 6–7 , 41–3 , 49–52 , 70 parties ; party name Pulzer, Peter, 144 cues of and EU support, 88 , 89 Putnam, Robert, 16 and decentralization, 82 , 100–8 and fear of minorities, 166 al-Qaradawi, Yusuf, 188 , 192 , 196–7 , and identity, 32 , 34 198 , 200

282 Index

race integration facilitating, 232–3 as a biological concept, 206 and size of states theory, 83–6 and discrimination, 204 and supranationalism, 232–3 in identity, 147–8 regional identity, 9–10 , 51 , 77 , 116–17 . and immigration, 206–8 See also ethnoregionalism/ as a social fact, 206 ethnoregionalists study of, 207 Reif, Karlheinz, 102 racial discrimination, 69 , 168–9 , 203–5 , religion, 241 . See also Catholicism ; Islam 207–9 , 213 , 215–16 in assimilation, 208 Racial Equality Directive (RED) as a core value, 15 British infl uence on, 205 in daily life, 16 fundamental rights protected by, 205 , diversity of, 14–15 , 189 238–9 and identity, 14–15 , 31 , 46 , 47–8 history of, 213–18 and ideology, 187 and immigrant rights, 204 and law abidence, 74–6 in immigration harmonization, 210 non-Christian, 10 member nations enforcement of, 215 persistence of, 20 and multiculturalism, 204 and phobias, 154–5 , 161–2 , 166 race in, 206 and politics, 15 , 188 radical right parties fueling, 24 , 203–5 , 214 , protecting rights to, 239 216–18 public expression of, 14–15 radical left parties, Euroscepticism of, 84 in the Racial Equality Directive, 205 radical right parties transnational organizations of, 186 anti-discrimination legislation fueled by, 24 , Renaissance infl uences on Muslim elites, 195 , 203–5 , 214 , 216–18 196 , 197 in the European Parliament, 20 , 205 Renan, Ernest, 1–2 Euroscepticism of, 84 Research Center Free Europe, 225 and immigration, 24 , 203–4 , 209 , 218 , 238 right regionalist parties, 133 Lega Nord as, 136 Risse, Thomas, 7 and the Racial Equality Directive (RED), 24 , Rokkan, Stein, 122 , 125 203–5 , 216–18 Roman infl uences on Muslim elites, 195 rise of, 203–4 Romania, 219 , 222 , 229 Rae, Douglas, 111 Rumford, Chris, 8 Raig, Ivar, 224 Rumsfeld, Donald, 220 Ramadan, Tariq, 192 , 194 , 196–7 , 198 , 199 , 200 , 239–40 Sachs, Jeffrey, 227 Rauf, Faisal Abdul, 192 , 194 , 196 , 198 salience Rawls, John, 240 of cultural threats, 57–8 Ray, Leonard, 122 of the EU, 24 , 29 Regional Authority Index (Hooghe, et al.), of the EU for ethnoregionalist parties, 129 110–11 and public policy, 8–9 regional autonomy of super diversity, 76 in center-periphery cleavage, 124 Salmond, Alex, 142 , 144 , 168 and costs of integration, 124 Saramago, Jos é, 197 and decentralization of government, Sarkozy, Nicolas, 222 100 , 103–4 Sartori, Giovanni, 111 diminished fear of in Scotland, 96 Sartre, Jean-Paul, 197 economic and military costs of, 89–91 , Savoisian League (France), 69 97 , 107 Scandinavia, 186 and ethnoregionalist parties, 124 Schain, Martin, 209 , 240 in the EU, 82–3 Schakel, Arjan, 110–11 fear of, 97 , 107–8 Schlesinger, Philip, 171–2 and “Independence in Europe,” 89–91 Schmitt, Hermann, 102

Index 283

Schr ö der, Gerhard, 222 on independence, 102 , 107–8 , 142 Scotland, 241 . See also Anglophobia in and Islamophobia, 165 Scotland ; Islamophobia in Scotland and nationalism, 141–3 , 237 autonomy pressured for, 21 pro-EU stance of, 84–5 consitutional attitudes in, 96–7 rise of, 141–2 and decentralization, 104 Scottish Plebiscite Society, 92 devolution in, 82 , 91–7 , 142 , 233 Scottish Referendum Study (1997), 83 , 90–1 diversity in, 55–6 Scottish Social Attitudes Survey (2003), 107–8 , the English in, 144–9 , 153 , 165 143 , 145–6 ethnoregionalist parties in, 106 secession. See regional autonomy European identifi cation in, 58 secular society, 21 , 47–8 , 185 multiculturalism in, 142–3 , 149 secularism, 195 Muslims in, 144–9 Seiler, Daniel, 125 nationalism in, 23 , 141–5 , 162–4 , 166 Self-Identifi cation factor, 39–40 Parliament of, 92 , 144 , 146 Sen, Amartya, 33 parochialism in, 156–62 sex discrimination laws, 205 , 215 , 223 perceptions in of EU, 90–1 Shariati, Ali, 197 as a political minority, 93 Shils, Edward, 240 public opinion of immigration in, 57–8 , 59 Shvetsove, Olga, 111 public support for EU in, 81 Sickl, Elisabeth, 217 racism in, 168–9 Silberg, Uno, 225 religions in, 161–2 Simon, Patrick, 207 Siol Nan Gaidheal, 143 Single European Act (1987), 1 , 221 support for independence in, 89–91 , Sinn Fein (Ireland), 130 92–7 , 233 Siol NN Gaidheal (Scotland), 143 and supranational government, 51 size of states theory, 83–6 , 97 voting behavior in, 83 , 94–6 , 97 , 98–9 Skirbekk, Vegard, 38–9 Scots, Majority Slovenia on commitment and loyalty, 150 banking liberalization in, 227 on cultural heterogeneity, 149 coordinated market economy of, 223 economic resentment of, 150 European Social Model in, 25 , 226–7 , 229 on equality, 146 gradualist transition strategy of, 220 ethnic phobias of, 156 political continuity in, 229 on inter-ethnic confl ict, 155 Slovenian Central Bank, 227 on Scottish identity, 148 on social cohesion, 230 on social exclusion, 151 , 154 social opposition to the EU in, 226 Scottish Election Study (1979), 83 , 92 social cohesion Scottish identity in the free market economy, 221 vs. British, 146 immigrant assimilation in, 208–9 defi ned, 147–9 immigrants threatening, 76 and ethnic phobias, 23–4 , 163 , 167 , 168 and neo-liberalism, 239 and Islamic and British immigration, 152–3 and “social dumping,” 222 Scots on, 148 , 151 Social Democrats (Germany), 217 Scottish National Party (SNP) social exclusion Anglophobia of, 24 , 142–3 , 164 , 168 and education, 160 , 162 Asians in, 142–3 and ethnic phobias, 154 on the Constitutional Treaty, 127 of Muslims, 153 , 162–4 in decentralization, 104 and phobias, 151 , 167 on devolution, 93 , 96 and political partisanship, 165 elite cues from and EU support, 89–91 in relationships, 154 and ethnoregionalism, 23 , 60 and religion, 161 Euroscepticism of, 132 religious, 153 on immigration, 66 , 148 in the workplace, 151

284 Index

social history and decentralization of national in British national identity, 171–2 , 174 , 182 governments, 100 , 115 and identity, 183–4 , 236–7 in the economic crisis, 10 and multiple social identities, 184 European identity in, 7 in nationalism, 235 European Social Model as, 221 social identity, 30–3 , 172 , 175 , 177 , 184 and nationalism, 21 social nationalism, 162–4 Racial Equality Directive as, 213 Socialist parties, 84 and regional autonomy, 51 , 232–3 socio-economic model of integration, 127 Sweden, 6 Socrates, 192 Swedish People’s Party (SFP) (Finland), 130 Solomos, John, 207 Swindler, Ann, 187 South Tyrolean People’s Party (SVP) Swinney, John, 143 , 144 (Italy), 130 Swiss People’s Party (SVP), 216 sovereignty symbols of nationhood, 44–5 and identity, 3 , 49 Szczerbiack, Aleks, 121 immigration harmonization and, 213 integralist approach to, 204 Taggart, Paul, 121 interdependence and nationalism, 21 taxes and “social dumping,” 222 Lega Nord on, 137 Tebbitt, Norman, 33 loss of for member states, 225–6 terminal identity, 54–5 , 72 and nationalism, 71 territorial identity, 72–6 , 125 shared, 41 territorial integrity, integralist approach Soviet Union, 223 , 225 to, 204 Soysal, Yasemin, 173 Thacker, Strom, 104 Spain “Think Twice” campaign against Scottish Converg ència I Uni ó (CiU) (Spain), 130 devolution, 94 decentralization in, 103 , 104 “third party nationals,” rights of, 205 diversity in, 55 Tiesler, 189 ethnoregionalist parties in, 60 , 103 , 106 , trade and investment liberalization, 224 110 , 127 transgovernmental networks, 18–19 Galician government, 134–5 Treaty of Amsterdam (1999), 1 , 216 , 238 identity in, 32 Treaty of Lisbon (2010), 1 , 238 immigrants in, 55 Treaty of Nice (2003), 1 languages in, 13–14 Treaty on European Union (1993), 1 Muslim elites in, 24 , 189 , 197–9 , 200 trends Spolaore, Enrico, 83–4 in dual-mode identifi cation, 34–9 , Starting Line Group (SLG), 205 , 214–15 , 49 , 235–6 216 , 217 in European identity formation, 34–41 , 57 state socialism, legacy of, 222–3 in fragmentation, 20–1 Stephen Lawrence Inquiry, 213 in identity choice, 34–41 strategic competition models, 122 , 123 , 138 in integration support, 90 Stryker’s identity model, 177 in national identity, 34–41 sub-state nationalists. See ethnoregionalism/ in nationalism during the economic ethnoregionalists crisis, 11–12 super diversity in priorities for political authority, 42–3 and anti-immigrant parties, 70–6 in public opinion, 22 defi ned, 58–60 in support for anti-immigrant parties, 70 and ethnoregionalism, 60–9 in support for Scottish independence, 96–7 framing of by anti-European actors, 10 , 76 in support for the EU, 81 since WWII, 58–9 Trew, Karen, 177 and social cohesion, 16–17 al-Turabi, Hassan ‘Abd Alla, 197 supranational identity, 8–9 , 30–1 , 77 , 171 Turkey, 44 , 137 , 234 , 235 supranational policymaking Turkish language, 14

Index 285

Union of Islamic Organizations of France voting behavior (UIOF), 188–9 abstentions, 95 United Kingdom (UK), 241 . See also Asian citizen awareness in, 20 Britons ; Ireland ; Scotland ; Wales (UK) ; and decentralization, 113–16 white Britons and party cues, 88 Affective and Utilitarian identifi cation and regionalist sentiment, 86 scores of, 40 in Scotland, 83 , 95 , 97 , 98–9 cultural assimilation into, 45 decentralization in, 103 wages and labor migration, 221–3 Estonia and the, 229–30 Wales (UK). See also Plaid Cymru (Wales) ethnonationalist parties in, 60 , 66 , 102 55–6 , 66 , 106 , 107 European identity constructs in, 180–1 Wallonia (Belgium), 51 Euroscepticism in, 32 , 38 , 40 We ß els, Bernard, 7 identity trends in, 36 white Britons immigration and race relations in, 207 British identity of, threatened, 183 immigration harmonization policy in, 213 and identity, 171 , 173 , 180–1 , 182 , 236–7 Labour Party, 91–4 , 96 , 104 negative stereotypes of Western Europe, held Muslim belief and practice in, 186 by, 183–4 Muslim/non-Muslim confl ict in, 155 and social history, 171 , 183–4 Muslims in the, 33 , 143 in the visual identity diagram, 177–9 , nationalism in, 29 , 170 180–1 public opinion of the EU in, 12 , 180 in the visual identity task, 178 race relations in, 204 , 206–7 , 213 Wilson, Carole, 122 , 131 separatism in, 51 Wintle, M.J., 4 super diversity in London, 59 Woldendorp, Jaap, 113 United States, 52 World Values Survey (2000), 48 universalism, infl uencing Muslim elites, 195 , Wright, Matthew, 3 , 46 , 207 196–8 , 199–200 Utilitarian Identifi cation, 39–41 xenophobia 1985 Committee of Inquiry and “Evrigenis Vakil, Abdool Karim, 196 , 198 Report” on, 214 Valencia, Spain, ethnoregionalist parties of ethnoregionalist parties, 69 in, 106 as an impediment to European identity, 9 viability theory, 97 , 120 , 121 and nationalism, 144 Vilnius declaration, 220 origins of, 155–6 Vincent, Andrew, 144 parochialism in, 156–62 visual identity task, 174 , 175–9 , regional identities in, 24 180–1 , 184 Volksunie (Netherlands), 132 Yugoslavia, 226