Successes and Challenges of Women's Income Generating Projects in Zimbabwe by Purity Hamunakwadi Submitted in Partial Fulfilme

Successes and challenges of women’s income generating projects in

Zimbabwe

Purity Hamunakwadi

Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of Master of Arts in

Development Studies

NelsonMandela Metropolitan University

April 2016

Promoter/Supervisor: Professor Jonathan Makuwira

Table of Contents

TABLE OF FIGURES ...... i

LIST OF ACRONYMS ...... ii

ABSTRACT ...... iii

DECLARATION ...... iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... v

DEDICATION ...... vi CHAPTER ONE ...... 1

INTRODUCTION ...... 1

1. Introduction and background to the study ...... 1

1.1. The geographical profile of Sadomba village ...... 5

1.2. Problem statement ...... 6

1. 3. Objectives ...... 8

1.4. Research questions ...... 8

1.5. Significance of the study ...... 8

1.6. Delimitation of the study ...... 9

1.7. Summary ...... 9

1.8. Organisation of the study ...... 9 CHAPTER TWO ...... 11

LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 11

2. Introduction ...... 11

2.1. Conceptualising microfinance/microcredit ...... 11

2.2 Sustainable livelihoods approach ...... 15

2.3. Women and development ...... 19

2.3.1. Women and poverty ...... 20

2.3.2. Women in Zimbabwe ...... 21

2.4. Learning from international best practices and experiences ...... 21

2.5. National gender policy in Zimbabwe (2013-2017) ...... 27

2.5.1. Gender in productive resources and employment ...... 28

2.6. Summary ...... 30 CHAPTER THREE ...... 31

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND DESIGN ...... 31

3. Introduction ...... 31

3.1.1. Sampling and sample size ...... 33

3.1.2. Research design ...... 33

3.1.3. Data collection methods ...... 35

3.1.3.1. Interviews ...... 35

3.1.3.2. Focus group ...... 37

3.2. Participant observation ...... 38

3.3. Data analysis ...... 39

3.4. Limitations ...... 40

3.5. Ethical considerations ...... 40 CHAPTER FOUR ...... 41

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ...... 41

4. Introduction ...... 41

4.1. Demographic information ...... 41

4.2. Contributions of Sadomba Cattle Project ...... 45

4.3. Necessary conditions for successful income generating projects ...... 47

4.3.1. Market ...... 47

4.3.2. Organisational capacity (Knowledge and skills) ...... 48

4.3.3. Availability of resources ...... 48

4.3.4. Economic and financial profitability ...... 49

4.3.5. Community involvement and participation ...... 49

4.3.6. Technology ...... 50

4.4.Challenges of women’s income generating projects ...... 51

4.4.1. Unavailability of exotic breeds (heifers) ...... 51

4.4.2. Inaccessibility of microcredit ...... 51

4.4.3. Representation of the project to external stakeholders ...... 52

4.4.4. Market information ...... 52

4.5. Summary ...... 53 CHAPTER FIVE ...... 54

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 54

5. Introduction ...... 54

5.1. Conclusion ...... 54

5.2. Recommendations ...... 56

5.3. Future research ...... 58

References ...... 59

APPENDIX 1: INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR WOMEN INCOME GENERATING PROJECT ...... 68

TABLE OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Map Showing the location of Nyanga District in Zimbabwe…………………6

Figure 2: Sustainable Livelihoods Approach……………………………………………17

Figure 3: Age of respondents…………………………………………………………….42

Figure 4 Gender and level of participation………………………………………………43

Figure 5: Level of education……………………………………………………………...44

Figure 6: Marital status……………………………………………………………………45

LIST OF ACRONYMS

BRAC Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee

CARE Cooperative for Assistance and Relief Everywhere

CBOs community -based organisations

CLUSA Cooperative League of the United States of America

IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development

KIP Kupfuma Ishungu program

MFI micro-finance institutions

NGOs non-governmental organisations

SLA sustainable livelihood approach

UNDP United Nations Development Programme

UNIDO United Nations Industrial Development Organisation

UNIFEM United Nations Development Fund for Women

USAID United States Agency for International Development

ABSTRACT

Women’s income-generating projects are regarded as a critical area in promoting sustainable livelihoods in the lives of the poor. This study centres on a cattle project in Sadomba village in Nyanga District, Zimbabwe. The purpose of this study is to investigate the role and contributions of income-generating projects with regard to women; the necessary conditions for a successful cattle production project; the major challenges in women’s income-generating projects, and how income-generating projects can be strengthened, all in relation to this cattle project.The study is underpinned by the sustainable livelihood approach and literature on micro-financing of women’s projects in various countries. The study is based on qualitative methodology using a case study design and methods of data collection included semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions and participant observation. The data was analysed using thematic analysis and sub-themes that arose in the study and thereafter all the data was grouped by a process of coding. The results indicated that the Sadomba cattle project has benefited the project members in terms of income generation by the selling of cattle and milk, for agricultural purposes (draught power) and also income they obtained from hiring their cattle to other community members in rainy seasons. The income generated has assisted them to send their children to school and attain higher education.In addition, it promotes community engagement when they share paddocks and dip tanks. However, despite these benefits, they face a number of challenges such as long distances to the market, a lack of microcredit and the unavailability of exotic breeds. Therefore, there is need to integrate the conditions that are necessary for successful income generating projects to the Sadomba cattle project.

Key words: Women; income generating projects; sustainable livelihoods; Ministry of Women’s Affairs.

iii

DECLARATION

I, Purity Hamunakwadi, sincerely declare that this dissertation titled “Successes and challenges of women’s income- generating projects in Zimbabwe”, submitted to the Nelson Mandela MetropolitanUniversity, in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree Master of Arts in Development Studiesis my own work. All the relevant sources consulted, used and quoted have been acknowledged and listed in the reference list page. I hereby declare that this work has never been previously submitted by me or any other person for a degree at this institution or any other university

Signed Date

......

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Firstly, I would like to give my gratitude to the Lord God Almighty who has given me strength and His mercy each day to complete this dissertation. I also want to thank my supervisor,Professor Jonathan Makuwira,for the support that he has gave me throughout the research. It was such an honour to work with such a supportive person and l greatly appreciateall the guidance he has given me. In addition, I would like to give special recognition to my sister, Rachael Tembo Chitimira, my brother-in-law, Howard Chitimira, and my brother, Moment Tembo, for their significant input. I greatly appreciate the contributions of my colleagues and all those I did not mention. Above all, all the Glory belongs to my Godin heaven.

DEDICATION

I dedicate this work to the most amazing people in my life: my beloved, hardworking and loving sister and brother-in-lawfor being the pillars of support all the years l have been studying. I have been truly blessed to have such loving support. I also dedicate this work to my brother, Moment Tembo,for all the support he has given me. This is also dedicated to my daughter, Ariana Makatendeka Chitimira, for her love and kindness. It is such a privilege to have these great people in my life. May the dear Lord God Almighty continue to bless them in abundance and may His mercies endure forever in their lives. Amen.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1. Introduction and background to the study

This study assesses the role of women’s income-generating projects in promoting livelihoods in developing countries. The Sadomba cattle project in Nyanga districtwhich is spearheaded by women is used as a case study. Globally, women represent about 70 percent of the world’s poor owing to inadequate access to the economic opportunities which are evident in developed nations as well as in developing countries(Moghadam, 2005: 70). Worldwide, there is also a relationship between poverty alleviation strategies and the development of women human capital (United Nations Development Fund for Women [UNIFEM], 2012). This implies that in order to reduce poverty, human capital is a major component that is needed. Even though economic advancement can develop the status of women, a nation cannot sustainably advance if its women are left behind (Boserup, 1970). In hastening the achievement of pro-poor economic development through provision of credit, focusing on women can do more than neutral gender policies (UNIFEM, 2012). Furthermore, empowering women and girls in education, health, access to assets and jobs has a positive outcome on efficiency, productivity and prolonged economic growth in developing countries (World Bank, 2006). Likewise, the global commitment to empowering women and to ending gender disparities is clearlystipulated in the Millennium Development Goals of 2000: goal number three emphasises gender equality and the empowerment of women.

According to the United Nations Industrial Development Organisation, “Women and girls represent about three-fifths of the world’s poor” (UNIDO, 2003: 8). This can be shown by the degree of their poverty which is more than that of men.These gender differences usually exist in decision making, employment opportunities and education. Magaji (2004) also argued that women have been the poorest of the poorever since the 20th century and they constitute a large number of the people who are affected by poverty.

In relation to theMillennium Development Goal number three, the government of Zimbabwe, through the Ministry of Women Affairs, set up a Women Development Fund in order to support women entrepreneurs and those who want to start income- generating projects (Selome & Tshuma, 2014). The main aim of the fund is to empower and enhance deprived women by providing securedfree loans (Selome & Tshuma, 2014). The provision of such credit systems by the government of Zimbabwe is in line with the global practice. There are many examples of micro credit finance globally: however, the best ones include Grameen Bank, Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee (BRAC), Banco Sol, and Bandhan (Selome & Tshuma, 2014). The use of small loans to address poverty and gender disparity has become a common solution worldwide. Microcredit schemes are a response to the failure of various development intervention strategies that were meant to involve women in planning and implementation. The intention of this mechanism is to assist women to earn a direct income, thereby giving them freedom to express their opinions in the community and allowing them to take part in the public sphere and in decision making (Selome & Tshuma, 2014). The debateabout micro credit schemes borrows much from the success of the Grameen Bank in Bangladesh. This model has been duplicated not only in Bangladesh but in various countries all overthe globe, including India (Selome & Tshuma, 2014).

The Grameen Bank is a specialised financial organisation in Bangladesh that was created by government order in 1983 to provide credit to the rural poor so as to improve their economic status. The Bank started in 1976 as an act of research in an area near Chitagong University. Their focus was to examine whether it was a trueassumption that when the poor are provided with working capital, they can be able to generate productive self-employment without external assistance (Hossain, 1988: 9).

In the same manner, BRAC is another example of a non-governmental organisation in Bangladesh: its microfinance operations began to function in 1974. The main core aspect of BRAC’s development program is to allow women to participate whenever opportunity arises. This can be done with the support of other members of the community to achieve self-sustainable livelihoods and improvement in their lives thus empowering themselves through the attainment of an income (Haider, 2007). In

2 relation to BRAC’s program, their main economic development aspects include microfinance, institution building, income-generating activities, and program- support enterprises. These aspects of BRAC’s work provide a strongfoundation for ensuring the self-sustainability of the participants in the development process. BRAC makes it possible for poor women to access credit at a rational price, involving them in income-generating activities separate from home, thereby promoting theeconomic development of the country as a whole in addition to promoting the livelihood of the individual to progress out of poverty (Haider, 2007). According to Srivastava (2009), it reaches all the districts of the nation. The target population, which includes poor farmers without land, helpless small business owners are given secured free credit for their investments in income-generating activities. In addition, poor women are given the opportunity to join up together in their villages so as to form village organisations (VOs). These VOs normally comprise thirty to forty women and they are able to access microfinance loans pertaining to the needs of a borrower (Srivastava, 2009). The system of BRAC of giving loans to those who are poor is supported by the credit-plus approach. BRAC also helps to bring the poor into the market system and maintain the supply chains of their customers’ output so as to get better access to quality inputs. Village organisations’programs also give the poor women the opportunity to discuss and raise awareness on the matters that affect them on a daily basis, be they social, legal or relating to economic well-being (Srivastava, 2009).

The Self-Employed Women’s Association (SEWA) is another example of women’s income-generating projects in India. Since SEWA is an independent trade union for women who came from women’s group within the Textile Labour Association in 1972, it is comprised of both urban and rural members. From the beginning, it was using traditional ways hence it was unable to deal with the problems that the poor women face in the informal sector. Its main goal was to establish credit, skills training and a wide range of responses to social problems such as maternal protection schemes, widowhood benefits, child care and training of midwives in the case of self-employed women.SEWA registered its own bank in 1974 and it started with those members who were buying small shares. However, the process of constructing the bank necessitated “close supervision, self-monitoring through participatory process, and building a collective consciousness and cooperative values among the

SEWA groups. Training and technical inputs to improve the efficiency of activities were also necessary" (Wignaraja, 1990: 75).

In South Africa, there is the Itlhabole Waste Management Co-operative which is based in North-West Province and it is owned by the women of Ikopeleng village.Its main focus is on income-generating activities (Nkosi, 2009). Women who participate in the project collect materials from bins and recycle them to make clothes, shoes, mats, handbags and other materials for sale.

In response to socio-economic and financial problems, income-generation interventions attempt to address poverty, unemployment, and the lack of economic opportunities to increase participants’ ability to generate income and secure livelihoods. These interventions can vary in form;they include microcredit programs that provide small loans to individuals or groups excluded from financial institutions.

Microcredit is one form of microfinance which encompasses the provision of a wider range of financial services, such as access to savings, credit, and insurance to poor people (Albee, 1994). In addition to microcredit, other income-generation interventions focus on business and vocational skills training for participants, either for positions within existing industries or to develop small businesses of their own (Albee, 1994). Both microcredit and vocational skills training programs may include additional components not related to income generation, such as health, education, women’s empowerment, critical thinking, and communication skills. Many also have strong social support components. This will help people to secure a livelihood.

Having highlighted major issues of income generating projects, Mayoux (2005:1) asserted that, “Empowerment programs targeting women have become a major plank of poverty alleviation and gender strategies since the 1990s”. This has been due to the fact that there are many disparities that exist between men and women which then have an impact on income distribution, political participation and ownership of economic and productive resources. Income-generating projects as assessed in this study therefore work as a roadmap to achieve women’s empowerment and community development. Income-generating projects signify activities that mainly focus on creating opportunities for communities to efficiently

4 use available local resources so as to be independent from the state, to be more self-reliant households and to be able to take care of themselves as a community. In relation to this, Van Niekerk (2009) suggests that income-generating activities are centred on the productive use of resources that are already available locally for the benefit of the whole community.

1.1. The geographical profile of Sadomba village

This study focuses on an income-generating project which is in Sadomba village in the Nyanga District,located in the Manicaland Province in Zimbabwe. This is a community development programme for cattle production that is spearheaded by some women in the village. The Sadomba cattle project was started by women in the Sadomba community with the Ministry of Women’s Affairs, Gender and Community Development in its Women Empowerment and Community Development Programs. The Sadomba cattle project in Nyanga was started by 26 members (19 women and sevenmen) in Ward 24 and is about 20 kilometres west of Nyanga town. Three women joined the project later and the membership increased to 29. This project came about as a result of women who were seeking a solution to poverty because ofdevastating droughts and the country’s economic crisis. In response, Manicaland Province organised communities for cattle production as a project to cater for women in promoting sustainable livelihoods. In addition, this would also generate income, reduce poverty, and improve household food security and the well- being of communities. As a result, women are empowered economically, they become self- reliant and community development is promoted. Women’s income-generating projects play a considerable role in sustaining the livelihoods of people.

Figure 1 shows the map of Zimbabwe with the arrow pointing to the Nyanga District where the Sadomba cattle project is implemented. The Nyanga District is located in Manicaland Province, in the eastern part of Zimbabwe. Nyanga District is characterised by a moderate climate with fair rainfall, but with noticeableseasonality and a long dry season in the middle of the year.

Figure 1: Map showing the location of Nyanga District in Zimbabwe

Source: Country Analysis Report of Zimbabwe (Government of Zimbabwe/ United Nations Country Team)Harare, August 2010. KEY

Nyanga District

1.2. Problem statement

Having seen some of the positive outcomes of income-generating projects of women in Bangladesh for instance, Zimbabwe is still lagging behind in terms of proper credit to the rural poor and the sustainability of projects. This is due to the number of economicand politicalunrests in Zimbabwe.This has negatively impacted on the lives

6 of people. On a broader view, both men and women are affected by these catastrophes but women tend to be the most affected because they are left behind to take care of children whilst the husbands leave to search for work in towns.Most of these men hardly ever come back home, leaving all the burdens on the shoulders of the women (Albee, 1994).

Scholars of gender studies have argued that women have always been classified in terms of social, cultural, legal, political and economicwellbeing (Dignard & Havet, 1995:69‐71). Post et al (1996:438‐9) proposed that most male-dominated societies give opportunities and power to men, hence women are left with relatively less economic and political influence as compared to that of men. This general pattern of men‐women relations continues even in modern societies. Woldie and Ardesua (2004:80) support the view that women are seen as inferior to men,regardless of their age or educational achievements. Even though today’s research shows that women are also well qualified and capable as men to hold high-level positions in society, gender discrimination based on tradition, social custom and gender bias has limited opportunities of women in occupying top-level positions in certain communities (Post et al, 1996:439).

In a bid to address these challenges, the Ministry of Women’s Affairs, Gender and Community Development in its Women Empowerment and Community Development Programmes in Zimbabwe played an important role in the improvement of lives of women in the village of Sadomba in Nyanga through income-generating projects but their sustainability is yet to be achieved. They are still far from reducing poverty to achieve sustainable livelihoods. Many people, if not all, have been affected by poverty and unsustainable livelihoods.This has been due to the fact that there are inequalities which include access to employment opportunities, education and microfinancial services that exist between men and women which then have an impact on income distribution, political participation and ownership of economic and productive resources (Mayoux, 2005).

1. 3. Objectives

The main aim of this study is to assess the role of income-generating projects in promoting sustainable livelihoods in Sadomba village. To achieve the relevant results of this study, the following specific objectives will be addressed:  Identify and analyse the necessary conditions that enhance women’s income- generating activities in promoting sustainable livelihoods.  Critically examine the major challenges that affect women’s income- generating projects in promoting sustainable livelihoods.

1.4. Research questions

The study sought to answer the following research questions:  What are the contributions of income-generating projects regarding women?  Whatare the necessary conditions for a successful cattle production project?  What are the major challenges in women’s income-generating projects?  How can income-generating projects be strengthened?

1.5. Significance of the study

In as much as the civil society and government acknowledge the presence of community development programs in society, it is important to assess their role and contributions in promoting sustainable livelihoods for women. It will further the understanding of the key factors that are necessary for enhancing women’s economic empowerment and poverty reduction. This study will also assess whether the women are really benefiting from income generating projects. Both the positive and negative outcomes will give a picture of what actually transpires in the empowerment projects sector and gaps will be identified. This research will help in unveiling the challenges faced by women in their projects and what can be done to promote the success of income-generating projects. This study will be crucial in helping the various stakeholders concerned with women empowerment to come up with policies that will promote the success of projects. These stakeholders include

8 national governments, civil organisations, non-governmental organisations and cooperatives, to mention but a few. On the other hand, the success of the programs will help in promoting sustainable livelihoods amongst the women, thus empowering them.

1.6. Delimitation of the study

The study only focuses on Sadomba village in Nyanga District in Zimbabwe. The research is centred mainly on a cattle project called the Sadomba cattle project. The results may not be generalised to other similar projects.

1.7. Summary

The literature suggests that women income-generating projects still need more attention as women stilllag behind in terms of development. This study sought to determine the roles and contributions of income-generating projects, the challenges that are faced by women inincome-generating projects as well as the necessary conditions for successful income-generating projects. In addition, the study investigates how women’sincome-generating projectscan be strengthened to achieve sustainable outcomes. The focus of this study is not onmicrofinancing itself but on the project that is supposed to generate income for women for them to be empowered economically.

1.8. Organisation of the study

The study is organised into five chapters which are outlined as follows:

CHAPTER ONE presents the introduction and the background of the study, the problem statement, objectives, research questions and significance of the study.

CHAPTER TWO presents the literature review which includes definitions of conceptual terms, sustainable livelihood approach, literature review on global, continental, regional and country levels as well asthe Gender National Policy in Zimbabwe.

CHAPTER THREE presents the research methodology and research design.

CHAPTER FOUR encompasses research findings or results, a discussion of these andthe data analysis.

CHAPTER FIVE presents conclusion and recommendationsto the study.

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2. Introduction

This section presents a review of literature for this study. The literature in this section focuses on the contribution of women’sincome-generating projects as a poverty alleviation strategy, employment creation and the ultimate improvement of the standard of living for women involved in these projects. The theory underpinning this study is the sustainable livelihood approach which can further show how the literature has contributed in terms of integrating it in women’sprojects. The review further looks at the contributions of these women’s empowerment projects on a global scale, highlighting the success stories in alleviating poverty while underlining some of the challenges related to the unsustainability of these projects. It aims to highlight the national gender policy in Zimbabwe.

2.1. Conceptualising microfinance/microcredit

There are several development organisations that are helping women to obtain income using their own efforts. These interventions are mainly known as ‘income- generating activities’ and they include various projects which are comprised of small businesses, cooperatives, employment creation plans, credit and savings groups as well as youth training programmes (Albee, 1994). Some scholars such as Sen (1992) and Nussbaum (2006)argued that education, health, legal, and political changes usually affect the capabilities of people in securing income. Therefore, there is a misunderstanding in the usage of the term ‘income-generation’, although, for the purpose of this research, these projects will be regarded as those that change the lives of people economically through the use of economic tools such as credit.

As suggested earlier, in relation to credit to support women’sincome-generating projects, microfinance can be defined as the provision of financial services to the

11 poor, self-employed and low incomepeople (Otero, 1999). Schreiner and Colombet (2001) share the sameopinionin viewingmicrofinancing as effortsto improve the accessibility of small loans to the deprived households which are mostlysidelined by banks and other financial institutions.

Rankin (2001) observed that microcredit is one of the tools that have become well known in addressing issues of poverty in developing countries. Furthermore, Gail (2005) further strengthens this opinion stating the importance of the United Nations’ International Year of Micro Credit which was in 2005. Along these lines, the former UN Secretary-General,Kofi Annan,in 2003 perceived that,

“The stark reality is that most poor people in the world still lack access tosustainable financial services, whether it is savings, credit or insurance. Thegreat challenge before us is to address the constraints that exclude peoplefrom full participation in the financial sector. Together, we can and must build inclusive financial sectors that help peopleimprove their lives”(Erogbogbo,Eghobamien & Pimentel, 2013:1).

Some scholars who had conducted studies all overthe world argued that microfinance has played a positive role in empowering women and alleviating poverty. A case in point is the work by Amin and Pebley (1994) in Bangladesh which showed that the membership of BRAC has had a positive impact on women in gaining control of capital resources as well as in decision-making. Owing to this, women in their communities are perceived as income earners thus making them a good source of financial revenue. The same views are articulated by Naved (1994) who speculated that women who borrowed loans improved their statuses at household level due to the income they earned from income-generating projects. As a result of these projects, women started to gain control of their income and taking part in household decision making (Osmani 1998). Kabeer (2005) argued that microfinance is another tool that can be used to achieve effective economic, social, and political change among poor rural women.

The capability of microfinance in building organisational capacity for women is seen as astrategic opportunity for their social mobilisation that can fulfil their role in development since various development approaches have failed dismally. In the study on the socio-economic impacts of microfinance on women-borrowers

12 conducted by Islam (1999), results revealed that a microfinance intervention impacted positively on those who borrowed.Measureable changes were witnessed in the income earned, ownership of land and accumulation of assets.

In the same vein, qualitative developments were witnessed in form of better housing conditions, improved healthy conditions, and better educational services for children as well as skill improvement. In spite of these positives, some scholarsclaimed thatthe impact of microfinance should not be viewed in isolation:there are other activitieswhich can also bring financial gains (Islam, 1999). Zaman (2000) further observed that the impacts of microfinance vary depending on the social status of the borrower. Those who are poor do not benefit much from the loans since they have many social demands as compared to better off women. However, this works as a barrier to investing loans for the poor since they have to satisfy their basic needs first.Osmani (1998) used Grameen Bank as anexample in point to claim thatmost of the loan was not spent where it was supposed to be spent and many beneficiaries borrowed more than they invested.

The use of microfinance as a way of reducing poverty and empowering women has been criticised. The notion that the poor are entrepreneurs has no basis and foundation. Ditcher (2006) argued that the loans are too small to make a difference. Meade (2000) postulated that it is mostdifficult to turn a loan into profit. This is true because rural women also are not linked to the market system which makes it difficult to purchase their products. The fact that microfinance relies more on subsidiesraises questionsabout its sustainability in the long run. Microfinance programshave been seriously critiqued because they failed to reach out to the very poor. However, it is important to note that microfinance is only a development strategy that can work in some environments: and it may fail in others, hence it cannot be a sole solution to poverty problems.

The Savings Development Movement (SDM),currently known as Self-Help Development Foundation (SDF) of Zimbabwe, is an example of the impact of microcredit programs on women in Africa. The SDF was created in 1963 by 20 men and women and has developed to over 5,700 groups countrywide since that time (Chinedza, 1984). The SDF operation rules were easy and they stated that the lowest amount of weekly deposits that was a prerequisite from members was set at

13 two and a half cents so that those who were most poor in the group could afford to contribute as well. There was a fine for those who failed to contribute in a period oftwelve weeks and they were dismissed from the group. The dismissed member will receive his/her deposits but has to pay for the fine that was imposed for not contributing over the previous weeks. In 1985 the number of savings groups in the SDF increased to 1000 and the organisation started to receive donor support from the Konrad Adenaur Foundation of Germany. The SDF worked primarily through small groups in both the urban and rural areas of Zimbabwe and it had the following aims: to support people economically and socially;to inspire members to save money; to teach members how to utilise their funds for development; to educate members to take responsibility; and to promote self-confidence, reciprocal trust and close co-operation inorganising training programmes in income-generating projects.

Owing to traditional laws and practices, rural women in Zimbabwe mostly lack assets such as land or cattle. Although there was the land reform programme in Zimbabwe in 2000, the majority ofwomen still do not own land because of traditional laws. Moreover, women are supposed to deliver basic needs to their children with or without the help from their husbands.However, the SDF intervened on behalf of women. Together rural and urban Zimbabwe women see credit as a reliable measure which allows them to access opportunities such as employment, education, training and group meetings (Goetz, 1996). Over several decades there were interventions that have been used to support women to be productive in their activities. Back in the 1970s, welfare interventions were mainly used: that is, people were given grants to support their income-generating projects which were mainly for women. The projects used to be very small and they did not have enough funds to support them. In the late 1970s some organisations began to shift from income- generating activities to bigger programmes. These bigger programmes were now supported more and that led to small projects being isolated. In the mid-1980s, disappointment with income-generating activities grew since many organisations failed to raise income levels and hence increased the burden upon the poor women. By the end of the 1980s the majority of organisations started to avoid the utilisation of the term ‘income-generating’ since itimplied that women are only involved in unimportant economic activities that are not increasing women’s empowerment.

By the end of that period there was evidence that women only increase their numbers in agriculture, manufacturing services and petty trade (Berger, 1989a). According to Accion 1988, evidence reviewed showed thatthose small businesses had a greater chance ofbeing owned and operated by women. However, access to financing at an affordable rate was known as a hindrance for the poor women, hence many organisations began to turn their efforts towards the use of credit as a development tool. Studies which mainly focused on women’s credit projects implemented through organisations showed that there were positive economic and social benefits from these credit projects: however, the issue remains debatable (Buvinic & Yudelman, 1989).

Additionally, generating income through credit interventions in some areas has played a major role in improving the position of women in their homes as well as in their communities. However, it is important to note that the increase in benefits will depend on the level of socio-cultural and economic settings in which they live; hence the methods used by these organisations or governments ought to be revised. This brings us to the notion of a sustainable livelihood approach in showing its relevance in development projects.

2.2 Sustainable livelihoods approach

This study borrows from a sustainable livelihood approach in that it seeks to show how women’sincome-generating projects can be sustainable in securing a living. In the context of this research, sustainable livelihood is about placing people, particularly women, at the centre of possible influences that affect how they can create a livelihood for themselves and their households (IFAD 2012: 5). Sustainable livelihoods can be defined as:

“…a livelihood that comprises the capabilities, assets and activities required for a means of living, a livelihood is sustainable which can cope and recover from stress and shocks maintain or enhance its capabilities and assets and provide sustainable livelihood opportunities for the local and global levels in the short and long term” (Chambers & Conway 1992: 7).

It was first used in the 1990s and it is defined in terms of the ability of a social unit to enhance its assets and capabilities in the face of shocks and stresses overtime. According to Mazibuko (2013: 173),the SLA is not something new but it is only a reflection of progress in development thinking. The approach grows from a rich understanding in thinking about development over time and it could be seen as representing a kind of paradigm shift. Mazibuko (2013: 174) argued that although the sustainable livelihoods approach is credited to the British Department for International Development (DFID) it is recognised that the definition of the framework is traceable from other writers, namely Chambers and Conway (1992: 5). Mazibuko further argued that the DFID has probably modified the definition to suit its needs. Norton and Foster (2001: 9) agree with Mazibuko’s argument by pointing out that the SLA came into prominence in the United Kingdom’s Department of International Development as a follow up process to the White Paper on International Development of 1977. Therefore, African nations are borrowing the same approach to foster the problems of their countries.

The major underpinning of the approach is that it recognises that people have capabilities, assets and can engage in various activities so as to earn a living that is acceptable (Mazibuko 2013: 179). According to Mago and Hofisi (2013: 56), various communities have resources that can be exploited to promote sustainable livelihoods and these include social capital, human capital, financial capital, natural and physical capital. Mazibuko (2013:180) asserted that the sustainable livelihoods approach is a strength-based approach which does not necessarily inquire into what needs to happen, but rather how things should or must happen. In relation to this study, women’sincome-generating projects have been identified as a strategy of obtaining a livelihood. The sustainable approach places great emphasis on involving people in both the identification and implementation of activities where appropriate .A further attraction of the sustainable livelihoods approach is that it is people-centred in a direct sense and depends upon the involvement of those meant to be helped by an intervention or policy. In line with the participatory approaches in general, this provides opportunities for community-based learning where people can learn from each other as well as from outsiders (Butler & Mazur 2007: 50).

The sustainable livelihood approach makes use of very important assets which include human, natural, financial, social and physical capital (Lyons, 2006:3). Human assets comprised health, education, formal and informal skills. Physical assets include tools, shelter, and shared infrastructure such as roads and communication networks; financial assets include income, savings, and access to credit. In addition, social assets include extended families, community networks, formal and informal institutions, mutual support associations, trust, and business relationships.Natural assets encompass natural resources such as land, forests, water, soil and fish (Lyons, 2006:3). This can be simply shown in figure 2 illustrating the linkages between possible activities and outcomes.

Figure 2: Sustainable Livelihoods Approach, Source: DFID (2001:5).

According to the SLA, in order for people to have a need for an acceptable livelihood, they use immediate assets and resources as inputs to a livelihood system and engage in different activities that generate a means of living. The framework in figure2 assumes that people follow a variety of livelihood outcomes such as more income and reduced vulnerability by drawing on a range of assets to pursue a variety of activities. However, these activities and livelihoods are influenced by the types of vulnerability which refer to shocks such as drought, overall trends and seasonal variations (Ashley, Carney,Farrington & Turton 1999:3). Various institutions such as the government, private sectors, non-governmentalorganisations (NGOs) and

17 community-based organisations (CBOs) influence the processes through which people get a livelihood. These institutions are especially influential in policy making and they play a crucial role that has a direct impact on the livelihood strategies and activities of the community. The outcomes of the livelihoods are a result of a number of linkages, for example the policies pursued. In developing countries especially, many policies are not always to the advantage of the poor. It has been observed that in the absence of viable alternatives, developing countries have been compelled to implement policies which are to the disadvantage of the poor in the countries concerned (Ashley et al, 1999:3).

The principles of the SLA assert that any poverty alleviation strategy, in this case women,income-generating projects must be people-centred,sustainable and participatory (Krantz, 2001: 6). In line with this,women’s projects have been identified as a process where women come together in cooperation as a way of achieving and gaining a livelihood. This could entail using the locally available resources so as to find a way of living which ultimately enhances their development, within their local areas.

Strengths of sustainable livelihood approach

The sustainable livelihood approach encompasses the variety of assets that people make use of when building their livelihoods. The approach produces an important view on what resources or combination of resources are important to the poor, including not only physical and natural resources, but also their social, human and financial capital (Solesbury, 2003).

Furthermore, the approach is based on the knowledge of the underlying causes of poverty by concentrating on a variety of different sectors at different levels that directly or indirectly determine or constrain poor people’s access to resources or assets of different kinds and thus their livelihoods (Solesbury, 2003). This implies to poor women who normally lack sustainable resources. The approach also provides a more practical framework for assessing the direct and indirect effects on people’s living conditions than, for example, one-dimensional productivity or income criteria.

By using the SLA, NGOs and other relevant stakeholders are able to find out ways to sustain available livelihoods in a given place.

Weaknesses of the sustainable livelihood approach

The approach does not indicate howthe poor who need assistance can be identified. People are invisible in the SLA framework and the framework pays more attention to assets, vulnerability, activities and capabilities (Morseetal,2009).The ways in which resources and other livelihood opportunities are distributed locally are often influenced by informal structures of social dominance and power within the community, hence the poor are continuously marginalised (Ludi & Slater, 2008). This approach ignores the actions of the wealthy players who are only included peripherally as part of the transforming structures and processes. The issues of market, class, gender are missing from the theory (Morse et al, 2001).

The basic idea of the SLA is to beginwith a broad and open-ended analysis, but this requires a highly flexible planning systemwhich hardly exists. The best hope is to ensure that already identified sector development initiatives fit with people’s livelihood strategies so that they respond to the constraints and opportunities affecting the poor. If applied, the SLA might be beyond the real-world realities of many local development administrations, with the risk that this approach remains an initiative of donors and their consultants (Morseetal, 2009). One measure to prevent this would be to ensure that staff are involved from the beginning when discussing how and if such a strategy should be applied, or start a simplified version of the approach which suits such communities.

2.3. Women and development

The literature on gender and development has demonstrated that women have not fully benefited from development initiatives at global, national and local levels (World Bank, 1990, cited in Mambo, 2000). Early attempts to alleviate poverty targeted women in their roles as mothers and wives (Brydon & Chant, 1989).However, these

19 programmes neither improve the status of women nor improve the value and meaning given to their productive and reproductive activities. Women stillform the majority of the poor and low- income earners (World Bank, 1990).

According to the UNDP Report (2009), the organisation has spent over two hundred million dollars on women empowerment projects in order to see an end to women poverty and achieve equality. These programmes have been extended to over 58 countries.However, only 28 countries have had successful implementation of the projects and the most disappointing results have been seen in Africa (World Economic Forum, 2005).

2.3.1. Women and poverty

The prevalence of women poverty, itscomplexity and their vulnerability is mostly marked in sub-Saharan African countries (McFerson, 2010:50). “The feminisation of poverty” is a feature of much of the developing world with females accounting for half of the world’s population that is about 70 per cent of the poor (Moghadam, 2005: 70). A number of reasons have been highlighted as a cause of poverty among women. Amongst these reasons, the major factors are weak governance, traditional practices and violent civil conflicts (McFerson, 2010:50). It is mostly in the sub-Saharan African countries where these three factors were present at one time. Therefore, it is this interaction that has had a severe negative impact on the status, condition and welfare of women in sub-Saharan Africa.

One of the major causes of women poverty in Africa is mal-governance and corruption (McFerson, 2010:52). Governance can be defined as the means in which state power is exercised rather than the way it is acquired, and corruption is the abuse of public power for private gain (Schiavo & McFerson, 2008:40). These are two problems which are of high incidence though not exclusive to the African continent. Mal-governance, traditional patriarchal structures and customs continue to prolong poverty, largely through disproving the rights of property and the use of essential economic assets to women (McFerson, 2010: ibid).

The reality of poverty in Africa results in “diminished citizenship” of women which is in turn reflected in gender-based violence (McFerson, 2010:55). Terry and Hoare (2007:117) define gender based violence as, “any detrimental physical, mental or social process that is directed against a person because of their gender role in society or culture.” Another survey found that the percentage of women aged 15 and 49 years who had experienced violence was very high in most of Africa, ranging from 30 per cent in Malawi, Rwanda and Zimbabwe to 50 per cent in Kenya, and Zambia and as high as 60 per cent in Uganda (Borwankar et al, 2008:11).Gender-based violence is seen as Sen’s capabilities deprivation as it has wide-ranging implications for depriving women of their fundamental capabilities, for example, the participation in social and economic life and making choices about their lives(Carney, 2002).

2.3.2. Women in Zimbabwe

Women’s status in Zimbabwe has been mostly affected by the economic problems facing the country as well as the persistence of inequitable practices. The country has publicised a policy and legal measures to promote gender equality: these include the National Gender Policy and specific domestic violence legislation (UN, 2010). Although Zimbabwe has achieved gender parity in primary school education, there remains a gender gap in secondary and tertiary education enrolments. Further, women follow behind men in measures of economic empowerment, such as work force input, wage fairness and representation in senior levels (World Economic Forum, 2010:318). A key barrier to gender equality is the discrimination coming from, customary laws which carry on disadvantaging women, especially in families (Thabethe, 2011:8).

2.4. Learning from International best practices and experiences

In a bid to achieve women’s empowerment and poverty alleviation amongst women, the Zimbabwean government formed the Ministry of Women, Gender and Community Development as an instrument to represent the women of the nation. Women empowerment projects have been implemented but have not been

21 sustainable. The Department of Trade and Industry (2012) acknowledged that countries which have created a conducive environment for promoting cooperatives, supportive programs and delivery institutions have successfully implemented sustainable women’s projects. These projects have grown rapidly and contributed positively to economic development, employment creation, and economic ownership by local communities and human resources development. Countries such as India and Nepal have been successful in implementing sustainable women empowerment projects that have led to poverty alleviation. This then entails that the sustainability of women projects is dependent on the delivery institutions of a government. The political situation of Zimbabwe which is unstable has led to a weak delivery system.

One of the main focal points of the Indian government has been the empowerment of women and to achieve this, the government formed a partnership withthe International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) (IFAD Report, 2010).The government adopted a strategy of self-help groups whereby groups of women of between 10 and 20 contribute dues on a monthly basis and provide loans to their members so as to start projects. In addition to the internal funding, IFAD also supports the women financially. However, the strength of the internal funding that has led to the sustainability of the projects has been that the women continuously have income at their disposal, thus when external funding is withdrawn, the projects do not collapse (IFAD Report, 2010). These self-help projects are facilitated by non- governmental organisations which have the capacity and resources in a variety of income-generating projects. In these self-help projects women choose their own projects in which they would be involved. In one of the projects called the Rural Women’s Development Empowerment Project, 90 per cent of the beneficiaries reported an increase in, access to and control over resources such as land, dwellings and livestock (IFAD Report, 2010:25).

Available information on sustainable women’s projects shows that projects have an ability to lead to economic growth and poverty alleviation. The presence of vibrant sustainable projects has contributed to the alleviation of poverty among women and their development. For example, Bangladesh is one of the countries that have been successful in implementing sustainable women’s empowerment projects through its partnership with the Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee (BRAC), the largest

22 non-governmental organisation. Survey findings show that, “91 per cent of women who were involved in women empowerment projects owned either productive or non- productive assets” (Banu et al, 2005:50).Regardless of length of membership, 18 per cent of the members owned land alongside other productive assets. A further 80 per cent of the women had been able to accumulate savings and thus expand their initial projects,leading to their sustainability (Banu et al, 2005:50).

The earthquake that occurred in 2010 in Haiti led to an economic downturn. In a bid to achieve economic growth, the Korea MGD Trust Fund targeted women and initiated women projects. It opened small businesses and enterprises for women to support their families (UNDP Report, 2013). Under this programme more than 900 women from the most vulnerable neighbourhoods were selected (UNDP Report, 2013:5). The programme’s sustainability was promoted through the provision of training, technical assistance and access to microcredit facilities (UNDP Report, 2013).With the programme more than 450 jobs have been created, 350 microenterprises established and 400 businesses have been reinforced (UNDP Report, 2013:ibid).

The Nigerian government in 2011 entered into a partnership with UNILEVER Nigeria to formally launch women’s empowerment projects (Unilever, 2011). However, before the commencing of the projects which are small businesses, the women went through a three-step programme. These small businesses would help women with no source of income to have the opportunity to improve their livelihoods. The three- step programme was rolled out to 100 women in the middle belt region of the country, covering five states. Firstly, the women were trained in marketing, networking and sales techniques. Secondly, they were provided with sales kiosks and start-up grants. Thirdly, there was a monitoring of the projects and this ensured the sustainability of the projects. Through the projects 80 per cent of the beneficiaries have been able to expand the initial small businesses to larger companies, thereby leading to poverty alleviation (Unilever, 2011:15).

A successful microfinance institution isthe Grameen Bank of Bangladesh, established in 1976 by Dr Mohammed Yunus to impact positively on the underprivileged people in empowering them to meet their basic needs.Its focuswas mostly on giving loans to women. It was transformed into aself-governing bank by

23 the government in 1983 and its services reachedapproximately 38 000 villages throughout rural Bangladesh, thereby /benefittingtwo million families. Osmani(1999) also maintains that Grameen’s achievement isemphasised by anoutstanding 98 percent of loan-repayment rate, which proved that small loans to villagers can boost self-reliance, increase income andsave people from the cycle of poverty, malnutrition, and possibly early death.

In South America, Bolivia is one of the poorest countries with about 60 percent of the population living below the poverty line (Yanthrawaduge, 2009). Tarija, which is a southern Bolivian city, has the second largest natural gas reserves in South America and natural gas is seen as a major source of income. However, a wide range of small businesses in rural and urban Tarija are not benefiting from this growth because there are political tensions among government, multinational corporations and the indigenous people. Microfinance training was implemented by Five Talents International to empower poor populations and provide a valuable tool to assist in economic development (Yanthrawaduge, 2009). Five Talents International was established in 1998 to address poverty and its founders include Anglican Church leaders who wanted to accelerate the creation of small businesses. Five Talents International brought its microcredit programmes to Tarija in 2004, attracting the participation of some 15 different Christian organisations and churches (Yanthrawaduge, 2009). Five Talents International works with the underprivileged people to introduce practices of saving and borrowing and to teach people business skills so that they can develop small businesses.The people subsequently form savings groups. The main focus was people who lack access to existing financial services owing to geographic and economic barriers; hence they wanted to engage them in economic opportunities, provide access to loans, create jobs and transform their lives (Yanthrawaduge, 2009).

The project focussed on 10 savings and credit groups in Tarija and 13 in faraway rural areas with about 12 members per group. In 2008 Sara and Eva Mamani volunteered to start rotating savings groups and Seeds of Blessing. Thereafter, 21 groups were formed and the repayment rate was 100 percent. The members also borrowed from each other’s savings and the community social capital has been effective in preventing non-payments. This was made possible because the church leaders invited community members to meetings where the concept of credit and

24 savings groups was introduced and those interested formed savings groups. Ultimately 275 people joined savings groups and benefited from business training, and 1,650 people - an average of six family members per beneficiary - had experienced improved household income (Yanthrawaduge, 2009).

According to NEPAD (2002), cited by Mwenda and Muuka (2004:144), “about 70 percent of Africa’s population and approximately 80 percent of the continent’s poor people live in rural areas”. It has been said that Africa can intensify rural incomes by enriched agricultural performance, more than any other region. Bearing in mind that the majority of African populace reside in rural areas with a high rate of poverty, NEPAD introduced improved rural finance to achieve pro-poor growth and reduce poverty.

Microfinancing of projects has been replicated also in sub-Saharan Africa, in countries such as Zambia, Mali, South Africa and Zimbabwe. In Zambia, the expansion of microfinance is slower in rural areas but in peri-urban areas it had been quite dominant (Kalyalya, 2003). The Cooperative League of the United States of America (CLUSA) had been working together with the Agency for International Development (USAID) on a business programme in Zambia in 1996. CLUSA Zambia started a small-scale Out-grower Scheme to address serious missing links concerning the farmer and the Agribusiness.

CLUSA took part in an Out-grower Scheme for small farmers and their main concern was how they could access inputs and credit services as well as secure a favourable market for their produce. In response to this, CLUSA established primary village organisations called Rural Group Businesses (RGBs) which formed secondary structures called depots. The programme helped farmers to access credit for inputs, transportation and identification of markets.The credit element was crucial because before commercial lendershad not been willing to give credit to smallholder farmers in Zambia because they thought that they would not be able to repay back the loans. In addition, CLUSA field staff delivered on-going training on conservation farming methods.

In South Africa, thegovernment introduced the concept of village banking which was based on low-cost easy banking systems in areas where commercial banks could not reach (Ximaya, 2000, cited by Mwenda & Muuka, 2004: 148). These village

25 banks have been established for two main features:collective ownership and connecting with commercial banks. According to Ximaya (2000), a village bank is a community-managed facility that functions as a financial services cooperative (FSC) and has different functions which include inspiringpoor people, creating a community capital base, improving the welfare of people and agricultural subsidies and making surethat attention is given to basic infrastructure such as roads, clinics, and schools in the community (USDA, 2000).

In Mali, they also introduced lending to rural women’s groups to support the Freedom from Hunger Project introduced by two credit unions of microfinance, Nye`sigiso in 1996 and Kafo Jiginew in 1997. They mainly targeted rural women throughthe Credit with Education group-lending programme. In June 2002, 16 200 women were reached in Nye`sigiso and 18 260 women in Kafo Jiginew (Mwenda & Muuka, 2004: 149).Freedom from Hunger’s field agents operated together with women’s groups to advance their own credit association. The group wasequallyresponsible to pay back the loan, which was normally 16 weeks. The members divided the large loan into small loans (initially $60-$80) commissioned to the members’ requests for investment in their small businesses. If the credit association paid their full loan back on time and with interest to the local organisation it will be qualified to receive a new big loan. Women in this association managed to increase profits and savings which they used toward their families’ needs for food, schooling and medicine. In addition, as women’s incomes increased, their self-confidence and status in the community also improved (Charitonenko & Campion, 2003).

Finally, in Zimbabwe microfinancing of projects had been implemented by various stakeholders who include the government and non-governmental organisations. Cooperative for Assistance and Relief Everywhere (CARE) operated in a sparsely populated rural Zimbabwe in the Kupfuma Ishungu Programme (KIP). The KIP empowered 2 221 groups to provide simple financial servicesto over 14 000 members, including an estimated two-thirds or more of thewomen in the villages it served (Mwenda & Muuka, 2004: 149). The KIP procedures were very simple. Groups offive to 15 members get together andgive out their own fixed amount ofinvestments once a month when they meet with members. Instead of managing ever-growing charges and withdrawals, the groups will separate at a programmed time and all members withdraw their reserves with interest and join again if they want

26 to. With thisprocedure, the KIP established sustainable groups that managedto deliver secured services that its members appreciated.Since their groups were self- selected and self-managed they came up with their own by-laws and elected officers and money-counters annually.

Even thoughthe KIP’s services and delivery system were very simple, Hirschland (2003) said they wereextremely well adaptedto the capabilities and needs of clients (Mwenda & Muuka, 2004: 150). Transactionshappened in the village and could be arranged to suit a time that was convenient for members. Members trusted the group with their monies because the set up was open to everyone and they knew one another. Since the members of the group managed everything all the transactions were transparent and services precisely adjusted to suit the needs of the villagers and investment produced positive tangible returns.

Conclusively, it isnecessary to point out that in Africa, MFIshave also materialised in Bukina Fasso, Gambia, Ghana, Kenya, Malawi,Tanzania, and Uganda, amongstseveral other countries. What seems to be themutualissue in all these areas, as Kalyalya (2003) portrayed,is thelack of adequate regulation and supervision of the MFI sector, so this calls for attention.

2.5. National Gender Policy in Zimbabwe (2013-2017)

Since development programs and their implementation are mainly concerned with or committed to gender equity, nowadays in response to MDG 3, Zimbabwe also is trying to develop her mission for gender equity through advocacy, negotiation, consensus building and raising awareness in matters that concern gender equity. The 2013-2017 National Gender Policy in Zimbabwe is the second policy which replaces the first policy of 2004. The 2004National Gender Policy was implemented by Zimbabwe so that gender and race inequalities could be addressed with the principle of “Growth with Equity” which was the first policy framework providing a gender perspective (Government of Zimbabwe, 2013). In response to the previous policy the government of Zimbabwe perceived that there was a need for a new gender policy which was mainly for two reasons.

Primarily, it was to achieve key targets which were set in 2004, to fulfil the 2008 Southern African Development Community (SADC) Protocol and to strive to achieve the Millennium Development Goals which are yet to be achieved. Secondly, there are always new development priorities that appear on a global and regional level.The social, political and economic situations have changed in Zimbabwe,calling for the revision of some policies (Government of Zimbabwe, 2013). It is well known that the roadmap to gender equity and equality goes hand-in-hand with the change of environment. Therefore, there is need to assess and review guiding policy framework and plans as the environment keeps on changing so that government’s approaches will remain relevant and effective. Moreover, “…other focal points emerged from the obligations towards addressing Climate Change, Land Reform system in Zimbabwe, Economic Recovery Programme, Indigenisation and Empowerment framework and other specific national initiatives” (Government of Zimbabwe, 2013:1). Owing to these it was necessary to revisit the 2004 policy and the issue of gender equality and equity was supposed to be within the same context of the present environment (Government of Zimbabwe, 2013).

2.5.1. Gender in Productive Resources and Employment

According to the government of Zimbabwe (2013: 5), Zimbabwe is devoted to economic equity mainly focusing on making sure that, “…there is equal participation in economic policy formulation, implementation, ensuring equal access to benefits and opportunities in trade and entrepreneurship, wage employment and control of productive resources”.Subsequently, the government of Zimbabwe followed various ways to respond to gender economic policies and programmes and they include“the Zimbabwe Economic Development Strategy (ZEDS) (2007–2010), Short-Term Emergency Recovery Programmes (STERP I and STERP II) (2009–2010), MidTerm Plan (MTP) (2011–2015), Gender-Responsive Economic Policy Management Initiative (GERPMI) and the Broad Based Women’s Economic Empowerment Framework (BBWEEF)” (Government of Zimbabwe, 2013: 5).

According to the government of Zimbabwe (2013: 5), these measures produced mixed results: In relation to poverty, Zimbabwe is not excluded from the global increase in poverty levels whereby women are poorer than men. This is confirmed by 68 per cent of households that are headed by women, living below the poverty line, according to a 2010 UNDP Report. Even though there is an absence of statistics, trade and industry reports showed that women’s participation in the formal trade sector is limited.

Furthermore, in terms of employment, according to the government of Zimbabwe, (2013: 5), statistics revealed that women’s accessibility to decent jobs is limited which is evidenced by the percentages of women and men in total employment. The overall employment population ratio, according to the Labour Force Survey (LFS) 2011, is 72.3 percent lower for women as compared to that of men which is 83.9 percent. In addition to this, agricultural labour which constitutes 70 percent is mainly offered by women who receive the lowest wages (Government of Zimbabwe, 2013: 5). In other sectors which are non-agricultural the total wage employment was 24 percent. In addition to this, women’s real income is three times smaller than that of men.Women also have a higher structural unemployment level of 70 percent as equated to 56 percent for men. Likewise, the Zimbabwe Demographic Health Survey 2010-11 showed that 37 percent of women as compared to 62 percent of men are formally employed (Government of Zimbabwe, 2013: 5).

The latest statistics on the Land Reform Programme from the University of Zimbabwe indicated thatin terms of control and access to resources by women, 18 percent of the beneficiaries were under A1 (first land reform programme) and 12 percent under A2(second land reform programme), falling far short of the gender parity ideal. As such, the economic empowerment of women is prioritised by the government of Zimbabwe to achieve sustainable economic development. The government is explicitly committed to improving the participation of women in the Medium Term Economic Recovery Plan (MTP) (Government of Zimbabwe, 2013: 5). Owing to this commitment the BBWEEF also set up schemes and targets for advancing the economy through empowering women in various sectors. In addition to this, there is significant progress to women’s economic empowerment which includes, among others, “the establishment of a Women’s Fund sustained by

Treasury, the development and implementation of Women’s Savings and lending Schemes by different development agencies and the promotion of Women in Business platforms and Women’s Associations in fundamental economic sectors and fostering of partnerships between other stakeholders and the government” (Government of Zimbabwe, 2013: 5).

2.6. Summary

This section provided a review of related literature on the contribution of sustainable women’s empowerment projects on poverty alleviation as well as the role that is played by microfinance in enhancing women’sincome-generating projects. Empirical evidence revealed the economic potential of women projects as an engine for economic growth and poverty alleviation for women in communities in and around the world with success stories in countries such as India and Nepal. In addition to this, the government of Zimbabwerevised its national gender policy in 2013 which further articulates that women are still lagging behind in economic, political empowerment. It is worth noting that results of success will depend on the type of project, socio-economic conditions in which they are operating, cultural conditions, technological innovation as well as the geographical location of the project area.

CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND DESIGN

3. Introduction

The purpose of this chapter is to outline the research methodology and design that was used in this research. This study useda qualitative research method which consisted of responses from the people in the project. This is inclusive of the procedures and data collection methods followed in conducting this research. The chapter concludes by outlining the methods of data analysis.

3.1. Research Methodology

Research methodology is a philosophy of the research process which includes assumption and values that serve as basis of research and standards that the researcher uses in interpreting data and reaching conclusions (Welman, Kruger &Mitchel, 2005).In another words,it is a way to systematically solve the research problems. It shows in what way the research is going to be carried out (Kumar, 2005:5). This study useda qualitative research design by using a case study method, semi- structured interviews,focus group discussions, participant observation and project documents. Research design refers to those groups of small, worked out procedures from which qualitatively oriented researchers can select or develop one or more procedure (-s) that may be suitable for their specific research goal (Fouche, 2003). Likewise, a research design is defined as “a plan” or blueprint of how the researcher intends to conduct his / her research (Babbie & Mouton, 2001:74).

Creswell (2003:12) defined qualitative research as an inquiry process of an understanding based on district methodological traditions of enquiry that explore a social or human problem. On the other hand, McMillan and Schumacher (1993: 479) defined qualitative research as, “primarily an inductive process of organizing data into

31 categories and identifying patterns (relationships) among categories.” This definition will be used in this study, implying that data and meaning emerge organically from the research context. Neuman, (2000:65) noted that qualitative methodology is a form of research that seeks to produce descriptive data, people’s own feelings written or spoken words and observable behaviour. Therefore it is significant to indicate that qualitative methodology attempts to bring out the social reality that happens in our lives and how human beings adapt to various conditions they face.

Neuman (2000:65) asserted that qualitative methodology employs procedures which are highly flexible and explanatory. Murray (2002:23) maintained that qualitative methodology is rational at capturing processes not in a strict sense but only through highlighting key things and relevant processes. Wellman etal (2005: 45) emphasised that qualitative methodology seeks to understand the human experiences and their day- to-day behaviours on a microscopic level, thereby promoting the establishment of a socially constructed nature of reality. In this research, one income- generating project of cattle production in the village of Sadomba in Nyanga District in Zimbabwe will be used. This study employed a qualitative method because it is concerned with understanding the successes and challenges of women’sincome-generating projectsand giving a rich exploration on a multifaceted phenomenon. It also gives valid information which comes directly from the owners of the project as well as generating detailed information. Hence, in essence, qualitative research methodology is advantageous in that real events can be recorded with reduced bias thereby increasing the validity of the research as it will result in fair, honest, balanced, valid and reliable data (Mason, 2002).

Data collection is the means of obtaining data from the respondent or the relevant sources, according to Patton (2002:68). Hence it is vital to note that there is need of a careful consideration of data collection techniques to be used. There is a wide range of data collection methods used in conducting research studies in a bid to obtain data from the sources. The choice of a particular data collection method depends on the choice of research method, the research topic and the availability of data Kumar (2005:73). Babbie (1991) postulated that data is what the researcher receives from the respondents, physically or socially.

3.1.1. Sampling and sample size

The sample size is the number of units or individuals used in a study. Target sampling was used for this study and is a way of obtaining information when random sampling is impossible and when accidental sampling cannot be used owing to the hidden nature of the research problem (Strydom, 2003). This research used target sampling because only those women involved in the Sadomba cattle project meet the requirements of this study. Those who do not fit the requirements were eliminated. The sample size was drawn from one community development programme which is the Sadomba cattle project. The sample included all members of the project which consisted of29 respondents, comprising 22women and seven men. The reason for choosing this sample size is because the study sought to obtain information from the project members. The researcher conducted one-on-one individual interviews which provided first hand in-depth information directly from the respondents. In addition, focus group interviews were also used in acquiring the information in relation to successes and challenges that are faced in women projects.

3.1.2. Research design

This study is based on a case study method of enquiry. A case study is seen by Yin (2003) as an essential form of social enquiry. He defines it as a method that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real life context. Furthermore, the case study method can be used to document and analyse the outcomes of public or privately supported policy interventions. The research object in a case study can be a programme, an entity, an organisation, a person or a group of people. These objects are likely to be intricately connected to political, social, historical and personal issues thus providing wide ranging possibilities for questions and adding complexity to the case study (Soy, 1977). Hence a case study was selected as a strategy for this research study. According to Schram (2006:107), cited by De Vos (2011:,320), a case study is a way of understanding human behaviour and its strategic value lies in its ability to draw

33 attention to what can be learned from a single case. This applies to the same notion that was pointed out by Babbie (2001), cited by De Vos (2011: 320), namely that case study researchers in comparison to grounded theorists seek to enter the field with knowledge of the relevant literature before conducting the field research. In relation to a case study, interviews, documents, observations or archival records can be used when collecting data. This study usedan in-depth description of a case, creating themes at the end.Case studies answer to questions of Why? and How?, providing context and offering a complete picture of what happened and why. Therefore they are appropriate when there is an interesting story to be told (Tellis, 1997). This is in line with theviews of Becker and Bryman (2004) when they asserted that the aim of case study research should be to capture cases in their uniqueness and to generate findings that are theoretically interesting and are capable of being taken up by other researchers for further elaboration.

Yin (2003) identified three different types of case studies comprising exploratory, descriptive and explanatory. Explanatory case studies seek to answer questions that seek to explain presumed causal links between program implementation and program effects. On the other hand, descriptive case studies provide a complete description of a phenomenon within its context, while exploratory case studies play the role of preliminary research. They are aimed at exploring questions of subsequent research. They explore situations in which the intervention being evaluated has no clear, single set of outcomes.

Finally, in highlighting the role of theory in case study research, Yin (2003) is of the view that the case study method relies on theoretical concepts to guide the design and data collection process. Such concepts are useful whether conducting explanatory, descriptive or exploratory case studies because they place the case within the appropriate research literature in order to advance knowledge and understanding of a particular case. Without guidance from theoretical concepts, identification of criteria for selecting and screening potential objects for cases to be studied and to suggest relevant variables of interest and therefore data to be collected may be extremely difficult and hamper the development of a rigorous case study

3.1.3. Data collection methods

3.1.3.1. Interviews

According to Olsen (2004), an interview is a conversation between two or more people, whereby questions are asked by the interviewer to obtain information from the interviewee. Interviewing is the major form of data or information collection in qualitative research. Researchers acquire information through a direct exchange of words with an individual or group that is known or expected to possess the knowledge they seek (DePoy & Gilson 2008: 108, cited by De Vos et al, 2011: 351). Thus, an interview is a social relationship designed to exchange information between the participant and the researcher.

This study useda semi-structured one-to-one interview schedule in order to obtain a detailed picture of a participant’s beliefs about or opinions or accounts of a particular topic. The method gives the researcher and participant much more flexibility: the researcher will be able to follow up particular interesting thoughts that emerge in the interview, and the participant will be able to give a fuller picture (De Vos et al, 2011:351). A questionnaire written to guide interviews is called an interview schedule or guide (De Vos, 2011: 352). With a semi-structured interview the researcher will have a set of predetermined questions and topics on an interview schedule or guide that must be covered. The interview will be guided rather than be ordered by the schedule. Participants will be directed by theinterview but they will be able to introduce an issue that the researcher had not thought of. In this relationship, participants will be recognised as the expert on the subject and will therefore be allowed maximum opportunity to tell their story (Smith, Harre & Van Langnhoven, 1995: 9-26). Questions are nearly always open-ended (De Vos et al, 2011: 352). This kind of interview collects detailed information in a manner that is to some extent informal. Semi-structured interviews are often used when the researcher wants to delve deeply into a topic and to understand the answers provided thoroughly (Harrell &Bradley, 2007: 27).

In the same way as focus groups, direct observation and literature reviews, semi- structured interviews can also be used to gather qualitative information. Interviews of this type go well with small samples and are useful for studying specific situations, supplementing and validating information derived from other sources used for making safety judgement or analysis. In addition, since they provide access to perceptions and opinions, and they are effective for gaining insight into problems that are not immediately perceptible but that cause concern in certain areas or in certain segments of the population (Noor, 2008). The choice of semi-structured rather than structured interviewswas made because it offers sufficient flexibility to approach different respondents differently while still covering the same areas of data collection (Noor, 2008). The responses of interviews are written down as field notes.

The purpose of using semi-structured interviews is that everyone gets the same questions asked, but there is flexibility in how they are asked. They are also particularly useful for exploring the views of a subject towards something. Semi-structured interviews are also well suited for exploring attitudes, values, beliefs, and motives of people (Barriball, 1993). Furthermore, non-verbal indicators assist in evaluating truthfulness/validity and urgency (Farnsworth, 2006). The other purpose of using semi- structured interviews is that they facilitate in making sure that every question is answered as well as ensuring that the respondent is working on his/her own. It can potentially increase the response rate. The researcher also gets a full range and depth of information, develops relationships with the respondents and can be flexible with the respondents. The overall purpose is to fully understand someone’s impressions or experiences, or learn more about their answers to questionnaires.

Although, semi-structured interviews were used in this study, there was the possibilityof shortcomings. Standardisation difficulties may arise in giving meaning. In addition, there were other groups that were not represented in the study, for instance children. Also appearances or perceptions of the researcher may alter responses. In response to this the researcher made sure that these problems did not influence the results of this study hence precautions were taken. The researcher conducted one-to-one semi-structured

36 interviews with four women and two men, therefore six one-on-one interviews were conducted.

3.1.3.2.Focus group

This study also used focus groups interviews as an instrument in data collection. Participants were selected because they have certain characteristics in common that relate to the topic of the focus group. The purpose of focus groups is to promote self- disclosure among participants. It is to know what people really think and feel (Krueger & Casey 2007: 7, cited by De Vos et al, 2011: 361). Focus groups are useful when multiple viewpoints or responses are needed on a specific topic. These can be achieved in a shorter period of time than in individual interviews. Focus groups are capable of generating multifaceted information at a low cost in a minimum amount of time (Kroll, Barbour &Harris 2007: 691, cited by De Vos et al, 2011: 361).

The researcher conducted two focus group discussions. The first group had12 respondents which comprisednine womenand three men and the second group had11 respondents comprised of nine women and two men. The interviews took place in Sadomba village where the project is being implemented. The researcher utilised the services of an interpreter to translate the questions from English to Shona because some of the respondents did not understand English very well.

The researcher alsotook field notes by writing down the responses of the focus group discussion. Field notes are a written account of the things that the researcher hears, sees and experiences in the course of interviewing (De Vos et al, 2011: 359). Babbie (2007: 310) suggested that both experiential observations and the researchers’ interpretation of them should be written down. The researcher went to Zimbabwe in the beginning of August 2015 to collect the data. The data was collected over three weeks.

3.2. Participant observation

For familiarisation purposes the researcher conducted a participatory observation approach by visiting the Sadomba cattle project in Sadomba village in Nyanga District thereby initiating a rapport.Participant observation is defined as a process whereby a researcher establishes a long-term relationship with individuals and groups in their natural setting for the purposes of developing anunderstanding of those individuals and groups (Dawson, 2006). To understand the activities undertaken by project members on a daily basis, the researcher observed and participated in the project activities. The researcher visited the cattle project often and engaged in project activities together with the project members, interacted with them, and at the same time observed their activities from an insider perspective. Notes were taken on what was seen and observed from the project and from the informal conversations and interaction with the project members. Not only were the activities of the project members observed, but also their appearance, verbal behaviour and interactions, physical behaviour, gestures and movement of people in and out of the project. All the elements of the project were observed from cattle kraals, paddocks, dip tanks and implementation activities. Thishelped the women to open up during interviews.

Participant observation was chosen for this study because it provided an understanding of the cattle project context that can only come from personal experience Besides, it facilitated and developed positive relationships between the researcher and the project members, chairperson and coordinator whose assistance and approval were needed for the success of the study. Above all, there is no substitute for participating and witnessing human interaction to get an insight from a personal point of view (Mack, Woodsong, MacQueen, Guest &Namey, 2005).

3.3. Data Analysis

Data analysis is a process which involves breaking data down into smaller units to reveal their characteristics, elements and structure (Babbie, 2010). In this study, data analysis involved the categorisation of collected data into themes and sub-themes which has informed the structural arrangements of the findings. This was done to obviate the task of interpretation of findings and to reach conclusions. This process of grouping and labelling data is referred to, in social research, as coding (Henning, 2004; Becker & Bryman, 2004; Flick, 2006). The coded categories in this study have been used as indicators of content in the presentation and analysis of findings on women’sincome-generating projects.

Babbie and Mouton (2001) indicated that data analysis brings about order, structure and meaning to the mass of data collected. Interpretation will bring out sense from the data collected. This research used content analysis of the transcribed data creating themes in the process to make sense of the data. Coding as stated abovewas also used which isa process of breaking down, examining, comparing, conceptualising and categorising data. This method allows for data analysis in a way that retains its inherent contextual nature. Content analysis is defined as the interpretation of the content of text for data through a process of coding and identifying themes/patterns (Hsieh & Shannon, 2005: 1278). The themes have to be in line with the objectives of the study thus they should answer how the project assisted the Sadomba community in dealing with the challenges they are facingin women’sincome-generating projects. Data was analysed thematically using words and direct quoting from interviews. Thematic analysis is defined by (Boyatzis, 1998: 6) as the qualitative analytic method of identifying and analysing patterns within data. The developing of themes would emphasise the efforts of the government and relevant stakeholders to bring about social investment and not only material benefits to the community but also efforts towards future sustainability of the project.

3.4. Limitations

The researcher found difficulties in obtaining the data in that most of the interviewed people were giving almost the same information. The repetition of information showed the researcher the intensity of the problem they were trying to describe so the researcher used it to the advantage of the research. The researcher also found difficulties in securing time slots to interview therespondents since the villagers also have some other activities they were involved in,for instance gold panning.

3.5. Ethical considerations

Entry was negotiated through clearance and authorisations from the NMMU. All the respondents met with the researcher at times that were convenient to them. Participation in the interviews was entirely voluntary and the respondents were free to withdraw at any stage. The project members were required to sign a consent form prior to the interview and focus group discussions as confirmation that they were freely participating in the interviews and focus groups. To ensure strict confidentiality of participant information and anonymity, no names were recorded on the interview schedules or final report. A number was assigned to each respondent for identification purposes. The standards of professional conduct were upheld. These include responsibilities to ensure research projects are designed and conducted safely, fairly and with integrity. Hence this study adheres to the terms and conditions of the Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University Ethics Committee since the research made use of people’s responses, existing documents, and progress and evaluation reports. In addition, ethical researchers do not present the work of others as their own, or do not fail to give appropriate credit for the work of others through citations. The researcher acknowledged all sources used throughout the study. Considering that the research was based on qualitative method and document review, the researcher acknowledged the original sources and avoided misquoting their ideas, views, findings out of context.

CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4. Introduction

This chapter presents the study findings. First, data from various sources is analysed and subsequently discussed in light of the research questions. The results will be presented using themes in relation to research questions which the study aimed to answer. These include conditions under which women’s income-generating activities can be successful, challenges in women’s income-generating projects.

4.1. Demographic information

The aim of analysing demographic characteristics is to establish the respondent’s biographical information such as, gender, age, occupation, marital status and educational attainment. The demographic information about the respondents is presented clearly using graphs and pie charts. The demographic information is very important because it shows the researcher the level of people being dealt with and it will have an impact in answers they give during interviews and focus group. The age of respondents, occupation, level of education, and marital status are presented on graphs. In addition, gender was presented more precisely on a pie chart.

80 70 60 50 40

30 percentage 20 10 0 18-24 25-31 32 and above Age of Respondents

Figure 3: Age of respondents,Source: (Field data, 2015)

The total number of people in the project is 29. The minimum age is 18 and the maximum age is 55. The graph (see fig.3) shows that 10 per cent of the people involved in the project are in the age group of 18-24 years. The results showed that the youth are not particularly active in this projectowing to their absence from the rural areas.Some of them had gone to school in other areas away from the village and others had gone to look for work. For instance, most girls were reported to have gone to do domestic work in towns to financially support themselves and their families. The graph (see fig.3) shows that about 21 percent of the people involved in the Sadomba women project belong to the 25-31 years age range.In addition, the graph (fig 3) shows that 68 per cent is occupied by those who are 32 years and above. This group of people was participating in the project more than any other group because the project was their main source of income.

Gender

0% 0%

24%

Female 76% Male

Figure 4: Gender and level of participation, Source: (Field data, 2015)

Figure 4 clearly shows that women are more active in the project, with 76 percent of them showing active participation as opposed to 24 percent of men.The difference in percentage in participation between men and women is noticeable; this is because it is a women’s project and men are there as supporters in matters that require man power (masculinity). Although there are men in the project, the project was supported by Ministry of Women Affairs solely to support women.This was supported by the words of the coordinator (Respondent 1) when she said, “Men are there as supporters in doing manual work that women are not able to do on their own.”

Percentage 20

0 None Primary Secondary Tertiary Level of Education

Figure 5: Level of education, Source: (Field data, 2015).

In every aspect, education is crucial in achieving sustainable livelihoods. The level of education of people in the project can be viewed as low since most of the people have no more than primary education. This was confirmed by the words of the coordinator (Respondent 1) when she said that: “I want my children to have a better future by going to school, I don’t want them to end in primary school like me that’s why l am doing this project so that I can support my children in terms of education.” As Figure 5 reveals, 14 percent of the participantshad not gone to school whilethe education of 52 percent ended in primary school level; 24 percent attained secondary school level and 10 percent attained tertiary education. Thesedemographics show thatthe majority of the respondents are not well educated.

70 60 50 40 30

Percentage 20 10 0

Marital Status

Figure 6: Marital status, Source: (Field data, 2015).

There were no single people in this project. About 62 percent of the people were married. Divorcees constituted 21 percent andwidows 17 percent.The majority of the respondents indicated that their major source of income was the project therefore it is very important to them. For example, in group 1, one of the five widows said, “If it was not this project, we don’t know how we were going to survive.”The widowsindicated that the project was very important to them since they had no other sources of income. From the biographical information presented, it is clear that women are dominant in the project.

4.2. Contributions of Sadomba cattle project

The term ‘income-generating project (IGP) is mostly used to describe small-scale economic activities undertaken by two or more persons who are ultimately expected to produce an income. Income-generating projects are meant to improve the lives of people by enabling sustainable livelihoods.This study found that if women receive proper financing they can use it as capital for their projects in order to reduce

45 povertyand unemployment and increase women’s empowerment and community development. The Sadomba women’scattle projectis also called Pfuma Inhaka in Shona,meaning ‘Possession is inheritance’. This name denotes that if people own possessions such as cattle, they are regarded as having a valuable inheritance that can be used for income generation and if properly managed, the next generations will benefit as well. In this aspect, the project is regarded as beneficial to project members and their children.

Since there are high levels of unemployment in Zimbabwe, people sell their cattle as a way of generating income. It is only when they sell their cattle thatthey can send their children to school as the coordinator (Respondent 1) observed:“That’s the money that we keep by selling those cattle. We are able to send our children to school until they pass. I even have a child who completed O- level.” This is one of the remarkable benefits that the project members are actually gaining from the project.

Some community members indicated that the project is also beneficial to community members. Those who do not have cattle of their own can actually borrow from the project in order for them to start their own herds and return the borrowed cattle back to the project when their herd is established. Three project members attested to the fact that when they joined the project they did not own any cattle, but they benefited from the project and they now have herds of cattle. This indicates that the project encourages community participation and empowers the community.On another hand, the project is also beneficial to community members who have their own personal herds of cattle but are not members of the project. These non-project members can put their cows in paddocks that belong to the project and their cattle receive services in terms of grazing pastures, dip tanks and vaccinations,and this result in better breeds that would be purchased at higher prices.This can be evidenced by the words of the chairman (Respondent 2) when he said that, “Our aim is to engage the community, and we want them to bring their cattle as well in our paddocks.”

Furthermore, amongst other benefits, income was also generated from selling milk which is produced by the cattle. Additionally, project members use their cattle for hiring out draught power to other community members without cattle. Besides income

46 generation, project members use cattle and milk for their own consumption. This can be evidenced by the words of one man in focus group discussion (Group 1) when he said, “I normally slaughter my cattle when its Christmas time because that is when l have many visitors.”

All the contributions discussed in this section show that the project is making a difference in the livelihoods of the project members. All project members indicated thatthey are benefiting from the project in various ways.

4.3. Necessary conditions for successful income-generating projects

4.3.1. Market

Market research is necessary to estimate the sustainability of the income-generating project. It is necessary to assess whether the products from the project can be sold, at what price and whether profit can be made from selling the product. In addition, costs incurred should be weighed against the benefits. In the case of the Sadomba cattle project, market research on the distance to the market and the transport costs to the market were supposed to be factored in when the project started since it is now a challenge for the members to transport their cattle to the market. This is jeopardising their chances of fetching higher prices for their cattle as they now accept lower prices from buyers who come to the village. At the formal cattle market that is about more than 100 kilometres from the project, on average a head of cattle costs approximately $450 - $600 depending on weight and age. However, local informal buyers who come to the village offer a price of $300 or even less per head. As noted by one respondent, “The formal cattle market which offers higher prices is very far from usand the local informal market is limited, we end up selling our cattle at lower prices”(Respondent 6).

The long distance to the market is not the only inhibiting factor, but also the legislative bylaws on transporting cattle for a distance of more than 20 kilometres. In order to curb stock theft, a new bylaw was passed to request those who transport cattle for a distance of 20kilometres to first obtain a series of supporting documents from the village and district heads as well as the police.

4.3.2. Organisational capacity (Knowledge and skills)

The success of an IGP does not depend on the type of activity, but rather on the skills and knowledge of the individual or group setting up an IGP. The existing project members’ knowledge, skills and relevant experience are significant preconditions for a successful project. However, although knowledge and skills can be acquired through training, this may be expensive and time-consuming. The knowledge and skills are important for the successful planning, implementation of activities as well as sustaining the project for a long term. The education levels attained by most project members in the Sadomba cattle project proved to be weak. The Sadomba cattle project members gained knowledge on how to treat their cattle from the Department of Livestock and they were taught various skills that include vaccination and control of diseases as well as paddock management and this led to better project management. However, the project needs expertise in the formulation of objectives and indicators, specific skills in bookkeeping and budgeting, as well as sales and revenue analysis. This is supported by the words of one woman who mentioned that, “Although we gained knowledge on how to treat our cattle, we still lack other managerial skills.” Without these skills in the project, it is difficult to ascertain the difference between success and failure.

4.3.3. Availability of resources

For the project to start and be successful, necessary resources such as human resources, inputs, finance or microcredit and land are needed. Those who are meant to gain form the project make up the most important resource as well as the land that is the basis for production. Inputs that are needed for the success of the projectrequire finances to be purchased.When all the necessary financial, physical and human resources are available, the chances of a successful project are high. In the Sadomba women cattle project, the project members have to source inputs on their own. This was evident when the chairman (Respondent 2) said, “For now we are struggling to buy our

48 vaccinations on our own.”They need more land for paddocking but since they do not have access to microfinance, they cannot buy more land.Moreover, they need fences to protect the new paddocks. However, the human resources are available although training is needed for project members to be able to plan, implement and enhance profitability for the project.

4.3.4. Economic and financial profitability

In addition to being technically feasible, an income-generating project should be profitable, meaning it should produce an income or a surplus (profit) and continue to do so without subsidies (sustainability). An income-generating project should be profitable, in other words, returns should be higher than costs. In the Sadomba women cattleproject, profits are not realised as they should be because the market is not close by and transport costs to the market are high. These are the actual words of one woman (Respondent 3) when she said, “As it is now we are not able to transport our cattle because we are not gaining much,from the little that we obtain we are sending our children to school and buy some food stuffs.” Therefore, for successful projects, profits are very important because even future generations will benefit from it as people will obtain sustainable livelihoods.

4.3.5. Community involvement and participation

Participatory development is an approach that enables communities to help themselves and sustain efforts in the project. Community buy-in in projects is important as communities are no longer seen as recipients of projects; rather, they have become critical stakeholders who have an important role to play in the management of projects in their area. The people in Sadomba village indicated that the project is well known for its support for the community and people take pride in the project. This can be supported by another woman who joined the project when she said, “Before l joined the

49 project l knew about it and l wanted to be part of it” (Respondent 5). However, there is a need for stakeholder analysis in order to identify relevant and necessary government stakeholders who can assist the project in reducing the high levels of bureaucracy in decisions that pertain to the project. In supporting this it was indicated byseven people out of 11 (64 percent) in focus group discussion that, “We did not have the access to reach top management when we wanted to ask about heifers since there are protocols to be followed” (Group 2).

This engagement and participation of the community is crucial since in a rural set up people should share what they have. This was highlighted by the chairman (Respondent 2) who said: “The community will benefit from paddocks, because they will also put their cattle together with us.”Community participation improves the ability of communities to make collective decisions concerning the proper use of available resources Such as infrastructure, labour and knowledge. In this case, when they want to sell their cattle to outside markets which offer higherprices than village buyers, they will contribute towards transport costs to transport their cattle together,rather than doing it individually.

4.3.6. Technology

Additionally, for successful income-generating projects the use of technology is of great importance. Technology is crucial in any project because it increases the efficiency, effectiveness, productivity, lower costs of production and saves time in case there are a lot of activities to perform. In relation to the Sadomba women cattle project, project members still milk their cows manually; hence there is need for milking machines. The desire for the use of new technology was echoed by the project coordinator when she indicated that, “We are still using our hands for milking; we wanted it to be easier for us by having milking machines.” This will even help when people want to buy milk, they will not have to wait for a long time to be served.

4.4.Challenges of women’s income-generating projects

4.4.1. Unavailability of exotic breeds (heifers)

The Sadomba women cattle project faces various challenges which include the unavailability of exotic breeds since they still have indigenous breeds. The main reason for opting for exotic breeds is because they have a higher value on the market compared to indigenous breeds and they also have high resistance to diseases. For these reasons they want to change from indigenous breeds to exotic breeds, hence the Ministry of Women’s Affairs has offered to help them with heifers. These heifers are supposed to be Brahman or Africander breeds as reported by one of the project members who said:“We would like to change the breed of our cattle from indigenous breeds to exotic breedsbecause of advantages of exotic breeds.” They want to change to these breeds because they are the best for crossbreeding, better beef and healthier cattle,better milk,and heat tolerance for hot climates.One of the reasons for changing the breed is because the exotic breeds areinsect-resistant. They are basically immune to ticks, flies, mosquitos and other external parasites.The reason why thewomen did not receive their heifers is because Zimbabwe’s microfinance system has been hard hit by the economic crisis that has crippled the country since 2008 (Fair Report, 2012).

4.4.2. Inaccessibility of microcredit

Documentary evidence shows that the Ministry of Women’s Affairs, together with various stakeholders such as Agritex, the Department of Livestock, the local government, and the International Rescue Committee (IRC) held several meetings with the group in trying to assist members. From 10-14 August 2011 the provincial team of ministry officers, project members (rural women), local leaders, and officers from Agritex undertook a tour to the Victoria Falls. This tour was funded by the Ministry of Women’s Affairs and IRC. They wanted the project members to participate in decision-making for community development and empowerment. While at the Victoria Falls, the Ministry of

Women’s Affairs and the IRC promised to offer them an amount of US$180 000 and they signed for it. “From the US$180 000 that we signed for, we haven’t received it yet.” However, according to the project members who attended the tour, they have not yet received the money. This has been a major drawback for the project as this money was going to be used to bring about many improvements to the project. For example, the members had planned that they would use the money to improve the breeds oftheir herds. They were supposed to buy fencing for paddocks but since finances did not materialise, it is still a challenge to them.

4.4.3. Representation of the project to external stakeholders

The Sadomba women cattle project also faces some challenges in representing their project to external stakeholders. This lack of representation will affect negatively on the success of the project since there will be no engagement.As one respondent noted, “The ministry’s people flew to America with our project but us people involved in the project did not go so who was representing our project?” This is a major challenge because even if the external stakeholders are willing to support the project it will be very difficult because there will be limited information about the project. The people who know what they want are the people at the grassroots level who are the project members.Therefore, in this case decentralisation is an aspect which should be natured to acquire sustainable outcomes.

4.4.4. Marketinformation

An important element for the project members to be able to participate in markets is information, not only information on what the prevailing prices are but also information on trade contacts and technical matters. The Sadomba women cattle project is not exceptional in terms of challenges in acquiring information about cattle prices. Mostly,rural areas are usuallydeprived of information owing to various factors including

52 a lack of access to mass media: therefore people in these areas are disadvantaged.For instance, without information on supply and demand, setting prices is difficult. Without information, the Sadomba women cattle project is vulnerable to middle men and farm gate traders who buy produce at below cost price, to the disadvantage of the project members. Local markets may not offer a solution for the Sadomba women cattle project as they can be saturated quicklyif allproject members and the community sell their produce at the same time. This is supported by Respondent 6, when she said, “Local markets are not enough for us since everyone in the community sell their produce there.”Having adequate market information assists project members in making decisions about intra- and inter-season prices depending on the breed of cattle that has a higher value on the market. The cost of obtaining information is one of the operational costs that the project members face and usually these costs are the cost of transport to distant markets to obtain information.In order to remove the information barrier to participation in markets for project members, both government and private sector need to establish a market information system that is efficient, relevant and sustainable. This lack of market information in this project is due to low education and literacy levels.

4.5. Summary

The Sadomba cattle project has benefited the project members in a number of ways, including income generationby the selling of cattle and milk, agricultural purposes (draught power) and also through income they obtain from hiring their cattle to other community members in the rainy season. The income generated has assisted them to send their children to school and attain higher education. However, despite these benefits, they face a number of challenges asmentioned above. Therefore, there is an urgent need to integrate the necessary conditions for successful income-generating projects into the Sadomba cattle project.

CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5. Introduction

This chapter presents a conclusion of the study and recommendations.

5.1. Conclusion

From the results presented above in chapter four, it is revealed that in terms of income, the women benefit to some extent although they are facing some challenges. Women’sincome-generating projects can be successful, independent and self-reliant without dependence on external donors or support. For instance, the Sadomba cattle project members buy vaccines on their own and train new project members in controlling diseases, which means that they can continue on their own without hand- outs. However, for them to operate on a larger scale they need proper financing for buying exotic breeds (heifers), fencing their paddocks, paddock management, milking machines, and cheese manufacturing plants. Therefore, the results of this study in terms of contributions of income-generating projects support the literature in relation to the productive use of resources that are already available locally for the benefit of the whole community (Van Niekerk, 2009). This is supported by the findings relating tothe Sadomba cattle project because the local people in the project provide their own labour, use their own dip tanks, as well as manage their own paddocks. The community alsobenefits in the process. Although they are trying to be independent from the state,and to be more self-reliant households, taking care of themselves, as a community they stillface numerous challenges as shown in the previous chapter. Findings of the study are also consistent with the literature in that microfinance programmes have been seriously critiqued because they failed to reach out to the very poor (Meade, 2000). For instance, the Ministry of Women’s Affairs and its Women Development Fund in Zimbabwe failed to reach the poor women in Sadomba village owing to the economic

54 crises in the country. In addition, this study confirms what was articulated by Sen (1992) and Nussbaum (2006) who argued that education, health, legal and political changes usually affect the capabilities of people in securing an income. This is true because people in Sadomba village found it difficult to obtain information about markets and prices that are offered on the formal markets as well as sales and revenue analysesowing to illiteracy and a lack of specific skills in bookkeeping and budgeting.

As mentioned in the literature review in chapter two, this study was underpinned by the sustainable livelihood approach (SLA) which stresses a set of poverty reduction strategies and the environment in which they operate.It is vital to note that the SLA is believed to be people-centred since its main goal is to make people realisethe resources they have and to develop their coping strategies and effectively use them, especially during times of drought (food shortages), outbreak of diseases and the various problems that arise in their communities, for instance, in acquiring an income. In line with this approach (SLA), the women chose the cattle project as a coping strategy since the area is conducive to cattle ranching owing to the climate in the area. Since SLA is people-centred this project, calls for community engagement at all levels: that is, they share dip tanks and paddocks as shown in the results chapter. This shows that the Sadomba cattle project is all inclusive, regardless of age, education and occupation.

A livelihood comprises the capabilities, assets and activities required for a means of living(Chambers & Conway, 1992:7).The Sadomba cattle projectindicated that women are the most significant proponents of development in income- generating projectsand this is indicated by the level of participation by women, which is 76 per cent as opposed to 24 per cent of men. However, women’s capabilities are undermined since they lack financial back up, markets for their cattle, and technology and they face various challenges. The sustainable livelihood approach makes use of very important assets which include human, natural, financial, social and physical assets (Lyons, 2006:3). In this study people in the project use their own labour to clear paddocks, as well as paddock management. The Livestock Department trained the project members on how to control diseases. This indicates that for people to obtain sustainable livelihoods, these assets are supposed to be there.

Comparing the Sadomba project to other successful projects in Bangladesh, for instance, it can be noted that, given the differences in culture, technologies, geography and the like, care must be taken not to apply basic structures that are successful in one time and place to another (Bennet et al. 1996). This has an implication for the results and the projects may also differ, resulting in totally different outcomes. Although micro financing of projects is very important, it can be noted that microfinance access for financial self-sufficiency is difficult to achieve in harsh socio-economic conditions and geographically isolated communities (Ryhne, 1998:8) and Zimbabwe is not exceptional. It should be also be noted that empowering women is not about being equal to men but it is about being economically active to obtain a livelihood that is sustainable and this cannot excuse them from their responsibilities. It is about empowering women not to solely depend on men but also raising awareness that they can also do something to solve the problems they encounter. Although they are able to sustain themselves, at some point the issue of microfinancing cannot be totally dismissed since they would need help in some aspects. This is because when there are challenges, they affect everyone, including the women, so by being economically active they can earn a living. All in all, the project on its own is appealing since it is helping mainly rural women, as well as the men involved and other community members.

5.2.Recommendations

In conclusion, the researcher recommends the following:

In terms of markets, the researcher suggests that the project members should identify possible markets for selling their cattle since they have been forced to sell them at much lower prices than expected. The Livestock Department, since it is one of the key actors, should be in a position to identify possible markets to help the project since many of the people involved are not well educated and they all reside in the rural area. On this note the researcher is suggesting the establishment of information desks in the rural areas from which the community can obtain informationon what is happening outside the community. This will help since it is difficult for the project members to gain information about market prices outside the village. In addition, the community should have set

56 market days onwhich theywill sell their cattle. This will help them reduce transport costs because in this case all members of the community who would be interested in selling outside the community could arrangeamongst themselves and contribute towards transport costs, unlike doing it individually.

To reduce possible failures, it is suggested that many IGPs should be set up, combining IGPs with immediate and long-term returns. These projects should have diversified strategies to secure a livelihood, unlike focusing on one project as they are currently doing in Sadomba village. This will ensure a flow of income from various activities that will help towards sustainable livelihoods: if some projects fail, others will still be viable. However, this is controversial as some IGPs which focused on one project also achieved great success, as all their efforts and devotion were directed towards succeeding. In scenarios where microcredit is difficult to acquire owing to variousreasons which include economic hardships in the country, the people should continue to work together as a community. This will help them to be self-reliant and allow them to be independent citizens in the absence of government and other stakeholders’ commitment.

The researcher further suggests aground-up approach whereby development starts from the roots to the trunk and spreads further to the branches and leaves, like a tree. The roots are the people who own the project and the trunk and the branches as well as the leaves are other stakeholders who are involved in the project. Therefore, development should start from people: they are the initiators of their own project and their only need is the help of other stakeholders. The only people who know the depth of their challenges are the people who face them, not the outsiders as suggested by Robert Chambers in 1983 in his book called Putting the Last First.

In a community group, a hierarchical administration system (bureaucracy) is not appropriate. It should be changed to an inter-responsible system, where all members within the group are responsible for any failure or success by the members. In the existing structures, the leaders are the only people who have the opportunity to contact other institutions, such as the Women’s Affairs and the IRC. This means that the remaining members have no chance to get familiarised to dealing with more modern

57 social and financial institutions. Consequently, they do not develop responsible or business-like behaviour and they lack basic entrepreneurial skills. This shows that the project needs marketing skills to market their cattle. The example of indicators for success should be shifted from institutions’ interests to women’s interests. It means that in implementing these systems, the degree of success should depend on their positive impact on women’s lives.

The local government should work together with the community in ensuring further success of the project. For instance, the project members did not know who to ask for their heifers or for fencing for their paddocks, either at district level or on a provincial level, because they did not know exactlywhere the problem was. Therefore, there should be a decentralisation of duties from the project members to the provincial level. In the project, there should be someone who would be able to reach the top officials to communicate their needs because only people in the project know what they need at any given time. In other words, the researcher is suggesting that there should be representation at all levels, be it in the community, or at district or provincial level and there should be collaboration at all costs. In the community there should be a committee that should be selected from the local people to represent the project to different government ministries, not necessarily the Ministry of Women’s Affairs but other stakeholders that are ready to deliver.

5.3. Future research

Many development interventions have focused much on helping women but men are ignored. Since mostincome-generating projects mainly focus on women, it is important thatfuture research should incorporate men to participate fully in the projects. In addition, possible directions for future research in this area include examining issues that may arise on how men will react when their femalecounterparts earn an income. Another possibility is to address and examine the issue ofthe land reform program and how it has empowered women in relation to ownership of assets such as land. This line of research could inform policy.

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APPENDIX 1: INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR WOMEN INCOME GENERATING PROJECT

Assessing Sadomba Women Cattle Project

I aim to assess the challenges of women’sincome-generating projects in relation to the Sadomba Women Cattle Project and the successes it has achieved in Nyanga District. With the final output from the study, a Master’s thesis will be developed and submitted at the end of the academic year 2015.

The interview is expected to take approximately 30 to 45 minutes.

Informed consent

Participation of beneficiaries in this study is completely voluntary. Participants are assured that all their information will be strictly confidential and anonymous. No references will be made to specific individuals. All the responses will be used for academic purposes only.All questions will be answered to your satisfaction. Your honesty and cooperation is greatly appreciated. I would be grateful for your favourable contribution towards the success of this study.

Signatures

The participant has been informed of the nature of research and its purpose. He/she has been given time to ask any questions which have been answered to the best of the researcher’s ability.

Researcher’s signature Date

I have been informed about the study and I understand its process.I agree to take part in this research as a participant. I know that I am free to withdraw this consent and withdraw from this project at any time.

Participant’s signature Date

Section A: Demographics of the Respondents

1. Sex Male Female

2. Age 18-24 25-31 32 and above

3. What is your highest level of education?

a. None

b. Primary

c. Secondary

d. Tertiary

4. What is your marital status?

a. Never married

b. Married/ cohabitating

c. Separated/ divorced

d. Widowed

5. Occupation of the respondent

a. Paid employee

b. Employer

c. Community project

d. Unemployed

e. Student

Section B: Background information

6. What is the name of your project? ------

7. Who started the project? ------

8. When did the project start? ------

9. Why did the project start? ------

10. When did you join the cattle project? ------

11. Why did you join the cattle project? ------

------

12. Are there any other people who joined the project? ------13. How is the community involved in the project? ------

14. How many were there when you started the cattle project? ------

15. How many are left now? ------

16. What do you think were the main reasons for dropping out? ------

------

17. How many do you know who dropped out and

1. Started their own project------

2. Stopped the project------

3. Left because they got another job------

18. How many started together with you and are still in the project? ------

19. Why are you still in the project? Give reasons------

------

20. Who were the main targets of the project: female /males? ------

21. Why do you think women dominate in the project? ------

Section C: Service Delivery

22. What can you say about the project in terms of the extent to which it empowers women economically? ------

------

23. Is the project generating income?------

24. Are there any loans given by the government to support the project?------

25. What criteria do they use to give these loans?------

26 Is there a village bank in your community? ------

27. Who is able to get loans? ------

28. Is there interest attached to these loans?------

29. Are there any other sponsors who are involved in your project?------

30.What do they do/give to support your project?------

------

Section D: Successes and Challenges

31. Under what conditions are women’s income-generating projects successful?------

32.What are the successes that were brought about by this project?------

33. What makes you think you are successful?------

34.What are the challenges you face in your project?------

35. What do you think can be done to mitigate these challenges?------

------

36. What do you think about the sustainability of the project?------

Thank you for your cooperation. Your assistance is greatly appreciated.