BINDURA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE EDUCATION

GEOGRAPHY DEPARTMENT

THE VIABILITY OF JATROPHA CARCUS CROP AS A LIVELIHOOD STRATEGY IN WARD 11, UMGUZA DISTRICT.

BY

MUCHATI OBIAS

(B1025872)

DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO BINDURA UNIVERSITY GEOGRAPHY DEPARTMENT IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS OF THE BACHELOR OF SCIENCE HONOURS DEGREE IN DEVELOPMENT STUDIES.

MAY 2014

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APPROVAL FORM

The under signed certify that they have read this dissertation and have approved its submission to the Geography department after confirming that it conforms to the requirements of the department.

SUPERVISOR……………………………DATE………/…………/…………

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DECLARATION FORM

I, Muchati Obias declare that the research project herein is my own work and has not been copied or lifted from any source without acknowledgement of the source.

SIGNED……………………………….. DATE………. / …….…/………………….

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DEDICATION

This work is dedicated to my wife, Emmaculate and son, Wisdom, for their love, support and prayers which saw me successfully complete this work. I also dedicate it to the Lord, for the courage and strength he gave me each day.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First and foremost I would like to thank the Almighty God for seeing me throughout the entire course of my studies.

At the Bindura University of Science Education, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisor, Mr. E. Mavhura for the tireless support and inspirational supervision, his guidance throughout the research is deeply appreciated. I thank all the Geography department staff for sharing wisdom.

To my friends (S. Mapurazi and E. Zivenge), thanks for the good times, your support and for the smiles you bought unto my face during hard times.

Finally, I would like to acknowledge the support and encouragement that I received from my family; my wife, Emmaculate and son, Wisdom.

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ABSTRACT

The bio fuel crop, Jatropha curcas (J.carcus ), has been widely promoted as suitable for smallholder cultivation in Umguza District, providing opportunities for cash income and feedstock for the biodiesel. NOCZIM used the contract farming model for massive mobilization of farmers to take up the green gold crop as a cash crop. This research sought to assess the viability of J. carcus crop as a livelihood strategy in ward 11 of Umguza District. The objectives of the study were, therefore to determine the adoption of J.carcus crop by smallholder farmers, to identify socio-economic factors influencing J.carcus production among smallholder farmers and to describe the economic feasibility of J.carcus production among smallholder farmers. The researcher used both qualitative and quantitative research methodologies with data collection methods which include administration of questionnaires, observations and interviews. Results revealed that smallholder farmers are engaged in a varied number of livelihood activities including farm and non-farm activities to attain human welfare. The study also revealed that smallholder farmers adopted J.carcus production because of assistance they were offered by the government. It has also been noticed the motive behind farmers to embark on J.carcus cultivation was as a result of the crop’s potential to boost food security through income generation and acquisition of by-products like soap and candles which enhance rural-agro industry. However, very low prices of the crop output, monopoly in the marketing system and limited capacity by smallholder farmers restricted them from realising full socio-economic benefits of the crop production. Hence, the study would regard J.carcus crop as unviable livelihood strategy in ward 11 of Umguza. The study recommends potential investors to come in for capacity building, Jatropha market liberalization and the need to strengthen research and development aspects so that varieties with required characteristics are propagated and better farming methods to be developed.

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LIST OF TABLES

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Table 4.1 Total Farm Size for Smallholder Farmers 33 Table 4.2 Income Contributions for Different Livelihood Activities 36

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LIST OF FIGURES

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Figure 3.1 Map for Study Area Location 20 Figure 4.1 Sex of Household Head 30 Figure 4.2 Farmers’ Adoption Period for Jatropha Production 31 Figure 4.3 Area under Jatropha Cultivation 32 Figure 4.4 Support Received by Farmers for Jatropha Cultivation 34 Figure 4.5 By-products Obtained from Jatropha 35

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LIST OF APPENDICIES

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Appendix 1 Questionnaire Guide for J.carcus Smallholder Farmers 47 Appendix 2 Interview Guide for Key Informants 51 Appendix 3 Frequency Tables for Sex of Household Head 53 Appendix 4 Frequency Table for Adoption Years by Farmers on J.carcus Production 54 Appendix 5 Frequency Table for Area under Jatropha Cultivation 55 Appendix 6 Frequency Table for Support Received by Farmers 56 Appendix 7 Frequency Table for By-products Obtained from Jatropha 57

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ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

AREX Agricultural Rural and Extension CF Contract Farming GoZ Government of Zimbabwe ICA Intensive Conservation Area IMF International Monetary Fund JCL Jatropha Carcus NGO Non Governmental Organisation NOCZIM National Oil Company of Zimbabwe PPO Pure Plant Oil

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Table of Contents APPROVAL FORM ...... i DECLARATION FORM ...... iii DEDICATION ...... iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... v ABSTRACT ...... vi LIST OF TABLES ...... vii LIST OF FIGURES ...... viii LIST OF APPENDICIES ...... ix ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS ...... x CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ...... 1 1.2 Background to the Study ...... 1 1.3 Statement of the Problem ...... 3 1.4 Aim ...... 3 1.4.1 Objectives ...... 3 1.4.2 Research Questions ...... 3 1.5 Justification of the Study ...... 4 1.6 Delimitations ...... 5 1.7 Definitions of Terms ...... 5 1.8 Organization of the Study ...... 6 1.9 Summary of Chapter ...... 6 CHAPTER 2: LITRATURE REVIEW ...... 7 2.1 Introduction ...... 7 2.2 Characterisation of J. Curcas ...... 7 2.2.1 Ecological Requirements ...... 8 2.2.2 Types of Land and Potential of Plantations ...... 9 2.2.3 Soil ...... 9 2.3 Promotion of J. Carcus Production in Zimbabwe ...... 10 2.3.1 The Influence of Adoption by Smallholder Farmers ...... 10 2.4 Uses of J. Carcus ...... 11 2.5 Influences for J.carcus Production in Zimbabwe Agriculture ...... 12 2.5.1 Potential for Socio-economic Benefits by J. Carcus Production ...... 13 2.6 J. Carcus and Rural Livelihoods ...... 14

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2.6.1 J. Carcus and Employment Creation ...... 15 2.6.2 Jatropha and Income Generation ...... 16 2.6.3 Environmental Benefits of J. Carcus ...... 16 2.7 Potential for Sustainable Utilization of J. Carcus Crop in Rural Livelihoods ... 17 2.8 Impact of J. Carcus as a Livelihood Strategy ...... 18 2.9 Summary of Chapter ...... 19 CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ...... 20 3.1 Introduction ...... 20 3.2 Study Area ...... 20 3.3 Target Population ...... 22 3.4 Research Design...... 22 3.5 Methods...... 23 3.5.1 Sampling ...... 23 3.5.2 Pilot Testing ...... 24 3.5.3 Household Data Collection ...... 24 3.5.4 Research Instruments ...... 25 3.5.5 Administering of Questionnaire ...... 25 3.5.6 Interviews ...... 26 3.5.7 Documentary Analysis ...... 27 3.6 Reliability and Validity ...... 27 3.7 Data Analysis Procedure ...... 28 3.8 Limitations ...... 28 3.9 Summary of Chapter ...... 29 CHAPTER 4: DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS ...... 30 4.1 Introduction ...... 30 4.2 Respondents’ Characteristics ...... 30 4.3 Adoption of J.carcus Production ...... 31 4.3.1 Area under Jatropha Cultivation in Relation to the Total Farm Size ...... 32 4.4 Socio-economic Factors Influencing J.carcus Production ...... 33 4.4.1 Socio-economic Gains for J. carcus Production ...... 34 4.5 Annual Income Contribution from Various Livelihood Activities ...... 35 4.6 Summary of the Chapter ...... 37 CHAPTER 5: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND ...... 38

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RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 38 5.1 Introduction ...... 38 5.2 Summary ...... 38 5.2.1 Adoption of jatropha carcus by smallholder farmers ...... 38 5.2.2 Socio-economic benefits influencing jatropha production ...... 39 5.2.3 Economic feasibility of J.carcus production ...... 39 5.3 Conclusions ...... 40 5.4 Recommendations ...... 41 REFERENCES ...... 42 APPENDICES ...... 47

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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction This chapter focuses on the background to the study on which this study is based and situates the problem statement which has led to the undertaking of such a study and the justification thereof. The aim and objectives are also outlined including research objectives, research questions, limitation and delimitations and finally the definition of terms, and the summary of the chapter.

1.2 Background to the Study Resource degradation, persistent seasonal droughts, low agricultural output and unemployment have become a challenge to smallholder farmers. Income generating projects and fuel shortages were the chronic problems faced by rural community in Umguza and the nation at large (Tigere, et.al, 2006). J. carcus crop, a fuel crop has gained significance in Zimbabwe since 2002. It was seen as an opportunity to the country’s energy independence as well as to reduce the negative affluence of fossil fuel on the environment (Government of Zimbabwe (Goz), 2007). The crop was seen as a solution to livelihoods since its production targets rural farmers in arid and semi- arid regions of the country. J. carcus locally known as Mirujitimono (in Shona) or Umhlafuto (in Ndebele) can be grown in marginal lands and can be used in rural agro- industry development (Tigere, et.al, 2006). Oil can be pressed from the seed for bio- diesel and other by-products such as soap, candles, paraffin and lubrication.

In 2005 the GoZ made a decision policy to have an import substitution bio-fuel programme. The policy gave the National Oil Company of Zimbabwe (NOCZIM) the mandate to run all bio-fuels projects in the country. J. carcus has political, economic social motives. Politically, it was driven by the need for the country to overcome serious fuel shortages. Economically, it was driven by the continuous rise of fuel on the international market. Socially, the J. carcus project has been linked with improvement in the livelihoods of rural farmers through alternative source of income. The projection also indicates that there would be employment creation, mainly to those in arid and semi-arid environments (Read, 2004). Umguza is one of the regions 1 where J. carcus production was spearheaded by National Oil Company of Zimbabwe to alleviate poverty in the District since the crop has some potential on socio- economic gains (GoZ, 2007).

In 2008 NOCZIM contracted farmers in Umguza District, to either: i. Nursery Farmers: to produce Jatropha seedlings using seed supplied by the company ii. Growers: Grow the trees and supply seeds to the contracted factory. The scheme was active among farmers in, Insuza. Tillage, technical, extension and input services have been catered for these farmers. Farmers with at least one hectare were encouraged to form special groups to receive the programme related benefits. The programme was mainly centred on the NOCZIM bio-fuels officer who covered the province (GoZ, 2007).

There is therefore need to assess the efficacy of Jatropha in livelihood improvement especially in rural areas. In rural Zimbabwe, major livelihood activity is agricultural which is under a threat due variability in climate. Farmers in communal areas were facing food insecurity hence J. carcus can improve food security. There is therefore need to empower smallholder farmers since they are the ones who provide most of the labour at household levels (Tigere, et.al, 2006). J. carcus production has the potential to empower small holder farmers since they comprises of the majority population in the marginal rural areas. The research intends to give an assessment on the viability of J. carcus crop as a livelihood strategy which can empower the rural marginal smallholder farmers (Wiskerke, 2008).

This study focuses on the viability of J. carcus crop as a livelihood strategy, in Ward 11 of Umguza District. Furthermore it assesses the feasibility of J. carcus in terms of improvement in household incomes to smallholder farmers, labour contributions to households and other socio-economic aspects. The research also encompasses the adoption levels to the uptake of J. carcus production as it contributes to the livelihood strategy’s value. GoZ (2007) indicated that J. carcus is a crop which has a potential in improving bio-diesel within the country as well as other socio-economic gains and environmental sustainability. Other expected benefits include poverty reduction, food

2 security through selling of the by- products hence, it has the potential for improving the lives of the rural communities.

1.3 Statement of the Problem Smallholder farmers in Umguza District predominantly rely on rainfed subsistence agriculture which is threatened by poor rainfall patterns as the area is in the semi-arid regions, which is in natural farming region iv. The commercial realization of the crop was introduced by the Government of Zimbabwe in 2005 during the economic meltdown period in 2000-2008 (GoZ, 2007). As such, there has been little work done on the assessment of the crop’s feasibility to socio-economic contribution on smallholder farmers as a livelihood strategy in Umguza District. The growing of J. carcus crop as a livelihood strategy in Umguza District has to be introduced since it is hoped that it has the potential on enhancing socio-economic capacity as other crop production in the district were threatened by some climatic factors like eratic rainfall.

1.4 Aim To assess the viability of J. carcus as a potential livelihood option among smallholder farmers in Ward 11 of Umguza District.

1.4.1 Objectives To determine the adoption of j. carcus crop by smallholder farmers. To identify socio economic factors influencing j.carcus production among small holder farmers. To describe the economic feasibility of j.carcus production among small holder farmers.

1.4.2 Research Questions What is the level of j.carcus production adoption among smallholder farmers? What are the socio-economic factors influence j.carcus productions among smallholder farmers? How does J. carcus improve the economy of small holder farmers in Ward 11?

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1.5 Justification of the Study The research assesses the opportunities that trigger adoption and influencing factors that promotes the viability of J. carcus as a rural development option. The case study of Ward 11 of Umguza represents issues that stimulate cash income through sale of seed for bio-fuel production and marketable products such as soap which involve the participation of smallholder farmers. The research has the potential to provide local people with informed decisions on jatropha and its by-products that may be used at household levels like soap, candles and lighting fuel which may promote human welfare.

The research can contribute to debates on bio fuels and rural development, providing insights into the role of J. curcas in addressing rural poverty and promoting sustainable rural livelihoods (Henning 2008). J.carcus production has proliferated as a means to substitute imported oil, foster rural development and reduce poverty through participation by the rural people. This research presents assessments of the potential for initial impacts of J. carcus production that aim to improve livelihoods in Umguza, leading to proponent of the crop cultivation.

The research helps to fill the knowledge gap considering the fact that little has been documented on the viability of J. carcus on livelihoods in Umguza District which lies in natural farming region 5 of Zimbabwe. Everyone should benefit from the project, from grass roots levels to the national level. Policy makers would use it to implement sound policies and to equip the people with adequate knowledge pertaining growing and the use of J. carcus . The results will directly benefit the community hence, promote rural development. The whole nation can benefit also through sound implementation and effective use of J. carcus crop because it helps in fighting hunger and poverty where there is drought and is critical in the provision of alternative livelihood strategy (Mushaka, 1998).

To policy makers: The study is useful to policy makers who could use it to promote policies that enable and capacitate smallholder farmers with information and equipment for the enhancement of j. carcus production. This would benefit much to the rural communities through improvement of human welfare.

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To the government: The study assists the government to have information on why it is failing to fully achieve MDG goal number one of eradicating extreme poverty and ensure that possible solution are drawn from all players involved in poverty reduction programmes. The study is expected to help the government to achieve the target of MDG goal number 3 of promoting gender equality and empowering women and MDG goal number 7 of ensuring environmental sustainability by 2015. To the researcher: This study also adds to the researcher’s stock of knowledge on challenges faced by rural smallholder farmers in their livelihoods strategies. It also adds stock of knowledge on how j.carcus as a cash crop can function towards poverty reduction among poor rural dwellers. To Bindura University Science of Education: The information presented by the study will be used in the information and resource centre. It would therefore be an additional reference for the university. To the community: The study would be a valuable to locals as it seeks to empower disadvantaged members in the community. The findings of the study would assist vulnerable groups in Umguza to focus on strategies that are viable to overcome shocks caused by poverty hence the achievement of human welfare.

1.6 Delimitations The study focused on the viability of J.carcus as a livelihood strategy, assessing socio-economic factors influencing the production, determining the adoption of the crop by farmers and describing the crop’s economic feasibility at household level. The research study was confined to Ward 11 of Umguza District in Matabeleland Province, for the period between 2013 - 2014 farming seasons. The study sample focused on households, both males and females.

1.7 Definitions of Terms Poverty - a multi-dimensional phenomenon related to the inadequacy or lack of social economic, cultural, and political entitlements (Ellis, 2000).

Vulnerability - the inability to withstand the effects of a hostile environment.

Development - A social, political and economic process that results in a cumulative increase in the perceived standard of living for an 5

increasing proportion of the population (Desai and Potter, 2008).

Food security - the state of having reliable access to a sufficient quantity of affordable, nutritious food. Livelihood strategy - ways and means of devising methods or plans chosen to bring about desired outcome.

J.carcus - jatropha carcus

Viability - the ability of having reasonable chances of success.

Strategy - method or plan chosen to bring about a desired future (Desai and Potter, 2008).

1.8 Organization of the Study The work is divided into 5 chapters. Chapter 1 clearly looks into introducing the research, research problem, aim and objectives of the study. Chapter 2 entails literature review and chapter 3 is research methodology. Chapter 4 is where research findings are discussed and finally chapter 5 is summary and conclusions.

1.9 Summary of Chapter This chapter gave an insight of what pushed the researcher to uncover more about the problems faced by smallholder farmers in relation to their livelihoods activities for example limited rainfall capacity which reduces their potential in crop production. The chapter outlined the objectives, research questions statement of the problem and justification of the study. Besides other various income generating and livelihood activities being carried out in the District, financial challenges continue to strike smallholder farmers, hence the researcher wants to explore on the potential of J. carcus crop in improving the lives of household incomes.

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CHAPTER 2: LITRATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction The chapter seeks to explore the available literature with the view of identifying linkages and knowledge gap. Ellis, (2000) asserts that literature review refers to the activities involved in identifying and researching for information on a topic and developing a comprehensive picture of the state of knowledge on that particular topic. It reviews literature done by other scholars on the potential for J. carcus in sustaining rural livelihoods for small holder farmers. The chapter encompasses the need for different factors that influence J. carcus production in ensuring sustainable rural livelihoods. It looks at literature on the adoption of the crop production, how the crop can promote socio-economic activities and status, improve income distribution and raise living standards of smallholder farmers as J. carcus can play a pivotal role in poverty alleviation for rural people.

2.2 Characterisation of J. Curcas Although there is potential to produce bio-diesel from edible oils the nation has decided against this option in view of its impacts on food security (NOCZIM, 2010). The two non-edible oil bases that the nation has are cast or bean and J. curcas seed in the short to medium term. The nation has invested on J. curcas to produce the required feedstock for bio-diesel (NOCZIM, 2010). J. curcas has been chosen because of the following: • It can thrive on any type of soil hence does not compete for prime land with food crop production. • Has a high oil yield of about 300–350 litres for every tonne of seed. • The planting material is readily available and there is relatively good experience in community production of seeds and once established harvests continue for 25 years. • J. curcas can be used as an empowerment tool where communities can generate income. • If properly priced J. curcas can give returns that are comparable to high return cash crops like tobacco and wheat.

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J. curcas is a multi-purpose, shrubby, tree belonging to the Euphorbiaceae family (Heller, 1996). It is native to Central America, but now thrives in many parts of the tropics and sub-tropics in sub-Saharan Africa and Asia. Over the past several years J. carcus has received tremendous attention around the world due to its potential as a bio-fuel crop. However, many of the claims made regarding J.carcus including wide adaptability to diverse climatic zones and soil types, short gestation period, easy multiplication, drought tolerance, not competing with food production, and pest and disease resistance have proven highly exaggerated (Achten, 2008).

2.2.1 Ecological Requirements J. carcus is not sensitive to day length (flowering is independent of latitude) and may flower at any time of the year (Heller, 1996). It is a succulent shrub that sheds its leaves during the dry season, with deep roots that make it well suited to semi-arid conditions. While J. carcus can survive with as little as 250 to 300 mm of annual rainfall, at least 600 mm are needed to flower and set fruit. The optimum rainfall for seed production is considered between 1 000 and 1 500 mm (FACT, 2007), which corresponds to sub humid ecologies. While J. carcus has been observed growing with 3 000 mm of rainfall (Achten, 2008), higher precipitation is likely to cause fungal attack and restrict root growth in all but the most free-draining soils.

It is hardy to dry weather conditions and can be grown over a wide range of arid or semi-arid climatic conditions. It can stand long periods of drought by shedding most of its leaves to reduce the transpiration loss. It tolerates annual temperature range of 18-28 o C even higher ranges but it cannot tolerate very harsh winter or fog, (Heller, 1996). Mapako, (1998) postulated that for the emergence of seeds, hot and humid climate is preferred. The flowering is induced in rainy season and bears fruits in winter. The foliage drops with dip in temperature during winter and with rise it starts blooming (Hikwa, 1995). J. carcus has very strong adaptive mechanism to sustain variable climates. It can tolerate extremes of temperature but not the frost. The frost damages plants whereas, high temperatures adversely affect yield. Therefore, it is suggested that the areas with low temperature experiencing frost should not be promoted for J. carcus plantation due to its adverse effect on growth and damages to plantation, until tolerant lines are identified (Lovett, 2007

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2.2.2 Types of Land and Potential of Plantations In a scenario of decreasing availability of good land for agriculture, degradation of soil and water resources, increasing pollution, and threats to the environment and ecosystem, new approaches in farming systems are needed to meet increasing food, fodder, and fuel requirements to feed increasing population and protect vulnerable system due to anthropogenic factors including climate change (Fischer, 2001). J. carcus can grow on lands unsuitable for economically viable agriculture. The suitability of J. carcus to low fertility wasteland situation besides other cogent reasons may be raised on manageable wasteland on priority to establish plantations (Hikwa, 1995). The inclusion of J. carcus in the existing farming/ cropping system (growing on bunds) and adoption of agro-forestry approach on manageable wastelands, J. carcus plantations are likely to emerge as a J. carcus Based system to achieve self reliance in fuel sector, serve rural poor by extending social justice and draw other associated benefits (FAO, 2008).

2.2.3 Soil The best soils for J. carcus are aerated sands and loams of at least 45 cm depth. Heavy clay soils are less suitable and should be avoided, particularly where drainage is impaired, as J. carcus is intolerant of waterlogged conditions (Dagar et al ., 2006). J. carcus curcas is a hardy plant well adapted to arid land semi arid conditions. It is a plant that can grow almost anywhere, even on soft, rocky, gravelly, sandy, calcareous, saline and sloping soils (Dagar et al ., 2006). It has low fertility and moisture demand. To combat phosphate deficiency it avails of the symbiosis with root fungi (Mycorrhiza ). The crop is undemanding in soil type and even does not require tillage. It can grow even in crevices of rocks. Ability to grow in alkaline soils has been widely reported, but the soil pH should be within 6.0 to 8.0/8.5 (FACT, 2007).The leaves shed in winter months to form mulch around the base of the plant. The organic matter from shed leaves has been observed to enhance earthworm activity in the soil around the root-zone of the plants, which is a fair indicator of improvement in micro fauna and fertility and texture of soil.

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2.3 Promotion of J. Carcus Production in Zimbabwe J. carcus can be propagated directly from seed in the field, or the seedlings can be raised in nurseries before transplanting (NOCIZ, 2010). The crop is planted during the warm and main agricultural season between December and April. NOCZIM directly purchases J. carcus seeds from traditional growing areas throughout the country (such as Mutoko district). Sourcing of seed is done before the planting season to ensure adequate supply. Throughout the country, farmers under contract with NOCZIM, both small-holder and large-scale farmers, receive J. carcus seed supplies and then grow J. carcus in nurseries. Mushaka and Revanewako, (2009) further noted that there is need for good fertilization; weed control, pest and disease management in the nursery for ensuring healthy seedlings with greater chances for survival. Over 40 million seedlings were produced in over 90 large nurseries during 2008 (Mushaka and Revanewako, 2009). NOCZIM has been buying the seedlings at a cost of USD 0.0015 per seedling.

J. carcus seedlings are distributed to growers using the cluster method to improve economies of scale. A number of diverse institutions in each province participate by offering their staff and services for transporting the seedlings (Mushaka and Revanewako, 2009). The seedlings are distributed to all willing farmers with land under out-grower schemes and non contracted farmers.

2.3.1 The Influence of Adoption by Smallholder Farmers J. carcus production serves as a strategic component of the broad National Bio-Fuels Feedstock Production Programme. For biodiesel feedstock production, it targets farmers who can devote a minimum of a hectare under J. carcus plantation (Kishor et.al , 2011). The farmer enters into contract where he/she will be provided with the inputs (seed/seedlings), extension information and market guarantee upon harvesting. Farmers will be trained to manage and maintain their J. carcus plants. If the seed is correctly priced, J. carcus can be a very good income generator which can compete effectively with crops such as cotton and tobacco (Mauwa, 1995). J. carcus should be correctly priced especially taking into consideration the high value by products. The resultant price will make it attractive to farmers. (Mauwa, 1995) noted that the minimal incentives and support such as subsidized farming fuel, training and a ready

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market can be provided. NOCZIM could not be held responsible for any losses incurred through drought, disease etc. The farmers will only sell the harvested seed to NOCZIM, which is a prescribed buyer at a prescribed price that is gazetted (NOCIZ, 2010). The scheme is open to individuals, private sector as well as institutions and communities.

2.4 Uses of J. Carcus J. carcus has been known for many years throughout the world as a multi-purpose tree with myriad traditional uses, including: cooking salt from the ashes of the roots and branches, food garnish from stewed or steamed leaves, fuel from fruit hulls and shells, dyes and tannins from leaf juice and ashes, and wool spinning and textile manufacture from the oil (Achten, 2008). The bark contains a wax composed of a mixture of melissyl alcohol and its melissimic acid ester, the oil is used as fish poison and pesticide, leaf extracts have been effective in controlling Sclerotium spp. , an Azolla fungal pathogen, the nuts have been used as a purgative, and the latex has antibiotic properties against Candida albicans , Escherichia coli , Klebsiella pneumoniae , Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus pyogens (Heller, 1996). It is only within the past few years that Jatropha has been hailed for its potential as a bio- fuel feedstock and, in particular, its purported ability to thrive in marginal conditions. From the farmer’s point of view, both large and small scale J. carcus’s true potential as a cash crop depends on the successful development of the agronomy needed to domesticate what are essentially a semi-wild plant, as well as the creation of a market that ensures farmers can sell their seeds at a reasonable price (Tigere et. al ., 2006).

Some J. carcus projects are also being promoted for the local production and consumption of the oil for use in stoves, lamps, and for local energy production. Although the seedcake that remains after pressing J. carcus oil contains high-quality proteins, it also contains various toxins, such as phorbol esters, curcin, trypsin inhibitors, lectins, and phytates (Heller, 1996). Thus, one of the most valuable uses of the seedcake as an animal feed is not a viable option without expensive detoxification processing (Gubitz et al. , 1999). However, the seedcake is valuable as an organic nutrient source, as it contains more nutrients than chicken and cattle manure (Achten, 2008). The presence of the biodegradable toxins, mainly phorbol esters, makes the fertilizing cake potentially suitable as a pesticide (Gubitz, et al. , 1999). The seedcake 11

can also serve as feed for biogas production through anaerobic digestion before it is applied as fertilizer (Kumar and Sharma, 2008). Recycling of by-products from J. carcus oil processing, such as seedcake for fertilizer, can help reduce inputs needed for both J. carcus cultivation and other agricultural crops or it can produce extra energy in the form of biogas (Gubitz, et al. , 1999).

2.5 Influences for J.carcus Production in Zimbabwe Agriculture Bio-fuels have such huge potential considering that the world is going green. This potential is also enhanced by the fact that Zimbabwe has an agro-based economy that is rich in oil producing plants (Gandure, 2009). Concerted efforts to expand the agricultural base for the production of bio-fuels might have a very positive impact on the economy.

Millions of Zimbabwe smallholder farmers are living in extreme poverty as they have limited or no access to both inputs and markets (Tigere et.al , 2006). Bio-fuel has the potential for completely change the setting. If farmers can produce fuels they strike two birds at one go: transport costs go down and they have a guaranteed market for their products (Kishor et.al , 2011). At macro-economic level, the production of bio- fuel could employ millions of rural labourers, thereby boosting economic growth (Mujeyi, 2009). Moreover most Zimbabweans can make huge savings on foreign exchange. As the country’s expenses for energy are immediately re-injected into the economy, bio-fuels will generate a sustainable growth of the latter (Mujeyi, 2009). The country energy sector would be less dependent on external vagaries, and exchange rates, and will produce clean energy, which in turn would yield Kyoto- bonuses.

Government would prepare policies that target the smallholders as major beneficiaries in the development of this new economic sub-sector (Schut et.al , 2010). New plantations may change the face of country. By allowing the smallholders to increase their income from bio-fuel production, they would be in a position to ensure their household food security (Jepsen et.al, 2006). By allowing farmers to invest in their land, governments will ensure better sustainability of agriculture and improved environmental protection, hence livelihoods will be enhanced.

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Jones and Miller, (1996) have noted that nitrogen, phosphorus and mineral elements can return to the field. Bio fuel-programmes have all the potential to halt deforestation and desertification, as they can include the use of oilseed-bearing, drought-resistant trees like J. carcus and pongamia (IAIA, 1999).

An important element in the whole issue is the potential use of the by-products of bio- fuel. These can serve as animal feed, as source for gasification plants, in fertilizer production (Jones and Miller, 1996). Agriculture can produce many of the basic products for the organic chemistry industry (soaps, cosmetics, adhesives, etc) as well as the conventional petro-chemistry (plastics, pitch, etc. That would enhance the lives and livelihoods of the rural smallholder farmers in Umguza.

2.5.1 Potential for Socio-economic Benefits by J. Carcus Production J. carcus has gained significance in Zimbabwe over the past seven years. It is now seen as an opportunity to increase the country’s energy independence from foreign imports as well as reduce the negative influence of fossil fuels on the environment (IAIA, 1999). J. carcus is also seen as a panacea of some socio-economic challenges faced by the farmers to improve rural livelihoods since its production targets rural farmers in arid and semi-arid regions of the country. These farmers have for long been growing cereals and legume at subsistence levels and J. carcus presents them with an opportunity to grow a high value crop. Commonly known as Mujirimono or Umhlafuto in Zimbabwe’s Shona and Ndebele languages respectively, the plant can be grown on marginal lands and can be the economic driver to spearhead rural agro- industrial development (Achten, 2008). The oil that is expressed can be processed diesel and other by-products such as soap, candles and lubricants that enhance the lives and livelihoods of the rural smallholder farmers in Umguza. Bio-diesel has been developed on experimental and research basis however commercial product is not available at the market.

In 2005 the Government of Zimbabwe (GoZ) made a policy decision to have an import substitution bio-fuel programme (NOCZIM, 2010). The policy gave the National Oil Company of Zimbabwe (NOCZIM) the mandate to run all bio-fuel projects in the country. NOCZIM is a government parastatal company that is responsible for procuring and managing the country’s petroleum needs. The J. carcus 13

Project is being driven by political, economic and social factors ( ibid ). Tigere et.al, 2006 further noted that the political motivation to invest into bio-fuels was driven by the need for the country to overcome serious fossil fuel shortages. When the project was initiated in 2005, the economy lacked balance of payment support from the International Monetary Fund (IMF), therefore the need to initiate a bio-fuel programme. The economic motivation to invest into bio-fuels was driven by the continuous rise of fossil fuel prices on the international market (Mapako, 1998). Also, ‘the economy of Zimbabwe depends on petroleum imports, is particularly vulnerable to the price of oil on the international market’ (NOCZIM 2010) hence, the need to initiate the J. carcus project so that it offsets the foreign currency demands. Lastly, the major social driver behind the J. carcus project was that, it would improve the lives and livelihoods of rural farmers through an alternative source of income (Gandure, 2009). It was also projected that the venture would create employment for the rural households especially those in the arid and semi –arid regions of the country (ibid ).

In Zimbabwe the growing and management J. carcus , be it on private, public or community lands, is poorly documented, with little field experience being shared amongst researchers and farmers (Gandure; 2009). Currently growers are unable to substantially benefit from the plant, and be able to benefit from its potential uses. The objective of the study was therefore, to assess the viability of J. carcus crop as a potential livelihood option among smallholder farmers.

2.6 J. Carcus and Rural Livelihoods Factors affecting the socio-economic and environmental vulnerabilities of smallholder farmers have been assessed and capital assets available for different livelihood strategies which were identified and evaluated. J. carcus can gain financial capital from the sale of J. carcus seeds and soap making that would benefit the rural people for the betterment of their livelihoods through income generation (Achten, 2008). When J. carcus is grown on a small scale as a living fence, J.carcus demarcates property, and reduces land tenure conflicts and soil erosion hence, promotes food security.

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J. carcus crop is a drought tolerant crop which can be grown by small-scale rural farmers living in arid and semi-arid regions as an effective way to improve their livelihoods through increased income and improved food security (Henning, 2008, Jepsen et.al , 2006). Local people growing the crop have chances to increase their access to job opportunities as farmers would carry out different tasks in J. carcus production (Kishor, et.al , 2011). Some noted that the crops can be used as soil protectors in places where soil is susceptible to soil erosion. The growing of J. carcus has a potential to increase labour demand for households particularly smallholder farmers who would bear much of the lobour as they constitute much of the population in rural areas for example in Mutoko, as noted by (Mushaka and Revanewako, 2009).

The shrub can be used as live fence since it is not browsed by cattle and goats (Henning, 2008). The other advantage of J. carcus is that JCL seed cake had relatively high total nitrogen, phosphorous and organic matter content compared to chicken and cattle manure and therefore have potential in soil fertility improving research agendas in areas where the plant is grown in abundance (Jones and Miller, 1996). Seed cake has a protein supplement which can be used as livestock feed.

2.6.1 J. Carcus and Employment Creation J. curcas is a deciduous shrub that grows up to a height of 3-5 metres and has a productive life of 50 years. It can be established on marginal land, paddocks, contour ridges, hilly slopes and gullies (Hikwa, 1995). The most promising and currently exploited uses of J. carcus are in rural agro-industrial development such as soap and candle making (Achten, 2008). The active participation of the communal people would occupy them hence chances of employment would be created. Most land for J. carcus production is prepared by digging with hoes and propagation is mainly by seeds.

Some scholars have noted that the harvesting of physic nuts or fruits from the tree is done every month, throughout the year and for over the forty years of the fruits bearing life of the tree. It has been estimated that one able bodied young man or woman will harvest about 1 hectare jatropha farm per month (Mushaka and Revanewako, 2009). After harvesting the dry nuts are sent to the purchasing centre for sales where purchasing clerks are to be engaged to do the job. Then the carting of the 15

nuts from the purchasing centres to the processing factory requires massive logistical activities that will involve a lot of labour (Kishor, et.al 2011).

2.6.2 Jatropha and Income Generation J. carcus crop has the potential of being recognized in the domain of poverty reduction. (Wani and Chander, 2012), indicated that the fruit can reduce vulnerability of rural households to income poverty. This paper provides synthesizes available studies on the J. carcus production, and commercializing their products and provided the way forward to tap into its opportunities to enhance food security and income generation in sub-Saharan Africa (Achten, 2008).

The research by Mauwa, (1995) and Mapako, (1998) shows that small-scale initiatives do have the potential to contribute positively to rural livelihoods. Sales of seeds or production of J. carcus oil for stoves, engines, soap and paraffin can result in reduced household expenditure or increased incomes (Gandure, 2009). In order for these benefits to be realised and up-scaled, further institutional support in terms of knowledge and technical provision is vital, and must be communicated through established and context-specific, locally-appropriate channels (Mushaka and Revanewako, 2009). While the bio fuel debate remains global, we assert that actions should be focused at the local level in order to realise developmental, sustainability in rural livelihoods. In equatorial regions, j.carcus has become progressive due to high temperatures and high rainfalls.

2.6.3 Environmental Benefits of J. Carcus The project is driven by a poor macro-economic environment and political interest, rather than environmental benefits (Henning, 2008). However, the use of biodiesel over other fuels will contribute to the mitigation of climate change by reducing global greenhouse gas emissions. This is a desirable condition for a country like Zimbabwe, which suffers from frequent droughts and floods that have caused vast amounts of suffering (Hikwa, 1995). Furthermore, the use of plant oil for domestic purposes will reduce air pollution and improve the health of rural women who are usually exposed to a lot of smoke in non-ventilated environments (Mathews, 2007). J. carcus hedge have traditionally been found to be useful in protecting gardens and irrigation areas

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from animals. Its use as a hedge reduces the cutting down of trees that are normally used as fencing poles and thus preserves the biodiversity of many threatened forests in Zimbabwe (Henning, 2008). Apart from being used as a hedge, it is a good environmental rehabilitation crop that can be used in gully reclamation and repairing degraded lands. J. carcus residue, which is used as an organic fertilizer, is environmentally friendly, increases soil fertility and controls soil erosion (Henning, 2008). This is an important attribute, which can boost Zimbabwe poor soils in arid and semiarid areas.

2.7 Potential for Sustainable Utilization of J. Carcus Crop in Rural Livelihoods Tigere et al. (2006) indicated that people who live in the dry lands are often faced with challenges and constraints of poverty. Foremost among the challenges are the marginal environmental conditions for agriculture, often influenced by low and erratic rainfall, frequent droughts, poor soil condition, unreliable irrigation water supply, and rural migration to urban areas in search of work. J. carcus can grow in marginal lands hence can improve agricultural productivity and enhancing local food security (Achten , 2008). Bio fuel crops have the potential to eradicate poverty among farming communities if appropriate sustainable development measures are carefully implemented.

Biodiesel has the potential to economically, socially, and environmentally benefit communities as well as countries, and to contribute toward their sustainable development (Mapako, 1998). Nonetheless, the complex nature of biodiesel development makes it susceptible to exogenous problems that could hinder sustainable development. Bio diesel development in developing countries is banking on the aspects of policy, governance, management, infrastructure, technology, feedstock, impacts on the rural poor and local livelihood, climate change, and the environment. As a result, this review can serve as a guideline for ensuring that J. carcus production contributes toward sustainable development in developing countries through environmental conservation, employment creation, income generation and the general improvement of human welfare (Mapako, 1998).

J. carcus seeks to address global poverty and promotes sustainable energy. J. carcus energy crop investments have proliferated as a means to foster rural development and 17 reduce poverty (Jepsen et.al , 2006). Initial impacts of, J. carcus projects aims to improve livelihoods and energy security in rural set ups. J. carcus production can gain financial capital from the sale of J. carcus seeds and soap.

2.8 Impact of J. Carcus as a Livelihood Strategy The impact on food security is one of the core social factors to be considered in bio- fuel development (Nyerges, 2007). The growing market for bio-fuels presents new income opportunities for agricultural producers, including smallholders. However, benefit distribution at household level may not be equal, with evidence suggesting that increased cash returns to farming disproportionately benefit male household members (Gandure, 2009). The social impacts of bio fuel development will depend on the feedstock and the production system chosen. If economically viable, small-scale cultivation of J. carcus and on-farm or community-level use of the crop can revitalize rural economies by improving human welfare, hence development (Nyerges, 2007). In addition, bio fuel production provides by-products and co-products such as glycerine, livestock feeds and fertilizers that can add value to the value chain of production. Promoting bio energy as an integrated part of rural farming systems, by combining energy feedstock production with food production with integrated system approaches or conservation farming methods could increase the overall system productivity for both food and energy (Abassian, 2007).

FAO, (2008), suggests that demand for bio-fuels may trigger changes in yields, both directly in the production of bio-fuel feedstock and indirectly in the production of other crops provided that appropriate investments are made. Tigere et al., (2006) pointed out that yields are currently way below their potential in many SADC countries, whereas developed countries have surpassed natural yield potentials due to irrigation, multiple cropping, input use, and production practices. Large potentials for increased yields of food and non-food biomass seem to exist in sub-Saharan Africa, where development is hampered by insufficient investments in infrastructure, production capacities, education and training (FAO 2008). For example, the use of fertilisers, improved seeds and extensive agricultural extension efforts have resulted in doubling or tripling cereal crop yields at local levels in 10 African countries (Bekunda et al. , 2009). 18

2.9 Summary of Chapter This chapter has looked at the previous studies on the viability of J. carcus as a livelihood strategy in rural livelihoods. The thrust was on the adoption level, factors influencing the crop production and characterising the crop’s economic feasibility on rural livelihoods. Some literature has revealed some socio-economic gains of J.carcus production. However, limited research was done to assess the economic feasibility J. carcus crop in Ward 11 of Umguza. Researchers have shown that J. carcus production can enhance and boost rural livelihoods of the within the smallholder farmers as well as disadvantaged in remote parts of the country.

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CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction Research methodology is defined by Kothari (2004) as the philosophy or the general principle which guides a research study taking into consideration issues such as constraints, dilemmas and ethical choices about a research. Data for this research was collected using both primary and secondary data sources. The chapter focuses on providing information on methodological aspects which include map of study area, research design, target group, sample size, research instruments and data collection procedure.

3.2 Study Area Figure 3.1 below are maps showing study site, Ward 11 of Umguza District.

Figure 3. 1: Map for Study Area Location, ward 11 of Umguza District. 20

This study was conducted in Ward 11 in Umguza District of Zimbabwe. The location was chosen mainly because a private company (NOCZIM) has established an out- grower scheme in a number of villages in the surrounding area as well as seedling farmers. While the study focuses primarily on smallholder farmers involved in j.carcus cultivation , it also includes the perspectives of representatives of the private sector and government stakeholders. Out-grower and seedling farmers were selected for their prevalence of jatropha cultivation and for their established relationship with the aforementioned private bio-fuel company.

Ward 11, (Insuza) is located approximately 65km from Bulawayo town in the northern direction, to the left of Bulawayo - Victoria Falls road and lies at an altitude of around 700m. The average annual rainfall is approximately 550mm/yr. Households are in a linear model along the main dissecting dust road which links areas of economic significance like schools and shops. The inhabitants mostly claim to be pure Ndebeles. Houses are either mud and thatched circular buildings or rectangular mud or brick houses with iron or asbestos roofed. Many are semi-enclosed by a hedge or other vegetation. The soils are usually shallow dark vleis, red clays and poor sands with poor water holding capacity and poor drainage. The area has an average wetness factor, gentle slopes and limited average erosion factor. Effective depth is less than 80cm which is not a big problem for establishment of plantation crops.

Tigere et al., (2006) indicated that major sources of livelihoods include farming on subsistence level and commercial standards. Some farmers are into dairy, extensive ranging, market gardening- vegetables mainly. The majority of small scale farmers in the resettled area supplement their little harvests with formal employment from Bulawayo, the closet town. Some get to town for seasonal jobs and when the season commences they left to their farms. The area has a technological challenge in farming business, use of draught power, poor input resource base in poverty stricken society; this is abated by perennial assistance from government’s presidential input scheme, Non Government Organisations and contact farming in other sectors

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3.3 Target Population Population refers to the total number or the aggregate of concerns, which by virtue of the common characteristics, may lead to the gathering of relevant information. The researcher targeted rural households with a total population of 268 households of ward 11 in Umguza District. Among 268 households in ward 11, 120 households were contracted and involved in the production of J.carcus crop. The sample was therefore made of 25% of the contracted smallholder farmers. This means that 30 smallholder farmers comprise the sample size of the study in ward 11 of Umguza District.

3.4 Research Design The research design is a total plan showing how research data is gathered, (Babbie, 2008). The choice of the appropriate research design is derived from the aim and objectives of the research as well as cost and time constraints. In this study a case study design was used because the research focused at a single entity that is the case of ward 11, Umguza district. As supported by Bell, (1995) a case study design is focused on enquiry around an instance that is, a study of a particular phenomenon. A case study approach was relevant because jcp was introduced by NOCZIM to 120 smallholder farmers which constitute the target population and the sample size is 25 % that is 30 households. The case study design uses many different instruments to collect data namely questionnaires, interview guides and focused group discussion guides which makes it advantageous in the sense that the researcher is free to use the most suitable instrument that suit the given condition or situation.

The researcher used both qualitative and quantitative research methods. Qualitative methods are non-numerical data collection strategies. These methods were used to gather an in-depth understanding of human behavior and the reasons that govern such behavior. In other words, the qualitative method help researchers answer the how, why, what, where and when questions (Becker, et.al 1997). Quantitative research refers to the systematic empirical investigation of quantitative processes and phenomenon and their relationships. The quantitative approach was used to supplement the qualitative method to account for the relationships, effects and interactions that take place in society.

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3.5 Methods The researcher used both qualitative and quantitative approach to collect data. Qualitative data are obtained from information gathered from questionnaires and the method involved statistical tests thus the research can be repeated and results checked. It is possible to study larger and more representation samples which can provide overall picture, (Haralambos and Holborn, 1995).

Dawson (2009) indicated that qualitative approach explores attitude, experience and behavior of households and the approach was considered necessary in this case for data of smallholder farmers’ perceptions on the feasibility of jatropha carcus crop on rural livelihoods in Umguza district. The information was gathered through using interviews and observation since it generated data which is more qualitative.

A combination of quantitative and qualitative methods was used to explore particular factors, and to establish more widespread relationships and trends. Particular cultural and human issues may not be apparent via statistical analysis, and qualitative data collection may not highlight wider patterns (Chibnik 1980, Ellis & Mdoe 2003). The use of different methods allowed for crosschecking and triangulation, contributing to the reliability and validity of the data.

3.5.1 Sampling Sampling involves using a smaller number of the target population to make conclusions about the whole population and it claims the advantages of low cost, accurate and reliable information, (Mackerman, 1996). In this study, the researcher used a sample size of (n=30) which was selected from 268 households in ward 11 and from 120 households who were contracted farmers, at a representative of 25% of the total population of contracted smallholder farmers. The researcher used purposive sampling and convenience sampling techniques.

For interviews, the researcher used the purposive sampling technique and handpicked key informants who include the Ward councillor, Extension officer, among others to participate in the study. The researcher interviewed 4 participants whom the researcher thought were involved in the J.carcus production. Advantage of purposive

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sampling is that it restricts the sample population to a very special group for a particular purpose (Dowdy, 2003)

According to Barney and Grayson (1995), convenience sampling is a non-probability technique where participants are selected because of their convenient accessibility closeness to the researcher. The participants were selected just because they are available and the easiest to engage in the study. The convenience sampling was fast, inexpensive, easy and the participants were readily available. The researcher selected the target population sample on participants that were accessible for the study since most of the households were working in the plantations and fields.

3.5.2 Pilot Testing A Questionnaire and interviews were administered in the selected ward before the actual data collection to make sure that they are meaningful to the respondents. The pilot testing also helped to correct and rephrase some of the questions which were not fully understood by the respondents. After corrections were made, the instruments were now set for the final research.

3.5.3 Household Data Collection The researcher chose a combination of questionnaires and interview guide to gathered further information through extensive farm walks and participant observation. Interviews with key informants provided background information to the village and inhabitants, and issues of particular relevance. All interviews were conducted personally, using an interpreter where necessary. Respondents and villages were coded to protect privacy prepared draft survey and interview questions ahead of time and were further refined during the first days of fieldwork. Interviews were generally conducted in the yard of the homestead or infrequently in the house. Respondents were generally very amenable to interviews. The researcher tried to avoid long winding interviews which tend to create reluctance on the part of respondents, the researcher asked for no more than 20-30 minutes. The time spent walking between households and fields was especially valuable in establishing individual perspectives, local knowledge, and issues peculiar to the perceptions and adoption of the newly commercialised crop.

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3.5.4 Research Instruments The collection of data for this research was done by use of both primary and secondary data sources. These include questionnaires and interview guide.

3.5.5 Administering of Questionnaire A questionnaire is a means of eliciting the feelings, beliefs and experiences of a sample of population. The questionnaire is a systematic way of collecting data and usually they are self administered (Payne and Payne, 2009). When properly constructed and responsibly administered, questionnaires become a vital instrument by which statements can be made about specific group or entire populations. These questionnaires will be given to the household head at each sampling household on their experiences about adoption levels and factors influencing J.carcus production which would determine to the crop’s feasibility as a livelihood strategy.

According to Payne and Payne (2009), the questionnaires can be used to collect large quantities of data from a considerable number of people over a short period of time. The questionnaires are easy to analyse and very cost effective when compared to interviews. They provide an opportunity for the respondents to outline the socio- economic gains J. carcus production, its opportunities and challenges faced. However, questionnaires did not allow the researcher to correct the misunderstandings or answer questions that the participants might have had. The willingness or inability of the respondents to give full and accurate information and the assistance maintained between the researcher and the households may reduce the validity of the data. In a bid to address this, interviews were used to compensate on this.

Questionnaires were the main instruments used by the researcher in collecting data. A total of 24 questionnaires were self-administered to households , randomly. The questionnaire was administered to smallholder farmers from the old communal and resettled area of ward 11. Another questionnaire was made to get the views on the viability of jcp in terms of its socio-economic contribution to the welfare of smallholder farmers for example raise in income levels as a result of jatropha production. Questionnaires were also designed to determine the adoption levels of smallholder farmers on jatropha production since there is potential improvement in

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livelihoods. Also questionnaires were used to collect demographic data on household characteristics on age of respondents, sex, marital status, and other issues like size of the household.

The questionnaire (Appendix 1) had both open ended and closed ended questions and were administered by both males and females household heads. A 25% representative of the target population was used giving a total of 24 questionnaires administered. The researcher self administered 24 questionnaires to head of households in Ward 11 of Umguza District and also the monitoring of data collection process was done. The respondents were instructed to all questionnaires with the help of the researcher. A total of 24 questionnaires were disseminated and all 30 respondents responded, giving an impressive response rate of 100%. As such the questionnaires were deemed to be effective in gathering information on factors in influencing the crop production and the adoption levels. Responses from the questionnaires furnish the researcher with a wide range of information concerning the feasibility of J.carcus production as a livelihood strategy in Ward 11 of Umguza District.

3.5.6 Interviews An interview is a purposeful conversation in which one asks prepared questions and record responses. It is a direct face to face attempt to obtain reliable and valid measures in the form of verbal responses from one or more respondent (Kothari, 2004). The researcher designed an in-depth interview guide (Appendix 2) for the key informants capturing data from people who are knowledgeable about J.carcus production and its socio-economic benefits to smallholder farmers in Ward 11. The key informants include ward councilor, AREX Officer, two of the village heads. Ward councilor was chosen because he is one of the key members of the community who also take part in the crop production. Village heads were selected because they are part of the community hence they have much experience on all aspects that trigger or retard development in their community. Extension officer was included because took part in training sessions and has that expertise to inform the community on better ways of tillage services and other farming experiences. They are also familiar with the challenges faced by the community which expose them to socio-economic vulnerability.

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The interview allowed the researcher to observe verbal and non-verbal behavior of the respondents. They were also helpful in soliciting the opinions and perceptions of the stakeholders towards the viability of J.carcus production as a livelihood strategy in Ward 11. Te interviews were more flexible than the questionnaires. They can also used to extract simple factual information and encouragement of individual thought about the factors influencing the J.carcus production, from the key informants. However, information may neither valid nor reliable. Problems associated with the interviews are that they are time consuming and may distort information through recall error selective perception and desire to please the interviewer.

The researcher began by seeking permission from the ward councilor and the local authorities in the ward for example the chief and the headman where the study was undertaken. The rationale and the importance of the study were explained to the local leaders in order to avoid misconceptions. After the permission was granted, the researcher made formal request to the village heads and Extension Officer for interview dates. The interviewer introduced the topic so that the study becomes clear to the interviewee to avoid misconceptions. The interviews were held to the Extension Officer, two Village heads and the Councilor. The researcher managed to conduct 4 interviews which was the intended number of 4 interviews giving a response rate of 100%. The researcher managed to capture all the impressions and the views just after conducting the interviews. The notes helped the researcher to keep the information in mind also in order to explore the behavior of the participant.

3.5.7 Documentary Analysis The researcher also used literature analysis to obtain secondary data. The study collected data from various sources such as the journals, textbooks, dissertations and the internet, on the viability of J.carcus crop as livelihood strategy among smallholder farmers.

3.6 Reliability and Validity According to Bell (1995) reality has to do with the quality of measurement and it is used to describe the overall consistency of a measure. A measure is said to have a high reliability if it produces similar results under consistent conditions. Validity is the extent to which a measurement is well founded and corresponds accurately to the 27

real world. It is a degree to which the tools such as questionnaires and interview measure what it claims to measure. Reality was ensured through the use of double instrument which is referred to as triangulation and in this study, questionnaire and interview were utilised. Triangulation is a powerful technique that facilitates validation of data through cross verification from two or more instruments (Payne and Payne, 2009)

3.7 Data Analysis Procedure Data from questionnaires and interviews were categorised into classes namely determination of adoption for J.carcus production by smallholder farmers, socio- economic factors influencing J.carcus production and economic feasibility of J.carcus crop. Similar data from these two different sources were compared to check for consistence and collect as much information used as possible. Errors and suspicious data from any of the methods were identified using information from the other complementary source. The first analysis involved the determination of adoption levels of J.carcus by smallholder farmers in ward 11 of Umguza District. This was facilitated by considering mixed ages groups, sexes, different educational levels which are involved in J.carcus production and area under J.carcus over the total farm size. The second analysis involved the identification of socio-economic factors influencing jatropha production. This was based on benefits they got for example income generation and by-products acquired. The third analysis involved the assessment of J.carcus production’s economic feasibility, based on the income generated by J.carcus production as compared to other livelihood activities. The collected data was analysed using SPSS version 20 where simple descriptive statistics were obtained and results were summarised as graphs, pie charts and tables for discussion.

3.8 Limitations This study was constrained in terms of the availability and accessibility of the much needed secondary data which forms the basis of preliminary analysis done to inform important aspects of the study. Firstly, very few studies were done in Zimbabwe, let alone Umguza District, to assess the response of small holder farmers to the new green gold cash crop while they have been used to more traditional food crops and smallholder productive and market performance of the crop. The study was also 28

constrained in terms of the monetary resources that are needed to undertake studies of this nature. Very big samples are better to be able to make meaningful conclusions about the smallholder farmers and to offer powerful prescriptions that inform policy. However, the study endeavours to achieve the desired goals given limited resources at its disposal by making sure that the quality of data collected during the primary data collection exercise is not compromised and hence powered policy prescription and inference are possible.

In carrying out this study, it is also acknowledged that there are other factors that affect productivity that this study may not have captured within the available time. Farmers may also have problems in recalling past production data. They were also not willing to share their farm production data on the various activities. However, this problem was addressed by fully explaining to the sample farmers the purpose of the study, by ensuring maximum confidentiality and also by respecting the respondent’s right to privacy. While respondents appeared confident in defining farm size, a shortage of time and resource constraints prevented independent corroboration.

3.9 Summary of Chapter

This chapter looked at the research design, methods and data collection tools. Data collection procedure, sampling procedure and data analysis procedure have also been discussed. Convenience sampling and purposive sampling was used to select the respondents. Interview guide were used to gather information from the key informants while questionnaires were used to collect information from the smallholder farmers. The following chapter will focus on data presentation and analysis of findings.

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CHAPTER 4: DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS

4.1 Introduction This chapter looks at presentation and analysis of results through the use of graphs, tables and pie charts. From the methods used the previous chapter, the following results were obtained and discussed.

4.2 Respondents’ Characteristics The respondents’ characteristics refer to the age, marital status, sex and educational status of the participants. The sex composition of the respondents constitutes 40% females and 60% males. Figure 4.1 below presents sex of the respondents. Age of the respondents depicts that it ranges from 24 – 54. Majority of these fell in the category 31 – 40, followed by the category 41 – 50 and the least category is 51 – 60. Among these, 80% of the respondents are married whereas 20% are single. In this context, single refers to divorced and widowed. Varied age groups were considered in order to explore different and experienced views on factors influencing adoption of J.carcus production as well as factors that qualify the production as a viable livelihood strategy.

Figure 4.1: Sex of the Household Head (Source: Primary data)

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4.3 Adoption of J.carcus Production Research findings on the adoption of J.carcus production were presented through the use of graphs and tables to show period for the crop production by smallholder farmers of Ward 11, Umguza District. This also presents area under jatropha cultivation in relation to the total farm size.

Figure 4.2. Farmers’ adoption period for jatropha production (Source: Primary data)

Adoption period comprises of time taken by smallholder farmers into the production of jatropha . Figure 4.2 above revealed that most smallholder farmers have embarked on J.carcus production long way back. Responses on the graph above indicated that in Ward 11 of Umguza District, 70% of the respondents have been in the production for the period which is in between 5-9 years whereas 30% have more than 9 years in the production of jatropha .

As reviewed in the literature on adoption of J. carcus crop production, most countries around the world which include developing and developed nations have adopted the production. Information from interviews for the key informants supported that some 31

smallholder farmers adopted J.carcus production some decades ago. However, the majority adopted the production when it was commercialised during the economic hardship period in Zimbabwe, during 2008-2009 (NOCZIM, 2010).

4.3.1 Area under Jatropha Cultivation in Relation to the Total Farm Size Majority of the households in Ward 11 cultivated a number of crops. These include maize, ground nuts, sorghum, millet and J.carcus. Figure 4.3 below represents area under jatropha cultivation which varies from 1-3 hectares depending on the size of the farm. The highest number has 2 hectares under cultivation that constitutes 53.3%. The graph shows that 30% of the respondents have 3 hectares under J.carcus cultivation. Interviewees pointed out that some farmers have more than three hectares under J.carcus production.

Figure 4.3 Area under jatropha Cultivation (Source: Primary data)

The total area for the farms in ward 11 of Umguza varies. Information from table 4.1 below shows that the total farm area ranges from 6 to 11 hectares per household. On average each household owns 8.8 hectares. Area under jatropha production on Figure 4.3 ranges from 1 hectare to 3 hectares per household. On average each household has 2.2 hectares under jatropha production. This indicated that 25% of the total farm area 32

is under jatropha cultivation and 75% has left for other agricultural activities for example maize production, ground nuts, millet and sorghum production. Smallholder farmers in Ward 11 of Umguza have adopted Jatropha production aiming high output from the economic capacity that the crop have. Tigere, et al (2006) and Jepsen, et al (2006) noted that commercial and communal farmers adopted J.carcus production and they devoted much land to that because of its economic motives.

Table 4.1 Total Farm Sizes for Smallholder Farmers (Source: Primary data) Total hectares comprise the farm

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

6 Hectares 3 10.0 10.0 10.0

7 Hectares 3 10.0 10.0 20.0 8 Hectares 4 13.3 13.3 33.3 Valid 9 Hectares 7 23.3 23.3 56.7 10 Hectares 12 40.0 40.0 96.7 11 Hectares 1 3.3 3.3 100.0 Total 30 100.0 100.0

4.4 Socio-economic Factors Influencing J.carcus Production

Factors influencing J.carcus production were identified basing on support received and availability of supporting organisations. Information from the research findings postulated that main source of support for J.carcus production across Zimbabwe was the Government (NOCZIM 2010, Mujeyi 2009) From Figure 4.4 below; it has been observed that tillage service and training were the most effective form of support offered by the government to smallholder farmers to make the production successful. Almost all respondents received training and tillage service from the government. Responses from interviews also indicated that government funded the project as it was contract farming. Apart from training and tillage service, figure 4.4 presents that, farmers also received support in form of technical backup and seed. Offering of stated services by the government also contributed to large turnout into J.carcus cultivation.

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Figure 4.4. Support received by farmers for Jatropha cultivation (Source: Primary data)

4.4.1 Socio-economic Gains for J. carcus Production The production of jatropha has outcomes which can be acquired differently depending on the economic and financial, and social capability of the individual, community or even an economy. The crop has social, environmental and economic motives. Smallholder farmers in Ward 11 were producing products like soap, candles, manure and some medicine. This made the crop more influential to smallholder farmers. Literature reviewed also reiterated that J.carcus cultivation has some economic motives through the acquisition of some by products which promote the development of rural agro-industry (Kishor, et al 2011, Gandure, 2009).

By-products produced were presented by the Figure4.6 below. It has been illustrated on the graph that the most dominant products are soap, candles. Outer part of the fruits are used as manure hence it improves soil fertility. Information on the graph shows that all the respondents are in soap making and around 97% of the respondents are in candle making. Although it is produced in fewer quantities, jatropha can be

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used for some medicinal purposes. In addition to that, some interviewees indicated the production of lubricants and bio-diesel although smallholder farmers do not have the capacity for that.

Figure 4.5 By-products obtained from jatropha (Source: Primary data)

4.5 Annual Income Contribution from Various Livelihood Activities The respondents are engaged in a number of livelihood activities. These vary from maize production, sorghum, millet, jatropha production, beer brewing, gardening, remittances, and poultry production. Table 4.2 above shows the contribution of various livelihood activities to the welfare of 30 selected smallholder farmers. Respondents indicated that they are focusing on food crops and some other diversification activities. Maize is grown on larger pieces of land and its contribution in monetary value as a percentage is 24.4 which is the highest. J. carcus only contributes 6.4% Sorghum contributes 11.7%, millet 10.2%, ground nuts 3.3%, gardening 16.4%, beer brewing 9.4%, remittances 14.1% and selling chicken 4.1%. These results have shown that various livelihood activities carried in rural areas cannot stand alone and be viable to enhance human welfare. A combination can be 35

viable since others can be easily affected by other shortcomings for example denial of incentives for j.carcus production has retarded the percentage contribution of jatropha to income generation, hence the persistent of poverty and food insecurity.

Table 4.2 Income contributions from different livelihood activities (Source: Primary data) (N=30) LIVELIHOO AVERAGE UNIT PRICE AV. AV. FAMILY % ge D ACTIVITY OUTPUT (t) (/t or /month) ANNUAL SIZE CONTRIB INCOME UTION Maize 3.47 $180.00 $624.60 4 24.4 production Sorghum 1.0 $300.00 $300.00 4 11.7

Millet 1.65 $400.00 $262.00 4 10.2

Ground nuts .68 $125.00 $85.00 4 3.3

Jatropha 1.65 $100.00 $165.00 4 6.4

Gardening $35.00 $420.00 4 16.4

Beer brewing $20.00 $240.00 4 9.4

Chicken $8.75 $105.00 4 4.1

Remittances $30.00 $360.00 4 14.1

During the interviews, the interviewees revealed that there are a number of livelihood activities carried out in Ward 11. Some include cross boarder trading, vending and carpentry. These all contribute to the welfare of households in Ward 11 of Umguza District. They also indicated that they were expecting much from jatropha production since it was contract farming. Moreover, it was also because of the source of funding that was the government. However, interviewees pointed out a number of challenges that need to be addressed in order to achieve the economic gains of the crop. Major challenges noted by farmers were low market price for the output, poor machinery and low capacity in production of soap and candles, monopoly in the marketing of the output. Challenges faced by farmers’ limits the capacity of the crop and the capacity of the farmers to do their best in the production.

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4.6 Summary of the Chapter The research findings revealed the level of adoption to smallholder farmers of ward 11 on J.carcus production, factors influencing the crop production. Challenges faced by smallholder farmers in Ward 11 of Umguza District were also revealed leading to ineffectiveness of J.carcus production as a new livelihood strategy. The next chapter presents the discussion, study summary, conclusions and recommendations.

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CHAPTER 5: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND

RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Introduction This chapter provides a summary of the research analysed in the previous chapter. The conclusions and recommendations are to be made from the research findings.

5.2 Summary The major thrust of the study was to assess the viability of jatropha as a new cash crop that has potential in enhancing human welfare through income generation and acquisition of other products. Assessment was based on the uptake of the production view by smallholders, and identifying socio-economic factors influencing economic feasibility of jatropha production in Ward 11 of Umguza. The viability aspects were assessed through comparisons of quantities of different livelihood activities produce, expressed in annual monetary value. Questionnaires were used to collect data from sampled households; interviews were used to collect data from the key informants. The secondary data were found from different journals. The SPSS software was used to analyze data and data was presented in form of graphs, pie charts and tables. The research aimed to find out if jatropha production can be effective and efficient livelihood strategy that ensures food security, poverty reduction and sustainability in rural areas during period of climatic and economic shocks. This enabled the researcher to reach at these conclusions which are as follows.

5.2.1 Adoption of jatropha carcus by smallholder farmers The sampled households heads and key informants revealed that a range of economically active groups, of all educational levels have engaged in jatropha production since it was a contract farming. Training, tillage services received motivate large numbers to join in cash crop farming. This was because of potential for the crop to poverty reduction, food security and income generation. The crop was given attention and farmers were cropping on about 25% of the total farm area. Both

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the poor and the rich participate in the new cash crop production which indicated that there was hope for the more economic gains if the proper necessities were given to the production.

5.2.2 Socio-economic benefits influencing jatropha production J.carcus’ potential as a livelihood strategy and enhancement of food security among threatened rural economy in Ward 11 of Umguza was considered a factor for farmers to engage in contract farming. By-products production lured most farmers since there were motivated by number of aspects that can be extracted from the crop. Production of soap, candles, paraffin, and medicine is achieved at very small scale because of minimum capacity. The farmers are de-motivated because products are not fetching any on the market as they are of poor quality. Another contributing factor to crumbling production is very little prices for the output hence farmers were focusing more on food crops as the outcome cannot sustain the livelihoods of smallholder farmers in the communal areas of Umguza district. The crop had potential to bring much needed income and products in lives of people since it provides as source of varied products and generate income to the people of the study area. However, all had been hindered by lack of support from different organisations to capacitate the struggling smallholder farmers.

5.2.3 Economic feasibility of J.carcus production These results showed that the benefits from commercialization of J.carcus by the GoZ yields nothing as the project was abandoned at an earlier stage without realising full benefits of the crop production. J.carcus production was potentially significant in terms of improving the wellbeing of the local community through employment creation, income generation, environmental conservation and acquisition of by- products. It is evident that output levels of J.carcus production and substandard prices have shown that J.carcus in Umguza is not an economically viable enterprise as it contributes 6.4 % to the annual household income. Maize is contributing better with the highest percentage followed by gardening. However, rural communities depend of various livelihood activities to sustain their lives, enhancing human welfare that is, poverty reduction, income generation and food security enhancement. Therefore, little contribution of 6.4% by jatropha is vital as it combines with other livelihood strategies to capacitate human welfare since even major crop production like maize 39 production alone, cannot sustain human lives. Low prices for jatropha output, incapacity in the production were some of the challenges raised by respondents hence reduce the chances of the crop being an economic feasible enterprise.

The marketing around jatropha is obscuring the reality and the general public needs to be better informed about the truths of J.carcus. While more independent research is certainly needed, this investigation seriously challenges the hope for jatropha as a silver bullet for livelihoods and development in Umguza and Zimbabwe at large. Perceptions and attitudes gathered buttressed by poor contractual fulfilment, relegate J.carcus to a nonsensical crop in the district. However, contractual enforcement, good marketing matrices may give people a better option to reconsider J.carcus as a cash crop.

5.3 Conclusions In the study, smallholder farmers are engaged in a number of livelihood activities. Households adopt J.carcus production because it was contract farming which allowed the provision of farming inputs to any farmer with at least one hectare under jatropha cultivation. The motive behind adoption of J.carcus production was also because of the economic potential that the crop has to uncover the economic challenges faced by the smallholder farmers in Ward 11 of Umguza District through income generation and acquisition of its by products. However, smallholder farmers remain vulnerable and exposed to economic challenges because the crop did not yield any attractive results. Challenges faced like low market prices, limited capacity by smallholder farmers further retards development because land used for jatropha and time consumed could have been used for other beneficial activities.

This study therefore concludes that the dominant arguments about Jatropha as a food- security safe bio-fuel crop, a source of additional farm income for rural farmers, and a potential driver of rural development were misinformed. While further independent research will give more detail, this investigation seriously challenges J.carcus crop as a sustainable rural livelihood strategy, development and a new cash crop in Umguza. Given the trend in evidence emerging internationally demonstrating the failures of J.carcus to meet expected outcomes, and in fact endangering food sovereignty and rural livelihoods, this study recommends that support for J. carcus development in 40

Umguza to be halted until some of the major development issues surrounding subsistence farming are addressed and rural communities obtain food sovereignty.

5.4 Recommendations In light of the conclusions made in the study, the following recommendations have been suggested for the realisation for the viability of J.carcus as a livelihood strategy to smallholder farmers in Ward 11 of Umguza.

Potential partners such as those coming in to grow tobacco should be encouraged also to grow J. curcas.
Jatropha market liberalisation- this would allow more players and competition to new industry, rather than the state monopoly which ended up abusing the contracts and defenceless farmers.
The price of jatropha seed must be increased to market viability levels as soon as possible, to attract investment and facilitate adequate seed purchase and to render jatropha business viable.
There is need to strengthen the research and development aspect so that varieties with required characteristics are propagated and better farming methods be developed. Research on distinct, varieties, rather than depending on little known provenances; jatropha special fertilisers and nutritional amendments, pesticides and other production technologies are a necessity.
Increase crop yields and making other advances in feedstock production to reduce the cost and the environmental input of bio-fuels.
A public institution such as the one already established within NOCZIM should be strengthened and resourced adequately to effectively implement the feedstock production programme and establish this sub sector.

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Dagar, J.C., Tomar, Y., Kumar, H. Bhagwan, R.K.Y., and Tyagi K., (2006). Perfomance of some under-explored crops under saline irrigation in a semi arid climate in northwest India. Land Degradation. Development.17, 285-295

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APPENDICES

APPENDIX 1: Questionnaire for J. carcus Smallholder Farmers, Ward 11 of Umguza District

My name is Muchati Obias and I am a Development Studies student with Bindura University of Science Education. I am carrying out a research project on the viability of jatropha carcus crop as a livelihood strategy, in Ward 11 of Umguza District, for the partial fulfillment of the requirements of my degree programme. May you kindly assist by faithfully responding to these questions. The data collected is for academic purposes only and will be treated with strict confidence.

SECTION A: DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTIC (Tick where appropriate)

1. Sex Male Female

2. Age ______Years

3. Marital status Single Married

4. Household size

5. Level of Educational Primary Secondary Tertiary

SECTION B: ADOPTION OF JATROPHA CARCUS PRODUCTION

6. When did you start growing jatropha carcus? >5yrs 5-9 yrs 10+

7. How many hectares comprise your farm?

8. How many hectares are under jatropha production?

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9. Did you receive any support for growing jatropha carcus crop? Yes No

10. If YES, state organisation. ______

11. What form of support did you receive? Cash seed fertiliser

tillage service training chemicals other

12. Which products do you produce from jatropha plants? ______

13. Is there any ready market for Jatropha carcus products? Yes No

14. Who determine market prices for jatropha carcus products? Farmer Government NGO I don’t know

15. Are you satisfied with the market prices? Yes No

16. If your answer is No, give reasons for your answer. ______

SECTION C: SOCIO – ECONOMIC INFLUENCE FOR JATROPHA PRODUCTION.

17. What types of products of jatropha carcus crop do you sell? Seeds seedlings cuttings by-products e.g. soap

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Other ______18. Complete the table below livelihoods Ha Qty (yield Qty Unit Total Family %ge PDL/yr (maize) produced) sold price cash size contribution $365/yr (Gvt) earnings

Crop sales eg (maize) a) b) c) Total income/yr = Qty sold multiplied by unit price

19. Complete the table below livelihoods Qty sold Unit Total cash Family size %ge PDL/yr price earnings contribution $365/yr Other sources.eg a) beer brewing b) c) d) e) Total income/yr = Qty sold multiplied by unit price

20. Do you find the production of jatropha viable on enhancing human welfare? Yes No

21. If yes, how has your life changed since the production? ______

22. Are there any challenges faced by smallholder farmers in jatropha production? Yes No

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23. If yes, what are these? ______

24. How do you think the above stated challenges can be addressed? ______

Once again, thank you for taking your time to assisting me in filling in this questionnaire.

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Interview Guide for Key Informants

APPENDEX 2: Interview guide for key Informants

My name is Muchati Obias a fourth year Development Studies student with Bindura University of Science Education. I am researching on the viability of jatropha carcus crop as a livelihood strategy in Ward 11 of Umguza District. The information given will be treated as confidential and it is specifically going to be used for academic purposes only.

Your responses and cooperation are greatly appreciated

1) Place of interview ______

2) Position of respondent ______

3) Did farmers receive support various organisations? If yes, state the organisations.

______

4) Which form of support did they receive?

______

5) What is the contribution of J.carcus to smallholder farmers?

______

6) Is J.carcus production a viable enterprise? No Yes 51

7) How have the lives of the smallholder farmers changed since the production?

______8) What challenges are being faced by smallholder farmers in jcp ?

______

9) How can these challenges be addressed?

______

Thank you.

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FREQUENCY TABLES

APPENDIX 3: Frequency Table for Sex of Household Head

Table 4.1: Sex of the household head

Sex of household head Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Male 18 60.0 60.0 60.0 Valid Female 12 40.0 40.0 100.0 Total 30 100.0 100.0

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APPENDIX 4: Frequency Table for Farmers Adoption Period for Jcp

Table 4.2 Adoption years for farmers in J.carcus production Adoption years of jatropha production Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent 5 - 9 Years 21 70.0 70.0 70.0 Valid > 9 Years 9 30.0 30.0 100.0 Total 30 100.0 100.0

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APPENDIX 5: Frequency Table for Area under J.carcus Cultivation

Table 4.3: Area under J.carcus Cultivation

Area under jatropha production Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent 1 Hectare 4 13.3 13.3 13.3 2 Hectares 16 53.3 53.3 66.7 Valid 2.5 Hectares 1 3.3 3.3 70.0 3 Hectares 9 30.0 30.0 100.0 Total 30 100.0 100.0

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APPENDIX 6: Frequency Table for Support Received by Farmers for Jcp

Table 4.5: Support Received by Farmers for J.carcus production

Support received by households

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Tillage service, Training 20 66.7 66.7 66.7 Tillage service, Training, 6 20.0 20.0 86.7 Technical backup Fertiliser, Tillage service 1 3.3 3.3 90.0 Valid Cash, Fertiliser, Tillage 1 3.3 3.3 93.3 service, Technical backup

Seed, Tillage service, 2 6.7 6.7 100.0 Training Total 30 100.0 100.0

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APPENDIX 7: Frequency Table for By-Products Obtained from Jcp

Table 4.5: By-Products Obtained from J.carcus Production

Jatropha by-products produced by farmers

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Soap, Candles 13 43.3 43.3 43.3 Soap, Candles, Medicine 11 36.7 36.7 80.0 Soap, Candles, Manure 4 13.3 13.3 93.3 Valid Soap, Candles, Manure, 1 3.3 3.3 96.7 Medicine Soap 1 3.3 3.3 100.0 Total 30 100.0 100.0

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