A Resource Book for Educational Institutions in Zimbabwe

DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT

A RESOURCE BOOK FOR EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS IN ZIMBABWE

PREPARED BY THE CIVIL PROTECTION ORGANISATION OF ZIMBABWE

Empowered lives. Resilient nations. RESOURCE BOOK FOR DISASTER MANAGEMENT IN ZIMBABWE

PRODUCED BY THE NATIONAL CIVIL PROTECTION ORGANIZATION IN ZIMBABWE FOREWORD

International trends indicate that disasters are increasing in intensity, complexity and magnitude. Zimbabwe has not been spared from this trend. It is against this background that the National Civil Protection Committee launched a strategy aimed at integrating emergency preparedness and disaster risk reduction into the education system of Zimbabwe in July 2003. The strategy seeks to mitigate against the effects of both natural and human induced emergencies on the education system thus contribute to improved awareness of disaster risk and readiness for emergencies in the country in general. A three pronged approach was adopted to ensure implementation of the strategy namely, disaster risk reduction initiatives in education infrastructure, development of an emergency preparedness and response manual for the education sector and inclusion of disaster risk management in education curricula together with the production of requisite reference materials. This book is a reference resource for use by teachers and educators. The book is a rich source of practical information drawn from scientific literature, disaster databases and field experiences from Zimbabwe. Teachers and educators should find this resource book useful in creating innovative training programs. These training programs should contribute to long term enhancement of national capacity for disaster risk management in this country. We applaud this remarkable achievement more so as disaster risk reduction is recognised as an intrinsic element of the United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development (2005 – 2015).

Hon, I.M.C Chombo M,P, Hon, D. Coltart, M,P, Hon, I.S.G. Mudenge, M,P Minister of Minister of Education, Minister of Higher Local Govt, Rural & Sport, Arts and Culture &Tertiary Education Urban Development

i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Grateful acknowledgement to all who contributed to the successful publication of this book: ~Support and political will of the Ministers of Local Government Rural and Urban Development, Minister of Education, Sport, Arts and Culture and Minister of Higher and Tertiary Education ~ All members of the National Civil Protection Committee for nurturing the Strategy to Integrate Disaster Risk Reduction into Education culminating in the eventual publication of this book ~ The strategy planning team comprising ‘ Departments of Curriculum Development, Quality Assurance, Research and Policy Development; Ministry of Education, Sport, Arts and Culture, ‘Ministry of Higher and Tertiary Education ‘ Department of Civil Protection, Ministry of Local Government Rural and Urban Development ~ National Civil Protection Committee experts on hydro meteorological, environmental, technological, geological and biological hazards for providing information on their respective areas of expertise ~The Technical Review Team comprising ‘Ministry of Health and Child Welfare, ‘World Health Organisation, ‘ Zimbabwe Electricity Distribution Company ‘ Departments of Curriculum Development, Quality Assurance, Research and Policy Development; Ministry of Education, Sport, Arts and Culture, ‘Ministry of Higher and Tertiary Education ‘ Department of Civil Protection, Ministry of Local Government Rural and Urban Development for reviewing and updating the initial and subsequent drafts of the resource book ~Mr. Desmond Manatsa of the Bindura State University for compiling and consolidating draft submissions from various experts. ~UNDP for providing financial support for drafting, editing, typesetting and printing of this book **********************************************

ii Ministry of Local Government, Rural & Urban Development Makombe Building, Harare, Zimbabwe P O Box CY7706, Harare Tel 263 4 791287 Fax 263 4 703715 E -mail: [email protected]

Website : www.zimdrm.gov.zw

Reprinted 2013

All rights reserved. Without limiting the rights under copyright reserved above, no part of the publication may be reproduced, stored in or introduced into a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means (electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise), without the prior written permission of both the copyright owner and the above publisher of this book.

ISBN 978-0-7974-4149-1

Edited by Megan Allardice

Text typeset in 10/12 Times by Ladies’ Fingers Private Limited

Illustrated by:- Ladies’ Fingers Private Limited

Cover photographs by:- Department of Civil Protection & Ladies’ Fingers Private Limited

Cover design by:- Department of Civil Protection

Published by:- Civil Protection Organisation of Zimbabwe

Reprinted by:- Uniprint, A Division of Times Media (Pty) Ltd Contents Abbreviations and Acronyms iv

Chapter 1 Introduction 1 Emergencies and disasters worldwide 1 Emergencies and disasters in Zimbabwe 3 Desertification and drought 8 Wetlands 8 The Freshwater agenda 8 The habitat agenda 9 Building the resilience of nations and communities to disasters 9 An African initiative 9 Disaster risk reduction efforts in Zimbabwe 11 The national civic protection plan 12

Chapter 2 Disaster Risk Management Concepts 14 Hazards and disasters 14 The disaster concept 17 Risk analysis and risk management as a process 20 The vulnerability reduction approach 24 Total disaster risk management 27 Risk management flow 30 The legal framework for disaster reduction 34 Promotion of education and public awareness 35

Chapter 3 Hydro-Meteorological Hazards 38 The drought hazard 38 Characteristics of Zimbabwean drought 39 Drought hazards and disasters in Zimbabwe 39 Tropical cyclones 47 History of the tropical cyclones that have affected Zimbabwe 51 The impact of tropical cyclones 53 tropical cyclone mitigation 55 Flood hazards and disasters 56 Flood mitigation 58 Severe thunderstorms 60 Lightning hazard 60 Extreme wind gusts 64 Fog and mist as visibility and barrier hazards 65 Extreme temperature hazard 66 Frost hazard 68 Chapter 4 Geological Hazards 70 Earthquake hazards and disasters 71 Vulnerability of an area to an earthquake 69 A history of Zimbabwean earthquakes 69 Zimbabwe earthquake hazard zones 72 Causes of injury and damage 72

iv Earthquake risk reduction strategies 72 Landslide hazards and disasters 74 Asteroids and comets (Extra-terrestrial) 76

Chapter 5 Biological Hazards 78 General measures for outbreaks 78 Common epidemics in Zimbabwe 78 Surveillance systems and multi-sectoral approaches 79 Dysentery 82 Chicken-pox 83 HIV and AIDS 84 The Impact of AIDS in Zimbabwe 84 Opportunistic Infections (OIs) 88 Meningitis 89 Viral Hemorrhagic Fever (VHF) 89 Tuberculosis 89 Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) 90 Disease vectors 91 Malaria 90 Food poisoning 96 Zootomic diseases 98 Anthrax 98 Food and Mouth (FMD) 102 Rabies 106 New Castle Disease (NCD) 109 Major and common pests in Zimbabwe 115

Chapter 6 Technological Hazards 120 Transportation accidents 120 Road traffic accidents 120 Rail accidents 126 Water transportation accidents 127 Air transportation accidents 127 Traffic related hazards 129 Landslides and rock falls Wind 130 School children, wildlife and domestic animals 130 Hazardous substances 131 Landmine hazards 134 Electricity hazards 138 Industrial hazards 140 Drowning hazards 147 First aid 151

Chapter 7 Environmental Degradation 153 Soil erosion and gullies 154 Gold panning as a hazard 161

v The socio-economic hazard of illegal gold panning 162 Deforestation 163 Veld fires and bushfires 167 An overview of pollution 170 Types of water pollution and their effects 172 Case study: Water hyacinth in Zimbabwe 175 Air pollution as a hazard 178 Litter as a hazard 181 Global warming 183 Ozone depletion 187 International cooperation 189

Chapter 8 Disaster Risk Management in the Education Sector 191 Personal tragedies 192 Disaster risk management training and education in schools 194 Personal and social skills 196 Incorporating road safety education into the curriculum 198 The roles of teachers and students 205 Education & training on disaster management for communities 206

Terminology 207

Bibliography 210

Annex I 212 Annex II 214 Annex III 215

vi Abbreviations and Acronyms ACDS African Centre for Disaster Studies, Potchefstroom University, South Africa ACMAD African Centre for Meteorological Application for Development ADRC Asian Disaster Reduction Center AfDB African Development Bank AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome AREX Agricultural Research and Extension Department ARPDM Asian Regional Programme on Disaster Management AU African Union BCPR Bureau for Crisis Prevention and Recovery of UNDP BOD Biochemical Oxygen Demand CCA Common Country Assessment CCD Convention to Combat Desertification CCHF Crimean-Congo Hemorrhagic Fever CDF Comprehensive Development Framework CDM Clean Development Mechanism CFC Chlorofluorocarbon Cl Chlorine CLIVAR Climate Variability and Predictability, Project, World Climate Research Programme

CO2 Carbon dioxide CPD Civil Protection Department CRED Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters, Catholic University of Louvain DCCP District Civil Protection Coordination Committee DCC Disaster Coordinating Council/Committee DDT Dichloro Diphinyl Trichloro-ethane DEM Digital Elevation Model DFID Department for International Development, United Kingdom DHF Dengue Hemorrhagic Fever DiMP Disaster Mitigation for Sustainable Livelihoods Programme, University of Cape Town DMC Drought Monitoring Centre DRM Disaster Risk Management DRR Disaster Risk Reduction DRRP Disaster Reduction and Recovery Programme, UNDP DTM Digital Terrain Model EIA Environmental Impact Assessment ELCI Environment Liaison Centre International EM-DAT Emergency Events Database, CRED, Catholic University of Louvain, Belgium ENSO El Niño Southern Oscillation EPR Emergency Preparedness and Response ERA Environmental Risk Assessment EU European Union FAO Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations FAO/AGL Food and Agriculture Organisation/Land and Water Development Division FDR Fire Danger Rating FEWS Famine Early Warning System FEWSNET Famine Early Warning System Network GDP Gross Domestic Product GEF Global Environment Facility GHG Greenhouse Gas

vii GHS Globally Harmonised System GIS Geographical Information System GMB Grain Marketing Board GNP Gross National Product GTS Global Telecommunication System HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus HMIS Health Management Information System HSA Hazardous Substances Act HYCOS Hydrological Cycle Observing System IATF/DR Inter-Agency Task Force on Disaster Reduction ICOSAMP Information Core for Southern African Migrant Pests IDNDR International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction, 1990-99 IDU Intravenous Drug User IGAD Intergovernmental Authority on Development IMF International Monetary Fund IMP Integrated Pest Management INCD Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee on Desertification IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change IRI International Research Institute for Climate Prediction, Columbia University IRLCO-CSA International Red Locust Control Organisation of Central and Southern Africa ISDR International Strategy for Disaster Reduction IUCN International Union for the Conservation of Nature IWRM Integrated Water Resources Management JICA Japan International Cooperation Agency LDC Least Developed Country MDG Millennium Development Goal MLGNH Ministry of Local Government and National Housing MOHCW Ministry of Health and Child Welfare NCC National Crisis Committee NCPCC National Civil Protection Coordination Committee NCPP National Civil Protection Plan NEPAD New Partnership for Africa’s Development NEWU National Early Warning Unit, Africa NGO Non Governmental Organisation NMHS National Meteorological and Hydrological Services NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, USA OECD Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (in Europe) OFDA Office for Foreign Disaster Assistance, USA OHS Occupational Health and Safety OPD Out Patient Department ORS Oral Rehydration Solution Pb Lead PCPCC Provincial Civil Protection Coordination Committee POP Persistent Organic Pollutant PRSP Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper PSI Population Services International RBM Roll Back Malaria REWU Regional Early Warning Unit, SADC RSMC Specialised Regional Meteorological Centre, WMO RTA Road Traffic Accident

viii RVF Rift Valley Fever SADC Southern African Development Community SADCC Southern African Development Coordination Conference SAFIRE Southern Alliance for Indigenous Resources SAMC Southern African Malaria Countries SARCOF Southern Africa Region Climate Outlook Forum SARDC Southern African Research and Documentation Centre SARS Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Sd1 Shigella dysenteriae type 1 SIRDC Scientific and Industrial Research and Development Centre STI Sexually Transmitted Infection SWIO South West Indian Ocean TDRM Total Disaster Risk Management UCS Union of Concerned Scientists UN United Nations UN/ISDR United Nations, International Strategy for Disaster Reduction UNCOD United Nations Conference on Desertification UNCT United Nations Country Team UNDAF United Nations Development Assistance Framework UNDESA United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNDRO Office of the United Nations Disaster Relief Coordinator UNEP United Nations Environment Programme UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change UN-HABITAT United Nations Human Settlements Programme (formerly UNCHS) UN-OCHA United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs USAID United States Agency for International Development UV Ultraviolet UZ University of Zimbabwe WEO World Economic Outlook WFP World Food Programme, United Nations WHO World Heath Organisation, United Nations WMO World Meteorological Organisation, United Nations WRI World Resources Institute WSSD World Summit on Sustainable Development ZESA Zimbabwe Electricity Supply Authority ZIMAC Zimbabwe Mine Action Committee ZINWA Zimbabwe National Water Authority ZISCO Zimbabwe Steel Company ZOU Zimbabwe Open University

CHAPTER 1

Introduction Figure 1.1 Decadal Economic Impacts of Global Disasters Emergencies & Disasters Worldwide 1973-2002 EM DAT OFDA/CRED, 2004 Disasters, be they natural or human inflicted, have occurred on every part of the globe at one time or another. All countries of the world are becoming increasingly vulnerable to disasters, whether large or small, industrial or agrarian, technologically sophisticated or traditionally focused. The types of hazards that trigger these disasters vary from the unexpected occurrence of tsunamis, to more predictable seasonal floods and periodic storms. Less widespread hazards, such as transport accidents, urban conflagrations, civil strife and bush fires have also taken their toll. Other, less immediate and slowly evolving hazards, such as drought and environmental degradation, affect even more people with potentially greater costs for their future.

Since the final years of the 1990s, several powerful natural disasters have occurred in different parts of the world. Hurricane Mitch damaged up to 70 percent of the infrastructure in Honduras and Nicaragua in 1998, devastating the economies of all the Central American countries, which are yet to recover fully. One year later, the worst cyclone in 100 years hit the Indian state of Orissa, affecting ten times as many people as Hurricane Mitch and destroying 18 000 villages in one night. In 1999 also, Mexico experienced its Note: The data on both graphs above includes drought, earthquake, epidemic, extreme tem- worst floods since 1600. Almost 300 000 people were made homeless (UN/ perature, famine, flood, industrial accidents, ISDR, 2004). Hardly a year later, in 2000, Tropical Cyclone Eline induced insect infestation, miscellaneous accident, land/debris slides, transport accidents, vol- floods of an unprecedented scale in Southern Africa, destroying homes and canoes, wave surge, wildfire and windstorm. infrastructure on a previously unknown scale.

At the end of 2001, the powerful typhoon Lingling caused extensive damage and over 500 fatalities in the Philippines and Vietnam. In 2002, unprecedented flooding occurred in many countries, with particularly severe events causing losses of more than US$ 15 billion in European countries in the Elbe, Danube Figure 1.2 Decadal Human Im- and Vltava river basins. In August 2002, the World Meteorological pacts of Global Disasters 1973- Organisation (WMO) stated that “floods in more than 80 countries have killed 2002 almost 3,000 people and caused hardship for more than 17 million world- EM DAT OFDA/CRED, 2004 wide since the beginning of the year” (UN/ISDR, 2004). Then, in 2005, the worst known natural disaster ever occurred. The Indian Ocean Tsunami killed several hundreds of thousands of people in thirteen countries and left millions homeless. Figures 1.1 and 1.2, constructed using data from EM DAT OFDA/CRED In- ternational Disaster Database, show an increase in both the number of natural hazard events and the size of affected populations, as well as an increase in the corresponding economic losses during the past three decades. However, although the number of disasters has more than tripled since the 1970s, the reported death toll due to these disasters has halved, as shown in the second graph (Figure 1.2). The number of disasters and their corresponding economic losses for the decade 1993 to 2002 are more than three times as high as they were during the two decades from 1973 to 1992.

1 The other data from the same source (not shown) also indicate that the 84 great natural disasters recorded in the 1990s are three times as many as those that occurred in the 1960s. The combined economic loss of US$ 591 billion in the 1990s was eight times greater than that of the 1960s. On the other hand, 10 000 people died in natural disasters in 2000, compared to more than 70 000 in the previous year, or over 500 000 in the previous ten years. The impact of these disasters depends on the level of development, preparedness and capacity to cope with disasters of the affected countries or regions. Ninety percent of the natural disasters and 95 percent of the total disaster related deaths worldwide occur in developing countries. The growth in the Figure 1.3 Disaster Increases in the Regions of the World World Disasters Report 2002 – IFRC

number of disasters in Africa is far greater than in other countries, while Europe Recent events have proved that disasters do has the slowest disaster increase rate (see Figure 1.3). not only affect the poor and characteristically more vulnerable countries, but also those thought to be well protected. The emerging Change and variability in the weather and climate continue to have a signifi- role of El Niño/La Niña events as significant global hazards is one example. The El Niño/ cant impact upon Africa. Excluding deaths caused by natural disasters, over La Niña events of 1997 and 1998 were the 60 percent are weather or climate related (Preston-Whyte and Tyson, 2000). most intense occurrences of cyclical climatic variation during the 20th Century. Beyond rep- As shown in Figure 1.4, during the 1980s, weather related disasters dominated resenting costly economic variations to normal climate expectations, these events also the recorded natural disasters. Droughts, which generally manifest themselves created conditions around the world that led slowly, are probably the most damaging disasters. Figure 1.4 shows that they to extensive flooding, extended drought conditions and widespread wildfires. In recent leave many of their victims dead or homeless. Over the years, drought induced years, developed countries in Europe and America have experienced floods of such crop failures have been the single greatest reason for loss in agricultural pro- magnitude that previously accepted proce- duction in Africa. dures for protection and the utility of structural barriers have had to be re-evaluated.

Figure 1.4 Deaths and Homelessness Caused by Disasters in Africa during the 1980s WMO, 1980

2 Decade 1900- 1910- 1920- 1930- 1940- 1950- 1960- 1970- 1980- 1990- 2000- Total(%) 1909 1919 1929 1939 1949 1959 1969 1979 1989 1999 2004 Hydro- meteorological 32 73 61 75 120 235 469 779 1 497 2 037 1 750 7 128 (77%) Geological 34 26 27 33 51 55 82 121 227 314 186 1 029 (11%) Biological 5 7 10 3 3 1 37 64 167 360 372 1 156 (12%) Total 71 106 98 111 174 291 588 964 1 891 2 711 2 308 9 313 (100%) % of century total 111123611 20 29 25 100%

World Disasters Report 2002 - IFRC (1900-2004, by Decades)

Africa is the only continent where the regional share of reported disasters in Table 1.1 Distribution of Natural the world total has increased over the past decade. In addition to the socioeco- Disasters by Origin nomic losses, a substantial amount of financial and other resources for development has been diverted to relief and rehabilitation assistance to disaster affected people each year. This has contributed to Africa’s poor standing in disaster management. By contrast, developed countries have well defined structures to manage disasters and emergencies, largely as a result of their socioeconomic strength. This allows for both the necessary education and research on risks and budget allocations towards effectively equipping disaster management agencies so as to adequately manage emergencies.

Emergencies and Disasters in Zimbabwe Zimbabwe and its communities face a wide range of natural and human-made hazards (see Figure 1.5). Natural hazards include all those of climatic, geophysical or biological origin, while human-made hazards include those arising from technology, human fault and hostile action. Some major natural hazards, such as cyclones and bushfires, are seasonal and regional but other types of hazards, particularly those made by human agency, are less predictable and could occur at almost any time or anywhere. Zimbabwe is one of the countries in Africa most prone to natural hazards of hydro-meteorological origin.

Figure 1.5 The Most Common Hazards and Disasters in Zimbabwe

3 Double trouble. House destroyed during Tropical Cyclone Eline (2000) and gullies forming across the homestead. (Source: CPD)

Its complex climatic and varied geological conditions result in virtually every type of known natural hazard. Among them, floods, droughts, lightning, earthquakes and tropical cyclones cause the greatest economic losses. Areas particularly vulnerable and prone to flood related disasters include the areas along the major rivers – Zambezi, Limpopo and Sabi. The southern parts of Zimbabwe, especially Masvingo, and Matabeleland North and South have a high risk of drought while the Matabeleland provinces are also the hardest hit by floods. Earthquakes threaten the eastern border regions as well as both the Matabeleland provinces. The provinces in the eastern sector are prone to tropical cyclone effects as they lie in the usual overland path of the cyclones from Mozambique and the Indian Ocean. The photograph below shows a hut destroyed by Tropical Cyclone Eline in March 2000. Natural disasters are aggravated by several factors. Improper land management, lack of environmental awareness and disaster preparedness, and ineffective application of the rule of law are key issues for policy makers addressing disaster reduction. The same also applies to human-made disasters, as improper planning leads to the increased magnitude of the effect of these disasters. Zimbabwe also has a high rate of human-made disasters. The annual numbers of people who die from these disasters dwarf by several times those who die The United Nations Development Programme from natural disasters. For example, although drought is one the biggest natu- (UNDP) is the arm of the United Nations that acts to support and strengthen national ca- ral disasters of the country, there is no record of even a single death due to pacities for disaster mitigation, prevention and preparedness. UNDP plays the role of the con- drought induced famine. Of all local disasters, road traffic accidents cause vener of the United Nations Disaster Manage- the greatest number (several hundreds) reported dead or maimed annually. ment Team (UNDMT), an interagency working group consisting of the Food and Agricul- Rarely does a year pass without a serious road traffic accident having to be ture Organisation (FAO), the International Labour Organisation (ILO), UNDP, the United declared a national disaster by the President of the country. Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), the United Nations While, by world standards, Zimbabwe cannot be regarded as highly disaster Population Fund (UNFPA), the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), the United Nations prone in terms of deaths and injuries caused, the cost of the disasters that Industrial Development Organisation (UNIDO), the United Nations Development have affected this country, in terms of property destruction and social and Fund for Women (UNIFEM), the United Na- economic loss, has been significant. This cost can be expected to increase tions Volunteers (UNV), the World Food Programme (WFP) and the World Health unless effective measures are taken to deal with such emergencies and disas- Organisation (WHO). The UNDMT acts as a focal point for coordination of the natural di- ters. In the case of deaths from road traffic accidents in relation to the popu- saster related activities of the UN system and lation, Zimbabwe is, however, prominent on the regional map. works closely with the government to support coordination of disaster management activities in the country (AU, 2005). Lightning is also a major problem, causing injury and death to scores of people

4 annually. Zimbabwe is notorious, as recorded in the Guinness Book of World The ISDR’s main objective: Reducing human, social, economic and envi- Records, as the country where a single bolt of lightning claimed the largest ronmental losses due to natural hazards and 1 related technological and environmental phe- number of victims in the world. This occurred in a village near the eastern nomena border town of Mutare in 1975, when 21 people were killed while sheltering in a hut. Basic aim: The world is not simply watching these disasters unfold at an increased pace, Building disaster resilient communities taking their huge toll on human life and property. At the international level there has been renewed commitment to disaster risk reduction under various The Inter-Agency Secretariat has a facilitating role: processes. In recognition of the need to highlight to the world the necessity Bringing agencies, organisations and differ- of taking action against disasters, the UN declared the last decade (1900 to ent disciplines together, and providing a common platform and understanding of the scope 1999) the International Decade for Disaster Reduction IDNDR. The IDNDR of disaster risk reduction expired with tangible results in many countries. Hence, the UN General Assembly founded the International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR) The Inter-Agency Task Force provides: in 2000 to continue to promote the good work and commitment to disaster The framework for action for the implemen- reduction (UN/ISDR, 2002). The results emanating from ISDR are already tation of the ISDR visible in many countries. There is now a general consensus on shifting the primary focus from hazards and their physical consequences, to emphasising the process of fusing the physical and socioeconomic dimensions of vulnerability into the broader understanding, assessment and management of disaster risk. Various multilateral conventions, such as those on climate change and desertification, demonstrate the importance and commitment attached by many governments to promoting disaster risk reduction. The ISDR now provides a global framework for action, with the objective of reducing human, social, economic and environmental losses due to natural hazards and related technological and environmental phenomena. In achieving its basic aim of building disaster resilient communities, it has promoted increased awareness of the importance of disaster reduction as an integral component of sustainable development. To further strengthen the ISDR, the General Assembly confirmed the establishment of two mechanisms for the implementation of ISDR in December 2001. These were the Inter-Agency Secretariat and the Inter-Agency Task Force on Disaster Reduction. The General Assembly also called upon governments to establish national platforms or focal points for disaster reduction, and to strengthen them where they already exist, using a multisectoral and interdisciplinary approach. The Inter-Agency Secretariat has a facilitating role, bringing agencies, organisations and different disciplines together, and providing a common platform and understanding of the scope of disaster risk reduction. The Inter- Agency Task Force provides the framework for action for the implementation of the ISDR. The framework for action for the implementation of the ISDR The Task Force, supported by the ISDR Secretariat, has four main objectives: 1 To increase public awareness towards understanding risk, vulnerability and disaster reduction; 2 To promote the commitment of public authorities to disaster reduction; 3 To stimulate multidisciplinary and intersectoral partnerships, including the expansion of risk reduction networks; and 4 To improve scientific knowledge about the causes of natural disasters, as well as the effects that natural hazards and related technological and environmental disasters have on societies.

5 APPLICATION OF RISK REDUCTION MEASURES It also incorporates two additional activities specifically mandated to the ISDR · Environmental management · Land use planning Secretariat by the UN General Assembly: · Protecting critical facilities · Networking, partnership 5 To continue international cooperation to reduce the impact of El Niño · Financial tools and other aspects of climate variation; and 6 To strengthen disaster reduction capacities for the development of early warning systems. To achieve the objectives set by the framework for action, the following areas of common concern were prioritised: • Recognition and incorporation of the special vulnerability of the poor and socially marginalised groups in disaster reduction strategies; • Environmental, social and economic vulnerability assessment with special reference to health and food security; • Ecosystems management, with particular attention given to the implementation of an agenda on land use management and planning, including appropriate land use in rural, mountain and coastal areas, as well as unplanned urban areas in mega-cities and secondary cities; and • National, regional and international legislation with respect to disaster reduction. In 2003, during a global review of disaster reduction initiatives, the ISDR Secretariat in conjunction with UNDP developed a framework for guiding and monitoring disaster risk reduction. The disaster risk reduction framework is composed of the following fields of action: • Risk awareness and assessment, including hazard analysis and vulnerability/ capacity analysis; • Knowledge development, including education, training, research and information; • Public commitment and institutional frameworks, including organisational, policy, legislation and community action; • Figure 1.6 The Disaster Risk Re- Application of measures including environmental management, land duction Framework use and urban planning, protection of critical facilities, application of science and technology, partnership and networking, and financial instruments; and

6 • Early warning systems including forecasting, dissemination of warnings, Existing hazards · Geological hazards preparedness measures and reaction capacities. · Hydro-meteorological hazards · Biological hazards Figure 1.6 demonstrates the general context and primary activities of disas- · Technological hazards · Conflicts hazards ter risk management, including the elements necessary for any comprehensive disaster risk reduction strategy. Note that there is limited emphasis on the preparedness, response and recovery functions. In Chapter 2 we have adapted the Total Disaster Risk Management (TDRM), which was derived by the Asian Disaster Reduction Center (ADRC) from this ISDR/UNDP com-

prehensive disaster risk reduction strategy. This has been included in more Emerging hazards detail to give an appreciation and understanding of the current global strate- · Climatic change hazards · Weather related hazards gies of shifting from disaster management to disaster risk management ema- · Transportation accidents hazards nating from the efforts of the ISDR. Landslides hazards

Disaster Reduction Related International Agendas and Commitments To reiterate the commitment of the international community to arresting the recently increasing disaster toll, several significant development declarations, agendas and conventions have been adopted over the past three decades. These cover almost all aspects pertaining to comfortable human life on this planet, free from disasters. They include the environment, freshwater management, climate change, desertification, social development, habitat and food security, and all of them contain commitments related to disaster reduction. Some of these are referred to frequently in the later chapters of this resource book. A total of 189 world leaders met and adopted the UN Millennium Declaration in New York in September 2000. The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), taken from this Declaration, were established, as guiding principles for the international community, national governments and the UN. Many of these targets reflect areas that are closely linked to vulnerability to natural hazards. These include eradicating extreme poverty and hunger, achieving universal primary education, promoting gender equality, ensuring environmental stability and using partnerships for development. The aspects of the UN Millennium Declaration which are related to the ISDR include: • Developing early warning systems, vulnerability mapping, technological transfer and training; • Supporting interdisciplinary and intersectoral partnerships, improved scientific research on the causes of natural disasters and better international cooperation to reduce the impact of climate variables, such as El Niño and La Niña; • Encouraging governments to address the problems created by mega- cities, the location of settlements in high risk areas and other human determinants of disasters; and • Encouraging governments to incorporate disaster risk reduction into national planning processes, including building codes.

The World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) was held in Hazard mapping and vulnerability assessment Johannesburg, South Africa in August and September 2002, ten years after then becomes an important tool for generating reliable disaster information (Figure 2.13). the UN Conference on Environment and Development, also known as the These diagnoses serve as a basis for good Rio Earth Summit (UN/ISDR 2003). The WSSD provided a timely reminder decision-making and efficient sharing of disaster risk information, resulting in the adop- to the international community that faulty development and inappropriate tion of appropriate response interventions and use of resources contribute to natural disasters. Natural disasters were also the best use of limited resources.

7 The Kyoto Protocol contains legally binding commitments for developed countries party recognised as posing a severe threat to sustainable development and therefore to the Convention. With the notable excep- tion of the United States, most developed needing priority attention. countries agreed to decrease their anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions by at least 5 percent from 1990 levels in the first com- Climate change mitment period from 2008 to 2012. But, some countries with high emission rates have not The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) yet ratified the Kyoto Protocol. This means was presented for signature at the Earth Summit in 1992. Its ultimate goal is that the Protocol is not yet in force, although by the end of 2007, the Convention counted the “stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a 174 countries having ratified the Kyoto Pro- level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the tocol, while the other nineteen, including Zim- babwe, have not yet expressed their posi- climatic system” (UNFCCC 1992). As a global review of disaster reduction tion.2 initiatives, the Kyoto Protocol was adopted in 1997 and added to the Climate Change Convention.

Desertification and drought The international community has long recognised that desertification poses a major economic, social, and environmental problem of concern to many countries. In 1977, the UN Conference on Desertification adopted a Plan of Ac- tion to Combat Desertification. This Plan of Action did not yield the intended results, as noted by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), which concluded in 1991 that, despite the efforts made by the signatories, the problem of land degradation had, in fact, intensified. Examples of success were very limited. The problem was readdressed in October 2003.

Wetlands The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands Preservation was adopted in 1971 in the Iranian city of Ramsar. It came into force in 1975 and 131 countries are party to it. The Ramsar Convention is the only global environmental treaty dealing with a specific ecosystem. Its mission concerns the conservation and wise use of wetlands by national action and international cooperation as a means to achieving sustainable development throughout the world. Some of the main activities of the Convention are the development of national wetlands policies and maintaining inventories of wetlands. It deals with all wetlands issues from surface water to groundwater. The main partners for the implementation of policies are the World Conservation Union (IUCN), Wetlands International, the Worldwide Fund for Nature (WWF) and Birdlife International.

The freshwater agenda In March 2000, the Second World Water Forum launched the World Water Vision and a Ministerial Declaration on Water Security in the 21st Century The gender agenda was announced. The declaration identifies seven challenges for the global The Beijing Platform for Action, adopted at community, including the “management of risk – to provide security from the Fourth World Conference on Women in 3 1995, recognises that women are particularly floods, droughts, pollution and other water-related hazards”. Water resource affected by environmental disasters, disease management is a challenge of worldwide significance. As water scarcity grows, and violence. It requests governments to, quality declines, and environmental and social concerns mount. The threat …promote knowledge of and spon- posed by floods and drought is exacerbated by increasing population vulner- sor research on the role of women, particularly rural and indigenous ability and climate change. The reduction of vulnerability to floods and women, in food gathering and pro- droughts will have to be included in many facets of the freshwater agenda. duction, soil conservation, irrigation, watershed management, sanita- These include the involvement of all stakeholders in river basin management, tion, coastal zone and marine re- an institutional framework to manage water demand more effectively and in- source management, integrated pest management, land-use plan- ternational trade arrangements that respect national water regulations. Such ning, forest conservation and community forestry, fisheries, natural water management processes need to be accompanied by the increased del- disaster prevention, and new and re- egation of responsibility and developed capacities to local authorities. newable sources of energy, focusing particularly on indigenous In 2000, a review of the implementation of the Beijing platform identified women’s knowledge and experience.4 8 natural disasters and epidemics as emerging issues that deserved greater atten- Health tion. The social and economic impacts of natural disasters and epidemics were The WHO looks at disasters as major public health issues and views disaster reduction noted as remaining relatively invisible as policy issues, in particular their im- as a core function of the health sector. It is pact on the status of women and the achievement of gender equality. The concerned with management of environmental health responsibilities before, during and review suggested that gender perspectives be incorporated into disaster pre- after emergencies and disasters. The WHO vention, mitigation and recovery strategies. It also recommended that the UN takes into consideration the following: · Reducing the vulnerability of communities system and international organisations should assist governments in develop- to hazards and increasing their ability to withstand disruption and to recover rap- ing gender sensitive strategies for the delivery of assistance and to respond to idly; humanitarian crises resulting from natural disasters. · Strengthening routine services so that the potential health effects of emergencies and disasters are minimised; The habitat agenda · Responding to emergencies and disasters with appropriate environmental health activities (water supply and sanitation, vec- The habitat agenda was defined during the Second UN Conference on Human tor control, etc.); and Settlements (Istanbul, 1996). It states that an increasing number of disasters · Protection of hospitals and healthcare centres, with the ultimate goal of protecting are caused by vulnerability created by human action, such as uncontrolled or the lives of patients, staff and other oc- inadequately planned human settlements, lack of basic infrastructure and hu- cupants and ensuring that these facilities can continue to function during and after man settlements in disaster prone areas. UN-HABITAT takes actions to im- a disaster incident. prove disaster risk management by working with partners that include local governments, insurance companies, non governmental organisations (NGOs) and the academic, health and scientific communities. The goal is to adopt appropriate norms for land use, building and planning standards.

Building the Resilience of Nations and Communities to Disasters The Hyogo Framework for Action, 2005-2015 has as one of its strategic goals the “development and strengthening of institutions, mechanisms and capacities to build resilience to hazards”.5 It encourages the creation of and support for groupings such as multisectoral national platforms, which ensure that disaster risk reduction is treated not only nationally, but as a local priority as well, involving community participation. It also calls for the inclusion of disaster risk reduction in education curricula. These national platforms for disaster risk reduction6 facilitate communication of information with the ISDR secretariat. So that they can be effective and sustainable, it is necessary that they be built through a nationally owned and led participatory process of which a multi-stakeholder composition is mandatory.

National platforms and Zimbabwe Disaster risk reduction is a country specific and long term process. Its success relies heavily on sustainability, and national ownership and leadership. Therefore, each country needs to determine for itself how best to approach the establishment of a national platform and activity plans, depending on the prevailing economic, social, political and ecological circumstances. In Zim- babwe, the national platform has been developed in the context of existing mechanisms and processes whereby the existing Civil Protection Committee that held the disaster reduction mandate simply took over the platform role. The Hyogo Framework provides a reference for assessing and monitoring achievements National platforms, through their coordination, exchange, lobbying and aware- on disaster risk reduction, thus facilitating the work of national platforms when undertaking ness raising roles, contribute to strengthening present structures or national roles such as: systems, institutions and processes. Under this Hyogo Framework, the Civil · Establishing existing baselines; · Identifying existing trends; Protection Committee as the national platform has the opportunity to increase · Benchmarking progress; its access to and linkages with other relevant bodies nationally, regionally and · Ascertaining challenge areas and concerns; globally. · Redirecting and refining efforts; · Exchanging lessons learned and best practices; An African Initiative For Disaster Risk Reduction · Setting out accepted targets; · Establishing credibility across different As noted, Africa is the only continent where the regional share of reported institutions and interest groups; and disasters in the world total has increased over the past decade. The occur- · Recording and reporting.

9 rence of disasters triggered by natural hazards and the social and economic losses caused as a result are rising in Africa, posing a great threat to Africa’s ability to achieve the MDGs and sustainable development (AfDB, 2003). One result of this is that a significant portion of development resourcing has to be diverted to relief and rehabilitation assistance. By hosting the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation of the 2002 World Sum- A review of the status of disaster risk reduction in Africa showed that the continent’s de- mit on Sustainable Development Africa brought to the attention of the ISDR velopment is at risk from disasters mainly because of gaps in the following areas: the call for the mainstreaming of disaster risk management in development 1 Institutional frameworks; closer to home. The summit also urged that action be taken at all levels to 2 Risk identification; 3 Knowledge management; assist Africa to deal with natural disasters and conflicts within the framework 4 Governance; and 5 Emergency response. of the New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD), with the aim of assisting Africa achieve the targets for sustainable poverty reduction in the MDGs.

Although disaster risk reduction policies and institutional mechanisms do exist (at various degrees of completion) in African countries, their effectiveness is limited. Thus there is a need for a strategic approach to improving and enhancing their effectiveness and efficiency by emphasising disaster risk reduction. To address the issue of disasters comprehensively, NEPAD, within the framework of the African Union (AU), the African Development Bank (AfDB) and the United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UN/ISDR) Africa have been working together since the beginning of 2003 to provide strategic guidance and direction to the mainstreaming of disaster risk reduction in sustainable development planning and processes (AfDB, 2003).

The process for formulating a continental disaster risk reduction strategy started with a NEPAD workshop on Disaster Management in April 2003. The workshop called for interventions to address issues of food security and disaster management in Africa. The outputs of the workshop centred on the recognition of the need to develop a regional strategy and programme of action on disaster risk reduction.

In light of the above concerns, the aim of the proposed African Regional Strat- egy for Disaster Risk Reduction is to contribute to the attainment of sustainable development and poverty eradication by facilitating the integration of disaster risk reduction into development.

The Strategy’s objectives are to: 1 Increase political commitment to disaster risk reduction; The main challenge now is to transform this 2 Improve identification and assessment of disaster risks; strategy and the guidelines into action by policy makers, decision makers, disaster man- 3 Enhance knowledge management for disaster risk reduction; agers and development practitioners at sub- 4 Increase public awareness of disaster risk reduction; regional, national and community levels. To meet this challenge, Zimbabwe, through its 5 Improve governance of disaster risk reduction institutions; and implementing body the CPD, is proceeding with the joint initiative with UN/ISDR Africa in 6 Integrate disaster risk reduction in emergency response management. the development of a programme to facilitate the mainstreaming of disaster risk reduction into sustainable development plan- The Strategy to achieve these objectives was officially acknowledged at the ning and activities in the country. The education sector has been targeted in order to take AU Summit in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia in July 2004, with an official call for a advantage of the multiplier factor inherent in programme of implementation through the joint efforts of the AU and NEPAD, this sector to fuse disaster risk reduction into the school curriculum. This resource book for with continuous support from the UN/ISDR, in cooperation with the UNDP teachers is the product of this approach. and UNEP.

10 Subsequently the joint initiatives among the AU, NEPAD, AfDB and UN/ISDR Africa have resulted in a set of strategic documents, drafted with support from experts, government officials, UNDP- Bureau for Crisis Prevention and Recovery (BCPR) and UNEP (AU, 2005). The documents are: 1 The Regional Review of Disaster Reduction; 2 The Regional Strategy for Disaster Risk Management; and 3 Guidelines for Mainstreaming Disaster Risk Reduction into Sustainable Development.

Disaster Risk Reduction Efforts in Zimbabwe Zimbabwe’s climate, physical geography, geology and vegetation make it prone to a range of disasters resulting from natural hazards such as severe storms, floods, droughts, cyclones, earth tremors and veld-fires. In addition, because Zimbabwe is a relatively industrialised and resource rich nation, it is subject to a variety of other emergencies and disasters resulting from human-caused and technological hazards that include transport and industrial accidents, major urban fires, and accidents involving hazardous materials. Every day, somewhere in Zimbabwe, emergency organisations have to respond to events that may threaten people’s lives or property. There are occasions however, when the scale or unusual nature of an event requires planned coordination between responding organisations. This resource book outlines By road and by air. The CPD ar- arrangements in Zimbabwe which provide for this planned coordination during rives in Muzarabani as part of the major emergencies or disasters in terms of national policy and the rapid response team during the organisational structure of the CPD. floods of 2003 (Source: CPD) Policy and Disaster Management Organisation in Zimbabwe Zimbabwe’s emergency management and counter disaster arrangements reflect the fact that, under the county’s Constitution, state, district and Figure 1.7 The Structure of the provincial governing bodies each have responsibility for protection and Civil Protection Department preservation of the lives and property of their citizens. Every citizen, in turn, has the responsibility to assist where possible to avert or limit the effects of disaster. As provided by the Zimbabwe Civil Protection Act of 1989, central government initiates hazard reduction measures through relevant sector ministries with the local administration taking the responsibility for implementing and maintaining its effectiveness. The structure is illustrated in Figure 1.7, below. They exercise control over most of the functions essential for effective disaster prevention, preparedness, response and recovery, through: • Legislative and regulatory arrangements within which the community and various agencies operate; • Provision of police, fire, ambulance and emergency services, and medical and hospital services; and • Government and statutory agencies which provide services to the community. The system uses the existing government, private, and non governmental organisations whose regular activities contain elements of disaster risk pre- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 vention and community development. Local government plays a major role, MLGPW&NH Sister Ministry NGO as do the many voluntary organisations, because of their intimate links with Departments Representatives

11 The National Civil Protection Plan (NCPP) the communities they serve. The role of the CPD is to provide guidance and forms the overall framework for the promotion, coordination and execution of emergency support to the state and downwards, in developing their capacity for dealing and disaster management in Zimbabwe by: · Allocating responsibilities and duties to with emergencies and disasters, and to provide physical assistance to requesting appropriate authorities at different lev- provinces or districts when they cannot cope during an emergency. els so that organisations can prepare their own plans and make them operational when required; and · Providing guidelines for the planning ex- Legislation ecution and preservation of the civil protection system and its functions. The Minister of Local Government and National Housing (MLGNH) is charged with the coordinating role, as empowered by the Civil Protection Act No. 5 of 1989. The Act provides for: 1 Establishment of the Civil Protection Directorate whose responsibilities are: a) Establishment, promotion and directing of civil protection organisations in civil protection provinces and civil protection areas. b) Appointment of planning committees in civil protection provinces ‘All disaster preparedness and response activities in the country are initiated through the and civil protection areas, which shall draft the civil protection National Crisis Committee and its sub-com- measures, to be submitted to the Director then the Minister for mittees, with the assistance of technical experts who also constitute a sub-committee.’ approval. c) Assisting institutions, departments, private and non governmental organisations to come up with plans for emergency preparedness and disaster prevention. d) Consulting the Minister who in turn shall also consult the President to declare and gazette a state of emergency. e) Ensuring that the data gathered through different persons from various disciplines is not contradictory. f) Regular contact with international disaster management and disaster relief organisations. g) Arranging to get first hand information on major incidents. h) Development of public awareness programmes on emergency preparedness and response. i) Promoting research and training into matters relating to disaster management.

2 Special powers designed to establish, coordinate and direct the activities of both the public and the emergency services. The CPD coordinates quite a number of public awareness programmes tailored to both 3 Guidelines for action and maximum use of resources since disaster the wet and dry seasons. Awareness cam- mitigation requires a multisectoral and interdisciplinary approach. paigns on flooding, drowning and lightning hazards are carried out towards and during 4 The establishment of a National Civil Protection Fund that receives the wet season, while campaigns on fire hazards are conducted in winter. The campaigns money from both Government and the public. The fund is applied to use a multisectoral approach, with the CPD the development of Civil Protection activities throughout the country. having the role of designing and coordinating the programmes. Information is disseminated through the press, by pamphlets and in road shows. Trade fair exhibitions on fire The National Civil Protection Plan hazards that threaten the environment have also been mounted. Budgetary constraints A National Civil Protection Coordination Committee (NCPCC) derives its limit the use of the electronic media although mandate from section (41) (2) of the Civil Protection Act No. 5 of 1989 and it has a potentially far reaching impact. The media has also demonstrated a keen inter- is responsible for the execution of civil protection functions. The permanent est and has proven an effective tool for information dissemination. The results show that members of the NCPCC are senior officers selected from government there has been heightened awareness on ministries and departments, parastatals and NGOs. Other members, especially hazards and their impacts among the general public. Developing this resource book is from the private sector, are co-opted as required. This multisectoral also one of the major endeavours by the CPD to create a Zimbabwean generation that is representation is replicated at the provincial and district levels. However, disaster management literate. there are marked variations in the representation as some organisations

12 Figure 1.8 Organisational Struc- ture of the Civil Protection De- partment

remain centralised and, even among those that are decentralised, the grades of staff working at provincial or district level affects the manner in which they are represented.

In addition to ministries having special responsibilities according to their portfolios, members of the NCPCC, Provincial Civil Protection Coordination Committee (PCPCC) and District Civil Protection Coordination Committee (DCPCC) are grouped into functional sub-committees namely: • Food Supplies and Food Security, chaired by the Ministry of Public Service Labour and Social Welfare; • Health, Nutrition and Welfare, chaired by the Ministry of Health and Highfield theatre and dance group, Child Welfare; Together as One, performing in • Search, Rescue and Security, chaired by the Zimbabwe Republic Police; Malipati during one of the public • International Cooperation Assistance, chaired by the Ministry of annual pre-rainfall season public Finance. awareness campaign. The CPD The Minister is helped in administering the Civil Protection Act and its policy uses dance groups to attract villag- by a series of administrative echelons starting at the national and going down ers and schoolchildren to cam- to the district level, as depicted in Figure 1.8. paign rallies and drama based on related disaster themes to convey Current work of the Civil Protection Department the necessary information to the The CPD carries out regular vulnerability and capacity assessments, espe- audiences. (Source: CPD) cially during periods of disaster, to collect baseline data for intervention. The methods used include community and household interviews, particularly in the rural areas where the most vulnerable people are. Vulnerability assessments have also been carried out in urban areas with the similar objectives of identifying the most vulnerable groups in terms of food access and availability, and vulnerability to the impact of HIV and AIDS and other diseases. The CPD engages existing institutions for the execution of scientific research work that is in Zimbabwe has attempted to integrate lessons learnt from past major emer- line with disaster risk reduction. For example, technical support for scientific research can gencies and disasters such as droughts, cyclones and major public transport be obtained from the University of Zimbabwe into its ongoing strategies. Disaster review seminars held after an incident and from the Scientific and Industrial Research and Development Centre (SIRDC), both of have resulted in an improved early warning system for the country’s hydro- which are parastatals. The work they are involved in includes studying soil samples e.g. meteorological disasters, such as flooding, cyclones and droughts. The Me- in communities that are vulnerable to flood- teorological Services Department monitors the weather closely and is man- ing emergencies and developing sustainable construction materials. They also advise policy dated to give regular updates and warning information, including to the gen- makers whether such sites are suitable for human settlement or not. Their expertise has eral public when necessary, through the prescribed channels of communica- also been called for in designing rural build- tion. ings and low cost sewage reticulation plants.

13 CHAPTER 2 Disaster Risk Management Concepts Introduction This chapter introduces and develops the working concept and principles for the Disaster Risk Reduction Approach. It is designed to introduce the subject of disaster risk management by starting with the definition of basic terms that will be used throughout the book, and goes on to look at the various forms of hazards and their phases. It also discusses four essential component topics:

1 The review of current approaches to disaster management; 2 The development of risk management concepts; 3 The essentials of the new risk management concept; and 4 The Total Disaster Risk Management (TDRM) approach and how to integrate the community into this. The chapter is primarily designed to increase the teacher’s awareness of the current nature and management of disasters, in line with current practice in disaster management. The aim is to make teachers and their students ‘disaster risk reduction literate’. We hope that this will lead to better performance in both disaster preparedness and response at community and local levels. Most of the disaster risk management concepts, definitions of terms and terminology are based on material from UN-OCHA/Kobe (2005) and ISDR (2004).

Hazards and Disasters HAZARD A potentially damaging physical event, phenomenon or human activity that may cause the loss of life, or injury, property damage, social and economic

A potentially damaging physical event, phe- disruption or environmental degradation. nomenon or human activity that may cause the loss of life, or injury, property damage, NATURAL HAZARDS Hazards with meteorological, geological, biological or social and economic disruption or environmental degradation. extraterrestrial (space) origins.

HUMAN-MADE HAZARDS Hazards or emergency situations in which the principal, direct cause(s) are identifiable human actions, deliberate or otherwise. Apart from ‘technological’ and ‘ecological’ hazards, this mainly involves situations in which civilian populations may suffer casualties, or loss of property, basic services and means of livelihood, as a result of war or civil strife for example. Human-made hazards or emergencies can be of the rapid or slow onset types and, in the case of internal conflict, can lead to ‘complex emergencies’ as well.

DISASTER A condition or an impulsive event of significant destruction, disruption or distress to the normal functioning of a community, causing widespread human, material, or environmental losses, which exceed the A condition or an impulsive event of signifi- ability of the affected community to cope using only its own resources. The cant destruction, disruption or distress to the damage caused by disaster is immeasurable and differs with variations in the normal functioning of a community, causing widespread human, material, or environmen- geographical location, climate and the type of the earth surface. This tal losses, which exceed the ability of the af- influences the mental, socioeconomic, political and cultural state of the fected community to cope using only its own resources. affected area.

14 Box 2.1 Difference between a Hazard and a Disaster BOX 2.1 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A HAZARD AND A

DISASTER “Strictly speaking, there is no such thing as a natural disaster, but there are natural hazards, such as cyclones and earthquakes. The difference between a hazard and a disaster is an important one. A disaster takes place when a community is affected by a hazard (usually defined as an event that overwhelms that community’s capacity to cope). In other words, the impact of the disaster is determined by the extent of a community’s vulnerability to the hazard. This vulnerability is not natural. It is the human dimension of disasters, the result of the whole range of economic, social, cultural, institutional, political and even psychological factors that shape people’s lives and create the environment that they live in.”

Source: Twigg, J. 2001

Variables of disaster Disasters of all kinds and magnitudes happen when hazards seriously affect Therefore, in a broad sense, a ‘disaster’ has the following impacts in the affected area: communities. They can occur anywhere at any time and they are generally · Complete disruption of the normal day- unpredictable. However, disasters can vary in the following ways: to-day functions of the community; · Increased demand for provision of fundamental necessities, such as food, CAUSE They can result from a natural or human-made hazard (e.g. flood or shelter, and healthcare; · Drastic deterioration in the normal life pro- transport accident). cess; and · The demand that emergency systems op- FREQUENCY AND RISK Some occur more often and, therefore, present a greater erate at their maximum capacity. risk than others (e.g. in Zimbabwe, there is a much higher risk of damage from severe thunderstorms than from landslides).

DURATION OF IMPACT Some may be of limited duration, while others may last for long periods (e.g. lightning may only last for a second, but a drought may go on for years).

DESTRUCTIVE POTENTIAL This can vary enormously with the type of hazard (e.g. a bridge collapse is a localised event causing damage over a much smaller SPEED OF ONSET Some happen suddenly, while area than a cyclone which affects the whole country). with others there is a warning period of perhaps hours, days or even months (e.g. there PREDICTABILITY Some hazards follow certain patterns, and others do not (e.g. may be only a few minutes warning of a flash flood, whereas the relatively slow onset of a floods are usually confined to known floodplains but toxic gas emissions drought allows a much longer warning time). have no boundaries).

CONTROL AND HUMAN VULNERABILITY In some disasters we are totally help- less and must leave them to run their course. In others we can do something to lessen their impact even if we cannot prevent them from occurring (e.g. unlike lightning, wild fires can often be prepared for and controlled, however more Zimbabweans are vulnerable to them as they happen more frequently than lightening and affect larger areas).

Classification by Origin SCOPE OF IMPACT Some disasters may affect a relatively small area, and others may affect Meteorological origin whole countries or regions (e.g. floods in Muzarabani compared to widespread drought Parts of Zimbabwe suffer regularly from the effects of meteorological haz- in Southern Africa). Others caused by a single hazard and initially affecting a small area, ards in the form of tropical cyclones, droughts, bushfires, floods, lightning could cause a chain reaction involving several other hazards covering a much larger and severe storms. Less common but among the most dangerous weather haz- region (e.g. an earthquake which damages ards are tornadoes and extreme cold (explained in Chapter 3). Although in roads causing transport accidents, ruptures petrol pipes causing fires, and fractures a dam neighboring countries like South Africa, these two are the most deadly me- causing flash flooding).

15 Compared to some other countries, disasters teorological hazards, in Zimbabwe they rarely cause death except when people regularly caused by these hazards in Zimba- bwe do not often take a large toll in terms of are caught in very cold conditions without adequate protection, or near an lives, mainly because the country is not insecure structure in the case of tornadoes. densely populated and is relatively well prepared. However, they often result in damage that can run into hundreds of millions of US dollars. This effect alone causes suffering to Geological origin individuals, families and communities that can last for years. Volcanoes are extinct in Zimbabwe and intense earthquakes scarcely occur, although several mild to moderate ones have caused minor building damage in Matabeleland North and South as well as in Manicaland. The Nyamandlovu Aquifer earthquakes from 1999 to 2004 caused some damage to weak rural structures, including the collapse of wells and boreholes, although there was no loss of life (see Chapter 4). In many countries, landslides are often caused by earthquakes but, in Zimbabwe, they are usually the result of soil saturation or human activity and, until recently, were not regarded as major hazards as they were seen to be responsible for only occasional serious damage to roads and houses. In 1996 and 1997, however, this view changed when landslide disasters became common as a result of rampant gold panning activities (see Chapter 7).

Biological origin The biological hazards with potential for disaster in Zimbabwe include human disease epidemics (e.g. cholera, TB, STDs, hepatitis, HIV), vermin and insect plagues (e.g. rabbits, mice, locusts), exotic animal diseases (e.g. foot and mouth, anthrax) and food crop diseases. These and other similar hazards could dramatically and suddenly affect both the health and wealth of any nation (see Chapter 5).

Extraterrestrial origin Although presenting a very low risk, the impact on earth of being hit by a comet or asteroid (large meteorite) could certainly cause anything from a major regional disaster, to a worldwide catastrophe. There are many past impact sites throughout the world, including in Zimbabwe (see Chapter 4).

Human-made hazards and disasters Human error or deliberate acts sometimes take on disastrous proportions. These may include urban fires, terrorist bombings, riots, wars, crowd crushes at mass gatherings, shooting massacres, and even sabotage of essential Classifications of hazards differ slightly at times depending on the defining organisation. services (e.g. water or power supplies). The latest classification of hazards by the In- ternational Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR) during the global review of disaster Technological origin reduction initiatives in 2003 is presented in Table 2.1. This is the classification that we These include major transport, mining and hazardous materials accidents (e.g. have adopted for use in all chapters of this oil or chemical spills), as well as industrial explosions, fire and occasional resource book. bridge collapses. This category also includes dam failures and nuclear power accidents (see Chapter 6).

Classification by Time Frame Hazards and the disasters they cause are classified as rapid onset or cataclysmic, and slow onset, long term or continuing.

Rapid onset/cataclysmic disaster In a cataclysmic disaster, one large scale event causes most of the damage and destruction. Following this event, there may be a tremendous amount of

16 suffering and chaos, but things soon begin to improve. In a long term, con- Cataclysmic disasters destroy buildings and entire human settlements. Loss of life is sud- tinuing disaster, the situation after the event remains constant or may even den and, therefore, dramatic. In terms of food deteriorate as time passes. Cataclysmic disasters include earthquakes, volca- and food distribution, cataclysmic disasters are normally more disruptive than destruc- nic eruptions, cyclonic storms, and floods. tive. For example, they may disrupt the transport and marketing systems. They can disrupt or damage irrigation systems and, to a Slow onset/continuing limited extent, they may destroy food supplies. But the extent of destruction depends Continuing natural disasters include droughts, crop failures, and environmen- on the season, the location of the disaster, and the total area affected. On the other hand, tal degradation, such as deforestation and desertification. The damaged area while continuing disasters disrupt transporta- in a cataclysmic disaster is usually relatively small, while the area affected in tion and distribution networks, cataclysmic disasters can also bring them to a complete a continuing disaster may be extremely large. halt and even destroy the system itself.

The Disaster Concept Hardly a month passes without media reports of a disaster in Zimbabwe or abroad. So what really are disasters? The definition of ‘disaster’ given earlier on seems not to say it all and leaves some areas not attended to. For example, an event that disrupts an entire family, such as having their home burn down may be seen as a ‘disaster’ by that family but it lacks the community level impact contained in the definition given. To a disaster manager it is clear that the word ‘disaster’ is often used inappropriately or as an exaggeration. The discussion below adds some further detail and distinguishing features to the description given.

Disasters are human-made Essentially, all disasters are human-made, for, a catastrophic event, whether precipitated by natural phenomena or human activities, assumes the status of a disaster when the community or society affected fails to cope. An earthquake or tropical cyclone, for example, is not a disaster in and of itself. Natu- ral hazards such as tropical cyclones, floods, earthquakes and droughts tend to spring to mind when the word ‘disaster’ is mentioned but a disaster is cor- rectly defined on the basis of its human consequences, not on the phenomenon that caused it (Hewitt, 1997). Natural hazards, however intense, inevitable or unpredictable, translate into disasters only to the extent that the population was unprepared to respond and unable to cope. Therefore, the extent of the disaster depends on both the intensity of the event and the degree of vulnerability of the society. Thus a natural disaster always consists of two elements, an external event (the hazard) and the impacts of this hazard on a vulnerable social group exposed to it. A very intense tropical cyclone occurring in an uninhabited area (as do scores of tropical cyclones in the ocean each month) is only of scientific interest and is not considered a disaster.

Extreme natural events only become disasters if they have an impact upon vulnerable people, who may be exposed to natural hazards through carelessness or poverty, or who contribute to or aggravate the events by interfering with nature. Consider the tropical cyclone Eline that affected Mauritius and Southern Africa in February 2000. The cyclone had a lot of destructive strength when it hit Mauritius, but caused minimal damage to property, with no offi- The vulnerability of humans to the impact of cial death reported (Mauritius Met Services, 2000). Hence it was not de- natural hazards is to a significant extent determined by human action or inaction. For ex- clared a disaster in Mauritius. However, the way in which it affected Zimba- ample, the UN Intergovernmental Panel for bwe, with only a fraction of the original destructive force, made it one of the Climate Change (IPCC) has traced the current climatic anomalies attributed to global worst natural disasters of the century in terms of life and property lost. More climate change to human activities.

17 Table 2:1 ISDR Hazards Classification HAZARD A potentially damaging physical event, phenomenon or human activity which may cause the loss of life or injury, property damage, social and economic disruption or environmental degradation

NATURAL HAZARDS Natural processes or phenomena occurring in the biosphere that may constitute a damaging event. Natural hazards can be classified according to their geological, hydro-meteorological or biological origins

ORIGIN: Hydro-meteorological hazards Natural processes or phenomena of atmospheric,hydrological or oceanographic nature

ORIGIN: Geological hazards Natural earth processes or phenomena that include processes of tectonic or exogenous origin, such as mass movements

TECHNOLOGICAL HAZARDS Danger associated with technological or industrial accidents, infrastructure failures or certain human activities that may cause the loss of life or injury, property damage, social and economic disruption or environmental degradation, sometimes referred to as anthropogenic hazards. Examples include industrial pollution, nuclear release and radioactivity, toxic waste, dam failure, transport, Phenomena/Example of Hydro-meteorologi- industrial or technological accidents (explosions, fires, spills). cal hazards •Floods, debris and mudflows ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION •Tropical cyclones, storm surges, wind, rain and other severe storms, blizzards, lightning Processes induced by human behaviour and activities (sometimes combined with •Drought, desertification, wild fires, tempera- natural hazards) that damage the natural resource base or adversely alter natural ture extremes, sand or dust storms processes or ecosystems. Potential effects are varied and may contribute to an •Permafrost, snow avalanches increase in vulnerability and the frequency and intensity of natural hazards. Phenomena/Example of Geological hazards Examples include land degradation, deforestation, desertification, veld fires, loss •Earthquakes, tsunamis of biodiversity, pollution of land, water and air, climate change, sea level rise and •Volcanic activity and emissions •Mass movements, landslides, rockslides, ozone depletion. •Liquefaction, sub-marine slides •Surface collapse, geological fault activity Adapted from ‘Living with Risk: A Global Review of Disaster Reduction Initiatives’

than 120 people died from direct effects with several hundreds more being indirectly affected. Development in many areas was set back by several decades (see Chapter 3). Therefore, the vulnerability of humans to the impact of natural hazards is to a significant extent determined by human action or inaction. For example, the UN Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change (IPCC) has traced the current climatic anomalies attributed to global climate change to human activities (IPCC, 1995).

Disaster impacts Each type of disaster can have a number of disruptive effects. These, in turn, cause generally predictable problems and needs of four kinds: environmental; health; social, economic, and political; and administrative and managerial.

Environmental effects Disasters can lead to destruction and damage to homes and buildings, decreased quantity or quality of water supplies, destruction of crops and/or food stocks, and the presence of unburied human bodies or animal carcasses. These environmental effects vary considerably from disaster to disaster. For example, earthquakes affect buildings but usually not crops, while tropical cy-

18 clones may affect both.

Effects on health Sudden natural disasters often cause not only widespread death, but also massive social disruption and outbreaks of epidemic disease and famine. There is a relationship between the type of disaster and its effect on health. This is particularly true of the immediate impact in causing injuries. Bus accidents cause many injuries requiring medical care, while floods and droughts cause relatively few such injuries. The risks of increased disease transmission are greatest where there is crowding and reduced standards of sanitation.

Economic, social, and political effects Disasters disrupt rather than destroy economies. Whether or not an economy is able to recover quickly depends on the losses sustained. Physical damage to businesses and industry may temporarily halt some activities, but most enterprises can operate at reduced levels, even with the loss of equipment. When a disaster strikes, large formal organisations may be disrupted. Wide- spread disasters can destroy or damage facilities that may be critical not only for responding to the disaster but also for maintaining a safe environment and public order. Among these are communications installations; electrical generating and transmission facilities; water storage, purification, and pumping facilities; sewage treatment facilities; hospitals; police stations; and private Disasters can be prevented or their impact buildings. During the initial stages of most types of disaster, almost all sur- on people and communities mitigated but the extent to which this happens depends on face means of transportation within a community are disrupted. Bridges might human action or inaction in response to high be washed out; landslides might block or damage roads; and rubble can block risk and vulnerability (Guzman, 2001). Guzman’s view enables us to recognise the streets and highways (Cova and Conger, 2000). importance of community action, such as capacity building, including planning responses to potential disasters, and managing and Can a Disaster Impact be Reduced or Prevented? mitigating their effects. Preventing the occurrence or recurrence of disaster should be pos- Since we lay the disaster problem squarely on human influence, it must be sible. also the actions of human beings that can reduce, if not prevent, disasters. To return to the case of tropical cyclone Eline and Mauritius, we can see that utilisation of advances in science and technology, including early warning and forecasting of natural phenomena, meant that the detrimental effects on the island’s population were curtailed and communities and their property were adequately protected. High exposure to the frequent impact of tropical cyclones on the island, together with innovative approaches and strategies for enhancing local capacities, resulted in tropical cyclone Eline being easily predicted and its effects mitigated. Hence it crossed Mauritius being perceived locally as just another storm but left an inerasable scar on the face of continental Southern Africa. This experience demonstrates that human societies have the capacity to recognise the risks and factors that could lead to disasters and the appropriate interventions to control or manage them. Disasters can be prevented or their impact on people and communities mitigated but the extent to which this happens depends on human action or inaction in response to high risk and vulner- Disasters need to be regarded as events that can be managed and responded to as neces- ability (Guzman, 2001). Guzman’s view enables us to recognise the impor- sary. A forward looking response to a hazard, tance of community action, such as capacity building, including planning before it escalates into a disaster also yields time for purposive social action, including responses to potential disasters, and managing and mitigating their effects. adoption of innovative development strategies, to prevent or reduce the loss of life and Preventing the occurrence or recurrence of disaster should be possible. property as well as degradation of the environment and deterioration of the economy.

19 HAZARD is a phenomenon, event or occurrence Risk and Disaster Risk Concepts that has the potential to cause injury to life or damage to property or the environment. The magnitude of the phenomenon, the prob- It is very important that the concepts of ‘hazard’, ‘vulnerability’, and ‘risk’ be ability of its occurrence, and the extent and adequately understood in the context of disasters in order to be able to differ- severity of its impact may vary. Usually the hazard related effects can be anticipated or entiate these terms. These three words are going to be used quite frequently estimated. Therefore, through careful study and understanding of the nature and preva- throughout this resource book. They are defined below using examples from lence of hazards, a community or public au- the UNDP’s disaster management working definitions. thority could anticipate future hazards and their impact, and minimise the risk of a disaster. For example, climate change impacts are now being studied through the UN’s IPCC Risk Analysis and Risk Management as a Process and some of the effects, together with ways to mitigate them, are already known. Risk analysis

VULNERABILITY refers to the susceptibility of a Risk analysis involves the systematic use of available information to deter- community to a hazard and the conditions, including physical, socioeconomic and politi- mine the likelihood of certain events occurring and the magnitude of their cal factors, that adversely affect its ability to respond to hazards or disaster events. The possible consequences. Guzman (2003) outlines activities in the process as: community and its members may or may not 1 Identifying the nature, extent, and risk of threat; be contributing intentionally or directly to these conditions but, altogether, they create 2 Determining the existence and degree of vulnerabilities; factors and situations that define the vulnerability of the community. Vulnerabilities can 3 Identifying the capabilities and resources available; be manifested as physical, social, or attitudi- 4 Determining acceptable levels of risk, i.e. cost-benefit considerations; nal vulnerability. For example, a community whose villages are situated on a flood plain 5 Setting priorities relative to time, resource allocation and effective- is vulnerable to floods (physical vulnerability); a poor community is subject to a wide ness of results; array of vulnerabilities (social vulnerability); 6 Developing methods to protect people and key resources and reduce a person who refuses to acknowledge the spread of AIDS through unsafe sex is vulner- over all losses; and able to the disease (attitudinal vulnerability). 7 Designing effective and appropriate management systems to implement and control. RISK is the probability that threat to life or damage to property and the environment will occur. However, in disaster management, ‘risk’ Risk management refers to the combined susceptibility and vulnerability of the community to potential dam- The systematic application of management policies, procedures and practices age caused by a particular hazard within a specified future time period. Risk is rooted in to the tasks of identifying, analysing, assessing, treating and monitoring risk conditions of physical, social, economic and environmental vulnerability that need to be is referred to as ‘risk management’. It includes estimating the potential ef- assessed and managed on a continuing ba- fects of the risk through an evaluation of all the elements that are relevant to sis. an understanding of existing or probable hazards and their effects on a specific community or environment, and setting out priorities. This evaluation, which also encompasses socioeconomic and political factors, enables the determination of appropriate vulnerability reduction, prevention and mitiga- Figure 2:1 Interaction of tion, as well as preparedness and response strategies. Vulnerability Factors Understanding Disaster Risk Reduction As mentioned in Chapter 1, the number of natural disasters has been increasing, as has their impact, due to such external changes as the concentration of populations and property in hazardous areas, and rapid urbanisation. We have already seen that the recent increases of earthquakes, tropical cyclones and torrential rains, are only natural phenomena we refer to as ‘hazards’ and are not considered to be disasters in and of themselves. For instance, a tropical cyclone in the ocean does not trigger a disaster if there is no existing population or property affected. Indeed, the annual floods in Muzarabani in the northeast of Zimbabwe are essential to the well being of the local inhabitants, as they are a prerequisite for the fertility of the soils found in the area. Once the natural phenomena have the potential to harm life and property, then they translate into natural hazards and when their effects are serious they become natural disasters.

20 Thus in addition to a hazard, some vulnerability to the natural phenomenon must be present for an event to constitute a disaster. ‘Vulnerability’ is defined as a condition resulting from physical, social, economic, and environmental factors or processes, which increases the susceptibility of a community to the impact of a hazard. These four broad areas in which different aspects of vulnerability can be grouped can interact with each other to create even more vulnerable conditions. In Figure 2.1, the area where all the four spheres inter- sect signifies the most vulnerable situation. The following are ways in which each of these four broad areas bring about vulnerability:

PHYSICAL FACTORS These refer mainly to aspects and susceptibilities of location and the built environment. They may be described as ‘exposure’, ‘being placed in harm’s way’ or simply ‘being in the wrong place at the wrong time’. Aspects such as, population density levels, remoteness of a settlement, the site, and the design and materials used for critical infrastructure and for housing may determine physical vulnerability.

SOCIAL FACTORS These include aspects related to levels of literacy and education, the existence of peace and security, access to basic human rights, systems of governance, social equity, positive traditional values, customs and ideological beliefs and overall collective organisational systems. Some groups are more vulnerable than others. The sick and the disabled are particularly susceptible, as their evacuation and continued care is severely hampered during disasters. Predisposition to infection, high exposure to communicable diseases and lack of defensive mechanisms represent individual conditions of vulnerability. Increased vulnerability usually manifests itself in physical features, such as insufficient basic infrastructure, especially water supply and sanitation, as well as inadequate healthcare facilities and supplies.

ECONOMIC FACTORS Levels of vulnerability are highly dependent upon the economic status of individuals, communities and nations. The poor, a disproportionately female and elderly group in most regions, are generally far more

Figure 2.2 Examples of Exposure to Hazards through Location

This shows that the people as well as the property and the environment that is to be affected by hazards face different types and levels of ‘exposure’. Some examples of exposure elements are shown in Figure 2.2.

21 Figure 2.3 The Mechanism Behind vulnerable than economically better off segments of society. An economy the Emergence of Natural Disas- lacking in diversity is generally the most vulnerable. Inadequate access to ters critical and basic socioeconomic infrastructure, including communication networks, utilities and supplies, transportation, water, sewage and healthcare facilities, increase people’s exposure to risk.

ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS The extent of natural resource depletion and resource degradation are key aspects of environmental vulnerability. For example, a polluted environment increases people’s exposure to health risks. As natural resources become scarcer the range of options available to communities becomes more limited, reducing the availability of coping solutions and decreasing local resilience to hazards and capacity for recovery following a disaster. Over a period of time, environmental factors can increase vulnerability further by creating new and undesirable patterns of social discord, economic destitution and eventually forced migration of entire communi- Adapted from Asian Disaster Reduction Cen- ties. ter Risk can be further understood as the probability of harmful consequences, or expected losses (deaths, injuries, property loss, disruption to livelihoods and economic activity, environmental damage) resulting from interactions between natural or human-induced hazards and vulnerable conditions. Hence the negative impact – the disaster – will depend on the characteristics, probability and intensity of the hazard, as well as the susceptibility of the exposed Figure 2.4 Mechanism for Natu- elements based on physical, social, economic and environmental conditions. ral Disaster Reduction Adapted from Asian Disaster Reduction Cen- If risk is something that has not happened yet but which is projected into the ter future, there are two possibilities for action if the level of risk is perceived as unbearable, either to eliminate the risk or to reduce it as far as possible. In Figure 2.3, locations and populations in the right hand region face some exposure, while those in the lowest region are subject to certain types of vulnerability. Possible natural events occur in the left hand region. However, the risk only arises in the central area, where hazard, vulnerability and exposure coexist. This shows that hazard and vulnerability must be simultaneously present at the same location (exposure) to give rise to risk, which then becomes a disaster if the event actually occurs. If we suppose that the disaster risk on the schematic diagram (Figure 2.3) is directly proportional to the real disaster risk, altering the size of the various spheres alters the disaster risk area, hence the disaster risk. Leaving the exposure to grow and delaying in reducing vulnerabilities will result in higher disaster risk and hence a potentially increased number of natural disasters and greater levels of loss. In order to reduce disaster risk, it is essential that the level of vulnerability be reduced and to make sure that exposure is as far away from hazards as possible by relocating populations and property. Figure 2.4 shows how disaster It should be noted that disasters may be seen differently in different cultures. Whether risk can be reduced and indicates the area of disaster risk. It can be seen here those affected see an event as a risk or as a disaster, or whether they assess the risk as that the disaster risk is considerably smaller than that shown in Figure 2.3. high or low depends on the value system they We have shown that the risk of disaster can be reduced either by restricting feel bound by. Perception of risk (or the lack such perception) is the most important factor the hazard or by reducing vulnerability, as well as by simply avoiding hazard- in vulnerability. For example, followers of the ous areas. However, reducing the hazard is usually very difficult and may even largest Christian church in Zimbabwe, the ‘vapostiori’ (see Chapter 3), perceive lighting be impossible. Vulnerability, on the other hand, is easier to influence by as a punishment sent by God which one can- strengthening human response, planning and protective capabilities. Expo- not do anything to avoid. sure is also relatively simple to deal with. 22 Effective mitigation and preparedness measures can be employed to achieve disaster risk reduction. Some of the measures are:

ACTIVE MEASURES those in which the authorities promote desired actions by offering incentives. These are often associated with development programmes in areas of low income.

PASSIVE MEASURES those in which the authorities prevent undesired actions by using controls and penalties. These actions are usually more appropriate for well established local authorities in areas with higher incomes.

ENGINEERING AND CONSTRUCTION MEASURES ranging from large scale engineering works to strengthening individual buildings and small scale community based projects. Training of local builders in techniques to incorporate better protection into traditional structures – buildings, roads, bridges and embankments – is likely to be an essential component of such measures. To return to the case of tropical cyclone Eline, it is clear that the people of Mauritius are far PHYSICAL PLANNING MEASURES including careful location of new facilities, less vulnerable to death and injury from tropi- particularly community facilities such as schools, hospitals and infrastruc- cal cyclones because Mauritius has strictly enforced building codes, zoning regulations ture, which plays an important role in reducing settlement vulnerability. In and tropical cyclone hazard awareness/training, as well as the related up to date commu- urban areas, deconcentration of communities, especially those at risk, is an nication systems. The tropical cyclone early important principle. warning system is in such good shape that it offers official cyclone warning not only to its CONOMIC EASURES inhabitants, but to the whole of the South E M noting that different sectors of the economy may be West Indian Ocean (SWIO) basin as well. In more vulnerable to disruption by a disaster than others. Diversification of the relation to figure 2.4, Mauritius has managed to considerably reduce the disaster risk economy is an important way to reduce the risk. “A strong economy is the through reducing both their vulnerability and best defense against disaster” (UNDP DHA, 1994). Within a strong economy, exposure, although the hazard remains. governments can also use economic incentives to encourage individuals or institutions to take disaster mitigation actions.

MANAGEMENT AND INSTITUTIONAL MEASURES which need to be supported by a programme of education, training and institution building to provide the professional knowledge and competence required. Building disaster protection in this way takes time.

SOCIETAL MEASURES which should aim to develop a ‘safety culture’ in which all members of society are aware of the hazards they face, know how to protect themselves, and will support the protection efforts of others and of the community as a whole.

Vulnerability to Disasters Landslides or flooding disasters are closely linked to rapid and unchecked urbanisation, which forces low income families to settle on the slopes of steep hillsides or ravines, or along the banks of flood prone rivers. Famines can be closely linked to shortages of purchasing power caused by rural Vulnerability is seen as the progression of unemployment or a sudden influx of refugees into a country from a strife three stages: torn neighbouring country. High numbers of deaths accompanying UNDERLYING CAUSES A deep rooted set of factors earthquakes almost always result from structural collapse of poor, low cost within a society that together form and main- houses. In other disasters, such as floods, humans can increase their tain vulnerability. vulnerability by removing parts of their natural environment that may act as DYNAMIC PRESSURES A translating process that channels the effects of a negative cause into buffers to extreme natural forces. Such acts include cutting down trees, unsafe conditions. This may be set in motion causing soil erosion and settling close to riverbanks. by a lack of basic services or service provision, or it may result from a series of macro It is important to realise that natural hazards are agents or trigger mechanisms forces. that can come into contact with a vulnerable human condition to result in a UNSAFE CONDITIONS The most vulnerable context, in which people and property are ex- disaster. The disaster arises from the fact that certain communities or groups posed to the risk of disaster. It may include a fragile physical environment, an unstable are forced to settle in areas susceptible to the impact of, say, a raging river or economy or low income levels. 23 Figure 2.5 The Disaster Crunch Model Adapted from Blackie (2002)

THE PROGRESSION OF VULNERABILITY

a volcanic eruption. It is essential to make a distinction between hazards and disasters, and to recognise that the effect of the former upon the latter is essentially a measure of the society’s vulnerability. Figure 2.5, below, illustrates this combination of forces.

Geographies of vulnerability No place or group of people is entirely safe, but the forms and severity of risk vary markedly between different parts of the world, areas and groups of people, as well as within local communities and even within the family. A first assessment of the geography of risk from given hazards is to show who and what is present in the area under study and who lives in proximity to dangerous phenomena or facilities. A map of vulnerability may be described as a visual expression of this assessment.

The Vulnerability Reduction Approach The vulnerability reduction approach views vulnerability as an interaction between a community, its environment and the hazards present. Instead of resulting in sustainable human development, this interaction can deteriorate into a crisis that can set development back. Since the vulnerability of a community is characterised by its susceptibility or the degree to which it is exposed to The advantage of the vulnerability assessment, which includes hazard analysis and risk assessment, is that it enables the commu- the risk posed by hazards, and its resilience or the capacity to cope with harm, nity to know how vulnerable they are and how hazards may affect them. Hazard mitigation, the vulnerability reduction approach addresses both susceptibility and resil- which includes measures to prevent hazards from causing emergencies or lessen their ience. This is achieved by dealing with the causes of emergencies and disas- likely effects, protects the community from undue risk. Preparedness for disaster re- ters and strengthening communities at risk. Therefore, it requires a number sponse, including planning and training, also contributes to prevention of disasters by rais- of coordinated activities, including hazard and vulnerability assessment, pre- ing awareness of vulnerabilities and risks, thereby protecting the community and human vention and mitigation, and preparedness for response. development. This means that the application of the vulnerability reduction approach entails multisectoral involvement, coordina- The Disaster Risk Reduction Concept tion and sharing of responsibility with the affected community. Thus it seeks effectiveness A life without risk is neither possible nor conceivable but both the level of by taking into account the practices that are best suited to local conditions and under- acceptance and the perception of risk vary from one individual to another. standing. Adapted from Hewitt (1997) 24 One person will take a sharp bend at 40 km/h, another at 100 km/h, depending on their assessment of risk. Awareness of risk in terms of the type of hazard, the extent of vulnerability and exposure is, therefore, a necessary condition for engagement in disaster risk reduction. A focus on risk management, rather than on disaster events alone, reflects a proactive attitude for dealing with potential threats to social and material assets before they are lost. Under- standing risk relates to the ability to define what could happen in the future, given a range of possible alternatives. Assessing risks based on vulnerability and hazard analysis is a required step for the adoption of adequate and successful disaster reduction policies and measures. Levels of risk awareness depend largely on the quantity and quality of available information and on the difference in people’s perceptions of risk. People are more vulnerable when they are not aware of the exposure as well as the hazards that pose a threat to their lives and property (UN/ISDR, 2002). Risk awareness varies among indi- Figure 2.6 Disaster Risk viduals, communities and governments, and is influenced by the knowledge Management as Part of Disaster of hazards and vulnerabilities, as well as by the availability of accurate and Management timely information about them. Adapted from GTZ (2004) While natural hazards may be inevitable, disasters are not. By seeking to understand and to anticipate future hazards, through the study of the past and monitoring of present situations, a community or public authority can minimise the risk of a disaster. Hazards are dynamic and have highly varying potential impacts. Due to changing environments, many countries and regional organisations require a greater knowledge of hazard characteristics. A wide range of geophysical, meteorological, hydrological, environmental, technological, biological and even sociopolitical hazards, alone or in complex interaction, can threaten lives and sustainable development.

Disaster Risk Management Concepts Before delving further into disaster risk management, let us see how two of the key concepts, ‘disaster management’ and ‘disaster risk management’ differ, taking note that the CPD is now moving from the former to the latter. As shown in Figure 2.6, disaster management (DM) includes measures for before (prevention, preparedness, risk transfer), during (humanitarian aid, rehabilitation of the basic infrastructure, damage assessment) and after (disaster response and reconstruction) disaster. Disaster risk management (DRM) is part of disaster management, focusing on the before (risk analysis, Figure 2.7 Areas of Action for prevention, preparedness) of the extreme natural event, and relating to the Risk Management during and after of the disaster only through risk analysis.

DRM IS AN INSTRUMENT FOR REDUCING THE RISK OF DISASTER PRIMARILY BY REDUCING VULNERABILITY, BASED ON SOCIAL AGREEMENTS RESULTING FROM RISK ANALYSIS. THESE SOCIAL AGREEMENTS ARE THE RESULT OF A COMPLEX SOCIAL PROCESS IN WHICH ALL SOCIAL STRATA AND INTEREST GROUPS PARTICI- PATE. THEY ARE A NECESSARY BASIS FOR RESISTING THE FUTURE EFFECTS OF EXTREME NATURAL EVENTS (PREVENTION, PREPAREDNESS). (GTZ, 2004)

Therefore, the primary area of action of DRM is reducing vulnerability and enhancing self protection capabilities. The components at play in DRM are risk analysis, prevention and preparedness, as illustrated in Figure 2.7. 25 Figure 2.8 The Relationship between the Development of a Although these concepts are explained in more detail later, the basic defini- Country and Natural Disasters tions are given here: Adapted from UN-OCHA/Kobe RISK ANALYSIS (RA) consists of hazard analysis and vulnerability analysis, together with analysis of protective capabilities.

DISASTER PREVENTION includes those activities that prevent or reduce the negative effects of extreme natural events, primarily in the medium to long term. These include political, legal, administrative, planning and infrastructural measures.

PREPAREDNESS FOR DISASTERS is intended to avoid or reduce loss of life and damage to property if an extreme natural event occurs.

Disaster Risk Management in the Context of Development The relationship between disasters and development is very simple. Disasters can destroy development inputs and years of development initiatives. Disasters can delay future development due to loss of resources, the need to shift resources to emergency response and the fact that they sometimes depress the investment climate. In the same vein, development can increase vulnerability to disasters through, for example, dense urban settlement, development of hazardous sites, environmental degradation, technological failures or creation of an imbalance in existing natural or social systems. On the other hand, disaster risk management can reduce disaster risk in ways that also contribute to sustainable development.

Figure 2.8 illustrates the relationship between the development of a country and natural disasters. The Trend Line indicates the original national development target. The Downtrend Line shows how development is slowed by disasters. Disaster risk management efforts act as a safety net in which the disaster impact is reduced instead of realising its full devastating potential. The improvement achieved through disaster risk management is shown by the Improved Line, indicating reductions in the levels of loss and the length of the reconstruction period through risk control (e.g. mitigation) and risk finance (e.g. insurance, disaster funds). Figure 2.9 Obstacles to Sustainable Development Disaster Risk Management for Sustainable Development Under the current disaster circumstances, achieving sustainable development is of vital importance to Zimbabwe. Figure 2.9 shows that various impediments, such as political or social conflicts, financial crises, diseases (e.g. HIV and AIDS), environmental degradation and natural disasters hinder efforts to create a sustainable world. Natural disasters trigger especially Political or devastating consequences, and are compounded by other factors. DRM is, Social Conflict therefore, essential for the realisation of sustainable development. Natural Disaster The sustainable development approach has facilitated better understanding of

Environmental the relationship between disaster, its various phases, environmental degrada- Disease Degradation tion, and sustainable development. As disasters retard or even reverse development, sustainable development efforts are jeopardised. This is because the

26 huge amounts normally needed for disaster recovery and rehabilitation ef- Risk management is paramount in this concept. The focus on risk stems from the com- forts are diverted from other development programmes that are planned or pelling need to better understand the root causes and underlying factors that lead to disasters. The prevailing practices exert more under way. This makes it mandatory for disaster mitigation programmes to thrust on managing response to disasters through preparedness than towards manag- integrate developmental programmes. In this way, efforts to enhance the ca- ing risks and the underlying conditions that lead to disasters. Thus TDRM brings to the pacities of communities and the coping systems at various levels and in dif- fore the issues of risk assessment, vulnerability reduction, and capacity enhancement. ferent sectors towards self reliance and self sufficiency in managing disas- It also emphasises multilevel and multidisciplinary cooperation and collabora- ters effectively will be sustained (UNDP, 2004). tion to achieve effective disaster risk reduction and response. The current knowledge and techniques on risk reduction and re- Under the sustainable development approach, the adoption of disaster mitiga- sponse is not discarded but is integrated into the new approach. Inherent in this concept tion programmes at the local level is facilitated. These include structural and is effective communication of knowledge and techniques from community to central lev- non-structural measures to protect populations susceptible to natural haz- els. This facilitates appreciation by govern- ards, e.g. earthquake resilient school structures. Efforts to enhance early warn- ments of the relevance and necessity of disaster risk management in achieving sus- ing and forecasting systems are also encouraged. The sustainable develop- tainable development objectives. In so doing, broad based participation in policy and ment approach is essentially a holistic approach which facilitates the promo- programme development in disaster reduction of the ‘culture of prevention’ and the incorporation of disaster manage- tion and response becomes embedded in the process, as they relate to other development ment in development planning. concerns – poverty reduction, land use planning, environmental protection and food security. Total Disaster Risk Management Quite recently, ‘disaster reduction initiatives’ have been accepted by the UNDP as covering all initiatives that espouse the developmental approach with an emphasis on disaster prevention and mitigation. In pursuance of these initiatives, a disaster reduction concept has emerged that presents a new perspective on disaster management and integrates development oriented strategies and recent innovative approaches to disaster management, such as vulnerabil- For example the impact of the Cyclone Eline disaster in 2000 inevitably went beyond the ity and risk reduction. The new concept is known as ‘Total Disaster Risk Man- immediate devastation, as the toll in human lives, property and resources continues to agement’ (TDRM). It presents new opportunities to address the important exacerbate poverty and set back economic areas of concern in disaster management on which there has been little focus development. Among the possible programme activities under this approach in the past. Total Disaster Risk Management encompasses policy develop- are: ment, mostly in the context of sustainable development and long term socio- · Human resource development in disas- economic development strategies. At the same time, it is a community ori- ter risk management processes; · Collaboration in disaster risk assessment ented approach. This new concept has such a universal appeal in all sectors of of specific vulnerable communities; and disaster management that considerable space is devoted to explaining it in the · Assessment of disaster risk reduction sub-sections that follow. efforts (including development of measurement methods).

The concept of Total Disaster Risk Management The ever increasing magnitude of disasters at the global, regional and local levels continues to render less effective the existing approaches, strategies and mechanisms for disaster reduction and response. Unfortunately, the increasing prevalence of disaster risks and the growing vulnerability of Figure 2.10 The communities to disasters tend to reduce the effectiveness of local capacities Principle of TDRM and coping mechanisms. This has brought to the fore the critical need for a holistic and proactive approach to disaster reduction, focused on the fundamentals of disaster risk and the vulnerability of communities, and with an emphasis on multilevel, multidimensional (cross sectoral) and multidisciplinary coordination and collaboration among all stakeholders. It is, therefore, a response to shortcomings inherent in the usual disaster management cycle (UN/ISDR, 2005). The TDRM concept was introduced in line with the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction incorporating the International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR). It

27 Figure 2.11 Enabling was developed through the initiative of the Asian Disaster Reduction Center and the Asian Disaster Response Unit of the United Nations Office for the Mechanisms for the TDRM Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs in Kobe, Japan (UN-OCHA, Kobe). In the Zimbabwean context, the thematic breadth of necessary mitigation and prevention measures, as well as the intimate linkage between natural disasters and development, illustrate that TDRM needs the collaboration of a wide cross section of actors from different sectors, such as agriculture, natural resource management and the environment, infrastructure, education and health. Within the responsibilities and areas of activity of these sectors and actors, partial strategies and disaster prevention measures can be integrated through enhanced participation of the Civil Protection Department.

Approach The principle of TDRM Total Disaster Risk Management, as a holistic approach, covers all relevant Figure 2.12 A Policy Defining stakeholders and all phases of the disaster risk management cycle, as Government Objectives and illustrated in Figure 2.10 and discussed below. Commitment to DRM INVOLVEMENT OF ALL STAKEHOLDERS A holistic and comprehensive approach to the various shortcomings in the different phases of disaster management, in the context of the underlying causes of disasters (i.e. the conditions for disaster risk) and related issues. This calls for the promotion of multilevel, multidimensional and multidisciplinary coordination and collaboration among stakeholders in disaster reduction and response as they ensure the participation of the community and the integration of stakeholders’ action. The coordinated and collaborative approach is intended to lead to the best use of limited resources.

IMPLEMENTATION AT ALL PHASES OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT Effective response to the occurrence of disasters through the enhancement of local capacity and capability, especially in DRM through adequate prevention, miti- Figure 2.13 The Linkages of Key gation and preparation. The preparation involves recognising, managing and Components of TDRM reducing disaster risks, and ensuring good decision making in disaster reduction and response, based on reliable disaster risk information.

Enabling mechanisms for the TDRM approach

In order to effectively adopt the TDRM approach, several enabling mechanisms must be in place. These are more effective when a conducive environment is created and sustained by institutional enthusiasm, political will and commitment, and responsible focal points and advocates in government. These include policy, structures and systems, and capacity building and resources Figure 2.14b The Disaster Risk (see Figure 2.11). Management Cycle POLICY A clear and comprehensive policy that defines the objectives and commitment of the government, organisation, or community to disaster reduction and response efforts is important. These disaster risk reduction policies and measures need to be developed and institutionalised at national and local levels, through legislaton, policy guidelines, promulgated plans, or protocols. Some examples are shown in figure 2.12. Since the policy should effectively address the identified gaps in current practice, a strategic and consultative planning process might be necessary. As disaster reduction becomes essential to sustainable development, the policies should be crafted in a way that makes communities resilient to local hazards while ensuring that devel-

28 opment efforts do not increase vulnerability to the same hazards (e.g. dam construction does not introduce or increase the prevalence of bilharzia and Figure 2.14a The Three Main malaria). Blocks constituting TDRM

STRUCTURES AND SYSTEMS Organisational structures and systems that facilitate and ensure coordination of stakeholder’s actions and contributions should be addressed. This may include the establishment and strengthening of new or existing focal points, be they at national provincial or district level, local coordination bodies for disaster reduction and response activities, and disaster management systems. TDRM CAPACITY BUILDING A constant undertaking in the building and development BLOCKS of national and local capacity is vital, especially in establishing and implementing disaster reduction and response measures for vulnerable sectors and communities. This may take the form of education and training in disaster reduction and related fields.

RESOURCES Resource availability is fundamental to the TDRM Approach. Therefore, the identification and provision of resource requirements, including funds and trained human resources, should be given top priority. This includes the means to access and use authorised fund appropriations for disaster reduction and response.

EMPHASIS OF THE TDRM CONCEPT The holistic approach to disaster reduction makes it essential that sectors are aware of prevalent risks and prevailing vulnerabilities and the methods to assess them. Thus the TDRM concept emphasises the importance of accurate and reliable hazard, vulnerability and disaster risk information. It then becomes important that vulnerabilities are assessed and understood in a broad context, including the human, sociocultural, economic, environmental and political dimensions. Figure 2.15 Risk Management To achieve this end, a strategy that covers the following activities is neces- Flow sary: Adapted from UN-OCHA/Kobe 1 Promotion of hazard mapping, vulnerability and risk assessment at the local and community levels; 2 Collaboration and cooperation in vulnerability and risk assessment of critical facilities, such education institutions and hospitals; and 3 Collaboration and cooperation in assessment and enhancement of early warning systems.

The essentials of the Total Disaster Risk Management approach The three essential pillars for the building of TDRM are shown in figure 2.14. How each of the pillars is essential and related to the whole approach is discussed in the paragraphs that follow.

A ‘social action’ to cope with disasters could refer to any purposive undertaking in the pre and post disaster stages. This is exemplified in the prevailing concept of disaster management as a cycle with four distinct phases – prevention or mitigation, preparedness, response, and rehabilitation and

29 Table 2.2 Actions in Different Phases of the DRM Cycle

Earthquake Flood Storm(tropical cyclone, thunder- Landslide Construction and opera- Prevention/ Seismic design Construction of dykes storm) tion of meteorological Mitigation Retrofitting of vulnerable Building of dam Construction of tide wall buildings Forestation Establishment of forests to protect observation systems Installation of seismic iso- Construction of flood control against storms lation /seismic response basins/reservoirs control systems

Construction and operation of Construction of erosion Construction and operation Construction of shelters meteorological observation control dams of earthquake observation Construction and operation of meteo- systems Construction of retaining systems rological observation systems walls

Prepared- Preparation of hazard maps ness Food and materials stockpiling Emergency drills Construction of early warning systems Preparation of emergency kits

Rescue efforts Response First aid treatment Fire fighting Monitoring of secondary disaster Construction of temporary housing Establishment of tent villages

Disaster resistant reconstruction Appropriate land use planning Livelihoods support Industrial rehabilitation planning

reconstruction (Figure 2.15). The significance of this concept is its ability to promote the holistic approach to disaster management as well as to demonstrate the relationship of disasters and development. The prevention or mitigation phase involves efforts to prevent or mitigate damage (e.g. construction of villages on high ground and upstream dams for flood control). The preparedness phase ensures effective response to the impact of hazards (e.g. emergency fire or earthquake drills and public awareness). Note that these are not aimed at averting the occurrence of a disaster. Response includes such activities as rescue efforts, first aid, fire fighting and evacuation. Finally, in the rehabilitation and reconstruction phase, the focus comes back to disaster risk reduction. Some of the measures taken in each phase are listed in Table 2.2, below. It is should be noted that taking appropriate measures based on the concept of disaster risk management in each phase of the disaster risk management cycle can reduce the overall disaster risk.

Figure 2.16 The Concept of Risk Analysis Risk Management Flow Risk management should be done in a systematic way, otherwise the intended objective of reducing risk may not be accomplished and, in some cases, the reverse may result. The important steps in the implementation of risk management under TDRM are outlined in Figure 2 15. Because disaster risk management is a process for good decision making that ensures economic use of limited resources, the standard principles, processes and techniques of risk management are adopted. Risk Management Flow presents a framework and systematic method for identifying, analysing, assessing and managing disaster risk, in six systematic steps.

30 Government initiative The initial step is to have strong government initiative for implementing the DRM process from the national level to the community or local level. It is during this fist step that the strategic, organisational and risk management context in which the rest of the TDRM process takes place is established. Figure 2.17 Inputs and Outputs in The ‘strategic’ context refers to the operating environment (i.e. stakeholders, Risk Analysis legislation, standards, etc.); the ‘organisational’ context to organisational Source: GTZ (2004) goals, objectives and policies; and the ‘risk’ context to specific disaster risk issues.

Objective setting Risk management guidelines should reflect the social need for the protection of life and property from disaster, and should clarify the objectives to be achieved through the implementation of a risk management system. These also include the commitments by central and local governments, and other public authorities and organisations.

Risk identification This step identifies which, hazards, events or occurrences could translate into disasters, why and how. The sources of risk, areas at risk, and the existing disaster risk reduction measures are all identified. Target risks are isolated based on past disaster experiences and the losses and severity observed in Figure 2.18 Framework for Flood those events locally as well as in other countries. Risk Assessment and Management

Risk assessment This step, sometimes also known as ‘risk analysis’, determines the existing controls and analyses disaster risk in terms of likelihood and consequences in the context of those controls. It is performed to estimate the quantitative damage that can be expected to result from hazards as well as their likely impacts on society. Risk analysis is based on the recognition that risk is the result of the link between hazard and vulnerability of elements affected by the hazard. The goal of risk analysis is to use this link to estimate and evaluate the possible consequences and impacts of extreme natural events on a population group and their livelihoods. Impacts of the social, economic and environmental types are measured. Hazard and vulnerability analyses are components of risk analysis (Figure 2.16) and are inseparable activities. Vulnerability analysis is not possible without hazard analysis, and vice versa. Risk analysis is a basic instrument of DRM, which is used to study the factors of disaster risk and provides the basis for planning and implementing measures to reduce risk and the impacts of disasters. Fig 2.17 shows the inputs and outputs of risk analysis.

31 Figure 2.19 The Concept of The analysis results in an estimation of the level of risk, the likelihood that an Disaster Risk Treatment event will happen, the potential consequences and their magnitude. Techni- cians or engineers normally carry out these risk assessments. An example of risk assessment and management of flood hazards is shown in figure 2.18. It can be seen how the information on both the flood hazard potential together with the vulnerabilities are used to come up with an effective risk assessment and management plan.

Planning It is here that the assessment and prioritisation of the disaster risks is done. This stage is used to develop concrete objectives and policies that point to the identified target risks to be managed (e.g. disaster type, area to be protected) and to create effective countermeasures. Inevitably, the targeted risk criteria, budgets, projects and their time frames as well as priorities are established. Hence the formulation of a master plan for disaster risk management is accomplished. It is suggested that ample consideration be given to such topics as the continuity of contents in a master plan, adequate procedures, review mechanisms, and the assignment of responsibilities. It is also critical that any disaster risk management plan is dynamic and remains relevant to the community, and that the roles and contributions Figure 2.20 The Relationship of the members are defined. between Probability of Loss and Actual Loss Evaluation and re-examination In accordance with the dynamic nature of many risks, it is important to constantly monitor and review the performance of the operationalised disaster risk management system. The operating environment is not static and neither are the geographic features, social structures, localities and other factors. Evaluation or re-examination of the system, therefore, assists in identifying the changes that might affect it, and ensuring that the disaster risk management plan is not rendered irrelevant. Risk management performance (i.e. the implementation status of plans and countermeasures) and efficacy (e.g. the Figure 2.21 The Concept of achievement of objectives, validity of the process and its components) need Disaster Risk Treatment to be evaluated in order to confirm achievements. Basically this process involves a constant review of the risk identification and assessment processes, so that appropriate countermeasures are taken against frequent changes in the underlying hazard causes.

Countermeasures This step, sometimes referred to as ‘risk treatment’, involves identifying a range of options for treating the priority risks – prevention, preparedness, response and recovery – selecting intervention options, planning, funding and implementing intervention strategies. In this process, countermeasures are executed in accordance with policies. Disaster risk management countermeasures consist of four elements – risk avoidance, risk reduction, risk transfer and risk retention – as illustrated in Figure 2.19. These countermeasures are formulated as public policy based on the master plan formulated in step 5 (planning) above. Policies should be open to the public in order to increase mutual understanding between governments and citizens in the context of risk communication.

32 Figure 2.22 Best Matching of Risk Figure 2.19 sets out the concept of disaster risk treatment. This concept Treatment Elements stems from the fact that risk treatment measures are the function of the actual loss incurred and the probability of realising the loss. This relationship is Risk Finance illustrated in Figure 2.20. It is clear from the diagram that the risk area, representing actual risk, can be increased or reduced by altering the area of either of the two spheres. Thus risk is at a minimum when either or both of the two is minimised. Risk can also be represented mathematically by the following formula:

Risk Control

Figure 2.23 The Main Compo- nents of a Strategy for Disaster Re- duction (Risk) = f (Probability of Loss, Loss) = (Probability of Loss) × (Loss) The same deduction can be made as in the case above, i.e. that a case of low probability of loss with little loss would yield low risk, while a case of large loss with a high probability of loss would yield a high risk. Therefore, ‘risk avoidance’ is the rational option as a countermeasure if a significant degree of loss with high probability is expected. For example, it is better not to take the school bus with malfunctioning brakes and worn out tyres for a school field trip as both the probability of being involved in an accident and the loss of the large number children normally taken aboard a school bus is very high. On the other hand, transferring the risk would be an appropriate measure when a significant degree of loss with low probability is expected. In this situation, if the school bus is well maintained, the probability of it getting involved in an accident is significantly reduced, but the monetary loss of the bus and the cost to the school through claims from the parents remains astronomically high. Thus insuring (‘risk transfer’) is the best option. But in the case of a messenger’s bicycle, which is normally used within the university complex, the accident risk can be retained. This is because of the relative low degree of loss and the accompanying insignificant accident probability that suggests ‘risk retention’ (living with the risk) as one of the options to be selected.

However, risk treatment is not possible solely through countermeasures in To build disaster resilient communities, governments need to incorporate disaster reduc- some situations, especially where these involve natural hazards. Risk reduction perspectives into their development plans by identifying, analysing, and assessing risks, tion would be the mainstay of these countermeasures. Risk reduction mea- to develop a common understanding of the sures against tropical cyclones, for example, are: importance of disaster reduction as a cost effective investment in national development. • The introduction of tropical cyclone resistant dwellings; Governments must identify high priority policy areas, develop effective policies, and incor- • Retrofitting of buildings and residences; porate these into national development plans.

33 Figure 2.24 Programme Activi- • Development of early warning systems; and ties for Disaster Information Shar- • Flood emergency drills conducted by relevant organisations and the ing and Management general public. Risk reduction is illustrated as a composite vector in Figure 2.21 in order to show that it can be accomplished through a combination of prevention or mitigation and preparedness efforts. In some situations, the affected population can be assisted by non affected people with risk finance through risk transfer and risk retention. But the risk finance can neither reduce nor eliminate physical damage, thus highlighting the significance of bringing other risk treatments for consideration.

For efficient disaster risk management, a combination of risk treatments is necessary. Figure 2.22 shows the different risk treatment elements and their most favourable combinations. The type of disaster, economic strength, social conditions historical background and other factors determine the combined ratios of the entire risk treatment.

Strategy for Disaster Risk Management The TDRM approach is composed of the components shown in Figure 2.23 and explained in the paragraphs that follow.

The legal framework for disaster reduction As already noted, the establishment of coordination mechanisms and a legal framework for disaster risk management is of paramount importance in TDRM. Above all, the national government needs to create a conducive environment for the disaster risk management system. This can be achieved by, for example, developing basic legislation for all types of disasters and establishing or enhancing the functions of a central disaster management committee (the National Civil Protection Committee in the case of Zimbabwe).

Figure 2.25 The Critical Link be- The availability of relevant information is extremely important to effective tween Stakeholders and the Af- disaster reduction and response. Wise and timely use of the right disaster risk fected Community information could mitigate, if not prevent, disasters. The relevant information should be effectively linked to local early warning systems, local authorities and the media to ensure effective use for public awareness and education. Advance distribution of forecasts, warnings, and other information before tropical cyclones, floods, landslides, thunderstorms, epidemics and other disasters has been known to prevent considerable human and economic losses. In some cases, good communication and exchange of critical disaster risk information could enhance coordination and integration of stakeholders’ actions in disaster reduction and response, resulting in more effective use of limited resources. There is a large gap between experts and local communities in perception of risk. Large numbers of hazard maps related to floods, potential landslide areas, lightning, epidemics and

34 earthquakes have been created by experts and now lie in institution storerooms and libraries, instead of being utilised by potential beneficiaries at the community level. But, it is essential that early warning systems and hazard maps be used to develop a framework for distributing disaster related information so that communities have an accurate understanding of the risks and can take appropriate action. The availability and accessibility of accurate and reliable disaster risk information when required at various levels can only be achieved by ensuring an efficient system for disaster risk management information sharing.

Figure 2.24 shows possible programme activities derived through the TDRM approach for the enhancement of disaster reduction information sharing and management.

Promotion of education and public awareness Local communities are the ones that are the most threatened by hazards and also the first to respond when a disaster occurs. Therefore, they need to be the prime targets for accurate and relevant disaster reduction knowledge through outreach awareness raising campaigns. Such campaigns would reduce the local impact of disasters by improving the community’s knowledge and the capacity of members to help themselves and one another. Awareness raising campaigns are also a necessary part of changing attitudes. If the The development of a TDRM approach can negative attitudes inherent in some communities are not changed, even in be an important response to locally prioritised needs. Dovetailed into an existing the most enabling environment for local institutions, DRM will not create organisation or institution at national or local the intended outcome. Therefore, it is vital that disaster reduction be level, it can yield an ‘all hazards’ approach to DRM. integrated into the compulsory education curriculum, starting from pre school and continuing to tertiary level.

Development of multi-stakeholder partnerships and citizen participation With the increasing extent, complexity and prevalence of disasters, no one stakeholder could effectively address the problem alone and DRM is a growing concern in several sectors, including government departments, educational institutions and non governmental organisations (NGOs). Enhanced awareness on the impact of disasters on sustainable development, and on the limitations of current local capabilities and capacities also creates recognition among all stakeholders of the need for strengthened cooperation and collaboration at all levels. The broadened participation of relevant sectors, such as environment, finance, industry, transport, construction, agriculture, education, health, and media, in disaster reduction activities allows for an enriched The TDRM Approach, with special regard for understanding of local vulnerability to risk. the involvement of the affected community (Figure 2.26), is in line with both current UNDP strategies and the requirements of the Yokohama Strategy and Plan of Action for a Disaster risk management activities require the coordinated efforts of people Safer World: Strategy for Disaster Reduction in various fields. Early warnings by the meteorological services contribute to for the Year 2000 and Beyond. reducing the impacts of natural disasters only when the information is trans- The Strategy advocates: 1 Adoption of a policy of self reliance in each ferred to local communities through the media and other channels. To create vulnerable country and community, comprising capacity building as well as alloca- disaster resilient communities, it is vital to improve civil engineering facili- tion and efficient use of resources; and ties such as local roads/bridges, dams, and erosion control facilities through 2 Involvement and active participation of the people in disaster reduction, prevention the cooperative efforts of people involved in various activities, including soil and preparedness, leading to improved and farmland management, land use planning, and building design codes. risk management (UN/ISDR, 2002).

35 Figure 2.26 Integration of Com- Cooperation in disaster reduction activities among government departments munity Level Stakeholders at national and local levels, NGOs and communities is essential. In this regard, effective mechanisms to initiate and sustain multilevel, multidimensional and multidisciplinary collaboration and cooperation are necessary. Net- working has great potential because it sustains linkages and pulls together organisational strengths and capacities, including resources and expertise for disaster reduction activities, creating complementarities that cover existing organisational gaps.

Integration of local community action in TDRM The effectiveness of disaster risk management interventions cannot be ensured without the direct involvement of the community and those people directly at risk in the DRM process through participatory approaches. In TDRM, the determination of risks and the intervention measures are not imposed on the community, but accomplished by the people concerned. Greater emphasis is placed on local knowledge and indigenous ways of knowing than on expert knowledge and technologies. There is also an inevitable shift of focus from hazards to more relevant socioeconomic vulnerability, including levels of poverty, human development, etc., of the communities at risk. On-site problem definition takes place and responsive measures are designed and implemented taking into consideration the existing local resources. Community based activities tend, by nature, to be multisectoral and, therefore, already

36 cognisant of the interdependence of different actors. Community involvement at all stages increases the capacity and potential of people to reduce their own vulnerability to local disasters.

The comprehensive approach to disaster management entails developing and implementing strategies for different yet complementary aspects of disaster management, i.e. prevention and mitigation, preparedness, and response and recovery, in the context of sustainable development. This approach is potentially useful in establishing standard protocols for addressing similar problems in a community, arising from different hazards and emergencies. We should bear in mind, however, that several hazards that cause disasters might require specific response and recovery measures as well as specific prevention programmes. The following chapters look into the nature of several hazards of specific concern to Zimbabwe, their causes, mitigation and the prevention measures peculiar to them. The TDRM approach is expected to be of assistance in applying these measures.

37 CHAPTER 3 Hydro-Meteorological Hazards

Introduction

Zimbabwe is subject to various types of hazards and, as Chapter 1 showed, this occurs in the context of a worldwide increase in disaster incidents in recent years. The geographical location and physical environment of Zimba- bwe make the country vulnerable to numerous hydro-meteorological hazards. Every year, these hazards cause loss of life and property, seriously disrupt our agriculture based economy and disturb the lives of millions of families. According to the ISDR (2003) definition, hydro-meteorological hazards are natural processes or phenomena of atmospheric, hydrological or oceanographic nature. In this chapter, we select only those hazards of hydro- meteo- rological origin that affect Zimbabwe significantly. The sections that follow concentrate on the most common forms of these hazards, i.e. floods, tropical cyclones, wind, severe storms, lightning, drought, desertification, bush fires, temperature extremes and frost. These disasters cannot always be prevented but we know that their disastrous effects can certainly be mitigated if appropriate measures are adopted (see Chapter 2). To achieve this we first need a proper understanding of the hazards and the threats that they pose as a basis from which to recommend mitigatory and preventive measures for each one. The Drought Hazard Of all the natural disasters occurring regularly in Zimbabwe, droughts have What is Drought? There is no universally agreed definition of the greatest potential impact and affect the greatest number of people. They ‘drought’ but it may be generally defined as invariably have a direct and significant impact on food production and the a temporary reduction in water or moisture availability to a point significantly below the overall economy. Droughts, however, differ from other natural hazards in that normal or expected amount for a specified period. However, because droughts occur in they arrive slowly, at times taking several months to manifest. Because of nearly all regions of the world and have vary- their slow onset, their effects may accumulate over time and may linger for ing characteristics, working definitions must be regionally specific and focus on the im- many years. Their impacts are less obvious than for events such as earth- pacts. The impact of drought results from the quakes or cyclones but may be spread over a larger geographic area. Because shortage of water, or the discrepancies between supply and demand for water. of the pervasive effects of droughts, assessing their impact and planning assistance is more difficult than with other natural hazards.

Types of drought Droughts may be grouped by type in the following ways (NPDM GoZ report):

METEOROLOGICAL DROUGHT results from a shortfall in precipitation and is based on the degree of dryness relative to the normal or average level and the duration of the dry period. This comparison must be region specific and may While droughts are most often associated with be measured against daily, monthly seasonal, or annual timescales of rainfall low rainfall and semi-arid climates, they also occur in areas with normally abundant rain- amounts. Rainfall deficiency on its own, however, does not always create a fall. Furthermore, a rainfall level that meets drought hazard. the needs of a pastoralist may constitute a serious drought for a farmer growing maize. In order to define drought in a region, it is In Zimbabwe, precipitation resulting in the rainfall level being far below the necessary to understand both the meteorological characteristics and the human percep- norm, i.e. below 75 percent of the long term seasonal rainfall average of tion of the conditions of drought. 650mm during any one season, is termed a meteorological drought.

38 HYDROLOGICAL DROUGHT involves the lowering of the water table, leading to a reduction of water resources such as streams, groundwater, lakes and reservoirs. One impact is competition between users for water in these storage systems.

AGRICULTURAL DROUGHT represents the impact of meteorological and hydrological droughts on crop and livestock production. It occurs when soil moisture is insufficient to maintain average plant growth and yields. A plant’s demand for water, however, is dependent on the type of plant, its stage of growth and the properties of the soil. The impact of agricultural drought is difficult Figure 3.1 Progression in to measure, due to the complexity of plant growth and the possible presence Drought Types as Drought Inten- of other factors that may reduce yields, such as pests, weeds or low soil fer- sifies with Time tility.

SOCIOECONOMIC DROUGHT is an extreme form of agricultural drought, in which food shortages are so severe that large numbers of people become un- healthy or die. This should not be confused with famine disasters. In famine disasters, a complex of other causes, including war and conflict, will be at play. In a socioeconomic drought, it is rainfall deficit that causes the scarcity of food that leads to famine. Under these conditions, death can also result from other complicating influences, such as disease or lack of access to water and other services. An illustration of how droughts progress into different forms with time as water deficit increases in severity appears in Figure 3.1. Note that the (Adapted from National Drought Mitigation drought type intensifies from top to bottom as the period of water deficit Center, University of Nebraska-Lincoln) increases.

Drought hazards and disasters in Zimbabwe Drought is the biggest single hazard affecting Zimbabwe and the country suffered greatly from the prolonged drought of the 1980s and early 1990s. There was reduction in cereal grain output of approximately 60 percent and a 50 percent loss in the livestock herd during this period. The reason is that Zim- babwe is in the semi-arid region of the world. Except for the highveld and Eastern Highlands, few regions of Zimbabwe have a high annual rainfall. The annual rainfall is characterised by very high variation from region to region, and from year to year, making droughts a ‘normal’ part of the climate system which we need be able to endure on a regular basis. On average, drought is Drought has long been recognised as one of the most insidious causes of human misery. Zimbabwe’s most costly natural hazard in economic terms, as well as in fre- While most generally associate drought with quency of occurrence. Moreover, it has the unfortunate distinction of being Zimbabwean provinces of low rainfall, it can also occur in areas that normally enjoy ad- the natural disaster that annually claims the most victims and its ability to equate rainfall and moisture levels, like cause widespread misery in the country is increasing. Manicaland. Droughts lasting between one and five years may occur either in isolated areas or across a region. A poor year can result in Drought is associated with suffering and loss of valued crops, livestock and large scale crop failure, food shortages and, in extreme cases, famine. Trees and grasses wildlife. People often have to trek for long distances to the few sources of wilt and die and animals perish from hunger water that may still be available. Praying for rain both in traditional and Chris- and thirst. Subsistence farming, which provides most people of the region with their tian ceremonies is not uncommon in many parts of the country and the onset food, depends on sufficient rainfall.

39 of the rains is often viewed as the single most important event of the year. A historical overview of Zimbabwe’s rainfall variation since 1900 is given in Figure 3.2, below.

Relationship of droughts to the El Niño Southern/Oscillation The global weather phenomenon known as ENSO is a combination of the words El Niño and Southern Oscillation. ‘El Niño’ refers to the warming of the east equatorial waters across the Pacific and the ‘Southern Oscillation’ refers to the atmospheric response in pressure to the warm east and cool, western part of the equatorial Pacific. El Niño is measured by the deviation from normal of the sea surface temperature, whereas the Southern Oscillation is measured by difference in pressure between Tahiti in the eastern Pacific and Darwin in the western Pacific (Australia). During El Niño, the normal westerly surface winds are weakened or even reversed and this is not favourable for southern African rainfall. La Niña, the opposite extreme of the ENSO cycle, occurs when a cold phase known as La Niña or (anti El Niño) is experienced. The Figure 3.2 Zimbabwe Rainfall De- occurrence of La Niña results in unusually heavy rain in Southern Africa. At partures from the Mean in Specific this time, the Pacific is cooler than the Indian Ocean and wind moves from ENSO Phases the former towards the latter.

Although most past occurrences of drought have been linked to El Niño events, and rainfall surpluses to La Niña, the percentage of those not linked to these events is still significant, as shown in Figure 3.2. However the coincidence of El Niño and Zimbabwean droughts is worth noting. During the worst three drought episodes of the century, 1991/92, 1946/47 and 1972/73 (in order of severity), El Niño was involved.

Natural preconditions for drought El Niño means ‘the boy child’ in Spanish, so named because it occurs around December, Drought differs from other natural disasters in its slowness of onset and its when Christians are celebrating the birth of Christ. La Niña means ‘the little girl’ (Preston usually long duration. In the past, drought was an agricultural disaster but now, and Whyte, 2000). with cities having expanded faster than water supplies can be made available,

40 the spectre of drought faces both the farmer and the urban dweller. Shifts in Persistent high-pressure systems in the levels of the atmosphere where rain bearing atmospheric circulation, which cause drought, may extend for time scales of clouds are normally found (e.g. the Botswana Upper High) in the middle of the rain season. a month, a season or several years. These cause subsidence, or sinking of air, which acts against precipitation. The following are the main causes of Zimbabwean droughts: • Localised subsidence induced by mountain barriers or other physiographic features. Most such areas lie in the lee of mountains across the eastern highlands. The warming of the easterly airflow as it descends on the west of the summits after having lost the moisture on the windward side causes the dryness. This is usually the cause of dry weather in the Sabi Limpopo valley.

• Absence of rainmaking disturbances causes dry weather even in areas of moist air. In general, rain is caused by the travel of organised disturbances, i.e., systems that involve actual uplift of humid air, across a region. The aridity of the Zimbabwean summer, though in part due to subsidence, arises mainly from the absence of active Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) and cyclonic disturbances including, tropical cyclones.

Human causes of drought An elephant that died as a result of Land use practices that give rise to desertification, such as deforestation, drought induced starvation in over cultivation, overgrazing, and mismanagement of irrigation, are thought Zimbabwe. (Source: Newsweek Issue 26/11/05) to result in greater prevalence of drought. Traditional drought coping systems in Africa, such as pastoralists’ use of seasonal grazing lands and farmers’ use of fallow periods, have been reduced due to population pressures and economic policies. Droughts vary in terms of intensity, duration and coverage. They tend to be more severe in drier areas due to low mean annual rainfall and also the longer duration of dry periods. In dry areas, drought often builds up slowly over a number of poor rainfall years.

Characteristics of Zimbabwean drought The particular characteristics of the droughts that occur in Zimbabwe are shaped by the following:

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION Droughts occur in all of Zimbabwe’s provinces but, in recent decades, the most severe and devastating to human populations

Air in the middle levels where rain forming clouds are normally found is subsiding and warming, hence will not be able to sustain any cloud formation process.

High pressure at the surface extending up to the middle levels

Figure 3.3 Negative Impact of High-Pressure Systems on Cloud Formation

41 Figure 3.4 Areas in Regions IV and have been in the provinces of Masvingo, and Matabeleland North and South, V are Normally Termed Drought perhaps giving the impression that droughts are principally a southern prob- Prone lem. These regions are situated in natural regions (NR) IV and V, and normally do not receive a lot of rainfall (Table 3.1). Therefore a small negative deviation of the rainfall from the norm may represent too little rainfall in a given season to sustain the normal functions of the community. This is why these regions are sometimes referred to as ‘drought prone’. In fact, devastating droughts have occurred in virtually all provinces of Zimbabwe including those that normally receive sufficient annual rainfall. Thus while rainfall patterns and the frequency and intensity of drought cycles negatively affect all the regions on a fairly regular basis, it is the drier eco-zones, especially regions IV and V that are particularly affected.

FREQUENCY Trends in the occurrence of droughts indicate that they are becoming more frequent than ever before. Long term averages Note: Boundaries inside the map de- indicate that, in terms of rainfall, out of every ten years, we have about marcate provinces of Zimbabwe. Ver- 3.7 good years, 4 average years, and 2.3 bad ones. Research also reveals that, tical and horizontal axes are latitudes since the 1970s, extreme drought has affected Zimbabwe in every decade. and longitudes respectively. The highest frequency of drought was the 1990s, when half of the years were Source: Adapted from Climate Handbook of drought years. The scenario is similar to the 1910s and 1920s when 40 per- Zimbabwe cent of each decade was made up of drought years (Figure 3.5).

NR Area (km2) % of Rainfall Characteristics total I 7 000 2 More than 1 050 mm rainfall per year with some rain in all months. II 58 600 15 700 - 1 050 mm rainfall per year, confined to summer. III 72 900 18 500 - 700 mm rainfall per year. Infrequent heavy rainfall. Subject to seasonal droughts. IV 147 800 38 450 - 600 mm rainfall per year. Subject to frequent seasonal droughts. V 104 400 27 Normally less than 500 mm rainfall per year. Very erratic and unreliable. Northern lowveld may have more rain but topography and soils are poorer. TOTAL 388 700 100

Table 3.1 Rainfall Characteristics INTENSITY AND DURATION Seasonal drought intensity is a measure of rainfall of Natural Regions of Zimbabwe

Figure 3.5 Drought Frequency in Zimbabwe from 1902-2000 Key: Ext = extreme drought; mod = moderate drought; sly = slight drought

42 Table 3.2 Drought Extreme Severe Moderate Categories 1902/03 Year mm Total Year mm Total Year mm Total – 2004/05 below mm below mm below mm ave. ave. ave. 1911/12 229.16 443.2 1902/03 169.6 492.7 1912/13 112.6 549.7 1915/16 268.0 394.3 1913/14 189.1 473.2 1916/17 95.6 566.7 1921/22 277.3 285.0 1926/27 149.7 512.6 1927/18 108.7 553.6 1923/24 263.3 399.0 1941/42 161.5 500.8 1930/31 94.6 567.7 1946/47 297.1 365.2 1948/49 127.3 535.0 1933/34 97.0 565.3 1967/68 257.5 404.8 1950/51 145.5 516.8 1937/38 109.4 552.9 1972/73 291.2 371.1 1959/60 178.9 483.4 1949/50 143.4 518.9 1981/82 222.6 439.7 1963/64 195.2 467.1 1969/70 123.6 538.7 1982/83 259.2 403.1 1964/65 153.1 509.2 1978/79 93.0 569.3 1986/87 239.9 422.4 1983/84 198.3 464.0 1993/94 143.0 519.3 1991/92 327.1 335.2 1990/91 160.7 501.6 1997/98 26.1 536.2 1994/95 243.5 418.8 2001/02 195.6 465.8 2004/05 133.0 529.3 Note: 1900-2000 average = 662.3mm Source: Zimbabwe Meteorological Office deficiency over the season. For a particular region, less than 5 percent, between 5 and 10 percent, 10 to 20 percent, and 20 to 30 percent of the lowest rainfall on record are rated as ‘extreme’, ‘severe’, ‘moderate’ and ‘slight’ respectively. Occasionally, droughts last for more than a season but, within that period, the severity may fluctuate, with spells of rainfall although the total is still well below average. Other droughts are shorter (one or two months) but some are more intense with very little rain recorded for more than one season (see Case Studies, below).

EXTENT AND PREDICTABILITY It is unlikely that the entire country will suffer drought at the same time. Some droughts can occur in one area with other Very low maize yield after a nearby areas receiving normal rainfall. Often localised droughts are not re- drought year in Zimbabwe. lated to El Niño events, so they are even more difficult to predict. Histori- (Source: top WFP Masvingo 2004; bottom undated, http://www.m21net.org/IMG/cache- cally, droughts have tended to occur at regular intervals. Many scientists have 400x301/zimbabwe-400x301.jpg ) noted that, in areas where long term droughts have been prevalent, dry periods appear to occur at relatively predictable intervals. With this in mind, clima- tologists are seeking to compile historical records of drought so that drought forecasting can be made more accurate. Whether precisely predictable or not, the historical trends can give an indication as to when drought periods might be expected.

The impact of droughts on the built and natural environments The effects of droughts can be divided according to the primary or immediate effects, and the secondary or resulting effects. The primary effects are generally agricultural and environmental. They result from a lack of water and their very first impact is upon agriculture. As a dry period progresses and water supplies dwindle, existing water supplies are A drop in water levels in dams and rivers also affects the quality of water. The cholera out- overtaxed and finally dry up. The primary losses can also lead to environmen- break that affected almost every country in tal damage through vegetation loss, loss of livestock and other animals, loss the region during 1992 and 1993, claiming hundreds of lives, (see Chapter 5) may have of water for hygienic use and drinking, and growth of toxic algal blooms on been compounded by the drought.

43 The migration patterns of wild animals, in- depleted dams, rivers and lakes. cluding birds and mammals, are determined by seasonal rainfall. In the event of a drought, migrations are disrupted and wildlife num- Secondary effects of droughts also include major ecological changes, such bers decrease, particularly those of herbi- as increased scrub growth, increased flash flooding, wild fires and increased vores. Severe loss of wildlife leads to ecological imbalances and economic losses. Fish wind erosion of soils. Of these, desertification is of the greatest concern. populations also tend to decline during drought periods because rivers and lakes shrink and food sources for fish decrease. The effect of drought on water supplies This has the further result of low breeding rates and smaller catches for fishers. Drought has its greatest impact on water supplies. Lack of water affects every aspect of environmental health and human activity, including agriculture, natural areas and development projects. The 1991/92 drought that ravaged most of Southern Africa, killed more than one million cattle in Zimbabwe. During a drought, overgrazing leads to degradation of pastures and arable areas in cattle farming regions. The deterioration of grazing capacity further reduces livestock numbers. In drier areas, scanty rainfall for a few years can kill vegetation permanently and poor land practices only make this worse. The secondary effects of drought follow the primary effects and their great- The same philosophy is used for reconstruction in the aftermath of a drought. Recon- est impact is upon society as it faces severe water restrictions. Loss of water struction should be viewed as an opportunity to accelerate development work. It is an ideal supply leads to crops and fodder being depleted; families begin to migrate in time to introduce improved animal husbandry search of better grazing lands for their herds or move to the cities to seek techniques, rangeland management, water resource development schemes and erosion jobs and alternative sources of income. If the dwindling supplies of food are control measures. not replaced, rising food prices follow and, in extreme cases, in some countries (although not in Zimbabwe so far), devastating famine can occur. For example, during the 1877/78 drought, 9.5 million people starved to death in BOX 3.1 ZIMBABWE DROUGHT CASE China and 8 million in India (Neville, 2006). This situation further acceler- STUDY 1: THE EXTREME DROUGHT OF ates the migration out of the stricken areas to less affected zones. The migra- 1991/92 tion may, in itself, contribute to spreading the scope of the disaster, espe-

44 Figure 3.6 Domestic Maize Intake by the Grain Marketing Board, 1984-1993 Grain Marketing Board, Annual Reports, 1983 to 1993

BOX 3.2 ZIMBABWE DROUGHT CASE STUDY 2: DROUGHTS OF M ATABELELAND SOUTH

Figure 3.7 Droughts in Matabeleland South Province Compared to the National Average

cially if grazing animals are moved with the people.

The impact of droughts on development The impact on development can be immense, if drought and is allowed to take place without some sort of response. Food shortages may become chronic and rural-urban migration may be accelerated. To respond to this, the government must borrow heavily and/or must divert money from other Drought related effects are bound to be most development schemes in order to meet immediate drought relief needs. This severe in areas with overall yearly food defi- diversion of funds and energy undermines the potential for longer term cits and for largely subsistence level farming and pastoralist systems. In these areas, economic development. drought can more easily lead to famine and death because food shortages have the greatest impact where malnutrition already exists. If drought response is treated as only a relief operation, it may wipe out years Situations in relief camps, such as overcrowding and poor sanitation, may also cause death of development work, especially in rural areas. Agricultural projects, in par- from disease.

45 Animal husbandry activities, including main- ticular, are likely to be affected by droughts. For those in agricultural devel- taining smaller herds, eliminating unproductive animals and upgrading the quality and opment, droughts or the threat of droughts should be considered a part of the productivity of stock through improved breeding practices, are also useful means of miti- overall development equation. A balanced agricultural programme that devel- gating drought loss. ops good water resources, addresses the problem of soil erosion, adopts realistic limits on the expansion of animal herds, or accompanies herd expansion with comprehensive range management will contribute to the mitigation Among the usual activities are: · Agricultural improvements, including of drought impact. modifying cropping patterns and the introduction of drought resistant crop varieties; Factors contributing to vulnerability · Rangeland management, including improvement of grazing lands and grazing Drought is more likely in dry areas with limited rainfall. Physical factors patterns, introduction of feedlots, and protection of shrubs and trees; and such as the moisture retention of soil and timing of the rains influence the · Water resource development, including improved irrigation and water storage fa- degree of crop loss during droughts. Dependency on rain fed agriculture cilities, protection of surface water from increases vulnerability. Farmers unable to adapt to drought conditions with evaporation, introduction of drip irrigation systems, and water containment meth- repeated plantings may experience crop failure. Livestock dependent ods such as retention dams and subsurface dams. populations without adequate grazing territory are also at risk. Those dependent on stored water resources or irrigation will be more vulnerable to water shortages and may face competition for water. Controls could include: · Livestock numbers per unit area; · Maximum human population density; Drought disaster mitigation strategies in rural and urban areas · Limits on amounts of water taken from public water supplies for agricultural To reduce the threat of droughts and to lessen their impact should they occur, or industrial use; and a number of measures can be taken. The first step in disaster mitigation is to · Authority to declare a state of emergency, during which time animal herds identify areas that are at risk of a drought. must be reduced in size or transported to non emergency areas, more stringent water usage allowances are imposed, Small storm retention dams can be built across drainage depressions or dry etc. riverbeds to trap water from occasional flash floods and some of the water can be diverted into nearby depressions to form temporary reservoirs. These

BOX 3.3 EXAMPLE OF D ROUGHT EARLY provide water for drinking and irrigation, and seepage into the soil will WARNING FROM FEWSNET replenish soil moisture and groundwater. FEWSNET (2002) Subsurface dams are used to trap water in the sandy bottoms of dry riverbeds. A trench is dug across the streambed down to a layer of impervious clay and the trench is then filled and packed with clay to form an underground dam. When flash floods occur, a portion of the water will be trapped in the sand behind the dam. Small wells can be dug by hand to reach the water. Another approach to reduce the impact of droughts on human settlements is to employ land use planning techniques. Land use planning in drought prone areas builds upon the information collected in a risk assessment. Those lands identified as drought prone will benefit from controlled or restricted use. This requires the assessment of such land to describe the degree to which it is drought prone, the present land use, the cyclical patterns of use of this land, and land ownership. Land use controls, Zimbabwe hit by drought. Zimbabwe's southwestern province of Matabeleland is one of similar to zoning regulations, can be the hardest hit regions in a country suffering the worst effects of the regional drought. created and adopted by governing Matabeleland is ranked at five on the rainfall scale in the country - one being the wettest bodies. and five being the driest. 900,000 vulnerable people in the region are affected. The Southern African Development Community (SADC) Drought Monitoring Unit in Harare This set of land use planning has warned that the 2002-2003 season could see below normal rainfall for southwestern recommendations needs to be linked Zimbabwe. This has fuelled fear of further food shortages next year. Aid agencies to a programme of public estimate that almost seven million people in Zimbabwe require food aid until the next information to make the users of the harvest around March 2003. land aware of the issues. Planning

46 recommendations should also be linked to incentives that will encourage the land users to comply with the controls. Droughts do not occur without warning (Thompson, 1993). Indicators can be Figure 3.7 Stages in the Life Cycle monitored and interpreted, giving adequate notice to begin responding and of a Tropical Cyclone reduce the severity of the drought impact. The importance of water allocation and rationing becomes clear and from the very beginning of a drought, water supplies must be used wisely. Priorities should be established and measures to protect water supplies should be taken immediately. Water authorities plan for water shortages in towns and cities with reserve capacity in reservoirs. During prolonged drought, however, such stores may run low, creating a requirement for water restrictions. For individuals, the best place to prepare for droughts in urban centres is in the garden. Over half of city household water is used on gardens and lawns. Wise water use planning might include reducing areas of grass, mulching garden beds and choosing dry-climate plants. In the home, it is also important to conserve water, especially during droughts, by having shorter showers, turning off dripping taps, using water efficient appliances, reusing water and collecting rain water in tanks.

Tropical Cyclones The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is producing increasing evidence that the climate is changing towards high frequency of weather extremes (IPCC, 2001). For the Southern Africa region, this might mean an increase in the magnitude and frequency of droughts and floods. Zimbabwe has already witnessed extreme weather events in the PAST decade. The worst floods and drought of the century occurred in the 1999/2000 and 1991/92 seasons respectively. It is quite possible that tropical cyclone activity will become both more frequent and more severe. Therefore, people need to be proactive and to prepare adequately for this eventuality. In this section we try to produce a tropical cyclone resistant community through tropical cyclone risk management literacy. Tropical cyclones are the most destructive of seasonally recurring, rapid onset natural hazards. They are formed within the warm waters of the tropics. Between 80 and 100 tropical cyclones occur around the world each year (Preston and Whyte, 2000). Devastation by violent winds, torrential rainfall and accompanying phenomena, including floods, can lead to massive community disruption. For example, in 2000, tropical cyclone Eline caused more than 120 deaths and destroyed infrastructure worth several billions of US dollars in Zimbabwe and caused several times more destruction and deaths in Mozambique. Several hundreds of thousands of people were displaced (CDP, 2000).

What are tropical cyclones? The World Meteorological Organisation (WMO) uses the generic term ‘tropical cyclone’ to cover weather systems in which winds exceed ‘gale force’ (minimum of 34 knots or 63 km/h). Tropical cyclones are rotating, intense An abbreviated life cycle of tropical cyclone low pressure systems of tropical oceanic origin. They are called hurricanes Paul, April 2000. 1. Formative stage: 11 April. in the Caribbean, the United States, Central America and parts of the Pacific; 2. Immature stage: 14 April. typhoons in the Northwest Pacific and East Asia; cyclonic storms in the Bay 3. Mature stage (920 hPa): 15 April. of Bengal and tropical cyclones in the South Indian, South Pacific and 4. Decay stage: 20 April. Australian waters. It is important to be aware of these regional names so that, (Source Bureau of Meteorology Australia for example, what is described as a hurricane in America will be understood 2007; www.bom.au) 47 Formation and initial development of a tropi- as essentially the same phenomenon as that which is called ‘tropical cyclone’ cal cyclone when it occurs in Zimbabwe or Mozambique. Four atmospheric and oceanic conditions are necessary for the formation and initial devel- Tracks of cyclones in the South West Indian Ocean opment of a cyclonic storm: The tracks of cyclones in the South West Indian Ocean are naturally erratic, A WARM SEA TEMPERATURE exceding 26° C, to a but initially they move generally westward towards Africa’s east coast, then depth of 60 m, which provides abundant water vapour in the air by evaporation. progressively poleward into higher latitudes, where they lose their cyclonic

ATMOSPHERIC INSTABILITY (an above average de- structure (decay). Those that continue westwards make landfall (landfall is crease of temperature with altitude) encour- when a cyclone’s center crosses the coastline) and first affect Mozambique, ages considerable vertical cumulus cloud convection when condensation of rising air oc- before tracking further westwards into Zimbabwe (Climate Handbook of curs, while high relative humidity (degree to which the air is saturated by water vapour) of Zimbabwe, 1981). Significantly reduced evaporation over land and over colder the atmosphere to a height of about 7 000 m waters polewards, reduces the source of convective energy needed for facilitates condensation of water vapour into water droplets and clouds, releases heat en- sustaining the deep convective clouds of the cyclone. Since tropical cyclones ergy and induces drop in pressure. draw their energy from the warm surface water, cutting or reducing their A LOCATION OF NO MORE THAN 5° LATITUDE FROM THE energy source causes them to dissipate rapidly once they move over cold EQUATOR allows the influence of the forces due to the earth’s rotation (coriolis force) to water or large landmasses. take effect in inducing cyclonic wind circula- tions around low pressure centres. 1 THE FORMATIVE STAGE At this stage the satellite images appear as a DIVERGENCE ALOFT which facilitates the carrying disturbance of an area of unusually active convective (thunderstorms) away of air dispelled from the top of the cyclonic air system. formation, but poorly organised. It is difficult to identify the circulation centre as it will be ill-defined. However at times curved cumulus cloud bands spiralling towards an active area of thunderstorms indicate the location of the centre. As development occurs the convection persists throughout the day. The strongest surface winds may be well removed from the centre, tend to occur in disorganised squalls and are often confined to one quadrant, for example the north westerly winds to the north of the centre. When formative stage tropical cyclones move inland they produce little or no damage on landfall but are often associated with heavy rain and sometimes flooding over eastern and southern Africa, especially Mozambique.

2 THE IMMATURE STAGE This is the stage in which the area of persisting convection becomes more organised accompanied by the occurrence of simultaneous intensification. The minimum surface pressure rapidly drops below 1000 hPa and convection becomes organised into long bands spiralling inwards. Gale-force winds (wind speed of 63 to 87 km/h or 34 to 47 knots) develop with the strengthening pressure gradient, and the maximum winds (which now may be higher) are concentrated in a tight band close to the centre. With the circulation at the centre well defined, an eye may begin to form. In satellite images several well organised curved

Tropical cyclones have a distinct life cycle. bands of active convection may be seen spiralling in towards a central For cyclones that reach at least tropical cyclone stage (category 3 or higher having wind dense mass of clouds covering the focal point of the banding, or gusts of at least 166 km/h) the life cycle may surrounding the centre. The eye (if it exists) may be masked by a canopy be divided into four stages. Not all formed cyclones reach tropical cyclone stage or above. of cirrus cloud, which itself may contain curved striations associated with This is because their development is con- strained by one or more of a number of fac- the outflow at the top of the tropical cyclone. The immature tropical tors such as being located in an unfavourable cyclone can cause devastating wind and storm surge effects upon landfall, atmospheric environment, movement over cooler water or making landfall. Meteorolo- although damage is usually confined to a relatively small area. gists can monitor these processes with weather satellites, orbiting or in fixed position above the earth, and by radar scanning up to 400 3 THE MATURE STAGE During this stage the tropical cyclone acquires a quasi- km from the radar station. A tropical cyclone is usually first identified and then followed steady state with random but minimum fluctuations in central pressure from satellite and/or radar images. The fol- and maximum wind speed. The area affected, including the cyclonic lowing are the four distinct stages in the formation of a tropical cyclone. circulation and extent of the gales, increase markedly. The wind field may

48 also become more asymmetric. In satellite images the cloud field becomes The decay stage is characterised by the weakening of organised convection near the cen- highly organised and more symmetrical. In more intense cyclones a round tre and the disappearance of major curved convective bands in satellite images. The low- central dense overcast containing a well-centred, distinct round eye may level circulation centre may still be very well be dominant (see Figure 3.7, image 3). The surrounding convective bands defined by narrow bands of low clouds. Those cyclones that cross the Mozambique coast and are tightly coiled and quasi-circular. Typically a cyclone spends just a day weaken over land may continue to produce heavy rain at a considerable distance inland. or so at maximum intensity until it begins to weaken, unless the cyclone This was the case with Tropical Cyclone Eline, remains in a highly favourable environment. which continued to give abundant rains in Botswana, several hundreds of kilometres inland. 4 THE DECAY STAGE The previously established warm core is destroyed during this stage, the central pressure rises, and the belt of maximum wind expands away from the centre. Decay may occur very rapidly if the system moves into an unfavourable atmospheric or geographic environment, like when making landfall or moving polewards towards Cyclone Eline at landfall in cooler waters. But sometimes only the tropical characteristics are Mozambique near Beira, 22 modified while the cyclonic circulation moves on to higher latitudes. February 2000. Structure and properties of a tropical cyclone A tropical cyclone consists of four structures, namely the eye, eye wall, cirrus canopy and spiral bands (see photograph below). The following are the definitions of these tropical cyclone components. • EYE The centre or eye of a tropical cyclone is located at the area of lowest pressure. This is an area of sinking air at the centre of circulation. Thus the area is often a cloudless sky and is characterised by little or no wind. When cyclones reach the tropical cyclone stage, the eye usually shows up as a circular hole in the central cloud mass. Although the eye may appear small in the picture, it is on average as big as 40 km in diameter, although it can vary between less than 10 km and more (Source Met Office 2007) than 100 km in the extreme cases. • EYE WALL The area surrounding the eye is a wall of dense convective cloud rising about 15 km into the atmosphere. In this area, called the ‘eye wall’, the most violent winds and heaviest rainfall occur. • SPIRAL BANDS These are bands of heavy rain and wind squalls that spiral cyclonically toward the eye wall. These distinctive patterns of convective cloud bands spiralling into the eye wall are revealed using radar and satellite images. High wind gusts and heavy downpours often occur in individual rainbands, with relatively calm weather between bands. These bands often extend up to 1 000 km from the cyclone centre. • CIRRUS CANOPY Because of the extremely vigorous uplift of moist air within the convective clouds of the eye wall and inner spiral bands, a massive outflow of cirrus cloud is produced in the upper atmosphere. This cirrus outflow forms a huge canopy over the cyclone. At times, this cloud makes satellite location of the system’s centre difficult during the early development stages, before the eye eventually shows through the canopy.

49 Figure 3.8 Atmospheric Pressure Pressure and wind profile across a Tropical Cyclone and Wind Speed Change across a Figure 3.8 shows the atmospheric pressure and wind speed change across Tropical Cyclone’s Diameter the diameter of a tropical cyclone using a rough profile of wind speed (blue) and surface pressure (red). Between 100 and 200 kilometres from the eye, the winds are fast enough to qualify as ‘tropical storm force’. The atmospheric pressure here will still be relatively high compared to the storm’s centre at about 990 to 1010 millibars. However, the pressure gradually falls and the wind speed rises upon getting closer to the eye wall. It is only over the last 50 to 100 kilometres that the large changes in pressure and wind speed occur. The pressure begins to fall more rapidly while the wind speed simultaneously increases as one moves towards the centre of the eye wall. Within the eye wall, the wind speed reaches its maximum but within the eye, the winds become very light, sometimes even calm. The surface pressure continues to drop through the eye wall and into the centre of the eye, where the lowest pressure is found. Upon exiting the eye, the wind Figure 3.9 Tropical Cyclone Eline speed and pressure both increase rapidly. The wind speed again reaches a (the most devastating) as it En- maximum in the opposite eye wall, and then quickly begins to decrease. This tered Zimbabwe means that the wind and pressure profiles inside a tropical cyclone are roughly symmetrical, so a quick rise in winds and pressure through the eye wall followed by a slower increase in pressure and likewise decrease in wind speed would be expected. Since it is within the eye wall that the heaviest falls are expected as well as maximum wind speed, destruction should be located within the path tracked by the eye wall. When an eye passes over a region, a period of maximum wind speed and rainfall is followed by a period of relatively calm weather that characterises the centre of the eye. This is then followed by a sudden outburst of the previously experienced severe weather as the other side of the eye wall affects the region but with the wind coming from the opposite direction. This is the most dangerous aspect of the passage of an eye over a region as the second part of the eye wall usually catches most of its victims off-guard as they tend to relax and move from shelters under the false temporary comfort of the calm eye centre.

BOX 3.4 CLASSIFICATION OF T ROPICAL CYCLONES IN THE SOUTH-WEST I NDIAN OCEAN

50 Tropical cyclones are easily spotted on a satellite/radar image because of the pronounced rotation around the centre. They were Name Suggested Name Suggested by by previously rated according to their wind speed on the Saffir- Abaimba Tanzania Naledi Botswana Simpson scale. This scale ranges from categories 1 to 5, with 5 Beni Zimbabwe Olie Kenya being the most devastating. However, the use of this scale has Cela Swaziland Patou Madagascar been discontinued and the Dvorak scale is now being used. The Darius Mauritius Quilmane Mozambique Elita Malawi Ralph Kenya Dvorak Scale uses satellite imagery, wind speed and the central Gafilo Madagascar Sefate Lesotho pressure. It rates the cyclone on Current Intensity (CI) from CI 1 Helma Mozambique Umuri Comores to CI 8. Lenny Zimbabwe Yvonne Seychelles Moingaza Comores Zuri Kenya Itseng Botswana Valetta Mauritius The Tropical Cyclone Committee for the South West Indian Ocean Jubela Swaziland Wells Malawi Countries of the South West Indian Ocean (SWIO) that are threat- Katiba Lesotho Xavier Tanzania ened by tropical cyclones formed an association in 1974 called the Regional Association I, in order to jointly monitor the activities of tropical cyclones in the SWIO. Zimbabwe is a committee member of Table 3.3 Names of Tropical this association, which is also known as the Tropical Cyclone Committee for Cyclones in the 2003/04 Season the South West Indian Ocean. Other members are, Kenya, Botswana, Comoros, Note: The identification and naming process took place during 2002 Zimbabwe Meteoro- France (RSMC La Reunion Tropical Cyclone Centre), Lesotho, Madagascar, logical Office Malawi, Mauritius, Mozambique, Seychelles, South Africa, Swaziland and Tanzania. Name Date of Entry Point of Entry to Zimbabwe Longitude Latitude The World Meteorological Organisation (WMO) coordinates the Astrid 29 January 1958 30.50o -13.60 o activities of this committee. To facilitate identification and track- Colleen 21 December 1959 33.60o -11.40 o ing, the storms are generally given alternating masculine and femi- Claude 17 January 1966 31.10 o -20.00 o nine names, which identify the year and annual sequence. Indi- Eugene 14 January 1972 33.60 o -23.50 o vidual member countries suggest the names for tropical cyclones Danae 30 January 1976 33.00 o -22.80 o prior to the tropical cyclone season. Mauritius and La Reunion Emilie 7 February 1977 30.10 o -20.40 o o o Meteorological Services, who have the joint responsibility of Domoina 2 February 1984 32.10 -18.50 Berobia 10 January 1986 33.00 o -18.40 o tracking the cyclones as they form in the SWIO and allocating Bonita 20 January 1996 32.00 o -14.70 o the names, then keep the list of names. The names are allocated Lissette 3 March 1997 33.50 o -18.60 o using the alphabetical order of the first letters of the suggested Eline 23 February 2000 30.70 o -19.20 o names (Table 3.3). The SWIO region has its own unique way of Japhet 7 March 2003 33.60 o -14.70 o classifying tropical cyclones occurring in the region (shown in Box 3.4 on page 50). Mauritius Meteorological Service Table 3.4 Tropical Cyclones that History of tropical cyclones that have affected Zimbabwe have Affected Zimbabwe from Quite a number of tropical cyclones form in the South West Indian Ocean but 1958 very few cross the Mozambique Channel to affect this country. Table 3.4 shows the tropical cyclones that have affected Zimbabwe since 1958. Most of the tropical cyclones follow a parabolic track to the east of Madagascar and then move towards the South Pole, where they dissipate. This means that those that affect Zimbabwe always affect Mozambique first. Figure 3.10 illustrates selected tracks of tropical cyclones that have reached Zimbabwe. Note that most of these tropical cyclone tracks end in the country showing that this is where their strength as tropical cyclones diminishes. However, the remnant low pressure systems may still cause heavy rainfall for a day or two. Obvi- ously, the eastern half of Zimbabwe is the most vulnerable to tropical cyclones and only a few –Emilie and Eline –have traversed and affected the whole country.

In the SWIO region, the cyclone season extends from November to April Figure 3.10 Tracks of Selected but tropical cyclones mostly affect Zimbabwe in the months December to Tropical Cyclones that have March (Figure 3.11). Entered Zimbabwe Machingauta (2005)

51 Figure 3.11 Monthly Frequency of The tropical cyclone disaster event Tropical Cyclones that Entered When cyclone force winds move onto land the storm becomes a potential Zimbabwe, 1958 to 2003 disaster. The lower the atmospheric pressure in the centre of the storm, the more violent the action of wind, storm surge, and waves is likely to be. Fortu- nately, Zimbabwe is spared most of the more serious devastating processes of cyclones (storm surge and waves) because of the absence of the sea.

High winds are, of course, only one of the problems that are brought by the storm. Trees have been blown down, especially in the Eastern Highlands, during the passage of tropical cyclones in the area. The passage of tropical cyclone Astrid in January 1958 caused Beitbridge to achieve the dubious

Figure 3.12 Coincidence between Extremely Wet Conditions and Tropical Cyclones Note: SPI = Standardised Precipitation Index of the seasonal rainfall for Matabeleland South Beit Bridge Flood Project (2006 )

BOX 3.5 EXAMPLE OF A TROPICAL CYCLONE WARNING

BOX 3.6 ZIMBABWE CYCLONE CASE STUDY Chikwarakwara/ 1: THE LIMPOPO TROPICAL CYCLONE WARN- Shashe Schools ING SYSTEM

52 distinction of being one of the few places in Zimbabwe at which the maximum daily rainfall recorded exceeded the minimum annual total. Tropical cyclones Emilie and Japhet, which traversed Matabeleland in February 1977 and March 2003 respectively, produced daily rainfall exceeding 200mm (Mugumbate, 2003). Thus devastating floods from the extremely heavy rainfall often accompany tropical cyclones. Flash floods of great volume and short duration may result from the cyclone’s rain, especially in hilly or mountainous terrain. Runoff from the intense rainfall accumulates quickly in restricted valleys and flows rapidly downstream, often as a large ‘wave’. Flood flows frequently contain large concentrations of sediment and debris loads. The damage is increased where they cause mudslides that cover or undercut roads, erode agricultural soil and contribute to serious long term environmental degradation. In the forecasting and warning aspects of flood risk, there must be close coordination between the meteorological forecasters, and the hydrologists who will be working with the water authorities and local officials. The meteorolo- gist, besides forecasting the intensity, movement and evolution of the tropical cyclone, will also prepare forecasts of rainfall, its time of onset, duration and the amounts expected. The effects that tropical cyclone induced floods are capable of The impact of tropical cyclones producing. This was the result of The most serious immediate consequence of cyclones is the loss of human tropical cyclone Eline in lives. The death rate is significantly higher in remote areas of the country, neighboring Mozambique. (Source: Mozambique Meteorological Ser- where communications are poor and warning systems and evacuation plans vices)

Table 3.5 Summary of Possible Damage or Affected/ Structures Agriculture Trees Hazard Destruction to Property High winds Damages rural huts, Damage to standing Widespread loss of timber urban buildings, power crops such as grains lines, towers

Extensive damage to Extensive damage to Minor loss of trees Flood losses roads, rail bridges, crops and irrigation airports, structures etc. systems, scours topsoil, contaminates wells, drowns animals are inadequate, especially in areas where people have been forced to inhabit more vulnerable spaces, such as low lying agricultural areas. The most significant impact of cyclones is the damage they cause to houses and other physical structures. They can also destroy or damage critical facilities, supply lines, crops, and/or food stocks. Economic activities are disrupted, thus creating financial stress. Key installations may also be destroyed or damaged, even those facilities that are critical for responding to disasters and also for maintaining a safe environment and public order. Among these are communications installations, electrical generating and transmission facilities, water storage, purification, and pumping facilities, sewage treatment facilities, hospitals, police stations, and various other public and private facilities. Houses like these, commonly found Damage to infrastructure can also be widespread. Towers and transmission in remote areas of Zimbabwe, are lines may fall as a result of high winds, as shown in the right hand photograph, not strong enough to withstand above. Large buildings may also be damaged by wind, flying debris or erosion tropical cyclone force. that undermines their foundations, leading to weakening or even collapse of (Source: CPD) 53 the building. Transportation facilities, such as bridges, railways, roads and airports are also vulnerable to damage by both high winds and floodwaters.

Cyclones disrupt agriculture and destroy crops. High winds destroy some standing crops, especially maize, and damage orchards and forests. Flooding from intense rains damages certain crops, especially tubers, and may cause excessive erosion by scouring and eroding the topsoil. Furthermore, access to critical facilities, like markets for buying and selling agricultural produce, schools, and points of supply of relief material, may be impeded by damage to roads, bridges, railways, etc.

Cyclones disrupt economies. The consequences of the disaster may include:

Top- House destroyed during • The loss of investments and jobs; tropical cyclone Eline in February • The destruction of or damage to factories; 2000. Below - Typical houses build • Production losses resulting from the destruction of harvests or crops with the assistance of CPD with and the death of livestock, etc. standard building codes to resist tropical cyclone damage. Vulnerable communities (Source: CPD) The vulnerability of a human settlement to a cyclone is determined by its site, the probability that a cyclone will occur, and the degree to which its structures could be damaged by it. Buildings are considered vulnerable if they cannot withstand the force of high winds. Generally, unprotected river floodplains are considered vulnerable to cyclones.

Tropical cyclone disaster mitigation Much of the potential impact of cyclones can be reduced or eliminated if certain precautions or mitigation measures are taken. The following are specific actions that one can take:

• REGULATORY CONTROLS In areas known to be vulnerable to floods, land This house is a tropical cyclone resistant has to be regulated so that villages are built on high ground, away from model house built with the assistance of the CPD. Here the engineers tried to incorporate known flood areas. Land use control and regulation can be an effective building codes to establish minimum standards of design and construction using af- tool for reducing vulnerability, although it is not a simple, universal cure. fordable local resources in order to avoid struc- Controls must be relevant to local conditions, to the degree of physical tural collapse in the advent of yet another cyclone. hazard, to the existing local economy and to the probable future socioeconomic status of the area. Also involved are numerous human factors that have to do with the inhabitants’ perceptions of the hazard

BOX 3.7 ZIMBABWE CYCLONE CASE STUDY 2: TROPICAL CYCLONE ELINE, FEBRUARY 2000

54 they face and the available means of altering the incidence of damage. When a cyclone is on it’s way and a cyclone warning is issued, community members are The established way of life and existing land use will determine, to a advised to: greater or lesser extent, what regulated uses are to be recommended. · Listen to local radio or television for further For example, in Muzarabani, these critical considerations were ignored warnings; ·Board or tape windows, and store loose ar- and houses which were built on high ground away from the flood hazards ticles inside; were either sold or left uninhabited as the intended owners left to go · Lock up pets, fill water containers, fuel car and place it under cover; back to live in their original homes (CPD, verbal communication). · Check the emergency kit and put spare clothing and shoes in plastic bags; and · Keep children home from school. • BUILDING REGULATIONS Strict building regulations are unrealistic (and

almost always unenforceable) for the majority of Zimbabwe’s villages When the cyclone strikes, those in its path since they typically receive no engineering input and are made from are advised to: locally available, inexpensive materials. As a result, cases of collapsed · Stay inside and shelter in the strongest part of the house (e.g. the bathroom); and huts during tropical cyclones as shown in the photograph on the left, · Protect themselves with a mattress and or below, are common in the rural areas. The CPD has devised a workable blankets and anchor themselves to a strong fixture (such as water pipes) or get under a alternative to rigid building codes with more flexible building strong table. performance standards. The primary objective of these standards adopted by CPD was to encourage the development of more disaster resistant houses (i.e., with a substantially increased level of safety), rather than to require that all houses be built to a very high, often expensive, engineering standard. This means that any type or size of house may be built, and any material may be used to build the house, depending on what is appropriate to the economic situation of the homeowner, as long as the final structure is cyclone resistant and as long as it does not endanger the lives or property of neighbors or passersby.

• PUBLIC AWARENESS Systematic methods are necessary to inform people about the threat of tropical cyclones. Public awareness programmes must explain some very basic and frequently misunderstood issues on the nature of the associated disaster risks – the anticipated hazard, the type of disaster impact and the condition of vulnerability to which the local population is exposed. Basic disaster mitigation and preparedness measures can provide substantial and permanent benefits without necessarily causing the government or individuals additional expense.

Tropical cyclone disaster preparedness and response Several important activities are necessary during the run up to a possible cyclone disaster: • Developing a disaster preparedness plan to sequence the activities and responsibilities of each participant; • Developing an effective forecasting system; • Developing warning and evacuation procedures for people threatened by floods;

Impact Midlands Manicaland Masvingo Matabeleland South Total Injuries/deaths 3 45 65 23 136 Houses/huts destroyed 28 8 46 357 439 Toilets destroyed 4 268 1 146 29 944 23 829 59 184 Schools damaged 1 438 1 238 9 141 3 186 14 999 Table 3.6 Impact of Tropi- Clinics damaged 43 46 390 59 538 Dams damaged 4 3 30 17 54 cal Cyclone Eline on the Bridges damaged 12 2 32 42 88 Worst Affected Provinces of Livestock lost 13 15 179 Zimbabwe

55 BOX 3.8 ZIMBABWE’S TROPICAL CYCLONE WARNING SYSTEM

• Training in first aid and trauma care, and maintaining stocks of necessary Figure 3.13 Flood Prone Areas of medical supplies; and Zimbabwe • Establishing an emergency communication system as well as public service messages regarding evacuation, health, safety, and security.

Advise for inhabitants of tropical cyclone prone areas Before the cyclone season begins, those who are likely to be affected by cyclones are advised to: • Know their community cyclone plan, if there is one, and how the cyclone warning system works; • Check that their house is in good condition, particularly the roof; • Cut overgrown tress and trim tree branches clear of the house; • Clear their property of loose items likely to cause damage in high winds; and • Create an emergency kit of tinned food, water containers, emergency lighting, first aid materials, medicines, and plastic bags.

Flood Hazards and Disasters

What are floods? Floods are among the most frequent and costly natural disasters in terms of Floods occur when water covers land that is human hardship and economic loss. As much as 90 percent of the damage normally dry. Many communities in Zimbabwe experience some kind of flooding, but people related to all natural disasters (excluding drought) is caused by floods and who live near rivers or in low lying areas live associated debris flows. Floods can also result in significant property damage with the greatest threat of floods. Periods of heavy rain, not necessarily in their area, can and major social disruption. The damage caused by the floods caused by lead to rises in the water level of streams and rivers to a point where the normal channels tropical cyclone Eline floods is still evident in many parts of the country. can no longer hold the volume of water. Silt- ation of rivers can also lead to loss of channel Floods can be defined as the temporary inundation of normally dry land areas capacity. Below are flooded villages, during the greatest non cyclone induced floods of the cen- from the overflow of natural or artificial confines of a river or other water tury in 2007/08 season, which had been built in the low lying area of middle Save River. bodies (Burton, 2003).

56 The causes of floods and flash floods Flooding occurs in known floodplains like in the Muzarabani (as the name suggests), when Several factors contribute to flooding. Two key elements are rainfall intensity prolonged rainfall over several days, intense rainfall over a short period of time, or debris and duration. Intensity is the rate of rainfall and duration is how long the rain jams cause a river or stream to overflow and flood the surrounding area. Floods can be slow lasts. Topography, soil conditions, and ground cover also play important roles. or fast rising, but generally develop over a Other, less common, causes in Zimbabwe arise from the operation of dams period of hours or days. – dam failure and dam backflow. Most flash flooding is caused by slow moving thunderstorms, thunderstorms repeatedly moving over the same area, or heavy rains from tropical cyclones. Flash floods take from several minutes to several hours to develop but, by definition, they occur within six hours of a rain event, after a dam or levee failure, or following a sudden release of water held by a debris jam. Flash floods can occur without warning. Floods can roll boulders, tear out trees, destroy buildings and bridges, and scour out new channels. Floodwater can reach heights of 3 to 6 metres and often carries a deadly cargo of debris. Flood producing rains can also trigger catastrophic debris slides.

Common types of flooding in Zimbabwe The three most common flood types experienced in Zimbabwe are: • SLOW ONSET FLOODS Flooding of rivers in the vast flat areas of Muzarabani in the northwest, may last for one or more weeks, or even months. Floods in these areas can lead to major losses of livestock and damage to crops, as well as extensive damage to rural homes and road links.

• RAPID ONSET FLOODS Flooding can occur more quickly in the mountain headwater areas of the larger rivers as well as in the rivers draining to Submerged Villages and fields in the coast. The rivers are steeper and flow more quickly in these areas, Middle Save River during the with flooding sometimes only lasting for one or two days. These floods greatest non cyclone induced floods of the century (2007/08 season)

BOX 3.9 FLOODS MAROON VILLAGERS, LIVESTOCK IN CHIPINGE

57 Zhowe dam on Mzingwane river is can be potentially much more damaging and can pose a greater risk to also useful for flood mitigation. life and property. This is because there is generally much less time to (Source: E. Madamombwe, ZINWA, 2006) take preventive action, and a faster, more dangerous flow of water. This type of flooding could affect most of our major towns and cities.

• FLASH FLOODS Flash flooding results from relatively short, intense bursts of rainfall, often from thunderstorms. It can occur in almost all parts of Zimbabwe and poses the greatest threat of loss of life. Storms of this type usually have a small area extent and only generate floods on small headway streams, tributaries or in poorly drained urban areas. In rural areas these floods are most often experienced in arid and semi arid areas, usually in the Matabeleland and Masvingo regions. This is because these areas are characterised by steep slopes causing high velocity flow and sparse vegetation, which when combined with a high intensity, short duration rainstorm is a recipe for flash floods.

As land is converted from permeable surfaces (fields or woodlands) to impervious surfaces (e.g. roads and parking lots), it loses its ability to absorb rainfall. By improving the drainage system, urbanisation contributes to an increase in the volume of quick flow and hence the velocity of the runoff. Runoff is increased to between two and six times what it would be on natural terrain. During periods of urban flooding, streets can become swiftly moving rivers, while basements and viaducts can turn into death traps as they fill with water. In cases where drainage systems are unable to cope, they become a serious problem instead and can also cause severe damage to infrastructure such as roads, bridges and buildings. People are often swept away after entering floodwaters on foot or in vehicles. Weak houses that succumbed after During the urban flash floods of 1999, a man was swept away in the streets being subjected to excessive of Harare while trying to cross a flooded drain to take his child home after moisture during floods. Structures school. Flash floods can be predicted but the level of accuracy would depend like the toilet in the background on the efficiency and technological capacity of the meteorological services. (top), which were build with cement and fired bricks and with Severe storms and cyclones, especially in southern Zimbabwe, can cause impervious barrier near the vast areas to be affected by flash floods. Damage may be limited to property ground withstood the tropical and stock losses but, in some of the more severe cases, human lives have cyclone Eline (2000) induced heavy been lost or fatal injuries sustained by people caught in flash floods. One rains and floods. such case was the flash floods that occurred in the normally dry Tsholotsho (Source: CPD) district in December 2005 (CPD, 2006).

Flood Mitigation There are both structural and non-structural flood mitigation measures in place in Zimbabwe:

USE OF DAMS AND WEIRS Although these were put in place to improve water security, they also serve as flood mitigation structures. The flood control is, however, limited by the amount of storage available and the way these dams are operated prior to and during the rainy season. Zimbabwe being in a semi- arid region, it is difficult for water managers to release water in anticipation of floods because of uncertainties in the occurrence and magnitude of runoff during the coming season.

58 During and after the flood, if you remain in FLOOD RESISTANT STRUCTURES If weak structures like houses are subjected your home or when you return, take these to water for long periods of time, the water may move from the ground up- precautions: · School children, motorists, bus drivers wards following the walls. Rising damp commonly occurs in walls at or near and members of the general public must not attempt to cross fast flowing streams, the ground level and in solid ground floor slabs at the junction with walls. flooded rivers or stormwater drains; This may significantly weaken the structure, leading to it succumbing to the · Do not be afraid if a helicopter rescue is necessary but follow instructions from the moisture and disintegrating, as shown in the photographs below. The rise of helicopter crew; · Do not eat food that has been in contact moisture can most effectively be stopped by the use of an impervious and with floodwater and boil all water until sup- continuous barrier using materials like built up felt or plastic. The use of plies have been declared safe; · Do not use gas or electrical appliances fired bricks and cement also assist in making the structure strong. that have been affected by the flood until they have been safety checked; · Beware of snakes and spiders, which may The non-structural flood mitigation measures range from flood forecasting move to drier areas in your house; to rescue operations, as well as defining areas to settle. Meteorological · Avoid wading, even in shallow water and, if you must enter shallow floodwater, wear forecasts are issued throughout the year and, during the wet season, the solid shoes; · Check with police for safe routes before amount of rainfall is also predicted. This information is used in forecasting driving anywhere and don’t enter water the river flows so as to assess whether there will be floods. Based on this, without checking the depth and current; · Keep listening to the local radio or TV the appropriate authorities take the necessary steps to ensure the information station and heed all warnings and advice; and is disseminated and the potential victims evacuated before or during the flood · Do not jump into a river to rescue some- events. one if you are not trained as the rescue crew is trained to do this job.

Advice for inhabitants of flood prone areas Know the local flood history and ask the local council or CPD about the following: • Local flood plans and, if it becomes necessary to evacuate, how to find the nearest safe location. Prepare an emergency kit that includes:

• A portable radio and torch with fresh batteries, candles and waterproof matches; • Reasonable stocks of fresh water and tinned food, strong shoes and rubber gloves; • A first aid kit and basic first aid knowledge and good supplies of essential medication; and • A waterproof bag for clothing and valuables and your emergency contact numbers.

A storm killed two people and damaged homes and schools during the last week of November 2004. The storm that lasted 30 minutes affected 200 households and killed a Some of the people injured by the storms 70 year-old woman who was electrocuted by a fallen ZESA pole and a 74-year old man who was struck by lightning.

Save the Children (UK) which was part of the team that went to assess the area together

with the Civil Protection Unit donated the kits that consist of pots, blankets, soap, cutlery, plastic cups, plates, buckets, water purification tablets and plastic sheets. Zimbabwe Red Cross supplied 25 family tents. The Civil Protection Unit has already assessed 75% of the damaged area. The storm damaged 6 primary schools and 2 secondary schools including teachers’ houses, classrooms and a laboratory. Other institutions that were damaged include Kemurara Clinic, Grain Marketing Board, District Development Fund, Vocational training centre in Murombedzi, Zimbabwe Republic Police offices and Zvimba Rural District Council. Marahwa and Changamuka villages were the hardest hit with 56 A destroyed house households affected. Mucheri and Kasange villages had 20 and 12 households affected respectively. Affected villagers have resorted to staying with neighbours while reconstructing their homes. Villagers were urged by the authorities to plant trees to act as wind breaks.

Extracts from UN Zimbabwe Humanitarian Situation Report (11/2004) BOX 3.9 THE ZVIMBA STORM

59 The causes of thunderstorms Act on flood warnings: Thunderstorms develop when dense cold air • overlies less dense, warm, moist air, result- Listen to the local radio for information and check that your neighbors ing in strong upward currents and conversion know of the warning; of heat energy into wind and electrical potential. When the atmosphere is especially un- • Stack furniture and possessions above the likely flood level, (on beds stable and wind flow can provide the most efficient input of energy to the cloud, a se- etc. and in the roof) with electrical equipment on top, and secure heavy vere thunderstorm develops, complementary objects that could float and cause damage; up and down draughts, capable of producing the following: • Move garbage, chemicals, poisons, fuel etc. to a high, secure place; • HEAVY RAIN Intense up draughts produce rain- Protect or relocate stock and equipment in commercial or industrial drops through condensation of moist air. As raindrops become too large to be supported, premises; they fall, producing heavy rain, which can ex- • Move to higher ground if living in low lying areas or near streams or ceed intensities of 200 mm per hour, causing flash floods. rivers and, if on a farm, move livestock to high ground; • HAIL Hailstones form in a thunderstorm when Check your car, fill it with fuel and check the emergency kit and fresh raindrops freeze at high levels and then are water stocks; recycled through up and down draughts, growing all the time. Hailstones larger than cricket • Remember that many children are carried away while trying to cross balls have been observed in Australia. Such large, usually jagged, ice hazards can inflict flooded rivers and do not send children to school if they have to do this; serious damage or even fatal injury. and LIGHTNING This is a serious hazard in Zimba- • Do not attempt to go to work in a field that is across a river or in between bwe and is discussed in more detail in the following section. rivers because of the danger of becoming trapped.

Severe Thunderstorms

By definition, ‘severe’ thunderstorms produce flash flooding, damaging hailstones (2 cm or more in diameter), destructive wind gusts (90 km/h and above), tornadoes, or any combination of any of these.

Thunderstorms that do not produce any of these dangerous phenomena are not regarded as ‘severe’ but may still cause death, injury or property damage due to lightning strikes.

Figure 3.14 Reported Lightning Lightning Hazard Death Toll from 1990 to 2003 Lightning wreaks havoc in Zimbabwe every rain season, killing an average of Source: CPD Newsletter (March 2003) 83 people a year (Figure 3.14) and injuring several hundreds more, mostly children, as well as countless livestock. This figure is, in fact, likely to be an Figure 3.15 Site of Lightning underestimate as additional deaths go unreported in remote rural areas of the Counters Installed by ZESA at country. When compared to the average figure of 73 (http:// Meteorological Stations www.usatoday.com/weather/resources/basics/wlightning.htm) for the whole Source: Zimbabwe Meteorological Office of the United States, the significance of our average yearly fatalities becomes even more startling; the United States is about 25 times the area of Zimbabwe with more than 25 times the population. Our neighbour South Africa with storms of the same nature of those in Zimbabwe, but more than three times the area and four times the population, has only 40 deaths per year (UZ, 1991). These deaths and injuries usually occur when trees and huts in which people are sheltering or sleeping are struck by lightning or burnt by fire caused by lightning. It kills not only human beings, but also farm animals, at times in large numbers. Zimbabwe also holds the record on lightning fatalities in the Guinness Book of Records, with 23 deaths in one strike in Manicaland, and 100 cattle were killed by one strike in Gutu in 1991 (UZ, 1991). A lighting research done by the University of Zimbabwe (UZ) in 1991 showed that Gutu district leads the country, with ten fatalities per year.

60 In addition to the impact on homes and farms, enormous damage can be done by lightning to Zimbabwe Electricity Supply Authority (ZESA) substations Figure 3.16 (a) An electric storm and power lines, to TelOne rural lines, microwave link towers and relay links, cloud. Note the huge vertical to Zimbabwe Broadcasting Holdings (ZBH) relay transmitters and to National extent. Railways of Zimbabwe (NRZ) overhead lines. All of these facilities are vital (Source: CPD) to the national economy. The total runs into millions of US dollars every rainfall season. The hundreds of insurance claims sent to the Meteorological Services annually for lightning con- firmation bears witness to the high losses incurred through damage of domestic electrical appliances.

ZESA has installed lightning counters throughout the country to monitor lightning activity so as to find ways to protect their installations (Figure 3.15). For those who can afford it, insurance provides some recompense for equipment, property and livestock lost, but lives are irreplaceable. We have no alternative except to search for and find national countermeasures to remove Zimbabwe from its infamous position in the global lightning causality statistics. Many people are killed due to misinformation and inappropriate behaviour during electric storms. A few Figure 3.16 (b) Electric Storm simple precautions can reduce the dangers posed by lighting. Therefore, in Cloud and Cloud to Ground Dis- this section we seek to explain the perils associated with lighting and then charge through a Human Being recommend some countermeasures.

The nature of lightning Lightning, the ‘bolt’ from mythology has long been feared as an atmospheric flash of supernatural origin or the great weapon of the gods. In biblical times it figured as the manifestation and expression of the anger of Yaweh and fea- Can reach 10 totured 13km height during the presentation of the ten commandments to Moses and the Israelites. Thus it is not only in Zimbabwe that lightning is greatly feared. Statistically, lightning poses a greater threat to individuals than most other natural hazards. Today, scientific explanations have largely replaced mystical ones, and experimental procedures have replaced intuitive concepts. Yet we remain in awe of lighting and, therefore, it is not surprising that explaining lightning as a natural phenomenon which can be avoided and against which precautions must be taken is still challenging.

Lightning is emitted from clouds of large vertical extent, as shown in the photograph above [Fiigure 3.16 (a)]. These clouds do not allow light to pass through them, hence the dark appearance they have from the ground. They are convective clouds that usually form after a hot and humid day. Scientists posit that during their formation, different cloud particles (i.e. particles and water droplets) are charged differently depending on their size. Small ice particles and droplets are positively charged and are swept to the top of the cloud by upward air currents (updrafts within the cloud) leaving behind negatively charged heavy large drops and ice particles at the base of the cloud [Figure 3.16 (b)]. Thus the positively charged particles concentrate at the top while negative ones remain at the bottom. Because the earth is generally positively charged an electrical potential gradient is formed between the earth and the base of the cloud.

61 Stages in this Cloud to Ground Lighting Strike

1 This cloud to ground lightning occurs when positive charges are built up on the tree 2 A negative charge called the ‘faintly luminous streamer’ or ‘leader’ flows from the cloud base towards the tree. 3 A positively charged leader called the ‘return stroke’ leaves the tree and runs into the cloud 4 The lighting bolt that is seen is actually a series of downward striking leaders and upward striking return strokes, all taking place in a fraction of a second 5 The narrow channel that carries the discharge is heated more than the temperature of the sun giving very high luminosity (hence burning up the tree) 6 This burst of heat makes the air around the bolt expand explosively producing the sound heard as thunder 7 Since light travels a million times faster than sound, lighting bolts are seen before hearing the thunder

Figure 3.17 What should be As the charge separation continues within the cloud, the potential difference known about Cloud to Ground between the base of the cloud and the ground increases correspondingly, up Lightning to some critical limit. When the potential difference between the cloud base and the ground is large enough to overcome the insulating effect provided by the air, an electrical discharge takes place in the form of lightning, taking the least resistant path to the ground. (Figure 3.16) This type of lightning is called ‘cloud to ground discharge’. There are other types as well, such as intra-cloud discharge, which occurs either within the cloud itself or between two clouds in close proximity. The cloud to ground discharge is the type that poses danger to people on the ground. It is easier to understand this phenomenon if we compare to it to a motorcar battery with a positive and negative terminal as well an electrical potential gradient between them. If a material of low resistance is placed between the terminals, sparks occur as a result of electrical current being carried from one terminal to the other. When a strike occurs, the narrow channel that carries the discharge is heated to about 20 0000 C, giving very high luminosity (Figure 3.17). This extremely high temperature causes sudden explosive expansion and contraction of air, creating shock waves. These high temperatures are also responsible for the burning that is Figure 3.18 Causes of Lightning normally associated with lighting, while the waves are what we hear as thun- Hut Deaths and Injuries der.

How lightning kills The following are some of the ways in which lightning kills: • Direct strike to the head or side flash leads the current to be near the Some important facts about lightning Many Zimbabweans believe lightning can be back and at the top of the neck (Figure 3.18), which may lead to directed to strike a predetermined target by witchcraft. The following are a few facts that respiratory failure, even though the heart may still be beating. help to dispel the myths about lightning: • Current discharge through the heart disturbs the pumping and the · Lightning can strike in the same place more circulation of the blood. than once; • · People struck by lightning can survive if first Death from burns sustained by fire, which may have been caused by the aid is administered promptly and medical as- lightning. sistance sought thereafter; and · Lightning casualties do not carry an electric • People clearly missed by lihtning behave in a confused and haphazard charge so it is quite safe to touch them. manner causing injury or death to themselves. 62 Protective measures against lightning Figure 3.19 Two Poles and Bare There is virtually no place that is absolutely safe from the lightning threat. Wire Conductor However, some places are safer than others. Large enclosed structures (substantially constructed buildings) tend to lower the risk more than smaller or open structures but the degree of risk of lightning injury also depends on whether the structure incorporates lighting protection devices, and the materials and construction techniques used. In general, vehicles that are fully enclosed, like cars, buses, vans etc., with their windows rolled up, provide good shelter from lightning. Care should be taken not to have contact with metal or conducting surfaces outside or inside the vehicle. Locations to avoid during an electric storm include high places and open fields, Figure 3.20 Single Metal isolated trees, unprotected gazebos, rain or picnic shelters, communication Conductor towers, ZESA electricity pylons, flagpoles, light poles, metallic washing lines, metal fences golf carts and water (lakes, swimming pools, rivers, etc.).

Advice for minimising the risk of lightening strike If indoors: • Avoid going outdoors and keep clear of windows, pipes and metal that may be protruding to the outside; Key h = height of the wooden protection pole. It • Only use the telephone if it is absolutely necessary; should be at least twice the height of the struc- • Unplug all electrical appliances; and ture to be protected. d = distance of the pole from the structure. It • Do not wash dishes, or take a bath or a shower. should be at least half the height of the pole.

If outdoors: • Shelter inside a big solid building or a car with the windows rolled up; Figure 3.21 Metal Conductor in a • Avoid using an umbrella because of the metal and be aware that a raincoat Tree does not offer insulation against strikes; • If far from a safe shelter, avoid being the tallest object, by crouching and put your feet together, keeping your head as low as possible and, if in a group, spreading out rather than all remaining together; • Never shelter under an isolated tree; • Immediately get down from any high place e.g. a tree or rooftop; • If you are in on a mountain, hide in a cave if possible; • Do not ride in an open vehicle, tractor, bicycle, donkey or scotch cart; • Do not repair a vehicle, tractor or plough; Key d = distance. It must be at least half the height of the tree. If the height of the tree is double the height to be protected, there is no need for a pole, as just a wire suffices

Figure 3.22 How Wind Blows Roofs Off Houses UNDP DHA, (2001)

When lightning is seen or thunder is heard, consider going to a building or a vehicle. Light- ning usually precedes rain, so do not wait for the rain to begin before suspending activities.

Every individual is ultimately responsible for their own personal safety. Parents and teachers must take responsibility for the safety of children in their care. Avoid unnecessary exposure to the lightning during storm activity.

63 BOX 3.10 LIGHTNING KILLS 10 ZIMBABWE WORSHIPPERS

Vapostori worship in the open wearing white robes (source news.bbc.co.uk/.../jpg/ _38509259_zimcult300.jpg)

Table 3.7 Wind Gusts with Poten- tially Damaging Effects, 1968 to 1978 • Zimbabwe Meteorological Office If inside a boat, swimming or fishing, try to leave the water as soon as possible; Date Speed Place • If in an open space e.g. football pitch, athletics ground, ploughing field, July 1968 50 knots Nyanga church gathering or any public gathering, leave immediately and seek April 1969 57 knots Masvingo April 1969 57 knots Grand Reef shelter. March 1971 68 knots Wankie NP August 1971 76 knots Lake Kariba Some long term protection measures are: January 1973 75 knots Lake Kariba • Installing lightning protection devices at homes in the rural areas; February 1973 61 knots Lake Kariba • Avoiding the use of metal caps on top of thatching; and December 1974 85 knots Kariba Airport • Growing trees rather than cutting them down. May 1975 63 knots Masvingo September 1976 75 knots Lake Kariba Figures 3.19 to 3.21 show some examples of protection schemes ideal for October 1978 64 knots Grand Reef June 1978 63 knots Lake Kariba people living in the rural areas. November 1978 75 knots Chiredzi Extreme Wind Gusts Civil Protection Department Officials inspect a house severely dam- In a mature electric storm, extreme wind gusts are caused by the mass of cold aged in a heavy hailstorm that occurred air dragged down by falling rain and hail or air cooled by rain falling through in Kadoma on 26 December 2003. it and evaporating. The high density of this air compared with the air adjacent Four houses were destroyed during the to the storm accelerates it towards the ground where it is deflected horizon- storm but fortunately no deaths were tally at great speed, producing a cool gusty wind that can be strong enough to recorded cause significant damage. This squall may last for only a few minutes or, on (Source: CPD) occasion, an hour or more but the peak speed is only experienced within a few minutes of the onset. At their most violent, these dangerous, damaging gusts are known as ‘micro- bursts’ and ‘down-bursts’. Table 3.7 shows that wind speeds as high as 85 knots have been recorded at Kariba in 1974. Winds of this magnitude can snap large trees in two and demolish buildings by taking the roof off, capsize small aircraft, blow over people, and probably most dangerously, capsize water- borne vessels. This is a hazard of consequence at Lake Kariba and may origi- nate many kilometres from the shore. While the weather overhead may appear to be clear and the winds light, the sudden arrival of a severe squall from some storm many kilometres away from the shore or escarpment can occur. Figure 3.22 shows how strong winds destroy houses.

64 Where and when severe storms occur Severe storms can occur at any time of the year throughout Zimbabwe. Most strike from September to March when solar energy is the greatest, but severe winter storms are common on the Zambezi escarpment. The frequency of land gales is difficult to specify. Table 3.7 shows land gales that had the potential to damage property for the decade 1968 to 1978. The dates clearly show that these damaging winds have occurred during all the months of the year.

Fog and Mist as Visibility and Barrier Hazards When water droplets of the order of one fiftieth of a millimetre in diameter (about 200 times smaller than rain drops) are held in suspension in the air, visibility is greatly reduced due to multiple reflections. If the concentration of the water droplets is great enough to reduce visibility to less than 2 km but not less than 1 km, it is referred to as ‘mist’. As the concentration becomes Winding roads that pass through higher and the visibility falls below 1 km, or even as low as a few metres, the mountains are more dangerous term ‘fog’ is used. Thus it is only the level of visibility that is used to distin- than usual in the presence of fog. guish between mist and fog; otherwise they are identical. Since fog com- (Source: CPD) prises dense clouds of water droplets immediately above land or water sur-

Figure 3.23 Annual Mean Number of Days with Fog by Location Source: Climate Handbook of Zimbabwe (1981)

Radiation fog is most common just after the rain season when the skies are clear and the air still fairly moist. In winter and the hot season, the air is usually too dry for much fog to form. During the rain season, when the air is moist enough, radiation at night is often in- hibited by middle level cloud layers, reducing the loss of heat at ground level, and the incidence of fog is sporadic and local, depending on the extent of cloud during the night.

faces, where land and water transport is dominant, it becomes a weather haz- Table 3.8 Effective Temperature ard because it impairs visibility and hence judgment by drivers and pilots. Scale Source: Climate Handbook of Zimbabwe Where main roads pass through mountains, fog can be a danger and visual (1981) sensing and signals are essential to safe activity or operations. People’s lives may be at risk if they become lost in treacherous environments, especially in Effective Temp. Degree of Comfort the mountains. Fog hazard in Zimbabwe is generally most prevalent from Feb- Above 27.1o Injurious to health 24.2 o – 27.1 o Excessively warm ruary to June, with a peak at the beginning of the winter season in May. 20.5 o – 24.3 o Warm 16.7 o – 20.4 o Optimum comfort ‘Radiation fog’ occurs as result of radiative cooling of moist air, usually on 12.8 o – 16.6 o Cool clear still nights. ‘Advection fog’ occurs where warm moist air moves over a Below 12.8 o Very cold

Zone Area Boundaries Effective Temperature Characteristics I Central plateau of the eastern border mountains Optimum conditions, seldom uncomfortable Table 3.9 Five Main Zones Demar- II Sub plateau area above 600 m Comfortable to warm cated by Effective Temperature III Between approximately 600 m and 400 m Hot days and warm nights IV Limpopo and Zambezi valleys below 400 m Hot days and nights Mean Conditions V Zambezi valley downstream of Chirundu Excessively hot Source: Climate Handbook of Zimbabwe (1981)

65 Figure 3.24 Effective Tempera- cold surface or cold air moves over a body of warm water. ‘Orograhic fog’ ture Regions of Zimbabwe occurs when moist air moving upslope is cold and moisture condenses out of Source: Climate Handbook of Zimbabwe it. Radiation and orographic fog are the most common types experienced in (1981) Zimbabwe. Because cooling proceeds from ground level upwards, forming an inversion, the fog develops from ground level upwards and tends to be sharply limited on top by the inversion, which acts as a ceiling. Radiation fog forms or collects over low lying ground when cold air drifts down a slope. It may form before midnight but is more likely to do so in the three or four hours before dawn. Clearance takes place an hour or so after sunrise, when freshening winds start a turbulent mixing of air which draws in drier air from above the fog layer. The fog lifts to become low cloud briefly, before dispersing, usually within the hour. An examination of records with the Department of Meteorology shows that radiation fog rarely lasts more than two hours after sunrise. In contrast to radiation fog, orograhic fog may last many hours, a day or more in some localities, due to different methods of formation. Thus as long as the People who sleep outdoors in winter (cold moist air ascends up a slope, conversion of water vapour into water droplets weather) are obviously at risk of hypothermia. They may be stranded out of doors over- by the cooling of air will still take place. Thus orographic fog is confined to night without protection from the cold. hilly areas. It may occur at any time of the day or night and lasts as long as the wind continues to blow up the hill slopes. This type of hazard is actually a cloud base at ground level. This hazard occurs mainly along the eastern border mountains, which have predominantly moist, southeasterly winds. Figure 3.23 illustrates the disproportionably high frequency of occurrence of fog at Chipinge, as compared to other stations. This fog in the eastern highlands, when at relatively lower altitudes like Chipinge, tends to lift during the day, whereas in places at higher altitudes such as Vumba, the fog is more persistent and longer lasting. Other hilly places where the ground rises steeply, such as Shurugwi, may also experience orographic fog in moist southeast winds. However the frequency of the occurrence drops rapidly towards the west of the country. Places in the extreme northeast of the country experi- Meteorologists have combined temperature and wind to come up with ‘effective tempera- ence orographic fog, although infrequently, with northerly or north easterly ture’, which relates to human comfort (Table 3.8). This is expressed in terms of tempera- winds, e.g. near the northern escarpment as at Karoi. Such fog usually forms ture but cannot be read from a thermometer. at night and is short lived.

Extreme Temperature Hazard Of all the weather elements which affect human comfort, temperature and humidity are paramount as these affect the body’s heat regulatory mechanisms, especially the capacity to perspire and lose heat by evaporation. In hot, humid climates, relief can be obtained by using air conditioners and fans to lower the room temperature or humidity, and setting up a breeze to increase evaporation respectively. At the other extreme, in cold climates, wind chill may make the difference between survival and death. The Zimbabwe Meteorological Services (1981) has the following effective temperatures to measure the degree of comfort: Our interest is usually in the upper end of the scale, as the lower, cooler end is not usually attained in Zimbabwe. Therefore when building, the choice of orientation, building material, size of windows, curtaining, exterior sunshields, overhangs and ventilation can make the indoor climate cooler, when it is hot

66 outside and vice versa, hence reducing the effective temperature appreciably. But lack of this knowledge, manifesting itself in poor planning in these re- spects, can worsen the situation by making the indoor climate worse than outside conditions, thereby seriously compromising the comfort of the people living or working indoors and threatening their health and productivity.

Variation of effective temperature climate in Zimbabwe The Meteorological Services of Zimbabwe calculates the effective temperature from standard meteorological data for each selected station for the hot- test months of October though December. Table 3.9 shows the resulting zones and Figure 3.24 shows the actual mapping of the zones.

Table 3.10 Causes and Symptoms Common Causes Common Symptoms of Hypothermia Wet or inadequate clothing Loss of energy and/or stumbling or shivering Exposure to cold, wet or windy conditions Mental/physical lethargy, loss of judgement or determination Fatigue and/or excessive perspiration Impaired senses, slurred speech or swollen lips or hands Lack of readily digestible, high protein food Alcohol intake or shock (e.g. after an accident)

If symptoms appear, the victim must be shel- Mean conditions were used to demarcate the zones. The south eastern limit tered from the cold and gradually warmed in a sleeping bag, blankets or heavy clothing, area is about 300m lower than the northern western limit. This is because, before the body loses its ability to keep warm. Companions should: although both sides of the main watershed can experience equally high tem- · Assist by staying very close to the victim peratures, the southeast regularly experiences bouts of cold south easterlies, to provide body warmth; · Give the victim small amounts of warm which lower the average temperature. The absence of these frequent cold spells food and drink (but never alcohol); and · Not rub or massage the victim or expose is also a reason that Zone V is only found in the extreme northern parts of them to excessive external heat (e.g. country. fire).

Measures against extreme temperatures Some recommended measures to deal with temperature extremes are: · Build houses with high walls (also effective in winter); · Construct exterior shading, e.g. trees to the southwest of the building allowing maximum insulation in winter, at the same time intercepting the heat of the sun in summer; · Reduce window size to minimise excessive exterior heat entering the interior of the building and so reducing the need for air conditioning; · Increase ventilation, e.g. by installing ceiling fans, noting that ventilation requirements change in winter when sealing the building from chilling breezes becomes important; Figure 3.25 Frost Risk Map of · In extreme cases, install air conditioning; and Zimbabwe · Consider the orientation of the building (north facing buildings collect the warmth of the sun in winter but are sheltered in summer).

Exposure and hypothermia In Zimbabwe, conditions are not particularly severe, although cold snaps sometimes occur during winter in the higher areas of Gweru and Harare. For humans, the most common hazard related to cold conditions is hypothermia (from cold exposure and pronounced hi-po-ther-mee-ah), which can be fatal. This occurs when the body core temperature falls below normal (35°C) due to prolonged heat loss. The condition is often fatal. Note: The dark blue areas are the most risky areas where severe often causes major damage to crops When a very cold night occurs, e.g. at Mbare Msika or Gweru Bus Terminus Zimbabwe Meteorological Office

67 where elderly and homeless people and alcoholics usually sleep without blankets, a continuous exposure to this temperature can cause hypothermia because their body temperatures drop so low that they develop hypothermia and eventually, they may freeze to death. Symptoms are difficult to recognise but, if not treated promptly, can cause death within an hour! The common causes and symptoms are shown in table 3.10.

Frost Hazard Frost occasionally causes drastic reductions in winter horticulture and crop Frost damage in winter wheat yields in localised parts of Zimbabwe, hence negatively affecting the national (above) and apples (below) economy. Vegetables are the most vulnerable as they are usually grown in (Source: CPD, 2006) unprotected areas. Many farmers do not recognise frost damage until harvest time, and the yield loss is sometimes attributed to other factors. It is important to assess the degree of damage as soon as possible after the frost, to determine whether any action should be taken. Here we define the processes leading to frost damage as well as how to prevent and reduce frost effects on crops. The main frost season in Zimbabwe stretches from May to September and frost seldom occurs outside these months. Frost incidence rises sharply from May to reach its peak in the middle of June to the second half of July. The most severe outbreaks are associated with cold air from the southwest. Whether or not a particular place is prone to severe or recurrent frost depends on several factors. The most important is the ‘lie of the land’ and whether this favours the gathering or retention of cooled air at night. As the Map in Figure 3.25 shows, altitude is paramount in setting the general level of temperature. Thus frost is rarely experienced below an altitude of 500m above sea level. In addition to altitude, the west and the south of the country are at the highest risk since the most severe frosts occur with the incidence of bit- terly cold south westerly winds. The north of the country is also affected but less often. The lowest temperatures are mostly recorded in Matabeleland North where Kalahari sands and valley exposures predominate. This is because the sandy soils have low specific heat and low conductivity, and therefore cool more Heavily damaged crops will quickly show signs of frost injury, including discoloration, dark- rapidly than clay and other soils. Very low ground minimum temperatures of ening, and a water soaked appearance of o fleshy tissue and pods. -15.6 C were recorded in Matopos on 30 June 1980. Harare also has its fair share of cold temperatures, recording a ground minimum temperature of - 11.7o C in 1968. Such low ground minimum temperatures are symptomatic Nocturnal radiation produces widespread of widespread severe frost, also known as ‘black frosts’. A defining frosts in this cloudless air, affecting not only the low lying ground as usual, but also ex- characteristic of this is that plant stems and leaves are ruptured by the freezing posed vegetation to heights of several metres. The cold winds compound tempera- of the sap or internal water and even large trees may be killed in this way. ture loss, hence the wind in this case acts as This type of frost seems to have become less common, with the worst an accessory rather than a deterrent to frost. widespread incidents on record having been in 1946, 1953, 1968 and 1972 (Met Services, 1981). Common types of damage include death of dormant flower buds, broad leaved plants, frost damage to tender shoots, flowers, and How frost damages plants fruits. Frost damage is affected by many factors, and the damage tends to be spo- An important first step is to select frost tolerant plants. radic and not obvious in all plants. When plant tissue is frozen, ice crystals

68 rupture the cell walls and membranes. Alternatively, the cells freeze without Preventing frost damage It is necessary to place frost sensitive plants structural damage, but they can then be killed by dehydration. When frozen in sheltered locations. Eastern and northern exposures tend to be warmest and full sun is tissues thaw out, they take on a dark, limp and water soaked appearance, simi- warmer than shaded locations, although night lar to frozen lettuce. Several days after the frost, the tissue begins to dry out temperatures, the cause of most frost dam- and turns straw brown prematurely. age, will be impacted upon by other factors. In terms of plant care: · Keep plants well watered because frost Frost is very hard to predict in terms of damage potential in a crop, as there injury occurs when ice crystals form on are so many factors that affect the tolerance. In general -2o to -3o C frost over the leaf surface drawing moisture from o the leaf tissue and the damage from this a period of at least an hour is expected to cause damage to crops, and -1 C for dehydration will be less severe if the plant is not already drought stressed; an extended period such as three to four hours can cause similar damage. It is · Note that firm, bare, moist soil absorbs difficult to instantly evaluate frost damage and this is why an assessment should more heat and loses it more rapidly than soil that is loose, dry, or covered with be done 24 to 48 hours after the frost for initial symptoms and a week to ten mulch or vegetation; · Manage irrigation carefully, keeping the days later to judge the full extent of the damage. A white appearance to the moisture level as even as possible; and crop is a reliable early indicator of some frost damage. · Don’t over protect, as plants are more frost resistant if they are hardened to cold weather. Frost prevention and control To adequately protect plants from frost damage it is necessary to: Some additional techniques are: ADDING HEAT A 100 watt electric light bulb in an approved outdoor fixture can provide supplemental heat to covered plants, if UNDERSTAND COLD WEATHER Despite the known thermodynamic law of fall needed. Be sure to hang them below the fo- in temperature at ground level with increasing altitude, this is not always the liage, allowing the heat they generate to rise (within the covered area) and warm the plant. case since local topography becomes the dominant determinant in winter. Take care that the bulb is not so close to the Dry air, in combination with the long winter months, allows the earth to radi- trunk or a branch that it could burn. ate heat into space, the ground cooling the air in contact with it for a longer APPLYING RUNNING WATER Just a trickle to the ground at the base of the tree late at night and early period than in summer when the nights are shorter. The cooler air, being denser, in the morning for no more than three nights in a row (after which the detrimental effects tends to flow downhill and collect over low lying ground. The lowest night of drowning the plant cancel out any frost pro- temperatures are thus found in river valleys and also on level plains from tection benefits). When water is cooled, energy in the form of heat is released. which it is difficult for cold air to drain away. Other factors of importance in MULCHING Mulches insulate against fluctuating the ground cooling process are the type of soil, cloud cover, moisture in the surface soil temperatures. They can help air and wind speed. Sandy soils lose more heat than clay soils. The coldest guard against too much daytime warming that would activate plant growth and increase temperatures occur around daybreak. Clouds at night can absorb and reflect freeze risk.

heat back to the earth. Calm, clear nights pose the greatest danger of frost Do not prune frost damaged, woody growth since there is no wind to mix the ascending warm air with the descending cold until the plant begins growing in the spring. Pruning might stimulate new growth, which air, and no clouds to radiate heat back to the soil. Humidity slows temperature would be vulnerable to late frosts. The frost damaged leaves and stems will continue to change, which is why extremes between night and day temperatures occur so help trap warm air within the canopy. In addi- quickly in a dry desert climate. For Zimbabwe, the airflow that has a combination, the damage is often not nearly as bad as it initially looks and new growth may come tion of most of these frost facilitating processes is the cold, dry southwest- out of tissue that appeared to be dead.

erly air that reaches the country through Botswana and the Transvaal. Bad advice is sometimes given. Readers are accordingly advised that: UNDERSTAND PLANT RESPONSE TO COLD The effects of temperature vary with · A large fire, rather than keeping plants warm and protecting them, creates an up plant species, stage of growth, age, general health and water content. Young, draft, sending hot air above plants and sucking in cold air from surrounding ar- actively growing, flowering, and/or dehydrated plants tend to be most vulner- eas. able. Cold temperatures and short day length slow plant growth and cause · Mulching prevents the warming of the soil. This is helpful if you are trying to keep a dormancy, making plants less susceptible to frost damage. Actively growing deciduous fruit tree from breaking dormancy too early, but it prevents the cap- foliage is very susceptible to frost damage. If a freeze occurs when there has ture of heat that could be harnessed to been no prior cold weather to ‘harden off’ a plant, the damage will be more protect a frost sensitive plant like citrus. · A variety of chemicals have been mar- extensive. Therefore, the heaviest damage from low temperatures generally keted with claims that they change the freezing point of the plant tissue, reduc- occurs in the beginning of the frost season or any time cold temperatures ing the ice nucleating bacteria on the crop occur after a warm winter period. The lower the temperature, the longer the (thus inhibiting ice and frost formation), or affecting growth (extending dormancy). exposure, and the faster the temperature drops, the greater the damage to the To date, these claims have not withstood scientific scrutiny with regard to any com- plant. mercially available material.

69 CHAPTER 4 Geological Hazards This chapter looks at natural processes involving tectonic and geomorpho- logical surface processes of endogenous, tectonic or exogenous origin. The main dangers emanating from these processes in Zimbabwe are those that suddenly alter and temporarily undermine or destroy the stability of the land surface, including the foundation and slope stability, such as landslides, earthquakes, mass movements and surface collapse. The location of geologic hazards may vary with the relief and ruggedness of the land, with tectonic activity or because of the composition, structure and weathering of the underlying The solid earth is the basis of human settlement and material security through the way rock and soil surfaces. As artificial extensions of the solid earth, i.e. build- that it supports built structures. Thus any pro- ings, are constructed out of need by human beings, they depend a great deal cess that alters that stability or drastically changes surface conditions threatens the upon the stability of natural surfaces. Most fatalities occur when the build- built areas. ings that house people collapse on them. Survivors are displaced by the destruction of their homes and places of work. Dangers emanating from meteorites, which frequently visit the earth’s atmosphere and have been encoun- tered in Zimbabwe, are also included in this chapter. Figure 4.1 How an Earthquake Takes Place Earthquake Hazards and Disasters Earthquakes are a shaking or trembling of the earth’s crust. They usually occur where the earth’s plates meet along plate boundaries and are caused by the release of huge stresses due to underground volcanic forces, by the breaking of rock beneath the surface, or by sudden movement along an existing fault line. For example, as two plates move towards each other (see Figure 4.1), one can be pushed down under the other into the mantle. Because the movement is not smooth, friction is created and the plate normally becomes stuck, causing massive pressure on the surrounding rocks. The rocks then break underground at the hypocentre, when this pressure is released. When this happens, the energy

Adapted from BBC World News http:// waves race rapidly from this point, which is called the ‘fo- news.bbc.co.uk/…./earthquake/img/ cus’, producing shock waves that are responsible for the earth’s shaking. These earthquake.gif) are called ‘seismic waves’ and the shaking is the ‘earthquake’ that we know. The effects, characteristics and measurement of earthquakes

The most surface damage is done at the point The effects of earthquakes vary. This is a result of factors such as the strength on the earth’s surface directly above the fo- of the earthquake, the density of population in the affected area and the level cus, which is known as the ‘epicentre’. The intensity of the waves, and hence the sever- of economic development of the area struck. Their characteristics are defined ity of the accompanying damage, decrease as one moves from the epicentre. Apart from by: this type of earthquake, resulting from constant gradual movement of the tectonic plates MEASURING INSTRUMENT The magnitude (size) of an earthquake is measured that make up earth’s crust, there are other small earthquakes that sometimes result using a seismometer. This is a machine that measures movements within the from human activity, like filling of large reservoirs (e.g. Lake Kariba). The extra weight earth’s surface. added by the immense body of water created where it did not exist previously creates new MAGNITUDE Earthquakes are measured at the epicentre, a point on the earth’s stresses on the underlying rocks, which may move to adjust to the new equilibrium, thereby surface, directly above the point of rupture in the earth’s crust. Energy re- creating seismic waves at the earth’s surface. leased by (or the magnitude of) an earthquake is expressed on a recording 70 device called a seismograph, using the ‘Richter scale’. This scale is open ended, VARIABILITY Earthquakes are unpredictable and as there is no upper limit to the amount of energy an earthquake might re- strike without warning. They range in strength from slight tremors to great shocks, lasting lease. The most severe earthquakes so far, have not exceeded 9.5 on the Rich- from a few seconds to as long as five min- ter scale. It is not a simple arithmetical scale; for instance, a magnitude 7.0 utes. They can also come in a series over a period of several days. creates 10 times the ground motion of a magnitude 6.0 earthquake and the total energy release is about 30 times greater. This in turn is 30 times greater than a 5.0 and so on. Vulnerability of an area to an earthquake Earthquake damage is largely attributable to the amplitude and frequency of waves generated by the earthquake. Generally, large earthquakes inflict the greatest damage because they shake the ground more severely, for a longer period and over more extensive areas than smaller ones, though it has to be stressed that the magnitude of the earthquake event is quite often overridden Thus the local site conditions have an impor- by local conditions. Local geological conditions greatly influence the ground tant influence on ground motion. This is be- surface displacement, which may be horizontal, vertical or oblique, depending cause wave amplifications are more significant in steep topography, especially on ridge on the wave activity. crests, than in uniform topography. But in soil, especially in alluvial soils, ground motion is more enhanced both in amplitude and dura- Certain soil types, such as those with high clay content, allow earthquakes to tion than in rock. Hence, more severe structural damage is mostly found in unconsoli- have a crippling effect on buildings. When exposed to moisture, clay expands, dated material. Most buildings can withstand some vertical motion, therefore, the greatest creating huge upward forces strong enough to crack a conventional foundation damage is created by waves, which shake the in half. Even a small degree of soil expansiveness manifests itself in the ground horizontally, although different individual buildings shaken by the same earth- form of cracked plaster, sticking doors and sinking floors. When clay dries, quake respond differently. The effects of earthquake ground shaking depend on the it shrinks again, creating cracks and valleys in the soil that wreak a new lot of specific response characteristics of the type havoc with conventional foundation systems. Over time, this periodic heaving of structural system used. Not surprisingly, weaker structures collapse faster than strong of the ground takes its toll on structures, causing premature deterioration, structures. structural weakness and other chronic problems. Structures built on soft soil

Figure 4.2 How Ground Shaking in Earthquakes Damages a House Adapted from Natural Hazards, Disaster Man- agement Center, 1989

are more severely damaged in earthquakes than those built on firm soil or bedrock. Soft clay soil shakes more violently than firmer sandy soil, which in turn shakes much more than hard rock. Steep slopes may also readily cause landslides in an earthquake.

A History of Zimbabwean earthquakes Zimbabwe lies over the southern tip of the east Africa rift system. The southeast (Save-Limpopo basin) and the northwest (the Deka fault zone, mid- Zambezi basin) areas of the region are covered by Karroo sediments, which make up 15 percent of Zimbabwe’s surface. These sediments form a wedge Engineers and seismologists are still uncertain of the exact reason for these effects but towards the centre of the country. The rest of Zimbabwe is part of a the 180 billion tonnes of water in the dam is bound to have some effect and a degree of continental shield with little seismic activity. Considerable activity occurs impounding during dam filling is normally ex- along Zimbabwe’s southeastern border with Mozambique and the Deka fault perienced. zone in the mid-Zambezi basin. Seismic activity in central western Mozambique is of pure tectonic origin, while that along the Zambezi basin

71 Figure 4.3 The Epicentre of the suffers reservoir induced seismicity (related to the Kariba dam). Since its Earthquake South of Beira on 23 construction and filling in the early 1960s, Kariba has caused an increase in February 2006 the number of earthquakes in the area, twenty of which have been higher than magnitude 5 on the Richter scale.

Epicentre Zimbabwe earthquake hazard zones The epicentre location map in Figure 4.4 (below) gives the seismicity of the

area in this study for the 82 year period from 1910 to 1991. Two areas of high seismic activity are observed on the map: 1 The area along the eastern borders of Zimbabwe with Mozambique, moving northeastwards into central Mozambique; and 2 The Deka fault zone, mid-Zambezi basin to the northwest, tending in a The Herald, 24 February 2006 northeast direction into the Luangwa rift in eastern Zambia. Although Zimbabwe is in a region of relatively low seismic activity, the three instrumentally The Deka fault zone, mid-Zambezi basin is further subdivided into two areas, recorded events which occurred in 1910, 1963 and 1940 measuring 6 for the first two events the Deka fault zone and the mid-Zambezi basin. Most of the mid-Zambezi and 5.9 for the latter give a clear indication of the existence of a significant seismic haz- basin lies under the waters of Lake Kariba. ard in this region. However, only events of moderate magnitude, i.e. magnitude of less Outside these two areas, epicentres are scattered and sparsely distributed than 5 have been recorded since 1940. Earth- quakes are known to have return periods of although southern Zimbabwe also deserves mention. Located at 21_S, 30_E, varying lengths. The earthquakes recorded on 23 February and 15 March 2006, south of this area is not as active as the Lake Kariba area in the mid-Zambezi basin. Beira in Mozambique, measured 7.5 and 5.3 However, an earthquake of magnitude 6 occurred in southern Zimbabwe in respectively, demonstrating the high risk of earthquake hazard in the southeastern high- 1940. This event occurred on the boundary of the Zimbabwe shield and the lands of Zimbabwe. Save-Limpopo mobile belt. Since then, a few small magnitude events have occurred in the vicinity of its epicentre.

Figure 4.4 Spatial Presentation of Recently, rock bursts have been reported in the Penalonga area, indicative of Seismicity of Zimbabwe, 1900– mining induced events. The Nyamandlovu Aquifer area has also become active 1994 in seismic activity, recording four significant events from 1999 to 2004. The Nyamandlovu events signify stresses due to water abstraction. Rock bursts in the Redwing mine could be associated with stress build up due to successive underground blasting. Causes of injury and damage Most earthquake casualties result from falling objects or debris because shocks frequently damage or demolish buildings and other structures. Electricity and telephone lines, or sewer and water mains can also be damaged. Landslides, ground displacement (faulting), subsidence and even tsunamis (huge seismic sea waves) may be caused, leaving many people dead, injured or homeless. Key: Red solid circles = earthquakes of surface magnitude 6.0 or more; orange solid circles = magnitudes 5.0 to 5.9; green open Earthquake risk reduction strategies circles = 4.0 to 4.9; blue open circles = < 3.9 There are a number of ways in which damage from earthquakes can be minimised. These are discussed below:

STRUCTURAL DESIGN The majority of deaths and injuries from earthquakes are Wherever one lives in Zimbabwe, there is a caused by the damage or collapse of buildings and other structures. To design chance of experiencing an earthquake but areas in the Zambezi and Eastern Highlands structures that can withstand earthquakes, engineers must understand the (see Figure 4.4) are the most vulnerable. For stresses caused by shaking. Gaining such knowledge requires a long term those living in a risk area, it is necessary to know what to expect and what to do if an commitment because large devastating earthquakes occur at irregular and earthquake occurs.

72 often long intervals. Building codes provide the first line of defence against future earthquake damage and help to ensure public safety. Records of building response to earthquakes, especially those from structures that failed or were damaged during previous earthquakes, could lead to many revisions and improvements in the building codes of this country. Our current building by- laws and codes do not take into account possible seismic effects. Along with the need to adhere to correct building principles during the construction of public and private buildings, standard building materials and techniques should be used in the construction of any structures for habitation and these should be regularly maintained, including the treatment of termites.

MONITORING INSTRUMENTS A network of instruments will provide even more extensive data on earthquakes that might be expected in future. Using this information, scientists and engineers will be able to suggest further improvements to our building codes. Such improvements will help protect the citizens of Zimbabwe from loss of life and property in future earthquakes. Table 4.1 shows the earthquake monitoring stations that have been built in Zimba- bwe. However efforts still need to be made to ensure that they are all operational.

Advice for any area where there is a risk of earthquakes Houses that collapsed during the 23March 2006 earthquake in It is important to know the local earthquake risk by being aware of earthquakes Chipinge. CPD officials inspect that haveEarthquakes occurred doin thenot areaKILL in the past and what damage resulted. Weak structures & buildings DO one of the houses (left). During an Earthquake: • If indoors stay there, as there could be falling debris outside; • Take cover under an internal doorframe, sturdy table, bench or bed: • Keep away from windows, mirrors, chimneys, overhead fittings and tall furniture; • In high rise buildings, stay clear of windows and outer walls, get under a desk near a pillar or internal wall and do not use elevators; • In crowded areas, do not rush for doors and stay clear of roof and wall fittings; • If outside, keep well clear of buildings, walls, power lines, trees, etc; • In a city street, with tall buildings, shelter from falling debris under strong archways or doorways of buildings; and • If in a vehicle, stop in the open until shaking stops, and beware of ‘downed’ power lines and damage to roads, overpasses or bridges. After the Earthquake: • BY-LAW FORMULATION In many areas the chances Turn off electricity and water; of non compliance with the building codes and • Check for fuel leaks before lighting matches; regulations are high, primarily due to lack of resources. Particularly in rural areas, there are • Check for water or sewage leaks, broken electrical wiring etc; few regular inspections or even the clearly de- • fined structures to ensure that these take Check for cracks and damage to buildings, including roof, chimneys and place. Structures in rural areas tend to be built foundation; in any manner, using any materials without supervision or conformity with the require- • Evacuate if the building you are in is badly damaged, as there is always a ments of the building regulations and by-laws chance of aftershocks; that do exist in the country.

73 • Avoid driving unless in an emergency (keep streets clear for emergency vehicles); • Do not go sightseeing or enter damaged buildings otherwise loose material hanging from damaged buildings may fall on you; and • Stay calm and help others who may need first aid before the arrival of doctors, if you are able to.

Landslide Hazards and Disasters Landslides usually occur as secondary effects of heavy storms or earthquakes. They are a major threat each year to human settlements and infrastructure,

Table 4.1 Seismic Stations Built in Zimbabwe Station Name Latitude Longitude Elevation(m) Bulawayo -20.1433 28.6133 1341

Chiredzi -21.0133 31.5800 430

SECURING LOOSE MATERIAL Non-structural items such as suspended ceilings must also be ad- Hwange -18.3302 26.5034 615 equately secured to the structural frame. Seis- mic forces are triggered by the inertia mass of all objects and elements within the build- Kariba -16.5267 28.7950 805 ing.

LOCATION AND BUILDING PLANNING Location plan- Karoi -16.8293 29.6147 1343 ning is carried out to reduce urban densities in areas known to amplify ground vibrations. Avoid irregularities in plan and section. Plan Karoi -16.8517 29.6183 1380 irregularities can result in twisting of the structure and other stress amplifications. Matopo -20.4258 28.4994 1215 AWARENESS CAMPAIGN An extensive and vigorous awareness campaign is needed to inform the public of measures to take in case of earth- Mount Darwin -16.7800 31.5833 967 quakes. This should be especially targeted at the very vulnerable communities even in the most remote locations. Mutare -18.9950 32.6267 1119 imbabwe Meteorological Office UPGRADING UNSAFE BUILDINGS Incentives should be offered for the demolition of unsafe build- especially during or immediately after the rainfall season. ‘Landslide’ is a ings or for upgrading their level of safety. general term covering a wide variety of landforms and processes involving the movement of earth, rock or debris down slope under the influence of gravity. Although they may take place in conjunction with earthquakes, floods and volcanoes, they are much more widespread than those hazards and, over Although no scientific early warning has been devised yet for earthquakes, two phenom- time, cause more property loss than any other geological event. ena might warn of a coming earthquake:

1ERRATIC ANIMAL BEHAVIOUR Watch out for fright- Causes ened or confused pets running around, or a birdcall not usually heard at night; Several factors may cause the resistance in a slope to weaken including the and 2GROUNDWATER LEVELS Watch for sudden following. changes of water level in wells or arte- sian bores. INCREASE IN WATER CONTENT caused by heavy rainfall or rising ground water;

After the Earthquake, the first thing to do is INCREASE IN SLOPE ANGLE for new construction or by stream erosion; and to check for injuries among those around you BREAKDOWN OR ALTERATION OF SLOPE MATERIALS from weathering and other and tend to these. Do not move a seriously injured person unless they are in danger. natural processes, placement of underground piping for utilities or use of landfill.

An earthquake is short lived and hence offers little time to react. Most people are killed Different forms of landslides or injured as they attempt to move prematurely during the earthquake and are struck The materials that compose landslides are divided into two classes, bedrock by falling or flying objects. Chances of avoiding serious injury are high if one remains calm or soil (earth and organic matter debris). A landslide may be classified by its and takes cover as recommended above. type of movement (Figure 4.5):

74 BOX 4.1 ZIMBABWE: EARTHQUAKE OCHA- 03: 03-MAR-06

The down slope stress may be caused by: ·VIBRATIONS from earthquakes (which have triggered some of the most disastrous landslides), blasting, machinery, traffic and thunder; ·REMOVAL OF LATERAL SUPPORT by previous slope failure, construction, and excavation; ·REMOVAL OF VEGETATION as a result of fires, log- ging, overgrazing, and deforestation which causes loosening of soil particles and erosion; and ·LOADING WITH WEIGHT caused by rain, hail, accumulation of loose rock or volcanic material, weight of buildings, or seepage from irrigation and sewage systems.

Figure 4.5 Landslide Classifica- tion by Type of Movement

FALLS A mass of rock or other material that moves downward by falling or bouncing through the air. These are most common along steep road or railway embankments, steep escarpments or undercut cliffs. If individual boulders are large enough they can cause significant damage, especially to settlements at the foot of hills and mountains.

SLIDES Failure (slippage) along one or several surfaces, may result in the slide material breaking up and moving down slope.

TOPPLES Overturning forces can cause a rotation of the rock out of its origi- A sudden or gradual alteration in the compo- nal position, resulting in it settling at a dangerous angle, from which it tilts or sition, structure, hydrology or vegetation on a slope may trigger a landslide. This distur- rotates forward. Toppling may not necessarily trigger a rock fall or rockslide. bance of the equilibrium of the materials in the slope may be either natural or human LATERAL SPREADS Large blocks of soil spread out horizontally by fracturing induced. A landslide is triggered when the off the original base. They do not need a steep slope to occur. Lateral spreads strength of the material comprising the slope is overpowered by the down slope stress. usually break up internally and form numerous fissures and scarps. The process can be caused by liquefaction, whereby saturated, loose sands or silts Effects of landslides assume a liquefied state. It is usually triggered by ground shaking (as during Two measures determine the effect that a an earthquake). landslide will have RATE OF LAND MOVEMENT This varies from excep- FLOWS Movement in flows is more rapid, similar to a viscous fluid, and can tionally slow, only centimetres per year (which can damage roads, buildings, pipelines, etc.) cover long distances. Although, generally, water is not essential for flows to to a sudden total collapse or avalanche of perhaps millions of tonnes of debris, with the occur, most flows form after periods of heavy rainfall. There are three types potential to crush vehicles, buildings and of flows common in Zimbabwe – mudflow, debris flow and the creep. A mud- people, or to sweep away roads, and power and telephone lines. flow contains at least 50 percent sand, silt and clay particles, while a debris DEGREE OF LAND MOVEMENT The distance travelled flow is a slurry of soils, rocks and organic matter combined with air and wa- by landslide debris can also vary greatly, from ter. Debris flows usually occur on steep gullies. Flow of soil and bedrock is a few centimetres in ‘ground slumps’, to many kilometres when large mudflows follow river called ‘creep’. This is normally very slow, almost imperceptible, and may valleys. cause telephone poles or other objects to tilt downhill over long periods of time. The primary mitigation strategy for landslides is location planning to avoid the use of hazardous areas as settlements or as sites for Risk reduction strategies important structures. Hazardous steep areas can be identified by telltale signs of ground Landslide risk can be minimised by: movement, such as trees tilting (down slope), water seepage and breaks in the ground.

75 BOX 4.2 NYANGA EXPERIENCES LANDSLIDES

• Creating shallower slope angles in hillsides through excavation of top layers of earth; • Increasing deep drainage and surface runoff drainage capacity; • Constructing engineering works, such as pilings, ground anchors and retaining walls; • Terracing slopes and reforestation to prevent loss of surface material; • Directing debris flow into specially constructed channels and rock fall protection barriers such as trenches; or • Constructing silt dams and vegetation barriers to protect settlements.

Immediate protection measures for those vulnerable to landslides The following measures should be taken to afford those in a situation of landslide risk the greatest possible protection: • If indoors when a landslide begins, shelter at the least affected end of the building under a strong table or bench (if possible use a mattress for extra protection). Hold on firmly and stay put until all land movement has ceased. • Out of doors, always take heed of warning signs, and avoid the tops and bases of cliffs or embankments, especially where there are signs of loose The largest meteorite currently known on earth (above), Hoba at rocks or debris. Never stand or sit on rock overhangs unless you are Grootfontein, Namibia, sure they can bear your weight. weighing 60 tonnes (photo: Uwe • If a landslide threatens, move quickly from its likely path and keep clear Reimold) Meteorite similar to that which of banks, trees, power lines and poles. hit Zimbabwe (below). Small Meteor- ites commonly hit the earth. Note fea- • Evacuation plans for high risk areas should be established and practiced tures of burning on the outside. regularly.

Asteroids and Comets (Extra-Terrestrial) Thousands of tiny asteroids enter the earth’s atmosphere daily, burning up in bright streaks as meteors (shooting stars). A very few larger ones reach the surface as fragments of burnt rock or iron known as ‘meteorites’. About every 700 years on average, a 100 metre diameter (or larger) asteroid strikes the earth at up to a quarter of a million kilometres per hour. This translates to the explosive energy equal to a 100 megaton atomic bomb! Its impact with the earth disintegrates everything in the vicinity and throws up millions of tonnes of dust into the atmosphere from the large crater that is created. In Southern

76 BOX 4.3 ZIMBABWE METEORITE

The major meteorite craters in Southern Af- rica are:1

VREDEFORT in South Africa’s Free State Prov- ince; ROTER KAMM in Namibia, measuring 2.5km in diameter; HIGHBURY STRUCTURE in Zimbabwe, measuring 20km in diameter; MOROKWENG in the North West Province of South Africa; KALKKOP CRATER in South Africa’s Eastern Cape Province, measuring 640 metres in diameter; TSWAING CRATER/PRETORIA SALTPAN in Gauteng Province, South Africa, measuring 1 100 metres in diameter; SINAMWENDA CRATER in Zimbabwe, which is 220 metres in diameter; and KGAGODI in Botswana with a diameter of 3.5km;

The largest known meteorite impact craters on earth are:

Africa alone, eight impact craters have been found, the best known large one VREDEFORT in South Africa, with a diameter of being at Wolf Creek in the Transvaal. If such an impact occurred in the ocean, 250 to 300km and thought to have been formed by an impact about 2 020 million it would trigger an enormous tsunami with unthinkable consequences. Even years ago; SUDBURY STRUCTURE in Canada, measuring 200km more frightening is the remote prospect of a much larger asteroid or even a in diameter and thought to have been formed comet colliding with us in a cataclysmic event that could plunge the world about 1 850 million years ago; and CHICXULUB in the Gulf of Mexico, which is 180 into years of darkness and a new ice age that would threaten human existence. km in diameter and thought to be about 65 Such an event may have caused the extinction of the dinosaurs. million years old.

77 CHAPTER 5

Biological Hazards

Introduction

Many endemic diseases can cause epidemics Processes of organic origin or those conveyed by biological vectors, includ- if environmental conditions, host susceptibility, or host carriers change in a way that fa- ing exposure to pathogenic micro-organisms, toxins and bioactive substances, vors transmission and infection. Possible ex- are all termed as ‘biological hazards’. This definition encompasses outbreaks amples include: of epidemic diseases, plant or animal contagion and extensive infestations. In · Exposure of non-immune persons or those that have immune systems weakened this chapter, we concentrate specifically on common epidemics of human, by other diseases such as AIDS, coming from zoonotic and animal nature that cause concern in Zimbabwe. The havoc that a non-endemic area (such as refugees, economic migrants, or tourists); extensive pest infestation causes for local farmers makes it necessary to cover · Ecological changes that favour the breeding of an insect vector, such as the mos- this topic in detail. quito in the rainfall season; · Increase in human movements which increases the frequency of contacts (such as An epidemic is an unusually large or unexpected increase in the number of camps of refugees or internally displaced people, markets, pilgrimages, relatively easy cases of a disease for a given time, place or period. The key points are that the national and international travel over long dis- disease is communicable, the levels of disease are significantly above nor- tances); · Rapid urban development, which may mal in a given place at that time, and the outbreak is initially out of control promote poor sanitary conditions, poverty and overcrowding, leading to contamination of food (UNDP DHA, 2001). An epidemic can evolve rapidly into a disaster if there or water supply; is no prompt response. · Increasing vulnerability caused by a decline in nutritional status; and · Changes in the patterns of disease, which may, for example, render a parasite Epidemics are commonly caused by a disease known or suspected to be of responsible for a particular disease resistant infectious or parasitic origin, however they can be associated with other haz- to traditional treatment. ards. For example, chemical accidents, food shortages, and civil conflict can cause epidemics of poisoning, malnutrition and microdeficiencies. The main examples of such epidemics include cholera outbreaks, malaria (seasonal in low lying areas), measles (sporadic outbreaks), dysentery (sporadic outbreaks), HIV, meningitis etc.

General control measures for outbreaks Outbreak control is the emergency response to: · Reduce the suffering and risk of death for the infected individuals; and, · Limit the spread of the disease.

The spread of the disease can be limited or eliminated by reducing the source of infection, by interrupting transmission, or by protecting the persons at risk. Common sources of infection, such as mosquitoes, rodents, ticks, or contaminated food, water or soil, can be tackled through environmental measures. Strategies include spraying of breeding sites, use of protective nets, Health promotion is essential, not only to avoid disease but also to promote a positive sanitising food preparation areas, improving disposal of solid wastes, and dis- lifestyle. Preventive measures may range infecting and protecting water sources. Person to person transmission can be from simple washing to complex matters such as preventing sexually transmitted diseases. reduced through the use of protective measures addressing the patients, their Long term health education can be incorporated into school curricula and clinic settings contacts and the community. The most cost effective measures are epide- to help change attitudes and practices. Meth- miological surveillance and community participation for case finding, con- ods for targeting adults range from house visits by rural health workers to publicity tact tracing, and prevention of transmission. Public information should pro- through newspapers, posters, radio and tele- mote specific behaviors to avoid infection or transmission. vision. 78 Community health education helps stem epidemics by alerting individuals to the signs and symptoms of disease and stressing the need for reporting cases to local health authorities. With the advance of global epidemics such as HIV and AIDS, community participation is particularly vital. The death or immobilisation by illness of productive individuals not only inflicts personal and economic hardships on families, but also on the society as a whole.

Common Epidemics in Zimbabwe A number of the most common epidemic conditions are discussed below:

CHOLERA Cholera is perhaps the most contagious of the entire range of common epidemics experienced in Zimbabwe. Death is swift after the onset of symptoms. The first outbreak was reported in 1972 in parts of Mashonaland East and Mashonaland Central provinces. It is believed that the disease was imported from neighboring countries. Since then, there have been several outbreaks of cholera reported in virtually every part of the country, claiming Table 5.1 Annual Chol- Year Suspected Confirmed Deaths Fatality Areas Affected era Data for Zimbabwe, Cases Cases Rate % 1975 546 0 27 4.9 Chipinge, Mutoko 1975–2002

1976 236 0 15 6.3 Chipinge, Mutoko

1983 293 256 16 5.5 Chiredzi, Masvingo, Rushinga, Mt Darwin

1984 820 610 39 4.8 Chiredzi, Masvingo, Rushinga, Mt Darwin

1985 123 78 2 1.6 Chiredzi, Masvingo, Rushinga, Mt Darwin

1992 1 135 0 32 2.8 Rushinga, Manicaland

1993 330 0 25 7.5 Rushinga, Manicaland

1998 883 157 46 5.2 Manicaland, Mash West, Mash East, Mat North, Harare, Chitungwiza.

1999 4 081 0 240 5.9 Manicaland, Masvingo, Mash East, Mash West, Mat North, Masvingo, Harare, Chitungwiza

2000 2 402 71 151 6.2 Manicaland province, Mash Central, Mash West, Midlands, Harare, Chitungwiza

2001 649 0 13 2.0 Mat South, Masvingo Chiredzi, Mat North Hwange, Lupane.

2002 3 684 0 354 9.8 Binga and Kariba Districts

Factors contributing to an outbreak of chol- large numbers of lives. Table 5.1 shows that the deaths resulting from cholera era are: have increased drastically, reaching unprecedented levels in recent years. • Poor clean water supply systems; • Poor sanitation; Cholera is a diarrhoeal disease caused by Vibrio Cholerae. Adults and chil- • Heavy rains that tend to cause the con- dren older than five years can get infected and children below five years may tamination of clean water; • The poor hygiene practices that tend to also be infected in extreme cases. According to WHO statistics, among those characterise vending in Zimbabwe; and • Cross border trading, which brings af- infected, about 20 percent develop acute watery diarrhoea and, of these 10 to fected people and contaminated food 20 percent develop rice-watery diarrhoea (without blood) that may be ac- from across our borders.

79 companied by vomiting and leads to severe loss of fluid. The mainstay of treatment is rehydration and up to 80 percent of cholera cases can be treated successfully using only oral rehydration salts (ORS). A person affected by cholera may die within a few hours following the onset of symptoms, if they do not receive medical attention quickly.

Transmission The disease quickly spreads to other people through the consumption of food and water that has been contaminated with the cholera germs. The germs are found in the stools and vomitus of a person who is suffering from cholera. Therefore, it spreads very easily in places where people do not have toilets and safe drinking water sources. Figure 5.1 illustrates the most common mode of cholera spread in Zimbabwe.

Prevention and control The current response to cholera outbreaks tends to be reactive, i.e. an emergency response. While this approach prevents many deaths, it fails to prevent cases of cholera occurring in the first place. The importance of medium and long term prevention activities in cholera control needs to be emphasised. The capacity for disease prevention, epidemic preparedness, and emergency response varies greatly among countries. Since cholera is easily spread across borders, regional strategies are needed to ensure that all countries have the Poor hygiene & sanitation that capacity to deal with these issues. Among the priorities are: characterise of most areas in Zimbabwe’s high density suburbs are conducive for cholera outbreaks.

Figure 5.1 The Usual Mode of Trans- mission of Cholera in Zimbabwe

• Obtaining better data and ensuring greater information sharing; • The adoption of a coordinated, multisectoral approach; The common signs snd symptoms of cholera are: • Improvements to sanitation and sewage disposal; and • Sudden onset of severe rice-watery diar- • Ensuring political commitment and community involvement. rhoea; • Severe body weakness; • Severe loss of water (dehydratio) due to vomiting and diarrhoea; Case management • Feeling of wanting to vomit; • Vomiting at times; The following measures should be observed immediately if there is a sus- • Stomach cramps; and • Sunken eyes, dry skin, loss of skin elas- pected cholera case: ticity and thirst due to loss of body fluids (dehydration). • Do not move the patient(s) to a health facility as this may result in spread If these are not treated, death occurs within a few hours of the disease;

80 • Inform local health workers immediately; Prompt and appropriate medical management of cases can significantly decrease • Start oral rehydration, using a salt and sugar solution prepared by mixing mortality. With proper management, the case fatality rate should be below 1 percent. In 750ml of boiled water with six teaspoons of sugar and a level teaspoon of untreated cases, the case fatality rate may salt, for as long as the patient can drink it; reach 30 to 50 percent. These levels are often observed in crisis situations with overcrowd- • Begin antibiotic treatment if available, with medical advice; ing, limited access to healthcare, and pre- • Practice strict personal hygiene, washing hands thoroughly with soap and carious environmental management. water after handling the faeces or vomitus of a person suffering from cholera; • Dispose of faecal matter and vomitus in a toilet or bury it in a pit to prevent contact with flies; • Boil all clothes and articles soiled by faeces and vomitus or place in a container of water mixed with sodium hypochloride (household bleach); and • Discourage movements of people in and out of the infected areas.

Surveillance systems and multisectoral approaches Sensitive surveillance and prompt reporting contribute to the rapid containment of cholera epidemics. In Zimbabwe, cholera is a seasonal disease, occurring nearly every year usually during the rainfall season. Surveillance systems can provide an early alert to outbreaks, which should assist in the preparation of preparedness plans and facilitate a coordinated response if an outbreak still occurs. A multisectoral and coordinated approach is paramount in order to efficiently control a cholera outbreak. Key sectors to be involved are health, water and A cholera coordination committee should be sanitation, fisheries and agriculture, and education. in place in place where cholera outbreaks are recurrent. Water supply and sanitation Cholera is usually transmitted through faecally contaminated water or food. Outbreaks can occur sporadically in any part of the country where water supply, sanitation, food safety, and hygiene are inadequate. The WHO recommends improvements in water supply and sanitation as the most sustainable approach for protecting against cholera and other waterborne epidemic diarrhoeal diseases. However, such an approach is unrealistic for the many im- poverished populations most affected by cholera.

The following measures are recommended: • Any person with watery diarrhea and sunken eyes should be considered as a suspected case and should be given ORS; • All contacts and household members should be observed for development of diarrhea; Advice for residents of cholera prone areas • Outbreaks can be mitigated and case fatality Burial of anyone who has died from cholera should be left to specially rates reduced through several health promo- trained staff, without delay after disinfection of the body, beddings and tion measures, many of which are suitable for community participation. Human behav- all personal belonging of the deceased, and burial ritual and ceremonies ior related to personal hygiene and food preparation contributes greatly to the occur- should be kept to a minimum; rence and severity of outbreaks. • Food should be eaten warm and as soon as possible after cooking; • Raw food, like fruit and vegetables should be thoroughly washed using clean, safe water before eating (see photograph, below); • Pre-cooked food items exposed for a long time should be avoided or, at the very least, should be covered to protect them from flies or reheated thoroughly;

81 • Hands should be washed frequently with soap and water, especially before eating or handling food and drinks, after defecation and after handling sick persons, their belongings (clothes, beddings) or their defecations. • The ‘run to waste’ hand washing practice should be used in preference to communal hand washing and use of communal hand towels should be avoided.

During a cholera outbreak: • One should drink only water treated by ebullition, chlorination, boiling or filtration; • Public water sources should be well supervised to make sure they supply treated drinking water and that, after treatment, drinking water is stored in appropriate containers and protected from further contamination; Raw food, like fruit and vegetables • Continue run to waste hand washing methods; should be thoroughly washed • Food should not be prepared at funerals, and large gatherings like parties (above) using clean, safe water and weddings should be avoided; (below) before eating. • All burials should be supervised by health workers as touching or washing of the body of a person who has died of cholera should be avoided; • The body of anyone suspected to have died of cholera should be buried on the same day; • Discourage the shaking of hands (kubatana maoko pakukwazisana) in times of an outbreak; • Dispose of human waste properly, using toilets or defecating in small pits that should be covered immediately; • Instruct the community to use appropriate latrines, which should be regularly inspected; • Treat and dispose of solid and liquid waste properly, by incineration or burial; • Keep homes and public areas, including school dining halls, thoroughly clean; • Apply pest control measures against flies, cockroaches and rodents; and • Keep a cholera patient or suspect where they are to avoid further spread, keep the number of people visiting and looking after the patient to a minimum and use gloves or plastic protection during care.

It is very important to try to identify the possible source of the cholera outbreak, which In terms of public awareness: may be the source of water, food hygiene practices or the type of sanitation in the area. • All community members, including students, mothers, workers and patients with other diseases, should be informed of the outbreak and about the seriousness of cholera; • The community should be informed that cholera is a highly communi-

Raise awareness that an apparently healthy cable disease, caused by a micro-organism and spread from one person to person can harbour cholera germs and trans- another through food, water, and soiled hands and other items; mit them to other people or contaminate food • and water when hygiene conditions are de- Inform the public that the germ is easily killed by heat (boiling water, fective cooking food) or by disinfectants such as chlorine, and that washing with soap and water helps get rid of germs on hands. All possible media should be used, e.g. radio, TV, churches, rallies, public gatherings, YSENTERY IARRHOEA WITH LOOD posters, booklets, etc; D (D B ) Dysentery is a disease in which the lining of the large intestine becomes inflamed, causing stomach pains and diarrhoea. Some cases involve vomiting and fever. Bloody diarrhoea (dysen- Health education of the community aimed at tery) is most commonly caused by the bacteria shigella dysenteriae (Sd1). A behaviour change on hand and food hygiene, safe water and safe disposal of human waste dysentery case can be described as a patient presenting with diarrhoea with constitutes the most important component of visible blood in their stool. The diarrhoea causes people suffering from dys- prevention and control. entery to lose important salts and fluids from the body. This can be fatal if the 82 body dehydrates, especially in children. Overcrowded areas with unsafe water It is estimated that in some parts of the tropics 80 percent of the children acquire bacillary and poor sanitation (e.g. refugee camps and famine populations) are risk fac- dysentery before the age of five; the mortal- tors. ity rate is high among infants and the aged if the infection is not treated, preferably with a broad spectrum antibiotic. In adults, bacillary dysentery usually subsides spontaneously, Mode of transmission but treatment is desirable to prevent recurrence. It is primarily a disease of the tropics, The bacterium enters the body through the mouth in food or water, and also by but may occur in any climate. contact with the feaces of infected people. Dysentery is transmitted from person to person through faecal oral spread, i.e. through consumption of food and water that has been contaminated with the germs that cause dysentery. The dysentery germs are present in the faeces of an infected person.

Signs and symptoms The symptoms start one to four days after infection. In young children, the illness starts suddenly with fever, irritability or drowsiness, loss of appetite, Advice for those risking exposure to dysentry Specific recommended measures are: nausea and vomiting, diarrhoea, abdominal pains, bloating and pain during def- · Use a toilet when defecating or practice a high level of sanitation; ecation. Within three days, pus, blood and mucus appear in the stool, and the · Cover all food to protect it from flies (see number of bowel movements increases rapidly, sometimes to more than picture below); · Collect water for domestic use from safe twenty a day. At this point, weight loss and dehydration become severe. protected sources (see picture below); · Use the run to waste method in preference to communal hand washing; Adults, however, may not develop a fever and often the stool doesn’t contain · Thoroughly wash all fruits and vegetables that are to be eaten raw; and blood or mucus initially. The disease may begin with just episodes of ab- · Maintain strict hygiene in homes and at dominal pain. Later the diarrheoa becomes severe and soft or liquid stool is schools. experienced with mucus, pus and often blood. Vomiting is common and rapidly results in severe dehydration.

The illness also includes abdominal cramps, fever and rectal pain. Less common complications include sepsis, seizures and kidney failure.

Advice for those risking exposure to dysentry As with cholera, health promotion efforts should promote improved personal, domestic, and environmental hygiene. This includes hand washing with soap after defecation and before handling food, use of clean drinking water, safe Collect water for domestic use practices for preparing and storing food, and safe disposal of faeces. See from safe protected sources column 1 for specific advice. (above) and cover all food to protect it from flies (below).

If a suspected dysentery case has been reported, the following should be done: • Start oral rehydration, by giving the patient a salt and sugar solution; • Refer or take patient to the nearest health facility for further management; • Dispose of all faeces safely in a toilet or in a small pit that should immediately be covered; and • Soak all clothes and blankets that have been soiled in boiling water or in water mixed with sodium hypochloride (household bleach). • Always collect water for domestic use from safe protected sources and cover all food to protect it from flies.

Early detection and notification of epidemic CHICKEN POX (VARICELLA) This is a contagious viral infection but not very dysentery, especially among adults, allows for timely mobilisation of the resources needed fatal. It starts with an itchy rash which progresses to clusters of small raised for appropriate case management and con- or flat spots, then develops into fluid-filled blisters which finally become trol. National and laboratories in local areas should be strengthened so that they can reli- scabs ably confirm Sd1 as the cause of an outbreak.

83 Isolation of the infected person helps to prevent the spread of infection to people who have not had chicken pox. The person should then be referred to the nearest health facility.

HIV AND AIDS HIV is one of the most serious diseases considering the huge risk it presents for Zimbabweans. We, therefore, dedicate space here to ex-

BOX 5.1 AIDS GENERAL FACTS To date, there is no cure for HIV or AIDS and there are no vaccines to prevent HIV infection.

AIDS is an infection of the human lympho- Anyone can be susceptible to HIV, regardless of their sexual orientation. cytes (a type of white blood cell) and other Everyone is at risk of getting HIV from blood-to-blood contact, sharing needles organs. It is caused by a retrovirus, the hu- or unsafe sex. Worldwide, HIV is spread most often through heterosexual man immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Acquired contact. immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) is associated with late stage HIV infection and HIV cannot be transmitted through: immunosuppession, with reduced numbers o Toilet seats or door handles. o Touching, hugging, holding hands, or cheek kissing with an HIV-infected and function of white blood cells. When HIV person. infection progresses to illness, the symptoms o Sharing eating utensils with an HIV-infected person. are usually due to the failure of the immune o Mosquito bites. system to resist other infectious diseases known as ‘opportunistic infections’. These in- HIV is transmitted through contact with an HIV positive person's infected body clude tuberculosis, bacterial pneumonia or fluids, such as semen, pre-ejaculate fluid, vaginal fluids, blood or breast milk. sepsis, oro-pharyngeal candidiasis, chronic HIV can also be transmitted through needles contaminated with HIV-infected diarrhoea, chronic skin infections and recur- blood, including needles used for injecting drugs, tattooing or body piercing. rent herpes zoster. The incubation period is approximately one to three months from the Contact with sweat or tears has never been shown to result in transmission of HIV. time of infection to the time that antibodies can be detected in a laboratory process. The Casual contact through closed-mouth or ‘social’ kissing is not a risk for time from HIV infection to the onset of AIDS transmission of HIV. Because of the theoretical potential for contact with blood is generally seven to nine years although the during ‘French’, or open-mouthed kissing, the CDC recommends not engaging ability to maintain a high quality of life and in this activity with an infected person. However, no cases of AIDS have been health over increasing periods of time has attributed to any kind of kissing. been enhanced y the many developments in treatment. At this stage, there is still no cure A person can be infected with more than one STD. A person with an untreated for HIV or AIDS. STD may also be six to ten times more likely to pass on or acquire HIV during sex. Risk for infection increases 10 to 300-fold in the presence of a genital ulcer, such as occurs in syphilis or genital herpes.

Safer sex is sexual activity without penetration, or sex with a latex condom or a latex barrier (in the case of oral sex). Although safer sex can substantially Transmission reduce the sexual transmission of an STD like HIV, sexual abstinence is the HIV can be transmitted from human to hu- surest way to prevent the sexual transmission of an STD, including HIV. man through sexual intercourse, injection with a shared needle, infected blood transfusions, A person with HIV may not show any symptoms for up to 10 years. Since HIV transplacental or transvaginal routes (i.e. from affects each person differently, many people with HIV can look and feel healthy mother to child during pregnancy or the birth for years. The only sure way to know is to get tested. process), breast milk or other direct contact with infected human body fluids. One group Knowing if you are HIV positive will allow you to seek early treatment that can at high risk of acquiring HIV is commercial help you stay healthy longer and enable you not to pass on the virus to sex workers, with or without other sexually someone else. Regardless of your HIV status, you can learn how to prevent transmitted infections (STIs), noting that future infection from HIV or other STDs through counselling offered at many HIV testing centers. some STI’s may increase HIV transmission. Others at risk include intravenous drug users Antiretroviral drugs don't keep someone from passing the virus to others. (IDUs), recipients of unscreened blood prod- Therapy can keep the viral load down to undetectable levels, but HIV is still ucts and babies born to HIV infected moth- present in the body and can still be transmitted. ers.

Large variations exist between the patterns of the AIDS epidemic in different countries in Africa. In some places, the HIV prevalence is still growing; in others the HIV prevalence appears to have stabilised and in a few Afri- can nations, such as Kenya and Zimbabwe, a decline in new cases appears to be taking place, probably in part due to effective prevention campaigns.

84 plaining the pandemic and how some of the preventive measures work. The seriousness and extent of the AIDS crisis is only now becoming visible in many Afri- can countries, as more and more people with HIV are succumbing to the disease. If the HIV and AIDS in sub-Saharan Africa region does not adopt massively expanded prevention, treatment and care programmes, Sub-Saharan Africa has the highest number of HIV and AIDS cases of any the AIDS death toll in Southern Africa is set region of the world. The World Health Organisation estimates that 22.5 mil- to increase drastically. This means that the impact of the AIDS epidemic on these societ- lion people were living with HIV at the end of 2007 and approximately 1.7 ies will be felt most strongly in the course of the next ten years and beyond. Its social and million additional people were infected with HIV during that year. Both HIV economic consequences are already widely prevalence rates and the numbers of people dying from AIDS vary greatly felt, not only in the health sector but also in education, industry, agriculture, transport, between African countries but the situation is worst in Southern Africa. For human resources and the economy in gen- example in Somalia and Senegal the HIV prevalence is under 1 percent of the eral. adult population, whereas in South Africa and Zambia around 15 to 20 percent of adults are infected with HIV. The countries with the highest prevalence are Botswana (24.1 percent), Lesotho (23.2 percent), Swaziland (33.4 percent) and Zimbabwe (20.1 percent). Zimbabwe has the fifth highest HIV prevalence in the world, alongside having the fourth lowest life expectancy (36.6 years).

The impact of AIDS in Zimbabwe HIV and AIDS are having a widespread impact on many facets the Zimba- bwean society. Some of the major effects of the AIDS epidemic are listed below: • AIDS is erasing decades of progress made in extending life expectancy. Millions of adults are dying from AIDS while they are still young, or in early middle age. Average life expectancy is now 36 years, three decades less than when it could have been without AIDS. • The effect of the AIDS epidemic on households can be very severe. Most people who are incapacitated or die of AIDS are the breadwinners. On the other hand, income earners are forced to stay at home so that they can Since HIV related illness dramatically affects take care of relatives who are suffering from AIDS related illnesses. Many labour, it retards economic activity and social of those who die of AIDS have surviving partners who are themselves in- progress. Most of those living with HIV or AIDS are between the ages of fifteen and 49 – the fected and in need of care. A significant number of families are now child prime economically active age groups. Thus employers, schools, factories and hospitals headed. have to continually train new staff to replace • The HIV and AIDS epidemic is putting enormous strain on the health sec- those at the workplace who become too ill to tor. This is because, as the epidemic progresses, the demand for care for work. those living with HIV rises. This translates into increased work for health workers. • Schools are badly affected by HIV and AIDS. This is where this Resource Book becomes an important tool as schools can play a vital role in reducing the impact of the epidemic, through education and support. • Through their impacts on the labour force, households and enterprises, BOX 5.2 HIV/AIDS FACTS – ZIMBABWE HIV and AIDS can act as a significant barrier to economic growth and

85 Thee following general behaviours are impor- development. The disease is already having visible impacts on Zimbabwe’s tant to avoid contracting HIV or in dealing with the disease in someone already infected: economic development which, in turn, severely reduces the country’s abil- · Seeking early treatment for STI’s, especially syphilis, chancroid diseases and other ity to cope with the epidemic. ulcers; · Avoiding the use of unsafe needles and sharp objects; Advice to those at risk from or living with HIV · Protecting yourself from contact with blood and other body fluids, especially if you have In principle, the epidemic appears eminently stoppable. The means to do so cuts or wounds yourself; and · Undergoig voluntary counselling and test- are well known and are largely a matter of knowing some obvious and readily ing (VCT) and, whatever the result, living communicable facts like: positively thereafter. • Casual sex should never be unprotected sex; • Abstaining from sex is the best way of removing risk; and • Delaying the onset of sexual activity and then sticking to one faithful partner is a successful risk reduction strategy (assuming the partner really is faithful).

Remember to always store condoms away from sunlight, in a cool, dry place. Also, check HIV Prevention the expiry date on the condom package and never use a condom that has expired. If the This section deals with the means for avoiding the main ways in which HIV is expiry date (usually marked as ‘Exp’) is not visible, then check for the date of manufac- spread in Zimbabwe. ture (usually marked as ‘MFG’). Do not use any condoms five years or more after the date CONDOM USE AND HIV Relative to the enormity of the HIV andAIDS epi- of manufacture. If the condoms contain sper- micide, then throw them out two years after demic in Africa, providing condoms is cheap and cost effective. Condoms the date of manufacture. play a key role in preventing HIV infection around the world. Even when condoms are available, though, there are still a number of social, cultural and practical factors that may prevent people from using them. In the context of stable partnerships where pregnancy is desired, or where it may be difficult for one partner to suddenly suggest condom use, this option may not be practical.

BOX 5.3 MALE CIRCUMCISION IN HIV The WHO, the UNAIDS Secretariat and their partners are working to PREVENTION develop specific policy recommendations for expanding and promoting male circumcision as a method of HIV prevention. The UN agencies have noted with considerable interest the announcement made by the US National Institutes of Health (NIH) in December 2006 on the results of two trials which showed an approximate halving of risk of HIV infections among men who were circumcised. The trials carried out in Kenya and Uganda, support results from the earlier South Africa Orange Farm Intervention Trial in 2005, which demonstrated at least a 60 percent On their way to a male circumci- reduction in HIV infection among circumcised men. The UN agencies sion ceremony emphasise that male circumcision does not provide complete protection against HIV infection. It should never replace other known effective prevention methods and should always be considered as part of a comprehensive prevention package, which includes correct and consistent use of male or female condoms, reduction in the number of sexual partners, delaying the onset of sexual relations, and HIV testing and counselling. The WHO and the UNAIDS Secretariat have convened technical consultations on trial findings and developed policy recommendations for countries. The groups will be working cooperatively to identify the best means of increasing the delivery of safe circumcision services in countries that choose to scale up male circumcision as a means of HIV ti 86 MALE CIRCUMCISION The provision of VCT has become easier, cheaper and more effective as a result of the PROVISION OF VOLUNTARY HIV COUNSELLING AND TESTING The provision of introduction of rapid HIV testing, which allows individuals to be tested and find out the re- voluntary HIV counselling and testing (VCT) is an important part of any na- sults on the same day. VCT could – and indeed needs to be – made more widely avail- tional prevention programme. It is widely recognised that individuals living able in most sub-Saharan African countries. with HIV who are aware of their status are less likely to transmit HIV infection to others, and that through testing they can be directed to care and support that can help them to stay healthy. VCT also provides benefits for those who test negative, in that their behaviour may change as a result of the test out of a desire to maintain their negative status.

PREVENTION OF MOTHER-TO-CHILD TRANSMISSION OF HIV Most of the children living with HIV have become infected with during pregnancy or through breastfeeding when they are babies, as a result of their mother being HIV positive. Mother to child transmission (MTCT) of HIV is not inevitable. Without intervention, there is a 20 to 45 percent chance that an HIV positive mother will pass the infection on to her child. If a woman is supplied with However, there are challenges in ensuring antiretroviral drugs, though, this risk can be reduced significantly. Before this that drugs are not only supplied to all areas, measures can be taken, however, the mother must be aware of her HIV posi- but that sufficient quantities of drugs are also supplied to those areas. This is critical be- tive status, so testing also plays a vital role in the prevention of MTCT. A cause once an individual starts to take ARVs they have to take them for the rest of their lesson should be learned from many developed countries, where these steps life (see box 5.3). If, for instance, the local have helped to virtually eliminate MTCT. hospital runs out of ARVs, the interruption that this causes in their treatment could result in them becoming resistant to the drugs. In improving treatment programmes, Zimbabwe, HIV and AIDS related treatment and care like any other African country, faces the double challenge of getting new people to start treat- Although there is no cure for HIV or AIDS, there are many forms of treatment and maintaining the supply of treatment and a number of ways of caring for and easing the lives of those in- ment to those who are already receiving ARVs. fected. Here are some of the ways:

ANTIRETROVIRAL DRUGS Antiretroviral drugs (ARVs), which significantly delay the progression of HIV to AIDS and allow people infected with HIV to live relatively normal, healthy lives, have been available in the more wealthy parts of the world since around 1996. In Zimbabwe people obtain ARVs in a variety of ways – from government or mission hospitals and Opportunistic Infections (OI) clinics; from private doctors or clinics, often through medical aid; through NGOs and community based organisations; from their workplaces (including the armed forces and police); or through research programmes.

THER ORMS OF REATMENT AND ARE O F T C Treatment and care for HIV consists For those who can afford it, ARVs are avail- of a number of different elements apart from ARVs. These include voluntary able through private doctors and clinics. They pay the normal fees for consultations and a counselling and testing (which is also seen as a preventive mechanism, see medical aid schemes then offers assistance above), food and management of nutritional effects, follow-up counselling, with the cost of the drugs. protection from stigma and discrimination, treatment of other sexually transmitted infections, and the prevention and treatment of opportunistic infections. All of these can, and indeed should, be provided before ARVs are available. When ARVs do become available the provision of antiretroviral therapy The following points are very important to should be easier and quicker to implement because many of the things apart remember: from drugs that are needed for successful treatment are already in place. · You MUST get your ARV prescription and tests through a registered doctor and should HIV-related stigma and discrimination remains an enormous barrier to the also ask the doctor about getting ‘adherence counselling’; and fight against AIDS. Fear of discrimination often prevents people from getting · Although ARV medicines vary a lot in price, tested, seeking treatment and admitting their HIV status publicly. Since laws you must ONLY take the ones your doctor prescribes.

87 BOX 5.4 WHAT ARE ARVS? ( contributed by Southern Africa HIV/AIDS Infor- mation Dissemination Service (SAfAIDS))

A partial list of the world’s most common HIV- related opportunistic infections and diseases includes: • Bacterial diseases, such as tuberculosis, bacterial pneumonia and septicaemia (blood poisoning); • Protozoal diseases, such as toxoplasmo- sis, microsporidiosis, cryptosporidiosis, isopsoriasis and leishmaniasis; • Fungal diseases, such as candidiasis, cryptococcosis and penicilliosis; • Viral diseases, such as those caused by cytomegalovirus, herpes simplex and herpes zoster virus; and • HIV associated malignancies, such as Kaposi’s sarcoma, lymphoma and squa- mous cell carcinoma.

BOX 5.5 FAKE ARVS FLOOD ZIMBABWE MARKET By Caroline Murapa, 30 July 2007 http://www.zimdaily.com/news/117/ARTICLE/ 1925/2007-07-30.html

and policies alone cannot reverse the stigma that surrounds HIV infection, more and better AIDS education is needed in Zimbabwe to combat the ignorance that causes people to discriminate. The fear and prejudice that lies at the core of this discrimination needs to be tackled, starting with the school Providing prevention and treatment of opportunistic infections not only helps HIV posi- and community, and finally dealing with the national level. tive people to live longer, healthier lives, but can also help prevent TB and other transmis- sible opportunistic infections from spreading to others. ‘Opportunistic infections’ are infections caused by pathogens that usu-

88 ally do not cause disease in a healthy immune system. A compromised immune The signs and symptoms of meningitis are: system, however, presents an ‘opportunity’ for the pathogen to infect. Thus • Fever, headaches, stiff neck, sore throat people with advanced HIV infection are vulnerable to these opportunistic in- and vomiting, often followed by respiratory illness; fections and malignancies because they take advantage of the opportunity • In adults, becoming desperately ill within 24 hours and, in children, within a shorter offered by a weakened immune system. time span; and • Confusion and drowsiness. Different conditions typically occur at different stages of HIV infection. In early HIV disease people can develop tuberculosis, malaria, bacterial pneumonia, herpes zoster, staphylococcal skin infections and septicaemia. These are diseases that people with a normal immune systems can also get, but with HIV they occur at a much higher rate. It also takes longer for a person with HIV to recover than it takes for someone with a healthy immune system.

MENINGITIS Meningitis is an acute infection of the central nervous system which causes the inflammation of the meninges (the covering of the brain) from which it derives its name. It is caused by several factors, of which the most common ones are bacteria, viruses and fungi. A more acute and severe form of the disease is usually caused by neisseria meningitides, microbocterium tuberculosis, haemophilus influenzae and streptococcus pneumoniae. About 15 percent of people who contract meningitis die even with treatment, especially as a result of the bacteria type (Jamu, 2006). There are several ways in which these organisms reach the brain to cause meningitis, as a direct extension of an infected ear, nose, sinus, head injury or com- plication by birth defects. The incubation period is between two and ten days. In meningitis outbreak areas, large outbreaks due to Neisseria meningitis may occur from November through to May. Outside known meningitis areas, smaller outbreaks may occur. If two suspected meningitis cases are reported within a week in a population of less than 30 000, this is considered an indication of a meningitis outbreak.

Transmission Meningitis is transmitted from human to human through airborne droplet spread. It can also spread via blood and body fluids. Attacks are highest among children aged under fifteen years. Viral or tuberculous meningitis and HIV Viral Haemorrhagic Fever is manifested as an illness with onset of fever, no response to related opportunistic infections may mimic this disease. treatment for the usual causes of fever in the area, and at least one of the following signs: • Bloody diarrhoea; Response • Bleeding from gums; • Bleeding into skin; or Any suspected meningitis case must be reported to the nearest health facility. • Bleeding into eyes and urine. Meningitis outbreaks are usually managed by means of mass vaccination campaigns, while treatment of cases involves using the recommended antibiotics. The infection and control principle should be applied when managing patients and cases should be quarantined. Port health officers should be trained to handle such cases. In- VIRAL HAEMORRHAGIC FEVER (VHF) This is a hemorrhagic disease syndrome ternational health regulations must also be caused by the following viruses: applied. • Ebola and Marburg (filoviruses); • Lassa fever; • Rift Valley fever (RVF); • Dengue hemorrhagic fever (DHF); and • Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever (CCHF).

No cure for VHF is available. Many deaths Zimbabwe has experienced outbreaks of Ebola, Marburg and Crimean-Congo during an Ebola epidemic are due to severe dehydration so careful maintenance of hydra- fevers. The case fatality rate of Ebola ranges from 50 percent to 90 percent tion should be ensured. Unnecessary contact and there are no preventive treatments or vaccines available. with affected persons should be avoided.

89 The disease begins with these signs and symp- Transmission toms and, by the second week of the illness, the patient will either markedly improve and The disease is transmitted from person to person (Ebola, Marburg, Lassa, convalesce or will have multi-organ failure and will die of shock. The incubation period of Ebola CCHF), by mosquitoes (RVF, dengue) or by ticks (CCHF). Ebola and Marburg and Marburg fevers is two to 21 days but usually between five and twelve days, while that can also be transmitted through sexual contact. Outbreaks may be amplified of CCHF is two to twelve days. when standard barrier precautions are not taken or in ceremonies involving touching ill or deceased infected persons or their secretions. Sporadic cases may arise from sexual contact or through exposure to trees, possibly following their direct contact with infected animals.

The signs and symptoms are: • A cough persisting for more than three Advice in likely cases of or exposure to VHF weeks with blood at times; • Continuous chest pains with night sweats; In terms of the Public Health Act Chapter 15:09, VHF is a notifiable disease and and should, therefore, be reported immediately. Report the suspected case to • Loss of weight and appetite the nearest health facility. The patient should not be moved in order to avoid the risk of infecting others.

Advice for the prevention of SARS The known methods for preventing infection TUBERCULOSIS (TB) This is an infection of the lungs and other organs. It is are: usually caused by mycocterium tuberculosis transmitted from person to per- · Washing hands with soap after contact with son by droplet infection through coughing, sneezing or spitting. Pulmonary a person suspected to have SARS; · Careful personal and environmental hy- (of the lungs) TB is the most common. Tuberculosis is a leading cause of giene (avoiding unnecessary touching of infectious illness and death worldwide, with over eight million new cases and face, mouth or nose) among those living with a person suspected of having SARS; three million deaths per year. Abdominal or other extra-pulmonary sites of · Avoiding sharing eating utensils, towels and bedding with a person who may be in- infection may occur after ingestion of unpasteurised cows’ milk. The groups fected; most vulnerable to TB infection and least able to fight it include HIV positive · Monitoring of anyone who has been to a region reporting SARS infection for at least people, those suffering from malnutrition and other immune compromising fourteen days; and · Avoiding travelling to SARS affected areas conditions, the very young and the very old. or countries, if possible. Advice for the prevention and control of tuberculosis Early detection of persons with infectious lung disease is of utmost importance to reducing the transmission of TB. It is, therefore, important to seek early treatment if the abovementioned signs and symptoms are experienced. Tuberculosis is treated using multi drug therapy i.e. at least three types of drugs are taken at the same time. Treatment should be taken consistently until finished and lasts for at least six months.

SEVERE ACUTE RESPIRATORY SYNDROME (SARS) This is a respiratory illness caused by a virus. It has affected countries such as Hong Kong, mainland China, Singapore, Taiwan, Vietnam and Canada. On 7 April 2003, South Africa reported the first probable case of SARS in Pretoria. By the end of April 2003 at least 3 000 people throughout the world had suffered from SARS and close to 200 people had died.

The signs, symptoms and indicators of SARS are: • A high body temperature; • Cough, shortness of breath and/or difficulty in breathing;

Other precautionary measures are to: • Chills, headache, general body weakness and muscle pain; and • Travel within the past ten days to a country that has reported SARS. • Ensure adequate ventilation both at home, and in schools and other public places; • Cover the mouth when coughing and only Transmission spit into a toilet; and • Soak all material contaminated with spu- The disease is spread by direct or indirect contact with secretions from the tum from an infected person in water with eyes, nose or mouth of a person suffering from it. bleach.

90 Disease Vectors

Malaria epidemics Malaria and malaria epidemics are a major public health problem experienced in Zimbabwe as well as in the rest of Southern Africa. Despite being preventable and curable, malaria is among the major killer diseases. Half of all Zimbabweans live in malarial areas and malaria is the second highest killer of children. De- pending upon the local social and environmental conditions, malaria can be endemic (all year round), seasonal (increased cases occur as a result of the seasonal rains) or a combination of the two (year round malaria risk with seasonal increases). While endemic malaria consistently drains health resources through regular treatment of cases, it is the seasonal malaria with localised epidemics, which for short periods creates the crisis imposing the most stress on the health system’s ability to cope. The MoHCW (2004) reports that more than 5 962 000 people in Zimbabwe are potentially exposed to malaria each year. This implies that the health of half of the country’s population is under threat from malaria. UNICEF (The Herald, 2006) reports that, in the past five years in Zimbabwe, increased resistance of malaria parasites to drugs has been coupled with the significant movement of people, due to resettlement or economic emigration. This has resulted in people relocating from non-endemic to malaria endemic areas. Because these people have no inbuilt immunity to malaria, epidemics are occurring with increasing frequency, and fatalities, especially among children and pregnant women, are on the increase (MOHCW, 2006). In addition, new cases are reported from places that did not previously have an endemic problem.

In 2002, 740 000 clinical malaria cases and 2 200 malaria deaths were reported by the Health Management Information System (HMIS). In the same period, 12 percent of outpatient attendances and 15 percent of patient admis- sions to public health facilities were due to malaria. In the ‘endemic districts’, the burden of malaria is greatest among under-fives, pregnant women and people living with HIV or AIDS, due to the development of a degree of acquired immunity among adolescent and adult (HIV negative) populations.

Malaria zones and transmission Malaria transmission in Zimbabwe is largely unstable in nature (epidemic prone) and is highly seasonal. The intensity of malaria transmission varies considerably, both temporally and spatially. Approximately 5.5 million people out of a total population of 12.7 million live in malaria prone areas. Of the 56 Malaria remains a major public health problem in Zimbabwe as transmission is primarily districts in the country, malaria transmission occurs in 42. In 2002, a stratifi- unstable, protective immunity does not readily cation based on a national parasite prevalence survey, HMIS data, entomo- develop and, as a result, all age groups are at risk. logical data and expert opinion was prepared. This draft stratification is shown in Figure 5.3, below, which maps malaria transmission by districts using five classes – malaria free, sporadic, low, moderate and high. It should be noted that malaria transmission varies within many of the districts and in some cases, e.g. Bindura and Muzarabani districts, from ‘sporadic’ to ‘malaria endemic’. From the map it can be seen that there is a marked zone of moderate to high malaria transmission. The area follows the eastern border until the Zambezi

91 River where it turns west and runs along the northern border with Botswana and Namibia. There are also areas, such as in the highveld of Zimbabwe and a few isolated upland areas (higher than 2 000m), which are malaria free. The chief determinant is the climate, which affects both the life of the anopheles mosquito and the development of malaria parasites. The development of the malaria parasite is greatly retarded below 20o C and it ceases to develop

Figure 5.2 Monthly Distribu- tion of Malaria Cases as a Percentage of the Population

In spite of taking trusted preventive measures, visitors to malarial areas, especially to the low lying areas (altitude 600 to 900m above seas level) of the country are contracting the disease at the same time that the available treatments are gradually becoming ineffectual. below 16 o C. Relative humidity of over 80 percent lengthens the life of the mosquito, enabling it to transmit the infection over a longer time. The anopheles mosquito is a genus of widely distributed mosquitoes Figure 5.2 shows the seasonal profiles of comprising around 350 species. The malaria parasite is transmitted to humans malaria in Zimbabwe, based on data from the MOHCW and complied by the National Ma- through the bite of the female anopheles mosquito. The most important laria Research Programme. This information anopheles species in Southern Africa are An. gambiae complex (includes is usually supplied as a guideline for travel- lers as to when the risk periods are. The fig- An. gambiae s.s. and An. arabiensis) and An. funestus complex. Plasmodium ures clearly show that malaria in Zimbabwe is highly seasonal and that the winter months falciparum is the main parasite that causes malaria in Zimbabwe and these constitute a low risk period, while the highest are the most serious malarial infections, which may result in severe anaemia risk is experienced towards the end of and immediately after the rainfall season. This is and celebral involvement. The malaria vector in Zimbabwe is anopheles the period when sufficient water has accumulated on the ground to provide conducive arabiensis. breeding sites for mosquitoes. As with other mosquitoes, only the females bite and they use the proteins from a blood meal to produce a batch of eggs. Both An. arabiensis and An. gambiae breed mostly in relatively clean water with partial or full sunlight Figure 5.3 Malaria Epidemic Risk Districts

Preliminary new malaria stratification, MOHCW (2002)

92 e.g. in marshes, puddles, irrigation water etc. Thus the species avoids polluted The three species bite indoors or outdoors, wherever hosts are available. An. gambiae and water. Vegetation can be absent or present. Larvae occur between floating An. funestus are relatively more anthropophilic (preferring biting humans to animals) and and/or emerging vegetation. Unlike other mosquito larvae, those of the endophilic (resting mostly indoors) than An. anopheles mosquito float parallel to the water’s surface. The whole process arabiensis. An. funestus rarely rests outdoors. The fact that An. gambiae and An. funestus are from egg to emergence of the adult from the pupa takes little more than a endophilic means that properly applied residual house spraying can significantly reduce week at tropical temperatures. malaria transmission in areas where they are major vectors. In fact, An. funestus is no longer an important vector after its suppression by The malaria parasites are plasmodium, a genus of protozoan parasites that residual house spraying in areas of the sub- region where the method is a major compo- live within the red blood cells of humans. The parasite undergoes its asexual nent of malaria control programmes. development in humans and completes the sexual phase of its development in the stomach and digestive glands of an Anopheles mosquito. There are four species of plasmodium that cause human malaria – P. vivax, P. ovale, P. malariae and P. falciparum. In the absence of other complicating factors, acute severity and mortality occur almost exclusively in P. falciparum infections. However, in Southern Africa P. falciparum is the predominant species. The development of P. falciparum in the female adult anopheles mosquito requires a minimum temperature of 19° C. Above this temperature, the development of the parasite in the vector quickens.

The duration of sporogony at optimum temperatures for P. falciparum is eight to ten days. These protozoan parasites enter the host’s bloodstream when they are bitten by an infected mosquito and then migrate to the liver, where they multiply before returning to the bloodstream to invade the red blood cells. The parasites continue to multiply inside the red cells until they burst releasing large numbers of free parasites into the blood plasma and causing the characteristic fever associated with the disease. This phase of the disease occurs in cycles of approximately 48 hours. The free parasites are able to infect any other mosquito that feeds on the host’s blood during this phase. The cycle then continues as the parasites multiply inside the mosquito and eventually invade its salivary glands (see Figure 5.4).

The contribution of malaria to mortality varies considerably between districts because of differences in malaria endemicity, prevention and treatment, as well as differences in the incidence of other infectious diseases (e.g. HIV), health service provision and general socioeconomic conditions. Even in countries where malaria is confined to limited areas, malaria mortality can be high among vulnerable groups, particularly in epidemic years. For example, in 1996, the malaria epidemic in Zimbabwe made malaria the leading cause of maternal mortality, being responsible for 40 percent of maternal deaths in low lying areas. An irrigation scheme that turned into a health hazard. CPD officials Figure 5.5 shows the general high prevalence of malaria cases in Zimbabwe. inspect irrigation canals that have More specifically, these national annual figures show a sustained period of become breeding grounds for ma- high malaria incidence from 1996 to 2000 and a resurgence in 2003. The laria carrying mosquitos in incidence was relatively low before 1996. Chibuwe (Source: CPD) While the overall malaria mortality may appear low in Zimbabwe, it should be emphasised that this can rise markedly if an epidemic occurs, as happened in 1996 and 1997. The relatively modest malaria mortality rate (see Figure 5.6) is partly due to sustained and successful control efforts dating back to the mid 1940s.

93 Malaria case definition Malaria is a vector-borne disease caused by a protozoa parasite of the genus plasmodium and naturally transmitted to man by the female anopheles mosquito. It usually presents clinically with recurrent attacks of fever, rigors,

Figure 5.4 The Life Cycle of Plasmodium

anaemia, haemolytic jaundice and splenomegaly (enlarged spleen). It is usually easy to treat when patients present early and are properly managed, but can become complicated with a high fatality rate if treatment is sought late or the patient is not properly managed. Advice for the prevention and control of malaria Three key ways of preventing malaria are outlined below:

AVOIDANCE OF BITES Mosquitoes cause much inconvenience because of local reactions to the bites themselves and from the infections they transmit. Mosquito bites spread other diseases, such as yellow fever, dengue fever and Japanese B encephalitis. Mosquitoes bite at any time of the day but the anopheles bites in the night with most activity at dawn and dusk. If you are out at There are also a number of human factors that affect malaria transmission.: night wear long sleeved clothing and long trousers. Mosquitoes may bite · Vector control efforts, particularly insecticide house spraying programmes and through thin clothing, so spray an insecticide or repellent on them. Insect source reduction in urban areas, have repellents should also be used on exposed skin. made previously malaria prone districts malaria-free. Equally, the breakdown of vector control has resulted in formerly ma- Spraying insecticides in the room, burning pyrethroid coils and heating in- laria free areas becoming malaria prone secticide impregnated tablets all help to control mosquitoes. When sleeping again, e.g. the Zambian Copperbelt. · Forced and voluntary population move- in an unscreened room a mosquito net (which should be impregnated with ments can also increase malaria transmission. Human-made changes to the envi- insecticide) is a sensible precaution because mosquitoes are attracted to them ronment also alter malaria transmission by the carbon dioxide and body odor emitted by the sleeper. Thus the net acts levels. For example, planned urbanisation leads to source reduction, while dam build- like a baited trap. If sleeping out of doors in mosquito infested areas it is ing, particularly in semi-arid areas, can create focal sites of malaria transmission. essential to sleep under an insecticide treated mosquito net. · Global warming has also raised temperatures in areas where the parasite previously VECTOR CONTROL Anopheles breeding is relatively limited in extent and de- could not live. finable. Therefore, larval control makes a significant contribution to malaria 94 Figure 5.5 National Annual Trends in Malaria Cases, 1988-2003

Source: National Malaria Research Programme

control. However, the effect of localised larval control can easily be swamped by immigration from outside the control area. Thus a high percentage of all productive breeding sites within flight range of the community which it is intended to protect must be found and effectively dealt with. The following are possible ways of dealing with them:

• Swamps can be drained or filled so as to permanently remove them as breeding sites; • Covering all water ponds and removing broken bottles, tins or other containers that hold water;

Figure 5.6 Inpatient Malaria Deaths, 1995-2002

• Clearing roof gutters of leaves before the rains, as this will reduce mosquito breeding sites; • Cutting long grass around homes and schools to reduce hiding places for mosquitoes; • Spraying dwellings with an effective and persistent insecticide before the peak period of malaria transmission to reduce the population of malaria carrying mosquitoes; • Using knock down insecticides to kill mosquitoes indoors; • Spraying homes with a residual insecticide, which helps kill mosquitoes that rest on the sprayed walls; and • Screening water tanks to prevent breeding taking place in them, Under some conditions, irrigation can be carried out according to a carefully The clinical symptoms of malaria are mim- regulated, intermittent schedule so that fields are dried once a week and thus icked by many other diseases. A patient with a clinical syndrome of malaria is a patient larval lifecycles cannot be completed. Breeding sites may also be stocked presenting with an acute onset of fever and with larvivorous fish. These are, to some extent, self propagating, but sites any of the following symptoms or signs: need to be checked at intervals and those where the fish have died out need to · Intermittent fever; · Shivering; be restocked from a fish rearing facility. · Headache; · General weakness of the body; The idea of creating genes for harmless anopheles mosquitoes in a laboratory · A temperature above 40° C; · Chills and feeling cold; has been mooted and may be effective. · Sweating; · Muscle and/or joint pain; · Vomiting; and USE OF PROPHYLAXIS It should be noted that no prophylactic regimen is 100 · Splenomegaly.

95 percent effective and advice on malaria prophylaxis changes frequently. There are currently five prophylactic regimens used, in response to the differing resistance that exists among the malaria parasites to the various drugs used. Certain actions should be taken to promote the health of individuals and the community vis-à-vis the malaria threat. These are:

· If many people are suffering from malaria, notify the local health authorities immediately; When sleeping in an unscreened · Inform the school Principal or a community health worker who will either room, use a mosquito net (above), give medication or refer a malaria patient to the nearest health facility for which should be impregnated with treatment; insecticide (below) if possible · If given malaria treatment, take all the tablets as instructed even if the (Source: PSI) illness seems to have abated; · Return to the health facility if the signs and symptoms of malaria continue; · If you develop a fever between one week after first exposure and up to two years after your return from a malaria prone area, seek medical attention and inform the doctor of the area(s) that you have been in; and · See that anyone with suspected malaria is treated under medical supervision as soon as possible, as treatment should not normally be administered by unqualified persons. The drug treatment of malaria depends on the type and severity of the attack. Typically, Quinine Sulphate tablets are used and the normal adult dosage is 600mg every twelve hours. This can also be given by intravenous infusion if the illness is severe.

Malaria treatment is available in the following places: · In the village from village health workers; · At school through the school Principal; · In shops, on request for a full course of malaria treatment; and · At the nearest health facility. Most intestinal (enteric) diseases are infectious and are transmitted through faecal waste. Pathogens, which include viruses, bacteria, protozoa, and para- Above: Spray dwellings with an sitic worms, are disease producing agents found in the faeces of infected effective and persistent insecticide persons. These diseases are more prevalent in areas with poor sanitary condi- before the peak period of malaria tions. The pathogens travel through water sources and interfuse directly through transmission. persons handling food and water. Since these diseases are highly infectious, Below: Swamps should be filled so as extreme care and hygiene should be maintained by those looking after an in- to permanently remove them as fected patient. Hepatitis, cholera, dysentery, and typhoid are the most com- breeding sites. mon water-borne diseases affecting large populations in tropical regions. (Source: MOHCW) Food poisoning Food poisoning is a serious health problem that results from consumption of food contaminated by germs or chemicals, or consumption of poisonous food like inedible mushrooms.

Depending on the types of germs, early signs and symptoms show within six hours after ingestion. The common signs and symptoms of food poisoning are:

96 · Stomach pains and cramps; Malaria control in Zimbabwe dates back to · Diarrhoea, which may be bloody; and the 1940s. Strategies used to control malaria have evolved based on the evaluation of past · Vomiting and general body weakness. malaria control activities, changes in the malaria distribution and interaction with partners Food poisoning is most common where food is prepared in large quantities based on the following: · The African Region Malaria Control Strat- and is left cold and served without adequate warming. However, poisoning egy, 1991; · The Global Malaria Control Strategy, 1992; can also be due to drug overdose, either by mistake or intentionally (para · The Harare Declaration on Malaria Preven- suicide), or ingestion of other toxic substances, such as insecticides, which tion and Control, 1997; · The African Initiative for Malaria Control in may also be either accidental or intentional. the 21st Century, 1998; · The Global Roll Back Malaria campaign,1998; There are different types of food poisoning but the most common at schools · The Abuja Declaration on Roll Back Malaria and other institutions is that caused by salmonella. Salmonella germs are gen- in Africa, 2000; and · The Global Fund Against Malaria, TB and erally found in the environment, including the skin surfaces of food handlers HIV/AIDS, 2002. (cooks and waiters), eggs and chickens, and human and animal waste. If food is prepared in an unclean environment or if eggs and meat and other food items are obtained from unlicensed suppliers, the risk of food poisoning is very high. Chemical food poisoning occurs if there is accidental or intentional contamination of food by chemicals used for control of household or agricultural pests Means of prevention of food poisoning include: • Preparing food in a clean environment where there is clean, hot or cold water; • Preparing food where there is adequate space for its storage and adequate refrigeration or cooling for food that decays quickly; • Keeping foodstuffs separate from cleaning and other chemicals; • Restricting the premises used to prepare food from entry by members of the public and also providing fly screens; • Proper use of safe chemicals to control rats and cockroaches that may contaminate food;

Cause Water-Borne Diseases Table 5:3 Water-Borne Diseases and their Causes Bacterial infections Typhoid Cholera Paratyphoid fever Bacillary dysentery

Viral infections Infectious Hepatitis (jaundice) Poliomyelitis

Protozoal infections Amoebic dysentery

• Always serving food quickly, while it is still hot; and • Thoroughly heating leftover food before it is served again. Water-borne diseases Water-borne diseases are infectious diseases Where food poisoning has occurred: spread primarily through contaminated water. Although these diseases are spread ei- • In an institutional setting, it should be reported to the head of the ther directly or through flies or filth, water is the chief medium for spread of these dis- institution, e.g. school Principal immediately and also to the eases and hence they are termed as ‘water- Environmental Health Officer. borne’ diseases. The most common water- borne diseases and their causes are shown • Patients should be reassured; in table 5.3.

97 • Anyone present should be observed so that severe cases can be identified for urgent management; • Large quantities of drinking water should be given to anyone infected while they await transfer to the nearest health centre; and • The parents or guardian of child patients should be informed.

Where poisoning is a result of a drug overdose or ingestion of a toxic substance (either by mistake or intentionally), treat as above and transfer the patient to the nearest health centre with the remainder of the substance that has been ingested or the empty container.

Zoonotic Diseases

Anthrax In countries in which the disease is not well controlled, regular outbreaks of anthrax can become serious epidemics affecting both animals and humans. For example, when civil war interrupted normal vaccination and regulatory controls in this country in the late 1970s, the world’s largest outbreak of human anthrax occurred in rural Southern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) from 1978 to 80, in which 10 738 cases were recorded and 182 people died.

However, some attribute this outbreak to covert action by Rhodesian security forces because of a number of unusual features of the epizootic during that period. The disease spread over time from area to area, until six of the eight provinces were affected. Yet anthrax usually appears as a point source outbreak, without significant geographic spread. Only the African owned cattle

BOX 5.6 MINISTRY OF HEALTH REINTRODUCES DDT FOR INDOOR R ESIDUAL SPRAYING

in the tribal trust lands were affected; cattle belonging to whites were not involved. Districts Using DDT for Indoor Spraying (Green) To facilitate adherence to international stan- Anthrax is not common in Zimbabwe and clinical cases of the disease are dards and guidelines, it is only the Ministry of Health officials who will handle and use seen only sporadically. Most cases occur in cattle, with some in goats and a the chemical. To date, the MOHCW has al- few in pigs. Donkeys and horses are rarely affected. The areas where cases ready trained teams who will be spraying the selected areas. In addition to indoor residual occur tend to be those where there have been previous outbreaks, areas with spraying, the MOHCW together with other partners such as UNICEF, WHO are also pro- calcium rich soils, drought prone areas, overstocked areas, mainly over popu- moting other malaria mitigation and preven- lated communal farming areas, flood plains and low lying areas along major tion measures such as information dissemination through the radio and television on rivers. On average each year, in the whole of Zimbabwe, 50 cases occur, with malaria prevention, distribution of insecticide treated mosquito nets and effective case usually only a small number of cases in each affected area or farm (one to management. three cattle).

98 Case definition According to the Public Health Act, all those who handle food, i.e. cooks and waiters, Anthrax is an acute infectious disease caused by the spore forming bacterium should be medically examined every six to twelve months to ensure that they do not carry Bacillus anthracis. Anthrax most commonly occurs in wild and domestic food poisoning germs that may be spread to prepared food. Food handlers who have lower vertebrates (cattle, sheep, goats, antelopes and other herbivores) but wounds should be excused from handling food it can also occur in humans when they are exposed to infected animals or and ideally should be assigned other duties. tissue from infected animals. The clinical forms of anthrax in animals are described as: • ‘Peracute’ (very acute), in which death occurs within a few hours at most of the onset of clinical signs; • ‘Acute’, in which death occurs from 24 hours to a few days after onset; Because of their lack of experience, school and children face particular risks. They should be • taught not to keep cooked food, especially ‘Subacute’ or localised, which lasts for several days and may end in meat, for a long time before eating it espe- recovery. cially when they travel on trips or have ar- rived back at school after the holidays. They should also be encouraged to empty tinned The types of human anthrax found in Zimbabwe are: foods completely once opened. · Cutaneous (skin), the most common type found in Zimbabwe and the least harmful if treated appropriately; · Gastrointestinal anthrax, contracted from eating the meat of an infected animal; and · Inhalation/pulmonary anthrax, which is the least common but causes the most concern since it is the highly lethal, laboratory modified type that is used in bio-terrorism, and has a case fatality rate of about 90 percent if untreated.

The signs and symptoms of anthrax in humans vary depending on how the disease was contracted and usually occur within seven days. They are as follows:

FOR CUTANEOUS ANTHRAX About 95 percent of infections occur when the bacterium enters a cut or abrasion on the skin, such as when handling contaminated meat, hides or leather of infected animals. Skin infection begins as a raised itchy bump that resembles an insect bite but within one or two days develops into a vesicle (blister) and then a painless ulcer, usually 1 to 3cm in diameter, with a characteristic black necrotic (dying) area in the center. Lymph glands in the adjacent area may swell. About 20 percent of untreated cases of cutaneous anthrax will result in death but deaths are rare with the use of ap- In this country, anthrax was first reported in propriate chemotherapeutic agents that either kill the bacteria or otherwise Matabeleland in 1898. Since then, in addition to the controversial major outbreak during the interfere with their normal biological functions. war of liberation mentioned above, sporadic outbreaks have occurred in various parts of the country. FOR GASTROINTESTINAL ANTHRAX The intestinal disease form of anthrax may follow the consumption of contaminated meat and is characterised by an acute inflammation of the intestinal tract. Initial signs of nausea, loss of appetite, vomiting and fever are followed by abdominal pain, vomiting of blood, and severe diarrhoea. Intestinal anthrax results in death in between 25 percent and 60 percent of cases.

FOR PULMONARY ANTHRAX Initial symptoms may resemble a common cold. After several days, the symptoms may progress to severe breathing problems and shock. This form of anthrax is usually fatal.

99 Figure 5.8 Average Distribution of Anthrax Cases in Zimbabwe, 2001-2005 Zimbabwe Veterinary Services

Anthrax has been gradually on the rise in Zim- babwe (see Figure 5.9) but the country has the potential to easily keep this disease under control.

Anthrax Cases Per District < 1 1 - 25 26 - 51 52 - 77 > 78

Figure 5.9 Anthrax Cases in Zimbabwe, 2001-2005

Figure 5.9 shows that the biggest outbreak was reported in 2005 and suggests that the rising number of cases necessitates more stringent measures of control and prevention of the disease.

Mode of transmission B. anthracis spores can live in the soil for many years, and humans can become infected with anthrax by handling products from infected animals or by inhaling anthrax spores from contaminated animal products. Anthrax can also be spread by eating undercooked meat from infected animals.

Anthrax is quite unusual in that it is not contagious (i.e. it is not spread from animal to animal or from one person to another person.). Instead, it is spread by the release of bacterial spores from the carcass of an animal that has died

The signs and symptoms of anthrax in hu- of the disease and the subsequent ingestion of these spores by other animals. mans vary depending on how the disease was The period during which infection is likely is short and the risk of spread of contracted and usually occur within seven days. infection by preclinical infected animals is limited.

100 The following are some of the ways in which the disease is transmitted: · Most commonly to herbivores, by eating pasture on or around a former death site or sniffing and licking around a recently dead anthrax carcass; · Eating contaminated, improperly treated meat meal, as products from animals that have died of anthrax can transmit infection if there has been inadequate heat treatment to destroy spores or vegetative organisms; · Contact with dead animals or the contamination left at their death site or burial site; · Skins and hides spreading infection to new areas if treatment and scouring effluent is allowed to drain onto pasture; · The transport of incubating infected animals transferring infection across Meat obtained from animals that are normal paddocks, properties and districts; and and healthy at antemortem and postmortem inspection poses no risk of anthrax infection. · Deep ploughing of pastures previously contaminated with anthrax The skin and hides from such animals are carrying effluent, or the unearthing of old graves, as the carcass of an also free of infection. However, schools are at risk of anthrax if the meat is obtained from animal that has been infected and dies remains a possible source of infec- suppliers not known to the school who may have slaughtered an animal suffering from tion for many years. anthrax. Therefore meat supplies to schools and other educational institutions should be obtained from registered abattoirs. Advice on the prevention and control of anthrax If a postmortem examination is conducted and anthrax confirmed, the carcass and all disposable equipment should be destroyed as quickly as possible and the immediate area disinfected. Staff handling such cases should seek medical advice. Mass killing of animals is not required for anthrax control. Antibiotic treatment of valuable infected animals (with temperatures higher than 40° C) may allow complete recovery if given early in the course of the disease. If there are reports of an outbreak of anthrax among animals in an area, avoid killing sick animals for meat. Animals that look sick should be reported to the nearest veterinary officer. Avoid any close contact with animals suspected of suffering from anthrax. The treatment of animal products such as skins, hides and meat possibly infected with anthrax should not be attempted. The following measures are necessary:

DISPOSAL Dead animals should be disposed of under the control of government officers using methods designed to eliminate contamination. All materials that are likely to have been infected, including the animal itself, should be disposed of by burning or deep burial at the site in which it has died.

DECONTAMINATION At contaminated sites, infected materials, personnel, cloth- Usually, the first indication that grazing ani- ing and equipment should be decontaminated according to Veterinary Ser- mals may have anthrax is when they are found dead in the kraal or veld. Bloodstained dis- vices guidelines. charges at external orifices are the usual characteristics of the disease but not all anthrax VACCINATION This should be done under the guidance of Veterinary Services. cases show these signs. However in almost all cases, the blood fails to clot. This mani- Animals vaccinated twice, at a six to twelve month intervals are normally im- fests when samples are collected from carcasses for diagnostic examination, or if the mune for life. carcass has been attacked by predators. Dairy cattle may show a change in temperament PROTECTION AGAINST HUMAN INFECTION As anthrax is a significant zoonotic and a drop in milk production. If a carcass of an animal that has died is opened, dark disease, all people handling dead animals or other infected material, includ- unclotted blood and an enlarged, haemorrhagic spleen are immediate indica- ing live vaccines, should wear protective glasses, gloves and clothing and pro- tors of anthrax (de Vos, 1994). However, an tect skin breaks from infection. People exposed to infection, either through enlarged spleen, cited as a characteristic feature of anthrax and regularly seen in cattle, wounds or through a needle prick while vaccinating animals with live vaccine, is uncommon in other animals. In any case, not all the signs are uniformly present in all should seek medical advice. cases of anthrax. 101 Anthrax does not form a carrier state in sus- Foot and mouth disease (FMD) ceptible animals and live animals can only spread the infection by being moved when Foot and mouth disease is endemic throughout the Middle East, Africa, South they are in the incubation phase of the disease, dying and releasing bacteria at the new America, Asia and parts of Europe. In Zimbabwe, there are minor annual site. outbreaks of possible FMD, which are easily contained. The biggest outbreak was in 2003 when there were 350 suspected cases. Such a major outbreak of FMD has the potential to cause major national socioeconomic consequences through very serious international trade losses, national market disruptions and severe production losses in the livestock industries that are involved.

Pasteurisation of milk and milk products de- Although the prevalence of FMD in Zimbabwe is relatively low, vigilance stroys vegetative bacteria. Thus, anthrax vegetative bacilli cannot survive in milk and nei- needs to be high because the disease can easily reach epidemic levels when ther can vegetative bacteria sporulate in unpasteurised milk. control and prevention measures are relaxed, as was the case in 2003 when more than ten times the usual number of cases was reported. In this instance control and preventive measures applied were so effective that in the following year reported cases were less than the average reported annual cases and the subsequent year had the lowest number of reported cases for the period (see Figure 5.11).

The nature of the disease Foot and mouth disease is a rapidly developing, very highly communicable disease that occurs almost exclusively in cloven-footed animals, such as cattle, sheep, goats and pigs. The disease is characterised by the formation of vesicles and erosions in the mouth and nostrils, on the teats, and on the skin between and above the hoofs, hence the name ‘food and mouth’.

The most susceptible species are ungulates (hoofed mammals). Zimbabwe has large populations of domestic and wild animals that are susceptible to infection by the FMD virus, ranging from intensively managed animals in Public awareness is necessary. The commu- dairies and piggeries, through more extensive cattle and goat enterprises, to nity should be made aware of the dangers of anthrax through public media or outreach wild pig, cattle and buffalo herds. The FMD virus may also be transmitted to programmes. However, Zimbabwe is a major mice, rats, guinea pigs, rabbits, chickens and various wild species. However beef exporter to European countries and anthrax is a sensitive issue, both in respect of these are not generally implicated in the spread of FMD. Horses and donkeys public health perceptions and in relation to trade, particularly with some trading partners. are resistant to FMD. When anthrax is suspected, the local veterinary officer must be advised. If confirmed, the Veterinary Services should be notified. They However in cloven-hoofed animals, FMD should be considered whenever will then develop a public communications strategy, including appointment of spokes- vesicles are seen and a provisional diagnosis of FMD should be made where persons. a combination of the following signs is present: Incidents and outbreaks of anthrax are unlikely to seriously affect Zimbabwe’s export • of livestock and animal products. Outbreaks Acute lameness in a number of animals due to sore feet, manifested in are normally contained within a few months, animals preferring to lie down; thus limiting the period from the start to the lifting of trade restrictions and making the • Back off from feed and excessive salivation; likelihood of long term economic effects low. • However, the losses emanating from the in- Suddenly appearing vesicles or blisters on the mouth, nose, feet and teats ability to trade while quarantine restrictions which quickly rupture to leave erosions or ulcers; remain in place, the losses from mortalities, which can be high, and the cost of increased • Fever; and vaccination may be economically significant. • In dairy cattle, a considerable drop in milk yield.

Animal health authorities should advise the public health authorities when anthrax is di- Modes of transmission agnosed and ensure that appropriate refer- ral procedures are established so that any- FMD is one of the most contagious animal diseases. Very large amounts of one handling carcasses, tissues or body fluids of animals known to be, or suspected of virus are present in all tissues, secretions and excretions before and during being, infected with anthrax is able to seek medical advice and preventive treatment as the development of clinical signs. Animals are infected via inhalation, inges- necessary. 102 BOX 5.7 THREE P EOPLE D IE OF A NTHRAX

tion and by artificial or natural breeding. The primary method of transmission is by direct contact, via the breath.

Transmission occurs most readily when animals are in close proximity, such as at watering and feeding points, stockyards and milking sheds. Spread of infection between properties and areas is frequently due to the movement of infected animals or contaminated vehicles, equipment, people and products. Some of the features of transmission in particular species are:

PIGS These are the major amplifying host for the disease. Although pigs are primarily infected while ingesting infected feedstuff, they are the most efficient producers of the virus in respiratory aerosols (breath). Thus, spread of FMD from an infected piggery could be rapid and widespread, allowing the

Figure 5.10 Foot and Mouth Disease Outbreaks by District, January-December 2004

Therefore, FMD represents the greatest threat to Zimbabwe’s livestock industries and export markets. It has the potential for rapid and extensive spread and could jeopardise the export of all beef and beef products, at least in the short term. In the case of an outbreak, it is necessary to eradicate FMD in the shortest possible time, while also striving to limit the economic impact.

103 Figure 5.11 Foot and Mouth Disease Occurrence, 2001-2005

disease to gain a substantial foothold before the first clinical cases come to the attention of regulatory authorities.

CATTLE Cows are highly susceptible to aerosol infection as they have a higher respiratory tidal volume than other species. Cattle are considered the best indicator species for the presence of FMD virus in an area.

SHEEP AND GOATS These may be important reservoirs of infection because they are usually only mildly affected clinically by FMD and infection may not be noticed. The marketing and production systems in Zimbabwe sometimes result in the rapid dispersion of animals over wide geographic areas. The ability to trace livestock movements and product is of critical importance to the early control of an outbreak of FMD. The movement patterns of goats may be particularly important because of the possibility that they are infected without showing clinical signs. From experience of FMD, the spread of the disease in cattle ranges is more likely in the dry season, when animals congregate at watering points. Feedlots represent a special hazard as cattle at these points have an increased chance of becoming infected from aerosols. Humans can become infected through skin wounds or the mouth lining by handling dis- eased stock or the virus in the laboratory, or Advice for the prevention and control of FMD by drinking infected milk, but not by eating meat from affected animals. In humans, in- Control of FMD relies on three basic principles: fection is temporary and mild, only very occasionally resulting in clinical disease (fever, 1 Preventing contact between susceptible animals and the FMD virus; vesicles on the hands, feet or in the mouth). 2 Stopping the production of the virus by infected animals; and Thus, FMD is not normally considered a public health problem. 3 Increasing the resistance of susceptible animals. These principles can be applied by: · Stopping the spread of infection through quarantine and movement controls; · Eliminating sources of infection by slaughtering infected and exposed animals; · Eliminating the virus by decontamination of premises, vehicles, equipment and materials, or disposal of contaminated materials; and · Establishing immunity by vaccination. Urgent and meticulous trace-back and trace-forward of all contacts with in- Where these classical signs and symptoms of FMD occur, the Veterinary Services should fected animals and premises are vital if the disease is to be effectively con- be consulted immediately. tained.

104 Surveillance efforts in the event of an outbreak are aimed at: An extremely cautious approach to the salvage of animal products and by-products is · Defining the extent of the disease; required. Milk heated to 75o C for 15 seconds or 135o C for one second may be used for any · Detecting new outbreaks; and purpose except for feeding (as whole milk, · Establishing disease free zones. other products, by-products or waste) to susceptible livestock. There is, as yet, no specific cure for FMD. Palliative treatment only allevi- ates the signs and does not prevent the spread of infection. Animals that are considered to be most infected or at risk should be destroyed first. The recommended method of disposal of carcasses, milk and feedstuff is by burial rather than cremation. Burial is generally easier, quicker, uses fewer resources, is less polluting, and removes the risk of creating infective plumes, which could spread the disease. However, several factors, such as topography, soil type, and water table depth, must be considered in selecting a burial site. Burial must be performed in a manner that prevents wild pigs gaining access to carcasses. In the event of an outbreak the following actions are important: • Cooperate with animal health inspectors, veterinarians or extension officers, because FMD is a disease of national importance; The movement patterns of animals in Zim- babwe are a critical factor in the dissemina- • If signs similar to FMD are found in cattle, pigs, sheep and goats, contact tion of FMD. Transmission of virus from car- the local animal health inspector, veterinarian or extension officer imme- rier African buffalo to in-contact cattle is possible. diately; • Restrict the movement of animals and animal products, especially into, out of or within the affected zone; • The ‘stamping out’ method in animals in the restricted zone, which involves quarantine, slaughter of all infected and exposed susceptible animals and sanitary disposal of destroyed animals and contaminated animal Native breeds of cattle and pigs are reported products, to remove the source of infection; to be less susceptible to infection and dis- • Preemptive depopulation of susceptible animals to minimise spread; ease than European breeds. • Quarantine and movement controls on animals, animal products and items coming into contact with either in declared areas to prevent the spread of infection; • Decontamination of facilities, products and items coming into contact with either to eliminate the virus on infected premises and to prevent spread in declared areas; • Tracing and surveillance to determine the source and extent of infection and to provide proof of freedom from the disease; • Zoning to define infected and disease-free areas; • A public awareness campaign to facilitate industry and community coop- In terms of public awareness, the community should be made aware of the FMD and its far eration; reaching consequences. Every effort should • be made to make meat producers aware of Only allowing movement of animals or animal products in the area sur- FMD. An FMD outbreak would result in the rounding the restricted zone (the surveillance zone) with a legal move- immediate closure of many of Zimbabwe’s major export markets for livestock and live- ment permit; and stock products, causing a contraction in eco- • nomic activity, particularly in the pastoral, live- Vaccination of animals and not moving vaccinated animals and their prod- stock and meat processing industries, with a ucts without the necessary permits. knock-on reduction in employment. In addition to the disruption and distress caused by the control and eradication measures in the infected areas, the widespread financial losses arising from the trade costs of an outbreak of FMD would result in significant social costs to individuals and communities throughout rural Zimbabwe. As noted, employment would be affected over a whole range of industries, from the

105 Zimbabwe has large and widespread popula- farming and subsidiary industries to rural growth points and government de- tions of wild animals that are susceptible to FMD, such as warthogs, water buffalo and partments. deer. These animals are frequently in close contact with domestic stock, sharing pastures and watering points. If wild animals are con- Rabies sidered to be a risk factor in the dissemination or persistence of infection, then programmes aimed at reducing contact be- Rabies is one of humanity’s oldest and most feared diseases. First described tween infected stock, wild animals and in a Mesopotamian tract dating from 1800 BC, the illness was known to the uninfected susceptible stock should be considered as soon as possible. ancient Greeks as ‘lyssa’, meaning ‘frenzy’. But the Romans, adapting the

A media campaign for when an outbreak is Latin word meaning ‘to rage’, gave us the name by which the disease is known underway must emphasise the importance of today. farmers inspecting susceptible animals regularly and of reporting suspicious lesions and unusual deaths promptly. The public should not be pushed to panic and avoid meat prod- Rabies is almost invariably fatal, viral encephalitis affecting any warm blooded ucts. The importance of movement controls animal. It is a preventable viral disease, which is characterised by a unique and what this means to individuals needs to be strongly emphasised. mode of transmission, through the bite of a rabid animal. Domestic animals account for less than 10 percent of the reported rabies cases, with cats, cattle, and dogs most often reported rabid. Thus naturally, rabies is commonly found in wild animals (90%). In Zimbabwe, human fatalities associated with rabies occur in people who fail to seek medical assistance, usually because they are unaware of their exposure.

Case definition Rabies is caused by a virus belonging to the Lyssavirus genus of the family Rhabdoviridae. The Lyssavirus genus also contains a number of related viruses that have the potential to cause rabies like disease in man and animals.

Rabies virus causes acute encephalitis in all warm blooded hosts, including humans. Although all species of mammals are susceptible to rabies virus infection, only a few species are important as reservoirs for the disease. Birds do not play any part in the maintenance or spread of rabies infections. Vaccination should be carried out as per rec- The most common animal families in maintaining rabies cycles in Zimbabwe ommendation of the local Veterinary Services. are Canidae, which in this country are represented by domestic and wild dogs, and hyenas.

The warm blooded animals affected can be regarded as accidental or ‘dead end’ hosts, and hence have no epidemiological significance in sustaining rabies epidemics. Therefore, this section concentrates on the most active transmitting host, the dog.

Modes of transmission Urban rabies can be spread to new areas most rapidly by dogs with furious rabies that have running fits (where they may travel for 30 km or more) or by pets moved to new areas by their owners. Transmission of rabies virus usually begins when the infected saliva of a host is passed to an uninfected animal through contamination of a fresh wound with the infected saliva. This is usually from the bite of a rabid animal, but can also result from licking abraded skin or mucous membranes. The virus cannot penetrate intact skin. Various less common routes of transmission have been documented and include contamination of mucous membranes (eyes, nose or mouth) and aerosol transmission, but these occur so infrequently that they are not considered in framing control strategies. However, rabies has occurred in both humans and animals after immunisation with vaccine that accidentally contained tissue 106 adapted rabies virus because of incomplete inactivation. Insect vector transmission does not occur.

After uptake into peripheral nerves, the rabies virus is transported to the central nervous system (CNS) via retrograde axoplasmic flow. Typically this occurs via sensory and motor nerves at the initial site of infection. The incubation period is the time from exposure to the onset of clinical signs of disease. It may vary from a few days to several years, but is typically one to three months. Dissemination of the virus within the CNS is rapid, and includes early At the individual and family level, the social impacts could even affect the long term co- involvement of limbic system neurons. Active cerebral infection is followed hesion of the community. The ethics of slaughtering large numbers of healthy livestock and by passive centrifugal spread of the virus to peripheral nerves. The amplifica- wildlife is always an emotive issue, while the tion of infection within the CNS occurs through cycles of viral replication burial or burning of carcasses and products also raises environmental concerns. and cell-to-cell transfer of progeny virus. Centrifugal spread of the virus may lead to the invasion of highly innervated sites of various tissues, including the salivary glands. During this period of cerebral infection, the classic behavioral changes associated with rabies develop.

Signs and Symptoms In dogs there is a prodromal stage, which lasts two to three days but is often missed by the dog’s owner. In this stage there may be a sudden change in Rabies is spread throughout the country but temperament. Dogs that are normally friendly towards people might suddenly the main concentration is in Harare where there is the highest concentration of dogs and become snappy and uncertain, and shy dogs may become affectionate. This the greatest number of dog bites are reported stage is followed by one of two syndromes – ‘furious’ or ‘dumb’ rabies. The in hospitals. dumb form is more common, but some dogs alternate between dumb and furious rabies. The clinical course is often shorter in dumb rabies but in both forms death occurs three to seven days after the end of the prodromal stage.

Figure 5.12 Confirmed Rabies Cases in Zimbabwe since 2001

In the furious form the dog becomes unusually restless, seldom lying or sit- ting in one spot for more than a short time and, if confined, moves around ceaselessly in the confined space. The pupils are dilated, and there is loss of the corneal reflex, and sometimes a squint. The animal assumes a watchful, puzzled or apprehensive look (an important sign) and may snap at imaginary objects. There is a change in phonation (voice), often with a characteristic low pitched, hoarse howling. At certain periods the dog seems possessed of abnormal strength and insensitivity to pain. Bars of cages, furniture and other objects are frequently attacked to the point that the animal’s teeth are reduced to stumps and the mouth lacerated. If the dog is not under restraint, this excit- able energy is manifested in furious, aimless running (sometimes for long

107 distances) and snapping at animate or inanimate objects in its path. There is depraved appetite, with animals eating such items as stones, sticks or earth. The furious signs abate after one to four days and are replaced by rapidly progressing ataxia, convulsions and ascending paralysis. The manifestation of rabies in humans can be divided into six stages, as presented in Figure 5.14.

Advice on the prevention and control of rabies Decontamination is possible because the infectivity of the rabies virus is deseaned and sprayed with one of the disinfectants listed above.

4. The virus incubates in the body

for approximately 3-12 weeks.

The dog has no signs of illness

during this time.

3. Rabies virus 5. When it reaches the

spreads through brain, the virus multiplies

Figure 5:13 The Infectious Path the nerves to the rapidly, passes to the of the Rabies Virus in Dogs spinal cord and salivary glands and the dog

brain. begins to show signs of disease.

2. Rabies virus 6. The infected animal dies

enters the dog 1. Dog is bitten by within 7 days of becoming

through infected a rabid animal. sick.

Saliva.

There is no treatment for rabies after symptoms of the disease appear. Disease prevention is entirely prophylactic and includes both passive ant phylaxis) or for protection before an exposure occurs (pre exposure prophylaxis). Individuals can help to prevent the spread of rabies by: · Caring responsibly for any pets; · Keeping vaccinations up to date for all dogs and cats so as to provide a barrier of protection to owners if an animal is bitten by a rabid wild animal; Following primary infection (see Figure 5.13 · Direct supervision of pets to avoid their contact with wild animals; and 5.14), the virus enters an eclipse phase in which it cannot be easily detected within · Seeking veterinary assistance for the animal immediately in the event that the host. This phase may last for several days a pet is bitten by a wild animal; or months. Investigations have shown both direct entry of the virus into peripheral nerves · Calling local animal police to remove any strange stray animals sighted, at the site of infection and indirect entry after viral replication in non-nerve tissue (i.e. as these may be unvaccinated and could be infected with rabies; muscle cells). During the eclipse phase, the · Spaying or neutering pets to help reduce the number of unwanted pets that host’s immune defenses may confer cell- mediated immunity against viral infection may not be properly cared for or regularly vaccinated; because the rabies virus is a good antigen. The uptake of virus into peripheral nerves is · Avoiding direct contact with unfamiliar animals; and necessary for progressive infection to occur. · Being aware of how to handle exposure, should it arise.

108 Wild animals are for the wild. Neither take them into your home nor try to In the dumb form, the dog remains quiet, is not irritable, and only bites when provoked. nurse sick animals back to health. This is a job for trained specialists. Keep a It is lethargic and may hide behind any cover. The watchful, apprehensive look in the eyes, safe distance from wild animals when visiting them, and do not handle, feed, noted in the furious form is also present. There or unintentionally attract wild animals by holding food. It is important to teach is paralysis of the hindquarters and muscle tremors. A characteristic late sign is paralysis children of the dangers of rabies, including telling tell them never to handle of the jaw (‘dropped jaw’). The tongue is also paralysed and hangs flaccidly from the mouth, unfamiliar animals, wild or domestic, even if they appear friendly. and there is drooling of saliva. The dog is unable to eat. It is also unable to lap water, Public awareness on rabies is very important and deserving of full attention although it may try hard to do so. as irresponsible overseas reports of an uncontrolled outbreak of rabies in

Zimbabwe could have a negative impact on tourism. The requirements for Posters at schools, veterinary and medical ensuring public awareness are: clinics and other places with special information and guidelines on measures to be • Close cooperation of the public to enable people to take the necessary adopted by the public and where to obtain precautions both for themselves and for the sake of their animals, and to treatment when the need arises. assist the authorities in the management of the eradication campaign;

Figure 5.14 Stages of Infesta- tions in a Human

If exposed to a potentially rabid animal, wash the wound thoroughly with soap and water, and seek medical attention immediately. A healthcare provider will care for the wound and will assess the risk for rabies exposure. The following information will help the healthcare provider assess your risk: · Where the incident occurred; · The type of animal involved; · How the exposure occurred (provoked or unprovoked); · The vaccination status of the animal; and · Whether or not the animal can be safely captured and tested for rabies.

Steps taken by the healthcare practitioner will depend on the circumstances of the bite. The important factor is that care is sought promptly after being bitten by any animal. • Keeping the public informed on the public health aspects of rabies and the requirements related to the control and eradication campaign; • Campaigns to educate the public on the nature of the disease, especially the clinical signs in animals and the mode of transmission of the disease to humans and the need for compulsory vaccination at schools, community centres, health centres, factories and other places of mass gatherings; • A strong emphasis on the usually fatal course of the disease and the danger of handling rabid animals; • Encouragement and facilitation of reporting by members of the public of any animal bite incidents with details of the offending animal, the presence of stray dogs and of any deaths of dogs, cats and wildlife.

Newcastle disease Newcastle disease is a contagious viral infection causing a respiratory nervous disorder in several species of fowl including chickens. It is also com-

109 Potentially rabid animals should be ap- municable to humans. Newcastle disease is probably the most feared disease proached with extreme caution. Consider destroying the animal if human safety is at of poultry throughout the world, and it has spread to all continents in recent stake although every effort should be made decades. It is a focus for concern in domestic poultry throughout much of the to capture and safely confine them if this is possible without risk to humans. world’s agricultural community because of the severe economic losses that have occurred from illness, death, and reduced egg production following infection with pathogenic or disease causing strains. Repeated large scale losses of rural chickens from Newcastle disease in Zimbabwe have created a need for enhanced awareness of Newcastle as a disease of concern. Prior to an outbreak in 1967, Zimbabwe was reported to be a Newcastle disease free country (Hutchzermeyer, 1973). According to extracts from Chitate and Gutai (Zimbabwe Country Report, undated) Zimbabwe has had only limited outbreaks of Newcastle disease, apart from the major outbreaks of 1994. Three limited outbreaks occurred, first in 1957 along the border with Zambia, and in 1975 and 1986 along the border with Mozambique. On each occasion, strict quarantine, movement control and vaccinations quickly controlled the disease.

The Veterinary Services Department (DVS) mounted vaccination campaigns; ten million birds were vaccinated in 1994 and six million in 1995, all in the communal sector. Newcastle disease has largely been a disease of rural, backyard flocks. Few outbreaks have been experienced in the commercial sector due to the strict biosecurity and routine vaccinations. In 1995, of a total of 172 outbreaks, only 14 (8 percent) were reported from commercial flocks and none of these was large commercial producers who had good biosecurity and sanitary controls. During 1996, no commercial flocks recorded outbreaks of Newcastle disease and the 21 outbreaks reported were all in backyard rural poultry. Table 5.4 shows the annual occurrence of Newcastle disease & vaccinations by the DVS in communal areas.

Features of the disease Different types or strains of the virus (varying in their ability to cause nervous disorder, visceral lesions and death) have been recognised. The most lethal infection of chickens of all ages, which affects the respiratory and neurologic tissues, is referred to as ‘neurotropic velogenic’ Newcastle disease or NVND. Although mortality rates from this strain peak at 50 percent in adult chickens and 90 percent in young chickens, morbidity or illness from NVND may reach as high as 100 percent of a flock. The NVND form of Newcastle disease is not found in Zimbabwe but it is possible that it could be introduced from other countries via pet birds or by other means.

Mode of Transmission Newcastle disease is highly contagious. Dissemination of virulent Newcastle virus between flocks has generally been attributed to the following (in descending order of importance): • Movement of infected birds (including vaccinated birds); • Movement of feedstuffs, personnel and equipment into and out of premises; • Movement of infected poultry products and byproducts; and • Faecal virus contamination of clothing or footwear, equipment, litter, manure and feed. 110 Illness in humans can result from close contact with infectious birds. Generally, headaches and flu-like symptoms develop and last for four to seven days. A mild, superficial inflammation of the eyes with reddening (conjunctivitis) is common. Serious illness or permanent vision impairment is rare.

Advice on Newcastle disease prevention and management Newcastle disease is a notifiable disease, which means that any person is required by law to report incidence of the disease, whether confirmed or suspected, to the Veterinary Services. Disease surveillance is implemented through a network of eight provincial offices, 58 district veterinary offices Chicken suffering from Newcastle and 320 animal health and management centres (AHMCs). The AHMCs are disease (Source: http://www.defra.gov.uk/animalh/ confined to the communal, resettlement and small scale farming areas. Staff diseases/images/v2/nd1.jpg) is required to report suspected Newcastle disease within 24 hours to the Epi- demiology Unit of the Field Branch. Based on postmortem findings and epidemiology, a provisional diagnosis is made and control measures are initiated. The worst epidemic of Newcastle disease in Zimbabwe started in December 1993 in Sengwe communal area of Chiredzi district, on the border with South Africa. By June 1994, The measures to prevent initial outbreak or later spread of Newcastle disease the disease had affected most of the com- are: munal areas of Masvingo province. Because of the complexity of rural movements, control of poultry movement ceased to be effec- VACCINATION This is practiced widely and is the recommended method for tive as a means of controlling the disease. Three months later, the disease had spread prevention. The vaccines may be introduced by drops into the nostril or eye, to most provinces, making vaccination the addition to the drinking water or applied in spray form. only logical control strategy.

QUARANTINE AND MOVEMENT CONTROLS Experience has shown that Newcastle Table 5.4 Annual Newcastle disease can spread very rapidly and can be carried over long distances by trans- Disease Occurrence and DVS port of contaminated materials (such as bird cages, pallets, egg filler flats, Vaccination of Rural Poultry manure, feed and other equipment), as well as by contaminated personnel. Strict control over the movement of anything that could have become con- Year No. of ND No. of Birds taminated with the virus, by the immediate imposition of tightly controlled Outbreaks Vaccinated quarantine on all places suspected of being infected, is essential. 1994 281 10 000 000 1995 172 6 000 000 ZONING Understandable pressure to impose inter-district (and possibly even 1996 21 215 800 intra-district) movement controls on poultry products may be expected. 1997 64 371 600 1998 80 3 837 400 SURVEILLANCE Active surveillance should be initiated as soon as Newcastle 1999 8 417 000 disease is confirmed. In the initial stages, at least, samples should be taken of all species of birds that die in the affected area and they should be checked A milder form of the disease is caused by for Newcastle disease lesions. Specimens should be submitted to approved ‘mesogenic’ or moderately virulent strains. These are a less pathogenic form of Newcastle laboratories for virus isolation. disease which causes neurologic signs but, except for very young susceptible chicks, mor- DESTRUCTION OF BIRDS Efficient, humane procedures must be used to kill tality is low. birds before disposal, without moving them from the site.

DISPOSAL Infected material must be transported elsewhere for disposal either through burial or burning, with particular attention being paid to elimi- The least lethal Newcastle disease strains are nating factors that will contribute to the spread of the virus. For example, classified as ‘lentogenic’ or low virulence. They truck body trays must be waterproof and all loads carefully covered with plas- cause mild or hardly noticeable respiratory infections in chickens. They do not usually cause tic to ensure that material cannot be blown about. disease in adult chickens, but the respiratory disease can become serious in young birds. Some strains of lentogenic Newcastle disease DECONTAMINATION This entails cleaning and disinfection of the infected site cause asymptomatic-enteric infections with- to remove all infective material. The Newcastle disease virus is susceptible out visible disease.

111 The signs and symptoms of Newcastle dis- to a wide range of disinfectants, including detergents. Initial cleaning of or- ease are not greatly different from those of other respiratory diseases. The signs most ganic matter from sheds, equipment, vehicles and so on by brushing and wash- frequently observed are: ing with a detergent is the most important step before disinfection. · Loss of appetite, fever and weakness; · Swelling and cyanosis of the comb and wattles; Pest Infestation · Watery, bile stained, distinctively bright green or bloody diarrhoea; Food losses to pests in Zimbabwe are considerable. It is estimated that up to · Respiratory signs, which may include increased respiratory rate, respiratory dis- 35 percent of the crop production is lost in spite of pesticide and other con- tress, coughing and a high-pitched sneeze (‘snick’); and trol programmes. The primary pests are insects, diseases and weeds, although · Nervous signs, which can include loss of mammals and birds can inflict serious crop damage. Armyworms, quelea birds balance, circling, backward progression and convulsive somersaulting, rhythmic and locusts are the most common pests. This section looks at the ecological spasms, stiffness and twisting of the neck, head tremors, and wing and leg paralysis. factors influencing the outbreak of pest infestations, the ways they inflict damage, controlling pests through integrated pest management, and the specific pests of most concern in Zimbabwe.

Definitions and characteristics A pest may be defined as any animal or plant causing harm or damage to people, their animals, crops or possessions. The pests of most importance here are those that lead to a loss in crop yield or quality, resulting in loss of profits to the farmer and reduced stocks for subsistence or export. Insect outbreaks are usually the result of a combination of the following ecological factors:

TEMPERATURE Often the most important factor governing insect development is temperature, particularly during the development phase of pests such as locusts.

Twisting of the neck is the main MOISTURE Most insects that attack crops rely on adequate rainfall to pro- symptom. mote egg hatching and host plant growth. For example, locust outbreaks and (Source: http://www.affa.gov.au/—/ plagues seem to be correlated to the end of an extended drought. newcastle_disease1.jpg)

MONOCULTURAL CROPPING The larger the area planted with a single crop, the greater the potential for pest problems. Also, the longer a monoculture is maintained in the same area, the greater the number and severity of pests.

INTRODUCTION OF PLANTS OR PEST SPECIES TO NEW LOCATIONS Some pest problems occur when crops or new pest species are introduced into new biological communities.

OVERCOMING GENETIC RESISTANCE Insect pests have been shown to have the genetic capacity to evolve and overcome resistance in their host.

HOST PLANT ASSOCIATION AND CROPPING PATTERNS When a crop is harvested, pests move on to the next crop.

RESISTANCE OF PESTS TO PESTICIDES AND OTHER EFFECTS Although pesticides work quickly to control pests, the effects of pesticides are short lived and pests usually reoccur in larger numbers. Pests may also develop resis- Treatment of birds infected with Newcastle tance to pesticides, while the pesticides themselves may kill the natural preda- disease is ineffective and not appropriate. The disease does not always respect even the best tors of pests, allowing the pests to flourish. management programmes, but good biosecurity practices will help to reduce the EATHER ATTERNS possibility of exposure to the Newcastle dis- W P For flying insects, such as locusts, prevailing winds are ease virus. important in determining where they will fly and whether they will survive.

112 The movement to a different area may coincide with more favorable conditions, allowing some pest species to escape control and increase in number. Pest injury to crop yield can occur when the harvested part of the plant is directly damaged by the pest. Or injury can occur indirectly when the harvested part of the plant is diminished or lost because other parts have been damaged or lost. Insects with piercing and sucking mouthparts damage plants by: • Causing loss of plant vigour by removing excessive quantities of sap and chlorophyll, such as the whitefly and aphids; • Damaging floral organs and reducing seed production, as with chapped bugs, wheat shield bugs and chinch bugs; • Causing premature leaf falls, as do diaspidid scales; • Injecting toxins into the plant; • Providing entry points for pathogenic fungi and bacteria; • Reducing the photosynthetic area on the leaf surface; and • Transfering plant pathogens.

Vulnerability Factors Vulnerability to pest infestation depends partly on the presence of the environmental factors that cause pest numbers to rise and pest damage to seriously affect food supply. These variables result from human manipulation of agricultural cropping systems and climatic conditions. In developing countries, however, the ability to predict infestations and treat the pests is limited by resource constraints, such as lack of trained personnel. Furthermore, in some cases crop yields are normally insufficient to feed the local population, many of whom may be subsistence farmers. Therefore, pest infestation poses a serious social and economic threat and renders these populations vulnerable to disaster.

Advice on prevention and control of pest infestation The concept of integrated pest management (IPM) was originally developed for the control of insects but its principles are now in use for control of disease and weeds as well. The driving forces behind the concept were the susceptibility of humans and animals to the effects of toxic pesticides and the fairly rapid development of pest resistance to pesticides. Biting insects may damage the plant by: · Reducing the amount of leaf and photo- The common goals of most IPM programmes are to use multiple strategies synthetic area, hindering plant growth, usually by leaf eaters, such as locusts and ar- to maintain pest damage below the economic injury level, while providing myworms; protection against hazards to humans, animals, plants and the environment. · Tunnelling into the stem and interrupting the flow of sap, as with stem borers and The development of an IPM programme involves the following steps: shoot flies; · Destroying buds or growing points and caus- 1 Identifying the pests in the system ing subsequent distortion or proliferation, 2 Developing suitable monitoring or forecasting techniques. This involves as with fruit bud weevils; · Causing premature fruit fall, as with cherry the measurement of pest populations (numbers of eggs, larvae, insects, fruit fly, codling moth and apple sawfly; spores, etc.) or amount of damage or loss. · Attacking flowers and reducing seed production, as with blossom beetles and Japa- 3 Establishing economic thresholds, i.e. the pest population or disease in- nese beetle; · Injuring or destroying seeds completely, or cidence causing losses in crop value exceeding the cost of pest manage- reducing germination due to loss of food ment. reserves, e.g. by maize weevil, pea pod borer and bean pod borer; 4 Developing a pest management strategy. It is necessary to identify the · Attacking roots and causing loss of water least hazardous chemical and the lowest possible dose that can be used, and nutrient absorbing tissue, as with wireworms and various beetle larvae; or and the appropriate cultural and biological techniques to be integrated · Removing stored food in a tuber, e.g. by into a pest management strategy. cutworms and wireworms in potatoes.

113 Certain pests serve as vectors of human and Integrated pest management usually targets containment rather than eradica- animal disease. These include the tsetse fly, Glossina species, which is a vector for African tion. The key IPM tactical approaches are: trypanosomiasis, the Simulium blackfly which is a vector for onchocerciasis, the Anopheles mosquito which is a vector for malaria, and CULTURAL CONTROL Some cultural practices are well established and others the human body louse (Pediculus humanus are experimental. All involve decisions made by the farmer. They include; humanus), a vectors for epidemic typhus. A pathogen or parasite is passed from pest to • Varying the depth of tillage according to pest species, host, where development takes place. In Af- rica, the tsetse fly passes parasites that cause • Planting resistant crop varieties, trypanosomiasis, a disease that induces ane- • Using crop rotation and fallow periods, mia and often leads to death in humans and livestock. Animal dependent societies have • Diversifying cropping systems, experienced significant livestock losses to the tsetse fly. • Timing sowing and harvesting to avoid pest attacks, and

BOX 5.8 EARLY WARNING PROCEDURES BY AREX

Early warning systems Prediction allows better control and use of pesticides. To determine when pesticides should be used, an assessment should be made where applicable of the ‘economic injury levels’ of the pest population. For all outbreak pests, labour intensive surveys, including collection and analysis of samples, produce a total picture which must then be communi- cated to the vulnerable farmers. Environmen- tal factors such as wind, temperature and rainfall have been employed in predicting pest attacks. • Planting ‘trap’ crops that lure insects away from primary crops.

PHYSICAL METHODS These include handpicking pests from plants, driving insects into a trench, placing bags around fruit, netting, greenhouses, use of lethal temperatures (both high and low), and use of electromagnetic energy such as ultraviolet light.

BIOLOGICAL CONTROL This involves control by living organisms. Predators include birds, frogs, spiders, insects, nematodes and pathogens.

CHEMICAL METHODS This method of control is very quick in action and comes in different forms – repellants, antifeedants (which block feeding response), fumigants, smokes, stomach poisons, contact poisons and systemic poisons. Pesticides have some negative side effects. These are that;

• Insect populations may rapidly surge back after treatment wears off, • The pesticide may also destroy the target insects’ natural enemies and the numbers resurge, • A secondary pest may take hold, and • The toxic chemicals in pesticides are absorbed into the environment. Identifying pests in the system, includes • major pests that usually cause damage above economic injury levels, • minor or secondary pests that cause INSECT BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION Chemicals containing pheromones (hor- damage above the economic injury level mones produced by insects and released as behavior cues to other insects) only occasionally, • potential pests that normally do not and other agents can be used to disrupt mating, attract pests to traps or repel cause economic losses, and • migratory pests that can cause serious them from crops. damage on a periodic basis. REGULATORY ACTIVITIES Most such activities are directed at preventing the

114 introduction of pests into new areas, mainly through quarantine measures. The FAO has established a system of international plant protection whereby an International Phytosanitary Certificate is essential for importation of plant material into almost every country of the world. Eradication reduces the pest population to the point where the economic damage is not significant. In cases of disease vectors for humans, such as the mosquito, complete eradication may be the goal. The cost in both economic and environmental terms may preclude eradication programmes in developing countries unless the programme uses non-chemical methods.

The small scale farmer, who bears the major responsibility for food production, is also likely to face the greatest crop losses to pests. It is vital that information regarding pest infestation and control is shared between government ministries, extension agents and farmers. The farmers are able to describe the type of pest problems prevalent in their areas and cultural methods used to control them. They can assist extension agents to determine when a pest population is reaching a threatening level and at what point pesticides will have to be used. Government representatives may provide technical expertise, informing farmers about new discoveries and influencing their decisions regarding use of cultural or biological control of pests. Farmers can use cost free methods of pest control and save national expense. The extension services may demonstrate methods of pesticide application and provide a means for farmers to obtain equipment and pesticides or arrange for the farms to be treated.

If the scale of pest infestation is too large to be handled locally or by the nations it affects, international organisations may be called in to provide the equipment and pesticides necessary. If food losses are great and can be expected to affect the health of the population, food will have to be moved to the affected area from surplus areas. If no surplus exists, food will have to be imported or secured from donors. Major and common pests in Zimbabwe Three of the most damaging pests occurring in Zimbabwe are discussed below:

AFRICAN ARMYWORM (NHUNDURURU OR IMHOGOYI) The African armyworm is the larval stage of the night flying moth scientifically known as Spodoptera exempata. It is a serious economic pest in pastures and cereal crops. Army- worms usually advance in a mass across fields (hence the name ‘armyworm’), devouring all green plants in their path like maize, wheat, sorghum, millet and rice. The larvae or caterpillar, when occurring in large numbers, can consume these green plants faster than 400 head of cattle per hectare. Thus they can quickly devastate cereal crops by defoliaton, causing 100 percent yield loss if they attack young plants, and can make pastures unfavourable for livestock. They do this in broad daylight. Zimbabwe, along with other countries in South- ern Africa, can suffer serious agricultural losses due to the armyworm. The life stages of the African armyworm are shown in the photographs below and its biology and epidemiology are outlined in Figure 5.15.

115 Life stages of the African After molting through six stages or instars over fourteen to 22 days, the lar- armyworm: Adult Moth, Pupae vae pupate in the soil to emerge as moths, which re-infest either at the same and Larvae place or up to several hundred kilometres downwind. (Source: K. Mushore AREX) The seasonal cycle of the armyworm begins with the low density breeding of dry season populations in the cool, coastal highlands of Kenya and Tanzania. These small populations of the solitary phase, which do little crop damage, occur in scattered grassy areas where it is not economical to spray or control them. As the Intertropical Convergence Zone begins moving southward, causing the annual onset of the summer rains in December, the strong winds accompanying the thunderstorms carry some moths to the interior of the continent where primary outbreaks occur. It is these climatic changes at the onset of the rainfall season, particularly when following a drought season, that result in production of abundant forage which may trigger a response in the females laying the eggs. Because each female can lay 800 to 1 000 eggs (on grasses and cereal crops), as few as 30 moths could cause a serious outbreak of 15 million armyworms within two generations or two months. Adult Moth Within a few days, the larvae hatch, and subsequently grow to around 30mm, dark striped and voracious, with up to 1000 caterpillars occupying each square metre. The young larvae, at first, eat the upper and lower surface tissue of the leaves. As the larvae become older and increase in size, they are able to bite through the entire leaf, starting from the edges and usually eating all but the midrib. Hence large numbers are able to devastate an area of grassland or crop in a few hours, before characteristically ‘marching’ to the next source of food. Heavy infestation results in total loss of leaves, often leading to severe crop loss or necessitating replanting. When caterpillars change to moths, they become airborne and are able to be carried downwind for great distances. Thus mass migration of these moths occurs covering many thousands of square kilometres, easily traversing international boundaries. As the number of caterpillars and moths increases, so the plague spreads, aided by intertropical convergence winds, which carry the moths south to Malawi, Zambia Pupae Mozambique and Zimbabwe. They breed very fast making them difficult to control.

Outbreak characterisitcs Frequent outbreaks of the worm occur, and larval densities are often in excess of 1 000 per square metre and may cover tens or even hundreds of square kilometres. Outbreaks usually follow the onset of wet seasons when dry grasslands produce new growth and cereal crops are planted. Major outbreaks of armyworm are commonly preceded by extended drought.

Prevention and control In order to prevent or, at least control, outbreaks of armyworm: • The caterpillars need to be killed when they are very young; • Information about rainstorms is needed to provide a warning to farmers to check their maize and other cereals for young caterpillars, which can be expected to appear one week after rain; • It is necessary to control the first outbreak so as to prevent second gen- Larvae eration outbreaks;

116 Facts about Armyworms: Figure 5.15 Biology and MOTH Epidemiology of the Army Worm (5-16days)

• Female capable of producing 200-1 000 eggs in a lifetime EGGS PUPAE • Therefore, fifteen male moths and fifteen 2-4 days (7-15days) female moths can produce 15 000 caterpillars in one month

• This translates LARVAE to 15 000 000 caterpillars in two(14-22 generations!!! days)

• Chemical control1 is used as the only effective means and is readily available at AREX for farmers; • It is effective to dig a ditch in front of the worms, as they then find the extensive section of loose soil too difficult to scale; • Mobilise resources and have them ready in all provinces in anticipation of an outbreak; and • Conduct public awareness campaigns on radio and TV, in newspapers, magazines and posters and at field days.

Surveillance and monitoring are important. Army worm forecasts are based on information from a number of sources, the most important being networks of light and pheromone traps distributed throughout Zimbabwe and operated nightly under the supervision of trap operators. The incidence and extent of recent outbreaks of larvae and the current weather conditions are monitored. Daily weather forecasts need to be followed, particularly the winds, which influence the direction of moth migration. As an international and migratory pest, armyworm control is a responsibility of the government in Zimbabwe through its Agricultural QUELEA BIRDS Humans have always coexisted with birds. Some are beneficial Research and Extension division (AREX). In and others are in conflict with human needs in a number of ways and become the past, chemical sprays have been used, sometimes partially funded by donors, but, pests. The red billed quelea bird (Quelea quelea lathamii) is the most impor- in recent years, donor funding for chemical pesticides has been withdrawn and, with the tant granivorous (seed eating) bird pest in Africa, capable of consuming 4 government unable to fund adequate provi- grams of grain per day. The birds are known to be the most numerous and sion, farmers have been left to either pay for pesticide application, or face the threat of total destructive birds in the world, with an estimated population of roughly 1.8 crop loss. In Zimbabwe, serious outbreaks of armyworm occur regularly, causing up to 90 billion. In Zimbabwe, the birds occur in colonies of millions. Normally the percent losses of crops and pasture in some birds feed on grass seeds but, in the absence of these, they attack crops, mainly districts in bad years. at the dough stage, sucking out the soft grain. Damage caused in individual fields can be as high as 100 percent if no control measures are taken.

Since Quelea birds move in large numbers, they cause extensive damage to cereal grains, like wheat, rice, barley, sorghum and millets at the ‘milk’ (dough) and ripening stages. They are also a particular problem for winter wheat because there is no readily available alternative source of food in winter when the other grass is dry. The effect is mainly due to loss of grain as well as flattening of growing plants. It is estimated that the loss of cereal due to red If the moths are present in a locality, out- billed quelea is at least US$ 1 billion annually (AREX, 2004). Clearly, these breaks of the caterpillars can occur following birds are a threat to food security especially in the Matabeleland provinces. a rainstorm. The rainstorm acts to concentrate and deposit the airborne moths. The Small grains, which are naturally drought tolerant, are mostly grown in this moths subsequently lay eggs, which hatch into caterpillars. Outbreaks of the caterpillars are semi arid region and hence form part of the community’s staple food but seen about two weeks after the rainstorm.

117 Migrant pests are a regional problem. Re- farmers are being forced to shift from growing the usual drought tolerant gional cooperation is, therefore, a necessity. Zimbabwe is a member of the International small grain cereals to growing maize, which the birds do not eat. As a result, Red Locust Control Organisation of Central and Southern Africa (IRLCO-CSA) and the In- the crop failure rate has increased because the climate of these areas is too formation Core for Southern African Migrant dry for normal maize growth. Pests (ICOSAMP), which monitors the pest situation in the region as well as giving forecasts. Quelea bird control Several methods, including lethal and non-lethal ones have been used to control the birds but with only limited success. The non-lethal methods include scarecrows, noise making devices, slings to flame throwers, burning of roosts and colonies, and cutting trees harboring roosts and colonies. Lethal methods include chemicals and explosives. The non-lethal methods are limited in their application, given the shortage of labour in most agricultural settings, while explosives can only be applied in small areas. This leaves chemical control as the major intervention in highly infested areas, apart from growing crops that are not prone to quelea birds, such as cowpeas and maize. Recently the use of chemical poisoning, using fenthion (Queletox) in backpacks, vehicle mounted sprayer or by aerial spraying, has been on the increase. But this method has been criticised as being environmentally unfriendly. Another com- plaint is that some local communities eat the bird, so poisoning the birds may affect the people as well, thereby compounding the problem. There is, therefore, a need to strengthen capacity to enable forecasting and timely control to ensure the impact of quelea birds is minimised.

ED OCUSTS The locusts fly with the wind at a speed of R L Locusts are part of a large group of insects commonly called about 16 to 19 km/h depending on the wind, grasshoppers, which have large, strong hind legs for jumping. Locusts differ during daylight hours when air temperatures are above 26° C. Locusts can stay in the air from other grasshoppers in that they have the ability to change their behaviour for long periods of time. For example, the country recorded only a hazard in 1994 and and habits, forming swarms of adults or bands of hoppers (wingless nymphs). in 1998, when swarms literally flew right over The swarms that form can be dense and highly mobile and can migrate over Zimbabwe and hence did not cause any significant damage. Locust swarms can vary from large distances. The red locust (Nomadacris septemfasciata) shares the sub- less than one square kilometre to several hundred square kilometres. There can be family Cyrtacanthacridinae with other locusts, e.g. the desert locust between 40 million and 80 million locust adults (Schistocerca gregaria), the tree locust (Anacridium melanorhodon) and in each square kilometre of swarm. the bird locust (Ornithacris cavroisi) and it is sometimes mistaken for these other locusts. Red billed quelea, the world’s most numerous bird. (Source: Kruger National Park, South Africa)

The quelea birds are confined to about 25 countries south of the Sahara, on the sahel and savannah regions. Queleas are found throughout Zimbabwe (Mundy and Herremmans, 1997). For example, between June and July 2005 they were found in Mazowe and Bindura districts, Mashonaland Central Province, Mashonaland West and Manicaland. Ten farms (390ha) were affected and crop damage ranged from 10 percent to 40 percent at the time of assessment of these regions (AREX, 2005) Breeding occurs entirely outside the country’s highveld region (Jarvis, 1989) and in natural reserves, starting in January after sufficient rains.

118 The red locust is a major pest in Central and Southern Africa. It breeds in wet The red locust is easily identified by its grasslands all over sub-Saharan Africa. In Zimbabwe, significant red locust typical body colour. The overall colour outbreaks are known to occur on average, once in ten years (AREX, 2003). is a mixture of light beige and brown. The main outbreak areas have been identified in Zambia, Tanzania and Malawi. It is never green. There are seven clear transversal brown bands on the elytra Almost all of southern Africa was invaded during the last great widespread (thus explaining its species name plague (1930 to 1944). Crops cultivated in breeding biotopes, like maize, ‘septemfasciata’) and its hindwings are rice, sugarcane, fruits, wild herbaceous species and trees such as acacias, red at their base. There are two typical eucalyptus and pines, were often attacked. These outbreak areas are reacti- wide lateral brown bands on the vated, especially during dry years, in response to the reduced colonisable pronotum. surface area available to this hygromesophilic locust, thus increasing popula- (Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia) tion densities to above the critical phase transformation threshold. In invasion years, swarms can be distributed over a few hectares and up to hundreds of square kilometres.

When populations reach high densities and become more crowded, swarms are formed. They change their behavior from that of acting as an individual (solitarious) insect to that of acting as part of a group (gregarious) and invade surrounding areas. The appearance of the locust also changes – solitary hoppers can become green or brown and gregarious hoppers are bright yellow and red-brown with black markings. Damage can be very severe, as this locust has a habit of razing crops to the ground. An adult locust can consume roughly its own weight in fresh food (i.e. about 2 grams) each day. A very small part of an average swarm (or about one tonne of locusts) eats the same amount of food in one day as about ten elephants or 2 500 people (Wikipedia, undated). Countless locusts make up a swarm. The damage that they are capable of in- A swarm of locusts flicting is shown in the photographs below.

Moisture is a crucial factor for the red locusts. They actively seek moist environments in seasonal flood plains with large grassy lowlands and some tree cover. They are generally graminivorous. In farming zones, they often colonise grain crops, especially when the fields are hedged in with bush and when waste, and fallow lands are interspersed between the fields. Red locusts become sedentary when shelter, perches and food are available

Control At present, the primary method of controlling red locust swarms and hopper (Source: IITA) bands is by aerial spraying of a variety of chemicals, though organphosphate Locust damage to sorghum crops (Source: Australian Plague Locust Commis- chemicals are commonly used. These chemicals are applied in small, con- sion) centrated doses, referred to as ultra low volume (ULV) formulation. Vehicle mounted sprayers and, to a lesser extent, knapsack and hand held sprayers are also used. These current control measures, which rely mainly on the use of broad spectrum chemical insecticides are largely successful, provided the locust populations are targeted in time.

However, the breeding sites that are targeted are wetland areas, which represent rich sources of biodiversity and are of international conservation value. Thus, an alternative to conventional chemical control is urgently needed. Re- sponsibility for red locust control rests with AREX at the local level but overall sub regional control and monitoring is done by the International Red Locust Control Organisation for Central and Southern Africa (IRLCO-CSA), which is based in Zambia

119 CHAPTER 6 Technological Hazards

Introduction Technological hazards are also referred to as human-made hazards. These are associated with technological or industrial accidents, infrastructure failures or certain human activities that may cause the loss of life or injury, property damage, social and economic disruption or environmental degradation. They are also sometimes referred to as ‘anthropogenic’ hazards. As in most countries, development and population growth in Zimbabwe have contributed to an increase in technological hazards and accidents, which sometimes become disasters. They include hazardous materials accidents (e.g. oil or chemical spills), dam failure, industrial toxic waste spillage, industrial and domestic fires, occupational injuries, and road transportation accidents. This category also includes landmines planted by the Rhodesian security forces during the war of liberation, as the death toll from explosions of these mines has reached significant levels.

Transportation systems are designed to move people, goods and services efficiently, economically and safely from one point to another. Despite this broad goal, transportation systems also create hazards. Accelerated movement comes with risks, and the corresponding accidents that occur disrupt lives and transportation systems daily. Vehicles collide, trains derail, boats capsize, and aeroplanes crash. The transportation of hazardous materials brings about substantial involuntary risks to people along the route and to the environment. This sub-section looks at the road, rail, air and water transport accidents that occur in Zimbabwe.

Road Traffic Accidents Road accidents are a serious problem throughout the world, in social, health and economic terms. But considering the huge numbers of passengers, the A coordinated approach to a frequency of travel, and the vast distances covered, modern transport methods transport accident. Different CPD are relatively safe. Accidents, and occasionally disasters, happen if organs recovering a bus that had components or systems fail, or safety procedures are ignored. It is said that plunged from a bridge near road accidents are the second largest cause of deaths among economically Mabvuku. active people (fifteen to 44 years) in many countries, and the WHO considers the number of deaths to be of epidemic proportions. Indeed, between 50 and 200 people are killed each year for each million inhabitants in most developed as well as developing countries.

While most countries on other continents have succeeded in checking and even reversing the number of road fatalities, current trends in Africa indicate that the carnage will increase with increasing motorisation, unless there is effective remedial action (Jacobs and Aeron-Thomas, 2000). Table 6.1 shows that, while about 10 percent of the road deaths in 1999 occured in Sub-

120 Saharan Africa, only 4 percent of the global vehicles are registered in this region. On the other hand, only 14 percent of road deaths occurred in the entire developed world (North America, Western Europe, Australasia and Japan) yet this region has 60 percent of all globally registered vehicles. In Zimbabwe, road traffic accidents are by far the most frequent type of disaster, at 71 percent of all disasters. These accidents constitute a major burden on the health delivery system, with 60 percent of national healthcare being consumed by the injuries and/or disabilities of victims of road accidents. Figures from the CSO in Table 6.2 show that there is at least one major national disaster a year involving the road and traffic. The 2002 statistics show that an average of 115 accidents is recorded a day and five to six people are killed. About 150 people are killed every month as a result of road traffic accidents.

Table 6.1 Distribution of Esti- mated Road Deaths, Motor Ve- Region Fatalities Motor Vehicles Population Sub Saharan Africa 10% 04% 10% hicles and Population Jacobs and Aeron-Thomas (2000) Developed World 14% 60% 15% Asia/Pacific 44% 16% 54% Central and Eastern Europe 12% 06% 07% Latin America/Caribbean 13% 14% 08% Middle East/North Africa 07% 02% 05%

Zimbabwe has a very high rate of people killed on the road (11.1 per 100 000 inhabitants) compared to other states in the region, like Mozambique, Tanzania and Kenya, as well as developed countries like Norway and Sweden. This may be attributed to the fact that the number of vehicles per 100 inhabitants in Zimbabwe is only surpassed by that in the developed countries. Figures provided by the Central Statistical Office (CSO) indicate that, from 1980 to 2002, there has been an overall increase in road traffic accidents as well as in the number of people injured. Using the 1980 figure as the base figure, the number of road traffic accidents reached its peak of 270 percent in 1998 before dropping to 240 percent in 2002. The number of those injured Table 6.2 Zimbabwe Road Traffic increased to 160 percent by 2002. However, the number of road traffic deaths Disaster Statistics, 1990-1998 remained below the 1980 level for much of the period; it peaked at 80 CPD

Date Type of Disaster Province/Place Deaths Injuries 1/4/1990 Umzingwane Bus Disaster Matabeleland South 18 - 1991 Nyanga Bus Disaster Manicaland 89 - 1/1/1993 Popoteke Bus Disaster Masvingo 12 - 1995 Runde River Bus Disaster Masvingo 17 - 12/8/1995 Mbizi I Bus Disaster Mashonaland East 15 4 12/4/1996 Musani Bridge Lorry Accident Manicaland 29 - 11/10/1997 Mbizi Bus Accident Mashonaland East 38 - 5/1/1998 Nyanga Bus Accident Manicaland 44 - 18/10/1998 Suffocation Incident (Zimbabweans in an unventilated truck on their way to South Africa via Botswana). Botswana 18 - 24/11/1998 Mvuma Bus Disaster Midlands 26 35 25/2/2000 Chawasarira Bus Disaster Mashonaland East 36 -

121 Figure 6.1 Road Fatalities Rates for Zimbabwe, Aftican Countries and Selected Developed Countries Assum et al (2000)

percent in 1998 before dropping to 50 percent or below for the rest of the period to 2002. In line with this, the number of those who die in relation to the injured has dropped slightly from 8.9 percent to 7.4 percent. The sharp drop following an all time peak in accidents in 1998 is most prob- Table 6.3 Road Fatalities, Total ably due to traffic police interventions which saw increased road traffic law and by Vehicles and Inhabitants, 1994-1999

Kenya Mozambique Tanzania Zimbabwe Norway Sweden Fatalities 2 617 960 1663 1274 303 580 per 10 000 vehicles 60 137 66.1 27 1.2 1.2 per 100 000 inhabitants 10 6 5.6 11.1 6.8 6.6 Vehicles per 100 inhabitants 1.7 0.44 0.8 4.1 58 56 enforcement and deterrent fines in the ensuing period. However, due to non revision of the fines in line with the current hyperinflationary environment, the value of the fine has been eroded to such an extend that in 2007 a motorist Figures for Kenya (1995), Tanzania (1995) and Zimbabwe (1994) from Assum (1998); offender pays a road traffic fine that cannot buy a box of matches in a shop. Figures for Mozambique and Norway (1997) Thus if it were not for the national fuel shortages, which limit the number of from Assum et al (1999); Figures for Sweden from National Road Administration (1999 and kilometres travelled per vehicle, the rise in accidents would have been higher 2000) than the figures displayed from the year 2001. Vulnerable road users – passengers, pedestrians and drivers – are the worst affected. Passengers account for the highest proportion of casualties followed by pedestrians (Figure 6.4). However, due to their high vulnerability, pedestrians account for the highest proportion of road fatalities, and the involvement of pedestrians is much greater in the urban environment than in rural areas. Passengers rank second and drivers account for a small share of road deaths. Some of the most important factors known to increase the risk and/or severity of accidents are:

Figure 6.2 Road Traffic Accident Statistics, 1980-2002 Zimbabwe Central Computing Services

122 Figure 6.3 Public Transportation Disasters as a Percentage of 1980 Baseline

ROAD USER FACTORS These include poor driving standards, young and negli- gent drivers, driving under the influence of alcohol or drugs, ignorance of traffic rules and regulations leading to speeding, perilous overtaking, distrac- tion of drivers by passengers, speaking on cell phones while driving, and re- luctance to use safety devices such as safety belts and helmets.

VEHICLE FACTORS Including inadequate maintenance of vehicles (worn tyres leading to tyre bursts, poor brakes, non-functioning lights), overloading of Figure 6.4 Road Traffic Accident public service vehicles and trucks, use of unsuitable vehicles for transport of Casualties by Category, 1997-2002 passengers, and poor crashworthiness design.

It is generally acknowledged that human error and is an underlying cause of almost all accidents – in terms of observation, decision making and response to the situation at hand – including breaking highway regulations, speeding, overloading etc. Research in several countries concludes that human error is involved in over 90 percent of all road accidents and that only a small proportion of accidents can be directly attributed to vehicle defects, or faults in road design or maintenance. However, careful analyses of accidents have made it clear that accidents are often the result of a critical combination of several factors and that it is not always correct to pick out a single main cause. It may be more appropriate to use the concept of ‘accident contributing factors’ or ‘risk increasing factors’ to explain why an accident took place. ROAD FACTORS Such as high or no speed limits and poor visual guidance, failure of traffic control signals, poorly controlled intersections and uncontrolled access, narrow roads, hilly terrain, poor alignment standards and poor maintenance of pavement and shoulders, and steep ditches and hard objects near the road.

TRAFFIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS These may include a mix of motorised and non-motorised vehicles and pedestrians, negligence of pedestrians, stray animals, poor traffic management and enforcement of the traffic code, darkness and inclement weather conditions, and inadequate emergency medical services. Economic pressure factors have also become more important following the liberalisation of road transport services, as intense competition for passengers has resulted in more speeding and reckless driving by drivers of public service vehicles.

123 Although the factors cited above are the most commonly reported in routine police statistics, there are broader, underlying and related factors contributing to the rising magnitude and burden of road traffic injuries. These include:

· The rapid growth in motorisation and human population; · Increased spatial interaction of road traffic in terms of the volume and direction of movement; · Deficiencies and problems in road user behaviour; · Conditions and environment of work in the public transport sector, with special reference to buses and kombis; · The social and economic conditions prevailing in Zimbabwe; · Serious deficiencies in the development and maintenance of the road network; and · Deficiencies in road safety planning, management, enforcement and interventions. Road users are clearly the critical element in the system. Their behavior has to be addressed if significant gains in safety are to be achieved. Key factors are a basic understanding of the traffic system, and an ability to recognise and avoid danger, and to exercise safe behavior. Knowledge of the traffic system Though all these factors contribute to higher accident risks and give a lead on where cor- and how to behave in traffic can be improved through better education and rective actions may be taken, it is clear that any countermeasures need to be undertaken publicity campaigns, and through better screening, training and testing of driv- as a part of a comprehensive safety ers. programme to be effective. Screening, training and testing of drivers should ensure that those licensed to operate motorised vehicles fulfill certain minimum requirements with respect to physical and mental capabilities and practical skills, in particular for operators of public transport. In this context, it is important that the regulatory framework governing the transport industry take account of the potentially negative impact of competition on traffic safety by instituting appropriate countermeasures. Furthermore, there is a need for adequate regulations The first requirement for a safe traffic system is a framework of appropriate traffic and testing of vehicles to ensure that they are properly designed, equipped, laws and regulations and guidelines for proper and maintained. behavior, and adequate education and publicity campaigns targeted at all road users of all ages and modes of participation. It has to Roads should also be designed and maintained in line with their function and be stressed that a driving license is not a birth- the economic, safety and environmental criteria that have been adopted. Key right but a qualification. aspects to be considered are the type of service to be facilitated (local access, collector/distributor, arterial) and type of road users to be accommo- dated. Table 6.4 shows countermeasures adopted in Zimbabwe, relative to selected neighboring and developed countries. The data in the table indicate that Zimbabwe could benefit from lower speed limits in residential areas, as well as introducing mandatory seatbelt installation, especially now that the number of private cars is increasing rapidly. Some general preventive measures are applicable to different road users, as discussed below:

DRIVERS have considerable responsibility for making sure that the vehicle they drive is fit to be taken on the road. This applies as much to other people’s vehicles that they drive, including hire cars, courtesy cars and those belong- It is important to take account of past expe- ing to employers and friends, as it does to their own vehicle. They should rience of users’ perceptual and behavioral check that the tax is up to date, that head and tail lights are working, that the performance, to facilitate easy acquisition of information and decision making, and elimi- tyres are properly inflated and have enough tread on them, and that the num- nate elements of surprise. Establishing suitable emergency medical care services is a ber plates match, front and back. Drivers are discouraged from speeding, as very important safety measure.

124 animals and humans can cross Kenya Mozambique Tanzania Zimbabwe Norway Sweden the road at any time. Avoid driv- Speed Limit ing at night if possible and stay Urban 50 50 50 60 30-50 30-50 alert at all times, as roads are Rural 100 No 100 100 90 110 often poorly maintained with BAC limit No Drunk 0.08 0.08-0.15 0.05 0.02 frequent potholes, especially Mandatory seatbelts No No Frontseats Frontseats Yes Yes during the rainfall season. The driver should always wear Table 6.4 Countermeasures in a seatbelt and, if they have children with them, use approved child restraints, Zimbabwe Compared to Selected which provide excellent protection for children should there be an accident. Countries, 1990s Children should not be carried in the arms of another passenger because, in the event of a crash, the child will be thrown around the vehicle interior or thrown out of the vehicle. A few minutes of undisturbed sleep will work against fatigue.

CYCLISTS are a very vulnerable category of road user, notwithstanding the provision of cycle tracks and cycle lanes in some places, and advanced stop lines at junctions. The visibility of cyclists by drivers remains a great problem. They should wear reflective or light coloured clothing at night. A common type of accident involving cyclists occurs when a motorist turns across the path of the cyclist or pulls into their path or when the cyclist hit from the rear. As a person falls from their cycle, the head is the part of the body likely A driver going for a drink or party should plan ahead and arrange alternative transport to come into contact with the ground or a hard surface first. rather than driving drunk. Possible plans include sharing a taxi with friends, catching public transport or staying overnight at a friend’s MOTORCYCLISTS are particularly vulnerable to not being seen because they place. Riding with a driver who hasn’t been drinking or arranging for a friend or relative are a relatively small object but moving at speed. Sometimes they may not be to provide a lift are also good alternatives for seen because of the weather conditions or time of day; sometimes it may be someone who has been drinking alcohol. because riders wear dark clothing; and sometimes it may be because a driver’s visibility is obscured, say by a windscreen pillar. Although motorcyclists make up only a very small percentage of all motor traffic they account for considerable number of deaths and serious injuries. By law both riders and pillion passengers must wear a protective helmet.

PEDESTRIANS due to their large numbers, are by far the most significant road users. They are the most vulnerable, in the case of accidents involving other faster, larger and more solid road users. These can inflict disastrous consequences on pedestrians, either maiming or killing them. Pedestrians can, however, minimise accidents by observing the following: • Report (habitual) speeding drivers to the police, • Use pedestrian zebra crossing points, • Use the right side of the road, so as to face on-coming traffic, Most accidents occur in urban areas and at • Avoid crossing the road at curves and blind rises, speeds below 60km/h. Riders making themselves visible by what they wear and by the • Cross traffic light controlled intersections only when the light is green positions they take up on the road is critical for pedestrians, to safer motorcycling. • Look out for traffic turning right or left when crossing both controlled and uncontrolled intersections, • Discourage drivers from drinking or taking dangerous drugs when driving, • Do not board vehicles being driven by someone who is suspected to be drunk, • Avoid cutting and repairing fences along highways, and

125 • Do not gather close to an accident site (the vehicles might be carrying hazardous substances could explode). There are specific laws and penalties in Zimbabwe for driving under the influence of either alcohol or drugs. The Zimbabwe Police have the power to: • Stop drivers at random to test for the presence of alcohol in their system; • Arrest drivers who test over the legal limit; • Require a driver to undergo a sobriety test in certain circumstances; and • Arrest drivers they believe are affected by drugs for the purpose of blood testing.

Rail accidents Zimbabwe has experienced a significant number of train disasters over the years. Recent accidents of note occurred involving the Bulawayo-Victoria Falls train in October 2000 and the Dete train disaster of February 2003. In both of these accidents, several hundreds of people were either maimed or killed. Other accidents involving the daily commuter trains in both Harare and Bulawayo also occur regularly. Although the annual deaths in train collisions and other rail accidents are much smaller than the number of deaths on the roads, these rail accidents have traumatised the whole nation when they occurred. Although the volumes of rail traffic are also much lower than road traffic, in terms of deaths per passenger kilometre travelled, railway transport is still several times safer than transport by car or bus. The risk of a train collision is greatly amplified as soon as more than one train shares a track. The rails are made of iron, as are the train’s wheels. This significantly reduces friction, meaning that when travelling at speed, trains take a long time to stop. By the time a driver has seen a hazard ahead it is often too late to apply the brakes in time. For this reason, the railways have developed signaling systems to warn the driver, and back up systems to stop the train if the warnings or signals are ignored. These provide opportunities for preventing accidents but, if they are absent or ignored, collisions may still occur.

Train to train collisions are not the only type of train crashes. Trains can collide with other objects on the line (animals, people, cars, parts of structures) or can derail because of track, train or operator failure. All have been significant factors in major train crashes in Zimbabwe in the past decade. Wreckage of NRZ coaches Possible measures to reduce rail accidents include: following the Dete train disaster, which resulted in the loss of at • Discouraging vandalism of rail equipment, including signals and railway least 38 people lines. If these are vandalised, they should be replaced as soon as pos- (Source:CPD) sible. • Embracing a spectrum of measures to prevent trains coming into conflict. This includes managing unreliability, as lack of punctuality is a major cause of trains coming into conflict. Making trains more punctual would significantly reduce conflicts as well as improving service quality. • Improving signals and other means of helping the driver manage the train more safely. This may involve sourcing improved and state of the art warnings systems that will enable drivers to do better in avoiding detected hazards ahead.

126 Figure 6.5 Events that Lead to Train Accidents Adapted from ERTMS (2003)

• Providing enhanced back up systems in case the driver lapses or makes an error. • Improving people’s chances of surviving a collision through measures to reduce casualties if mistakes are made and collisions occur. Newer trains with better brakes and crashworthiness represent the railways’ main opportunity in this area for reducing risk. Water transport accidents Boat accidents include submersion and drowning due to boats overturning or There are also other factors that could exac- becoming submerged, and people falling or jumping from damaged water- erbate train collision risk. Increasing traffic and congestion leads to more chances of trains craft. Although these types of accidents occur in Zimbabwe, they have not competing for line space. Unreliability is a major cause of potential conflicts; as soon as reached alarming levels due to the limited number of people who use boats. one train makes an unscheduled stop, many Of particular note is the Chivero boat disaster in 1995 when 22 students from others behind will have to do likewise. There- fore, measures to improve punctuality, reduce Moleli Secondary School perished in a boat accident that was attributable to congestion, and improve network management when the timetable is disrupted, all have overloading of the boat. an important part to play in reducing collision risk. Since most boat accidents can be at least partially attributed to the actions of the Captain, prevention measures are mostly the Captain’s responsibility, although it is acknowledged that passengers at times contribute to accidents. The Captain should: • Never overload the boat; • Have a good lighting system at night and make sure lights are working before leaving port; • Avoid sailing when there are high waves (there may be a lake Captain who can be contacted to check weather it is safe to commence a journey); • Avoid areas infested with water animals e.g. hippos; • Avoid sailing near the banks, and follow designated routes as obstructions like tree stumps may not be visible; • Wear a life jackets and provide life jackets for all passengers; and • Have basic swimming and life saving skills. Air transport accidents Zimbabwe has not had any significant air transport disasters. Incidents have been limited to a few forced landings, and delayed takeoffs due to technical faults. Air transport faces the greatest hazard from wind. A violent down draft from a thunderstorm (microburst) on takeoff or landing is one example, but

127 any exceptionally large local wind gradient (wind shear) can affect lift adversely at low altitudes. In many air disasters, wind is considered the primary contributing factor. Small aircraft are much more vulnerable to storms and are often warned to completely avoid them. An airport wind-warning system generally consists of a set of anemometers, the output of which is analysed by computer. A warning is issued when levels differ by some predetermined threshold. Prevention of air traffic accidents would be assisted through improved weather forecasting, which is generally viewed as the principal means for reducing hazards, and regular maintenance and repair of aircraft.

DRIVER FATIGUE Fatigue can severely impair judgment and it can affect anyone. It is particularly dangerous because one of the symptoms is decreased ability to judge one’s own level of tiredness. Other symptoms vary between individuals but may include boredom manifested in yawning often, feeling irritable, restlessness, drowsiness, tired or sore eyes and slow reactions. Fa- tigue can include poor concentration with some micro sleeps, leading in the Prevention of air traffic accidents would be case of road traffic to missing road signs, making fewer and larger steering assisted through improved weather forecasting, which is generally viewed as the principal corrections and having difficulty in staying in the correct lane. It is important means for reducing hazards, and regular to note that driver fatigue is not simply a function of time spent in control of maintenance and repair of aircraft. the vehicle but relates to many factors, including hours since last sleep (hours of wakefulness) and time of day or night. Fatal crashes in which fatigue is identified as a factor are more likely to occur late at night and in the early hours of the morning. Most of all, fatal fatigue accidents occur during public holidays when people tend to stay out late and during school holidays when drivers are overworked to cater for the increased number of passengers.

USE OF MOBILE PHONES It is not safe to be in control of a vehicle while using a hand held mobile phone, either when talking, sending or receiving text messages, playing games or taking photos. It is also not safe to perform these activities when the vehicle is stopped but not parked, for example, while waiting at traffic lights. A hands-free device can reduce the physical effort to make Most fatal fatigue accidents occur during pub- and receive calls but it doesn’t necessarily make it safe to use a phone while lic holidays when people tend to stay out late and during school holidays when drivers are driving because it is still easy to lose proper control of the vehicle. overworked to cater for the increased number of passengers. SPEEDING Speeding increases both the risk of an accident and the severity of the accident. The risk of a crash in an urban 60km/h speed zone causing death or injury increases rapidly even with relatively small increases of speed. The key issue in speeding related crashes is the fact that most motorists underestimate the distance needed to stop. A car travelling at 60 km/h in dry conditions takes about 38 metres to stop. A car travelling at 72 km/h needs an extra 12 metres.

Zimbabwean acts and laws for teachers to familiarise themselves For those intending to use a phone in their with vehicle, it is possible to minimise the risk by; There are various Acts and regulations, including Statutory Instruments, that • Making sure the hands-free phone is set up and working before taking off, govern the use and movement of vehicles, and the control of roads and road • Keeping conversations short and not engaging in complex or emotional conver- traffic. Some of these are: sations, • The Road Traffic Act, Chapter 13:11; • Telling the person on the other end that one is driving and may have to end the • The Road Traffic (Licensing of Drivers) Regulations RGN 240/77; call; • • Never sending text messages (SMS) The Road and Road Traffic (Construction Equipment and Use) Regula- while driving, and tions RGN 412/72; • Ending the call if it is distracting from driving. 128 • The Road Traffic (Rules of the Road) Regulations RGN 308/74; and • The Road Motor Transportation Act 1/97.

Traffic Related Hazards Rain, fog, dust, smoke, sunlight and darkness are transportation hazards that compromise the vision of system users. Smoke from wildfires routinely disrupts roadways in the dry season, especially when the wind blows the smoke across the road. Darkness also has a significant effect on road safety, especially when combined with fog, smoke or dust. Fog has been known to cause spectacular road accidents involving several vehicles on a roadway. Rain is a common hazard that compromises visibility and the quality of a road, rail or

BOX 6.1 ZIMBABWE BUS CRASH KILLS 11

airport surface, particularly during the wet months of the year. The braking distance of vehicles is drastically increased in wet weather due to the slipperiness of roads and oil spills that accumulate on the road surface during the dry season increase slipperiness. In a road network context, skidding is the most common explanation for accidents that occur from these hazards. The photograph below shows a truck that skidded off and dangerously blocked the road. It is fortunate that there were no other road users nearby, otherwise a more serious accident could have occurred. Heavy rain may also cause occa- A truck that skidded off the road sional malfunctioning of traffic lights due to power cuts caused by lightning after heavy rains. Such occurrences strikes on power stations. Flooded rivers as a result of rain may also sweep are common during the first rains away buses and cars, and railway lines might be weakened due to erosion of of the season as the roads are underlying structures by rain. particularly slippery due to accumulated oil spillage on busy Landslides and rock falls roads during the dry season. (Source: CPD) Weather induced geomorphic hazards that commonly affect transportation corridors include landslides and rockfalls. These are mostly found along long stretches of winding road or railway that travel through areas with rock faces and steep slopes in mountainous terrain. Some examples of such portions of roads are found along the Shurugwi-Shabani road (Boterekwa), the Harare- Mutare Road (Christmas Pass) and the Harare-Chirundu road. These hazards can damage or reduce the serviceability of infrastructure, crush or bury vehicles, and result in death. In some cases they occur with little or no warning, but they are typically preceded by intense rain. In the year 2000, rocks and soil on hilltops shifted positions during the torrential rains of tropical cyclone 129 Eline and moved onto the road in the Boterekwa area, rendering it impassable for several hours. Wind Landslides can also be earthquake induced. Wind is a significant hazard to road, water, and air transport. Gusts, eddies, lulls, and changes in wind direction are often greatest near the ground in extreme wind episodes (Perry and Symons, 1994). In these episodes, the majority of fatalities are generally transport related. Wind hazard can be divided into three categories – direct interference with a vehicle, obstructions, and indirect effects. Direct interference includes its effects on vehicle steering, which may push one vehicle into another or run a vehicle off the road. Extreme winds can overturn high sided trucks when the wind vector is Road hazards that are particularly orthogonal to the direction of travel because the force of the wind is unpredictable in behavior: proportional to the vehicle area presented (Baker, 1988). Wind can impede transport by blowing dust or smoke across a road, thus reducing visibility. It can also blow trees and other debris onto a road or railway and create temporary obstacles. Overall, wind can impede transport operation or damage vehicles and infrastructure, all of which can result in economic impacts, as well as injuries and fatalities. School children, wildlife and domestic animals School children, wildlife and domestic animals are familiar hazards to most drivers because of many warning signs along roadways. The playfulness and lack of experience of school children makes them unpredictable and hence a particular hazard in urban areas. The animal hazard especially, has been significantly amplified by the cutting of fences along highways that prohibited a) Wild animals animals from straying into the road. Common examples of animal hazards include donkeys in both the Matabeleland provinces. These have become a menace to motorists, especially those who use the Masvingo-Beitbridge highway. Animal accidents typically result in vehicle damage, but they can also result in injury or death. A combination of most of the factors mentioned above has resulted in several areas being demarkated as black sports due to the high frequency of occurrences of road accidents. Of particular note is a stretch along Simon Mazorodze road on which about half of the road traffic accidents in the Harare municipal area occurs. The other notorious site is the stretch between the 183 and 210 km pegs along the Harare-Gweru road. Preventive measures in response to the traffic related hazards discussed in- b) School children clude: • Being wary of slippery roads; • During a storm, stopping and parking, and proceeding with caution only when the storm is over; • Driving with extreme caution in mountainous regions and looking out for rockfalls and landslides; • Watching for fallen trees or power lines on the road; • Keeping windscreen wipers in perfect condition to facilitate road vision; • Not crossing flooded rivers, as water can easily sweep away a car or even a loaded bus; c) Domestic animals

130 • About 50 percent of the accidents Listening to weather forecast to gain an idea of where heavy rains are in Harare municipality area occur expected; • along this stretch shown left Paying head to the crosswalk system that forces animals to cross at specific areas which are clearly marked for motorists; and (below) and right (bottom), of • Not being swept away in the excitement of the Christmas and New Year Simon Mazorodze Road. holidays, which happen to be during the peak of the rainfall season. Hazardous Substances From industrial chemicals and toxic waste, through fuels, to household detergents and air fresheners, hazardous substances are part of our everyday lives. Urban, suburban, and rural communities located near the country’s major transportation corridors, especially those to the border posts, are subject to higher probability of a significant hazardous substances release. This is because hazardous material is continuously being transported from one point to the other and most commonly across borders. Hazards also exist during the production, storage, use and disposal of these substances, as well as their transportation over bodies of water, wetlands and environmentally sensitive areas, and through densely populated centres. Hazardous substance incidents can range from a chemical spill on a highway to the contamination of groundwater by naturally occurring methane gas. Natu- ral disasters, like floods and earthquakes, might also cause spills. The combination of possible sources of exposure to our sizable population and workforce presents complex problems. It is difficult to find a home, school, hospital or place of business in this modern society that is not vulnerable to the possibility of a hazardous substance release. In fact, there is greater potential for disaster arising from the use or movement of hazardous substances, than from most other technological hazards. For example a whole community is more likely to be affected by a toxic gas leak than by deaths and injuries caused in a major transport accident. Hazardous substances are those that, because of their chemical nature, pose a potential risk to life, health or property if they are released. They present a direct or indirect threat to human health or the environment through any of Contamination of the environment can be by, for example, the following means: • Cynide, a chemical used in gold processing which can leak and contaminate • Risks associated with highly explosive and inflammable substances, such water sources, • Lead, found in batteries and, to lesser as acetylene used in welding, petrol and liquid petroleum gas, methane extent in fuel, which can also contaminate the environment, gas from coal and garbage dump sites, mercury compounds, nitrates, and • Dioxins, which are chemicals found in peroxides, and chemicals that evolve/absorb oxygen during storage. the oil of transformers and from burn- • ing plastics at temperatures below 1 Formation of a toxic cloud that is not always visible, and may or may not 000o C and tend to remain in the envi- smell, e.g. ammonia, which has a strong smell and forms a cloud, and ronment and pollute the atmosphere, or corrosive chemicals – strong acids and alkalis, peroxides like nitric acid, • Radioactive substances, which can cause instant death or long term health ef- hydrochloric and sulphuric acids that also produce toxic fumes. fects. • Poisoning, through ingestion or inhala- Chemical plants are one source of hazardous substances, but there are many tion, which can be accidental or deliberate in suicide cases, of poisons or toxic others. National Oil Company of Zimbabwe (NICOZ) fuel pipelines run agents, including drugs, industrial through some rural areas and towns from Mutare to Harare and an incident chemicals, pesticides, medical chemicals used in health and veterinary ser- occurred in Epworth, Harare in which pit sand poachers discovered three burst vices, vector control chemicals, and gen- NOCZIM fuel pipes in Msasa. They started taking the fuel to their homes in eral chemicals. Poisoning can also occur through consumption of damaged large containers where they either sold it to commuter omnibus operators or or expired tinned foods. Deliberate poi- stored it in their homes (The Herald, 21 June 2006). Residents of the area soning, using rat poison, elephant flower or an overdose of norolone ma- were fortunate that this highly inflammable liquid did not catch fire, burning laria tablets is fairly common. the whole of Epworth suburb with it.

131 Hazardous substance spills Figure 6.6 Examples of Signs Spills usually happen in the course of routine daily business wherever hazard- Indicating Hazardous Substances ous substances are handled or transported. There are many facilities with hazardous substances located in the country’s cities and towns. Business types that commonly use hazardous substances include hospitals, schools, metal plating and finishing companies, public utilities, cold storage companies, the fuel industries, the communications industry, chemical distributors, research institutes, and high technology firms. The majority of releases that occur during regular business happen at fixed facilities. Many towns have very large fuel storage areas accommodating above ground storage and pipelines for fuel transfers from tankers. Local service stations store petrol and diesel fuel, while hospitals store a range of radioactive and flammable substances. Inci- dents would produce severe fire hazards and enormous environmental damage.

While the majority of incidents involve petroleum products, a significant number also involve other extremely hazardous substances. Extremely hazardous substances are those substances that may do irreversible damage or cause death to people, or harm the environment when released or used outside their intended use. Examples are ammonia, chlorine and sulfuric acid. The photographs below show an example of a hazardous material accident during transportation. Many of these events are not reported or go undetec- ted. Hazardous substances may also be released as a secondary result of natural disasters like earthquakes and floods. In either case, buildings or vehicles can release the hazardous substances they contain when they are structurally compromised. Pipelines can be exposed or ruptured from collapsed embankments, road washouts, bridge collapses, and fractures in roadways.

Classification of hazardous substances Under the Hazardous Substances Act (HSA), chemicals are classified into three groups: 1 Banned or severely restricted chemicals. There are twelve chemicals in this group. 2 Mainly toxic chemicals requiring registration before marketing and use. They are widely used in industry and agriculture. When using Group II chemicals, one must be over 16 years, not pregnant, wearing protective clothing, and appraised of the safety procedures associated with use of the particular chemical. Group II chemicals shall not be stored together with food or feeds. They have green, amber, red or purple labels and the order of toxicity increases from green, through amber and red, to purple in that order, i.e. green labels are used for the least toxic chemicals, while purple labels are used for the highly toxic chemicals (Figure 6.7). 3 General domestic, laboratory and industrial chemicals and detergents, veterinary remedies, alcohols (green triangle) pesticides and organic acids. These do not require special arrangements prior to marketing or use although they are all potentially toxic.

Impacts Hazardous substances spills might cause the short term or long term evacuation of an affected area. Depending on the nature of the spill and local weather

132 Warning signs for poisons, particularly pesti- conditions, residences, businesses, hospitals, schools, nursing homes, and cides, are as follows: roadways may be evacuated or closed to traffic until cleanup can be affected. Figure 6.7 HSA Colour Prevention and management of hazardous substance accidents Classification of Group II and III Chemicals At the national level, the Hazardous Substances and Articles Of- fice and the Zimbabwe Revenue Authority (ZIMRA) jointly monitor the importation of all national chemicals. Internationally, the UN Globally Harmonised System (GHS) provides standards for labelling of chemicals that are in transit under SI 262 of 1984 (Transportation of Hazardous Substances by Road Tankers). Un- der the GHS each chemical has a substance identity number, an emergency action code and a hazard warning. The driver of such a tanker has to carry an emergency procedure card, use direct routes and avoid heavily populated areas. The tanker must not be used as a transit storage facility. For individuals, during a hazardous substances incident: • If you witness (or smell) a hazardous substances release, call police or your local emergency number, or the fire department as soon as safely possible. • Stay away from the incident site to minimise the risk of contamination. • If you are caught outside during an incident, try to stay upstream, uphill, and upwind. Remember that gases and mists are generally heavier than air and hazardous substances can quickly CPD officials neutralising the spill be transported by water and wind. In general, try to go at least a of a whole tanker of sulphuric acid kilometre from the danger area. along Chinhoyi road. • If you are in a motor vehicle, stop and find shelter in a permanent build- (Source: CPD, 2006) ing if possible. If you must remain in your car, keep the car windows and vents closed and shut off the air conditioner and heater. • If asked to evacuate your home, do so immediately. • If you are told to stay indoors (shelter-in-place) rather than evacuate, follow all instructions given by emergency authorities. In addition; • Get household members and pets inside as quickly as possible and close and lock all exterior doors and windows before closing vents, fireplace dampers, and as many interior doors as possible, • Turn off air conditioners and ventilation systems and, if possible in a large building, have the building superintendent set all ventilation systems to 100 percent recirculation so that no outside air is drawn into the building, • If authorities warn of the possibility of an outdoor explosion, close all drapes, curtains, and shades in the room, and stay away from windows to prevent injury from breaking glass, • Avoid contact with spilled liquids, airborne mists and powders, and condensed solid chemical deposits, • Keep your body fully covered to provide some protection with gloves, socks, shoes, pants and a long sleeved shirt, • Prevent your animals from coming into contact with any spilled substances, as most animals will groom themselves by licking and may The colors are user friendly and well appreciated by the common person. Group II chemi- ingest toxins this way, cals should be kept in their original containers and repackaging is strictly discouraged. • Do not eat food or drink water that may have been contaminated, and Disposal of containers should be carried out • Be prepared to turn off the main water intake valve in case authorities as per label instruction. Group II premises should be regularly inspected advise you to do so.

133 After a hazardous substances incident be aware that a person or item that has Get medical treatment for unusual symptoms as soon as possible or, if medical help is not been exposed to a hazardous chemical may be contaminated and could con- immediately available and you think you might be contaminated: taminate other people or items. If you or your animals have come in contact · Remove all of your clothing and shower with or have been exposed to hazardous chemicals, you should seek and fol- thoroughly (unless local authorities advise you to do otherwise); low decontamination instructions from local authorities. Depending on the · Change into fresh, loose clothing and get medical help as soon as possible; chemical, you may be advised to take a thorough shower, or you may be ad- · Place exposed clothing and shoes in vised to stay away from water and follow another procedure. tightly sealed containers, for example plastic bags without allowing it to come into contact with other substances and call local authorities to find out about Landmine Hazards proper disposal; · Advise everyone who comes into con- In many parts of the world where wars have been fought, landmines that were tact with you that you may have been laid by warring parties continue to claim lives many years afterwards. Be- exposed to a toxic substance; · Find out from local authorities how to cause landmines are inexpensive, they have been distributed in huge numbers clean up your land and property; and · Report any lingering vapours or other and randomly. Worse still, most of the individuals who lay them do not keep hazards to your local emergency services records. In Zimbabwe during the liberation struggle, the Rhodesian Army, short office. of soldiers, felt that a mined border would address both the personnel shortage as well as the intensifying military threat from freedom fighters. Hence they laid millions of anti-personnel mines along the borders of Mozambique and Zambia between 1976 and 1979.

This sub-section offers teachers an opportunity to learn about landmines – the facts, the issues, the dangers and the preventive measures against them. While the local landmine community acknowledges a reduction in the number of landmines and related casualties, it remains ever mindful that landmines BOX 6.2 30 000L SULPHURIC ACID SPILT IN TANKER ACCIDENT

134 Of all the remnants of the war of liberation, are still killing and injuring thousands of unsuspecting people, and that a great anti-personnel land mines are the most widespread and pernicious. Minefields constitute deal of effort lies ahead if this terrible humanitarian tragedy is to be over- a unique but significant threat to a whole society. Their wartime mandate, to kill and income. With continued efforts towards mine free status and sustained com- jure, to arrest the mobility of opponents and mitment and cooperation from the landmine community, the landmine risk is to sow seeds of uncertainty and chaos during a time of war have not yet been given up. within local capacity to reduce. Therefore, teachers in mine infested areas They were placed in locations that guarantee detonation by the civilian population and they are asked to redouble their determination to meet the challenge. Political continue to fulfill their destructive mission of will by the government to eradicate landmines has been shown by the signing crippling the society’s infrastructure, even two and half decades after independence. the Mine Ban Treaty on 3 December 1997 and its ratification on 18 June 1998.

The border minefields still contain several thousands of mines and continue to kill or maim not only livestock and game, but women, men and children going about their daily lives. Communities in the affected areas are faced with the choice of attempting to earn their livelihood in the face of this danger or resettle elsewhere and the latter has not proven a realistic solution. Thus the presence of unexploded land mines constitutes one of the most significant barriers to sustainable development in the country today. They affect agriculture in particular. On the Zambia-Zimbabwe border, for example, in the face of starvation and malnutrition, one million acres of land has been almost totally deserted because it was so heavily mined during the war. Land mines are commonly hidden in farmer’s fields, and on roads and paths.

Because the minefields are mostly in remote parts of the country, medical facilities and rehabilitation services are in poor condition meaning that landmine casualties have had little chance for survival while survivors have no hope for rehabilitation and reintegration into the society.

The nature of landmines Anti-personnel land mines are small, inexpensive munitions designed to detonate either by being stepped on directly or by the pulling of a trip-wire con-

BOX 6.3 ZIMBABWE MINE CLEARING SUCCESS STORY

135 Figure 6.8 Distribution of Landmines in Zimbabwe Zimbabwe Corps of Engineers (ZNA)

nected to them. Therefore, they are designed to kill or injure anyone who comes into contact with them. Mines are commonly manufactured from plastic and are difficult to detect with standard metal sensing mine detection equipment. In addition to being dangerous, mine clearing is a very long and expensive process. Therefore, areas may remain mined for many years.

Landmines can be distinguished from other explosive ordinance as outlined below:

BOMB Explosive weapon detonated by impact or a timing mechanism.

LANDMINE An explosive device often buried or submerged and designed to be detonated by contact or time fuse OR Ammunition placed under, or near the ground or other surface area and designed to be exploded by the presence, proximity or contact of a person or vehicle.

PROJECTILE Fired, thrown or otherwise propelled object such as a bullet OR A self propelled missile such as a rocket.

In addition to mines, areas that were active in the war are contaminated with unexploded ordnance (UXO) – grenades, mortar and artillery shells, bombs, rockets, and cluster bombs. These may have been hidden or failed to detonate, leaving a deadly legacy of unstable explosives waiting to be triggered in the same way as a landmine.

Landmine casualty trends The statistics in Figure 6.9, below show that the number of those either killed or injured is falling, as more and more people become aware of the dangers of the minefields. However, efforts should be stepped up to clear the entire mine infested areas so that the country is spared this hazard.

136 The total stretch of minefields in Zimbabwe Preventive measures in known minefields is approximately 700 kilometres and there are about 210 square kilometres of mined Do not ignore the warning shown in Figure 6.10. It shows the presence of land. Figure 6.8 shows the following stretches of land to be, or to have been, landmine in- mines in the vicinity. fested:

1 Victoria Falls to Mlibizi, 220 km (now to- Avoid travelling in areas of known landmine risk and, if you must do so, ask tally cleared), local people, especially farmers and animal herders, about areas you are 2 Musengezi to Rwenya River, 335 km (only 130 km cleared) unsure of. However, do not trust local people blindly. It is possible they know 3 Sheba Forest to Beacon Hill, 50 km; 4 Burma Valley, 3 km; less than they claim or they may simply have become used to the presence of 5 Rusitu to Muzite Mission, 75 km; and mines. 6 Sango Border Post to Limpopo River, 50 km (being cleared as of 2007). The precautionary measures to take while driving are: • Follow previous tyre tracks and never drive on an unknown road or where no one seems to have driven before; • If following another vehicle, leave plenty of space between them and you; • Avoid detours, e.g. do not leave the road or turn around if a vehicle or obstacle bars the way but reverse to a known safe area; and • Stay close to vehicles when stationary and do not wander off the track or road.

If you encounter a mine while walking: • STOP all movement immediately and warn those who are with you to do the same; • Keep as calm as possible and prevent others from panicking; • Examine the immediate area where you are standing for any visual signs of mines or trip wires; and R2M2, An anti-personnel mine • Visually identify a route to safe ground, retracing your steps precisely if which is very common in Africa the ground is soft enough to have retained your footprints.

POMZ-2M, An anti-personnel fragmentation stake mine

TMM 1, Anti-tank mine (left). Death lurks beneath the ground: Even the step of a small child will unconditionally trigger this anti-personnel mine (right). (Source: Mines Eyes-Improvement of Mine Detection)

Warning:

• Knowing what a landmine looks like does not necessarily mean you will be able to locate mines in the field. Landmines are often buried, disguised or simply difficult to see.

• Landmines are indiscriminate. Everyone is vulnerable

137 If you do discover a landmine or ordinance: • In landmine infested areas, do not touch or experiment with any suspicious objects; • Do not be tempted to collect souvenirs; • NEVER attempt to dismantle a mine or ordinance; • Never touch an ordinance or mine found lying around or try to move it; • Do not try to detonate it by any means; • Vacate any building or area suspected to have been planted with any explosive device; and • Report to the police or to army personnel if a suspicious object is found. Table 6.5 Landmines and Unexploded Ordinance Incidents, 1980-2004

Figure 6.9 Annual Deaths and Incident Total Number Injuries from Landmines, 1980- People killed by mines and UXOs 810 2004 Zimbabwe Corps of Engineers (ZNA) People maimed by mines and UXOs 1 560 Animals killed by mines tens of thousands UXOs attended to 3 692

Electricity Hazards The unsafe use of electricity can give rise to electrical accidents. To those who are unskilled and inexperienced in electrical work, electricity is a source of potential danger. Electrical hazards, unlike many mechanical hazards, are not usually obvious. A live conductor does not differ in appearance from a dead conductor, and the lack of earthing of metal enclosure or casing may pass unnoticed until it is too late, when it is touched and found to be danger- Figure 6.10 A Common Mine ously alive. An electric shock can cause death within a few seconds. Figure Warning Sign in Southern Africa 6.11 illustrates the frequency of electrical accidents in Zimbabwe.

Main causes of electrical accidents Well designed and installed electrical accessories and appliances are per- fectly safe and, if properly maintained, will remain so. However, a number of people are electrocuted each year, including fatally, in domestic and other premises, mainly due to carelessness, disregard for basic safety rules, or lack of proper maintenance. Many of the deaths could be avoided if due care were exercised in both the use and maintenance of electrical accessories, plant and appliances. It should be noted that it is extremely dangerous to: · Use an appliance if it is not certain that the outside metal casing or portions are properly earthed. If in any doubt, consult a qualified electrician

138 or contact the nearest ZESA Offices. The use of all-insulated and double insulated appliances is strongly recommended because of their inbuilt safety. · Pull out a plug by the flex (cord). Always switch off the appliance first then switch off the socket outlet and finally take hold of the plug itself and withdraw it from the outlet. · Touch a light switch, socket outlet, electrical appliance or the flex with wet hands. The skin’s resistance is lower when wet and any leaking current will take the least line of resistance to earth. This could be fatal.

BOX 6.3 FACTS A BOUT LANDMINES

· Have long flexes. They can become unsafe, especially if they are frayed or chaffed. · Roll flex up so tightly that it becomes twisted. The wires may become broken; if it is the earth that breaks then the appliance connected becomes highly dangerous if an earth fault should develop. Should the broken wires develop a resistive fault between them and the fuse or the main switch fail to switch off, then over heating will occur at the fault and a fire may result. · Lay flexes under carpets or through floors, walls, windows and doors. They may overheat and cause a fire or become damaged and lethal. · Use multi-way adaptors to supply several appliances from a single socket

Figure 6.11 Reported Fatal and Non Fatal Accidents Involving Electricity, 2000-2005

139 outlet. Overloading of the circuit is invariable and if, for some reason, It is also very dangerous to: · Plug an appliance into a lamp holder un- the fuse or main switch does not operate, then a fire could result. The less it is small and double insulated, such as a cell phone charger. Earth continuity answer is to have more socket outlets. is immediately lost and the appliance, · Remove switch covers and not replacing them immediately afterwards, should an earth fault develop, becomes potentially lethal. or to leave a broken cover on a switch. Fit a new cover as soon as pos- · Clean around switches or socket outlets sible. Always switch off at the distribution board before working on any with a wet cloth. Use a dry duster and do not assume that, because they were fault circuit. free yesterday, the same conditions exist today. · Leave an electric heater switched on close Accidents with high voltage equipment to furniture. Do not lose your belongings, home or possibly a human life for the Many accidents occur on the Zimbabwe Electricity Supply Authority’s plant sake of two or three minutes of discomfort while the room warms up. and equipment involving members of the public. It is highly recommended · Take portable electrical appliances into your bathroom. Favourites are small ra- that people avoid interfering with ZESA’s power lines and other equipment, as dios and electric fires on an extension this is a hazard which may result in severe injury or death. Parents and schools lead. People who do this are courting disaster. Because water is a conductor of are requested to educate children and pupils respectively, not to climb poles, electricity, you may be electrocuted if the appliance accidentally drops into your fences or any structure belonging to ZESA since such structures are usually bathing water. Also the appliance can be associated with high voltages and contact with or even being near to live parts destroyed if water splashes onto it. · Purchase equipment not made to a suit- could result in severe injury or death. able standard. Bare electrical conductors, whether in electric heaters, stoves or The following should be guarded against: within appliances, should never be · Climbing of poles carrying powerlines or trees that are close to touched for cleaning or maintenance unless it has been established that the powerlines. Many accidents occur in rural areas where powerlines are supply to the conductors has been being installed and the locals, not familiar with the electrical hazard, switched off. climb the structures. In towns, where fruit trees sometimes grow under powerlines, people can be electrocuted while harvesting the fruit. · Scaling of substation fences or entering substations. Some people damage padlocks and gain access into the substation to seek accommoda- tion. These premises are a hazard to enter. · Interfering with high voltage equipment. If a powerline has been damaged during a storm, members of the public should not interfere with the damaged line and structures and these should be regarded as live. · Vandalising electrical infrastructure. Theft of conductors is on the increase and, in some cases, the wooden poles are cut, exposing members of the public to danger. Acts of vandalism are frequent, including draining of transformer oil and removal of earthing copper conductors. Theft of cross members from powerline towers for the purpose of making scotch carts also takes place and this could result in the structures failing and falling. Black outs would then be experienced and the restoration of power could take some time. Where the earthing system has been removed, consumer equipment can also be damaged. · Carrying metallic irrigation pipes or other long objects vertically under power lines.

Industrial Hazards Industrial hazards must have started when humans began making and using hand tools. They occur wherever there is industrial activity. The hazards have intensified as humans progressed from the stone age, through the iron age and the industrial revolution, up to the current time of modern computerised industrial production. Obviously the iron age had its own problems, associated with ore mining, smelting, casting and the fabrication of tools and utensils. When we look at the Great Zimbabwe we see a magnificent monument but we do not know the cost in terms of human life and limb during the construction phase. In the 1950s, more than a hundred lives were lost during

140 Electric shock first aid rules the construction of Kariba dam. Then, 424 men were lost at Hwange- Contact with live conductors causes shocks and burns, and even death, through electro- Kamandama in June 1976 when methane gas exploded in the mineshaft. cution. Shocks of great severity usually affect the nerve centre controlling the breathing or- Accidents at work in Zimbabwe today claim a huge toll in human and other gans. The heart and lungs cease to function economic resources. and the person affected begins to suffocate. Unless prompt action is taken to restart breathing by artificial means (i.e. artificial res- Figure 6.13 illustrates the main industrial hazards that workers in Zimbabwe piration), there is only a small chance of survival. The following simple rules are designed are vulnerable to. to enable correct and prompt aid to be rendered to anyone who has had an electric Hazardous processes shock, while at the same time safeguarding people who render assistance. Firstly, switch Processes that lead to injury, bad health or death during work are quite varied. off the current, if possible, and remove the person from danger. If no switch is readily They include spray painting, abrasive blasting, welding, working with molten accessible, do not touch the victim with bare metal, lead work and electrical work. Machines and moving machine parts, hands but protect yourself by using a suitable length of dry cloth, rubber, wood or rope as well as transport and lifting equipment, also pose a significant hazard to to pull the victim from the live contact (see Figure 6.12). workers. Working stands and raised platforms ladders and other access ways create a risk of falling to death. Pressure vessels are also dangerous since they may explode unexpectedly. The outcomes of hazardous processes and environments range from simple wounds, cuts, bruises, sprains and fractures, to mental disorder and even death. Table 6.8 outlines various types of hazards as well as the effects related to each. Advice on measures to reduce vulnerability to workplace hazards

Figure 6.12 How to Help a Per- son In Contact with a Live Wire M. K. Poltev

Education and training is one of the best methods to reduce vulnerability. However, research and the setting of safety standards, use of good safety Treat all electrical systems as live whenever there is a power outage due to load shedding management systems and use of engineering and administrative methods also or there is a fault. All fallen power lines should have a very big impact in industrial accident reduction. also be treated as live at all times, even when they appear harmless. Regular maintenance of equipment and tools, along with constant use of protective clothing and equipment, directly prevents accidents. Abiding by the law and laid down safety procedures and constant safety audits (internal and external) also keep accidents in check. 141 Some of the recommended steps in prevention are given in Table 6.9, below. Issues that have an impact on the health and safety of workers and need to be considered in workplace design and operation are the size of the work space, lighting, noise levels, heat and cold, the atmosphere, safety of high places, electricity provision and safety, fire or explosion risks, and the presence of asbestos. When dealing with hazardous substances at work, ensure that: · Material safety data sheets have been obtained; · Safety data is readily accessible to anyone who needs it; · All substances are appropriately labelled; · Prohibited substances are not used; and · Employee health surveillance and records are kept. Table 6.6 Fatal Accidents Re- Rating Industrial Sector Fatalities Reported ported, by Industry, 2000-2003 1 Agriculture 77 2 Transport and storage 67 3 Mining and quarrying 66 4 Food, drink and tobacco processing 20 5 Commerce and distribution 20 6 Personal services 19 7 Electricity production 14 8 Metal fabrication 7 9 Forestry/building and construction 6

Table 6.7 2004 Reported Injuries, Rating Occupation Total Injuries by Occupation 1 Production workers 4 515 2 Agriculture and forestry 1 251 3 Service workers 1 242 4 Technical workers 1 158 5 Transport and mobile equipment operators 964 6 Mine and quarry workers 773 7 Sales workers 176 8 Clerical workers 116 9 Administration and managerial workers 108

Figure 6.13 Major Common In- dustrial Hazards in Zimbabwe

Industries that disregard safe means of production are a potential disaster to the economy, humankind and the environment. It makes more economic sense to use safe means of production both in the short and long term. Expenditure on safe, healthy workplaces is less than the total cost of accidents.

142 Table 6.8 Different Workplace Hazards Physical Hazards and their Effects Sources Effects Noise and vibration Hearing loss; Vibration disease Radiation, heat and cold Eye and skin injury; Genetic disorder Poor lighting, electricity Cramps, dehydration and frostbite Pressure, radiation Fatigue and accidents Dust, fibres Cancer, poisoning and death

Chemical Hazards Sources Effects Chemicals Irritation and inflammation Toxic materials and waste Allergies; Burns; Acute and chronic disorders Fires and explosions Burns, shocks and death Sensitising agents Genetic disorders

Workplace accidents have associated costs as well. These include production downtime, clean Biological Hazards up and investigation, worker’s compensation insurance and payments, prosecutions and Sources Effects fines, poor worker morale, industrial unrest, Bacteria, viruses, fungi, plant and animal products Occupational diseases and bad publicity. Healthcare, research Allergies Agriculture, food processing Death Physiological Hazards Sources Effects Heavy workloads Fatigue Monotonous, repetitive work Strain injuries Unsuitable tools and controls Back problems Wrong working methods Permanent disability

Psychosocial Hazards Sources Effects Table 6.9 Steps for Quality of work (interest, concentration, company) Discomfort; Irritation the Prevention of Human relations Psychosomatic diseases Workplace Accidents Payment systems Mental diseases

Risk Management • Identification of all hazards • Assessment of hazard risk level • Determination of reasonable methods to eliminate or control risks • OHS training and information • Emergency provision – first aid, protective gear

Workplace Consultation • Employers required to consult on issues of workplace health, safety and welfare • Sharing of relevant information • Opportunity for employee views • Acknowledgement of employee views

Workplace Consultation required during • Risk assessment processes • Risk management decision processes • Changes to premises, work methods/systems • Changes to work plant, equipment, materials • Decisions on consultative arrangements

143 BOX 6.5 MAN BEHEADED AT WORK From Chakanetsa Chidyamatiyo in BINDURA (Herald, 25 July 2006)

The following must be reported by anyone who notices them: · Death, or injury, illness or violence causing prolonged absence from work; · Unsafe plant, equipment, building or structures; · Uncontrolled risk of explosion, fire, gas, steam or dangerous materials; · The presence of carcinogens; and · Blood lead levels, blood borne disease or bodily fluid exposure. Urban Structure Fire Hazards The most unwanted human-induced hazard (often a disaster) is fire in large, occupied buildings like schools, hotels or hospitals. Causes can be accidental or deliberate but, unless structures have been built to the requirements of the Model Building By-Laws 1977 and correct emergency procedures are used, heavy loss of life and property can result. Disastrous fires have affected several institutions and other properties countywide. Incidents have included a deliberately lit fire that destroyed property worth more than 1 billion Zimbabwe dollars at Bindura University on 10 May 2006 and the accidental electrical fault that caused a fire that gutted the Gokomere Mission school dormitories eleven days later. The photograph below shows the fire incident that occurred at Elephant Hills Hotel during a WHO sponsored Southern Africa Malaria Conference (SAMC) on Malaria on 24 July 2001. The fire was started by a spark from a welding machine in the laundry, where Safety pays, it doesn’t cost!! maintenance work was being carried out. The river facing wing, with 135 rooms, and the central block housing the conference room were extensively damaged Some of the most common fire hazards are: In particular, fuel shortages lead people to store drums of petrol at their homes. This causes a lot of fire accidents as some fires have unintentionally ignited these drums of fuel. BACKYARD SHACKS AND BACKYARD INDUSTRIES Shacks are often constructed of inflammable material like wood and cardboard boxes. Fire can move at a very high speed through such structures, which are usually attached to each other and cover large areas, at times up to 50 square kilometres of space. Since these structures are not planned, they are difficult to penetrate once a fire starts. Some structures are built on top of fire hydrants which creates problems of accessing water for extinguishing the fire.

144 Backyard shacks and industries ELECTRICAL HEATERS AND WOOD HEATERS (MBAURA) When left unattended in built of flammable materials the house to provide additional heat, especially in winter, while the occupants (wood, plastics etc.) such as these sleep, these can cause fires if flammable material falls on top of the heater. are a fire hazard. Wood and plastic PLAYING WITH FIRE This is a particular problem with children who have a habit are highly flammable and fire of experimenting with fire by playing with matches. These seemingly small spreads quickly once it starts. fires may eventually engulf a whole building or structure. (Source: CPD) ELECTRICAL FAULTS These sometimes cause sparks in houses or vehicles, which can ignite and cause serious fires. ARSON Sometimes fires are deliberately started, for instance to settle a score with someone.

Advice on prevention and control of fire hazards Injuries and casualties to the occupants of a structure are a primary concern in all structural fires. These events can also cause the release of hazardous materials and disconnect utility lines. By knowing the proper way to handle fire, major loss of life and the actual number of fires in hazard areas can be greatly reduced. Public education programmes on fire safety, fire alarms and fire response are important. People should also be encouraged to purchase fire insurance and understand building codes.

The procedures for extinguishing small fires are: · Remove the heat, e.g. cool it with water if it is not an electrical fire; · Remove the air, e.g. smother the fire or cover it completely with a wet blanket; or · Remove the fuel, e.g. by shutting off the natural gas. The procedures for extinguishing natural gas and electrical fires are: GAS FIRES First, shut off the gas if it is safe to do so, then put the fire out by using an extinguisher, dry earth or water; ELECTRICAL FIRES First, shut off the electricity, then put out the fire by using an extinguisher, dry earth or water. OIL FIRES Use baking soda, a lid, a bread board or a fire extinguisher to smother

Elephant Hills Hotel on fire on the 24th of July 2001 (Source: SAMC Information for Action Leaf- let)

The most common fires in Zimbabwe are motor vehicle fires, industrial fires and domestic fires, of which the later tops the list in terms of frequency (Figure 6.14). Fire victims are disproportionately young children or older adults, due to their inability to react in a timely manner and seek safety independently. A significant number of people who are accidentally involved in fire incidents are young children who have not yet appreciated the magnitude of the hazard involved in playing with fire.

145 Figure 6.14 Fire Incidents by Type, 1999-2003

How fire kills In death by fire, more people die of asphyxiation than from burns. Fire consumes the oxygen in the air, while increasing the concentration of deadly carbon monoxide and other toxic gases in the surroundings. When these gases are inhaled, loss of consciousness or death may result within minutes. The heat from a major fire exceeds anything to which a person is normally exposed. A fully developed room fire has temperatures of over 593o C. the flames.

BOX 6.6 CORE FIRE P REVENTION A CTIONS • Identify two escape routes from every room of your home/school and practice using them. • In case of fire getting out of control, call for help. Before begining to fight a fire with a fire ex- • Install smoke detectors on every level of your home/school, outside sleeping tinguisher, be sure that: areas, and inside bedrooms. · You are calm and not panicking; • Install a fire sprinkler system in your home/school. · Everyone has left or is leaving the building; • Keep at least one working fire extinguisher in every room/class. · The fire department has been called; · The fire is small and not spreading; CAUTION: If the electricity cannot be shut off, DO NOT use water on an · Your back is to an exit that you can use quickly if necessary; and electrical fire and NEVER use water on a grease/oil fire. · There is not much smoke in the room. The following are the ways to use a fire extinguisher effectively, or to be ‘fire extinguisher literate’: · Consider having one or more working fire extinguishers in your home, if possible one in each room. An extinguisher rated “A-B-C” is recommended for home use. · Make sure you know how to use the fire extinguisher. If you do not, get training from the fire department or a fire extinguisher manufacturer. Otherwise, you may not be able to use it effectively, or it could place you in greater danger, as there is no time to read directions during an emergency. It is recommended that only adults handle and use extinguishers. · Install extinguishers high on the wall, near an exit, and away from heat sources. Extinguishers should be easily accessible to adults trained to use them but kept away from children’s curious hands. Heat may make the contents less effective or cause the extinguisher to lose its charge more quickly. · The best method is to point the extinguisher at the base of the fire, rather than at the top of the flames. · Squeeze or press the handle, and slowly sweep the fire from side to side until it goes out.

A fire tragedy occurred at Manhinga village in Manicaland Province, situated 42km from Rusape in the southwestern part of Nyanga. The village is an orphanage that was established by the Apostolic Faith Mission in Zimbabwe. The remains of Glenview Area 8 back yard industries (top) and The orphanage looks after 92 children of between three and eighteen years of age Masimbaevanhu car park (above). who were registered through the Department of Social Welfare. A mishap occurred on 26 August 2001 when the village was gutted by fire following a veld fire. A total of nine huts was destroyed, along with property worth about half a million dollars. BOX 6.7 FIRE TRAGEDY, 26 AUGUST 2001

146 BOX 6.8 FIRE OUTBREAK IN THE H IGH DENSITY SUBURB BACK Y ARD INDUSTRY

It is vitally important that, if you try to use a fire extinguisher on a fire and the fire does not immediately die down, you drop the extinguisher and get out; Evacuate your family immediately. Even if the fire appears to be small and manageable, make sure that you keep the escape route open. Most portable extinguishers empty in eight to ten seconds. After some residential fires, people have been found dead with fire extinguishers near them or in their arms. Do not try to salvage anything, no matter how valuable. A few seconds wasted can lose you your life. Once outside, remain there. Intense heat and toxic fumes can kill you in seconds.

The following are further precautionary measures: FIRE PROTECTION Prevent a fire from starting. Identifying and eliminating all fire hazards in and around your residence/school is the first line of defence. Drowning Hazards SMOKE DETECTORS In the event of a fire, a smoke detector can save your life and the lives of Drowning incidents have been on the increase and statistics indicate that chil- your loved ones by providing an early warning signal. Most fire victims die from inhala- dren constitute about 30 percent of the drowning reports attended by the Sub- tion of smoke and toxic gases, not as a result of burns. Most deaths and injuries caused Aqua Unit. The true percentage could be slightly higher because some chil- by fire occur in fires that happen at night while dren who drown in bath tubs or shallow water bodies are retrieved by locals the victims are asleep. RESIDENTIAL SPRINKLERS Sprinklers are installed without requesting the services of the Sub-Aqua Unit. by experts from water sources approved by installers. Individual sprinkler heads are only activated when fire occurs. Fire sprinklers have The onset of the land resettlement programme in 2000 led to in an increase in been used to protect commercial buildings the number of drowning cases attended to by the Sub-Aqua unit, although the and there are also sprinkler systems developed for residences that offer a high level of number of such cases dropped remarkably in 2004. However, the statistics fire safety for both lives and property. Sprin- klers can be connected directly to standard show that drowning reports went up again in 2005. This is probably due to the home/school plumbing systems. heavy rains received in that year, coupled with the harsh economic environ- FIRE ALARMS A fire alarm system may also provide monitoring services by dialing your tele- ment, which compels inexperienced people to fish for both their own use and phone to report a fire or intrusion to a security office, where it will be reported to your business purposes. The successful agrarian reform has exposed many chil- local police or fire department. dren who now have access to water bodies with very little, if any, supervision. The Sub-Aqua Unit confirms that a lack of water safety techniques among members of the public in both rural and urban areas, contributes significantly to the number of drowning cases. This section considers some of the reasons that most of Zimbabwe’s dams and rivers swallow lives instead of sustaining them. Water safety tips are also given to minimise lose of life.

Definitions and types of drowning Drowning is defined as “The process of experiencing respiratory impairment from submersion/ immersion in liquid.” (International Life Saving Federa- tion) Basically there are two types of drowning:

DRY DROWNING Before someone drowns, they will try by all means to keep their head above the surface of the water. During the process of struggle, the victim uses a lot of energy, coupled with rapid breathing because the body is in a state in which it requires more oxygen than usual. As the victim becomes tired, their head will occasionally go underwater. Involuntary gulps of water are taken by mouth and/or nose as the victim tries to breath while submerged.

147 This water is destined for the lungs but, before the water enters the passage to the lungs, there is a valve at the back of the mouth known as the ‘larynx’. When the larynx comes into contact with the water, there is a muscular spasm known as the ‘laryngeal reflex’ that completely seals off the passage to the lungs. This reflex action is so strong that no water enters the lung passage. The water from the mouth or nose is, therefore, diverted to the stomach. Mean- while, the body continues using the oxygen in the lungs until it is exhausted. The victim will then lose consciousness. The lungs remain dry, hence the name ‘dry drowning’. In most cases, the victim does not sink to the bottom due to the air in the lungs, which act as a buoyancy (floating) aid. The top of the head usually remains above the water’s surface. Since the larynx uses oxygen to maintain its grip, it will eventually release the grip and allow entry of water into the lungs. The body will then sink to the bottom.

WET DROWNING Unlike in dry drowning, the grip of the larynx is not strong enough to seal the passage to the lungs or the reflex action does not occur at all. When the water enters, it displaces all the air in the lungs. Once the water reaches the lungs, some of it is absorbed into the bloodstream, thereby dilut- After rescuing or resuscitating someone who ing the blood. This process is known as ‘heamo-dillution’. In approximately had drowned, it is imperative that they be taken to a hospital so that a physician can two minutes, water equal to half the volume of blood will have been absorbed. check on heamo-dillution. At the hospital, For example, if an adult person has approx eight pints or five litres of blood, blood samples of the victim are taken and thorough checks are made for the presence in two minutes time four pints or two and half litres of water will have been of water in the blood. If any water is detected, corrective measures are taken. In absorbed into the bloodstream. This massive heamo-dillution impedes the some cases, death has been recorded after transportation of oxygen and the heart will reject this thin blood and cease to as long as 24 hours where victims of drowning are resuscitated and appear to be well function (i.e. cardiac failure). only to collapse and die suddenly.

Causes of drowning There are many day-to-day activities conducted by individuals that expose them to the risk of drowning, as well as some involuntary situations that contribute to drowning cases. The Sub-Aqua Unit has identified the following situations and activities as the major contributors to the number of drownings:

FLOODS A flood is a sudden or gradual immersion of an area under varying levels of water. Floods are usually caused by heavy or excessive downpours in low lying areas, bursting of dam walls and backflows of small tributaries of larger rivers. A flood usually has an impact on human livelihoods. The most affected by floods are school children, the general public and motorists.

Fig 6.15 Annual Drowning Inci- dents Attended by the Sub-Aqua Unit, 1999-2005

148 Death in fresh water will occur after approxi- In response to these features; mately two minutes, caused by an acute shortage of oxygen to the brain cells and other • School children should be escorted during floods, vital organs of the body. Fresh water is the water found in rivers and dams that does not • Flooded rivers should never be crossed as it is safer to wait until the water contain any salt. level subsides, In seawater, the process is slightly different • Bridges should be used where they are available, in that, instead of water in the lungs being absorbed into the bloodstream, it is the blood • Members of the public should not pressurise drivers to cross flooded riv- that loses its fluid content to the water in the ers, lungs. The blood thereby becomes very think and difficult for the heart to process. Cardiac • Farming on islands should be avoided, failure occurs within approximately eight min- • Although it is not encouraged, if one has to swim across a flooded river, it utes. is best to swim diagonally following the current, with the head out of the water, • Avoid gold panning during the rainfall season, and • Under normal circumstances, only cross a river in which the water is below knee level.

FISHING Due to economic hardships and exposure to former commercial farm dams where many species of fish are in abundance, children are sent by their parents to capture fish in drag nets or by fishing with a rod. When the catch for the day is big, some of the fish is sold. However, people end up drowning while undertaking this activity, particularly during the rainfall season. Drowning while fishing can be avoided by not fishing alone and choosing a fishing site that is free of weak crumbling banks, sloping and slippery rocks, and that does not necessitate standing in the water to fish. Avoid swimming for a hook if it becomes entangled in weeds or tree stumps and discourage children from using drag or gill nets.

SWIMMING While swimming is a refreshing and enjoyable activity, especially during the hot season, it is one of the activities that claims a high number of children. In swimming pools, the death toll is minimal because lifesavers are usually readily available. Children from rural areas and farms are more vulnerable because they often lack adequate supervision when swimming. Children should swim under the supervision of a good swimmer or trained lifesaver and observe the following; • Never swim alone, • Do not stay for long periods of time in cold water, • Do not swim wearing heavy clothing, Despite the times given before someone dies, there are many factors that can prolong this • Do not show off, or succumb to peer pressure to go into situations be- time. If the drowning involves an infant, death is prolonged considerably because infants re- yond your swimming ability, quire very little oxygen to sustain life. The • Learn how to swim in shallow water under the guidance of a capable swim- time can also be extended if the drowning occurs in very cold water because the metabo- mer, lism rate is reduced when subjected to cold temperatures. • Do not overestimate your swimming capability, and • Do not dive into water of unknown depth, and beware of submerged objects.

CROCODILE ATTACKS Unlike other super predators that spend a lot of time and energy hunting for their pray, a crocodile usually lies in wait for its pray because no living creature can survive without drinking water. A crocodile may appear to be a simple and harmless reptile but is very swift and vicious when attacking. Like all other predators, the crocodile will usually attack an isolated victim. 149 If attacked by a crocodile avoid panicking and attempt to take one or more of Home pools should be fenced and it is important to ensure that the pool gate is closed the following actions; and latched at all times. • Use your thumbs to press the eyes of the reptile or to twist its small forelegs, If one accidentally falls into any water body, be it a dam or river, one should not panic but • If there is a stick within reach, poke it into the mouth of the crocodile, remove shoes and heavy clothing. People • If you have a knife strike the fragile area between the crocodile’s eyes, tend to close their eyes when hitting the water but keeping them open might reveal • Cling to a tree or anything solid that can be reached, and something to cling onto. Wave one hand to • Shout for help. attract attention and shout for help.

HIPPOPOTAMUS ATTACK Hippos are usually harmless but can be extremely dangerous when provoked, if they are protecting young ones or when encoun- tered at night. Because of its front teeth, which are approximately 30 cm long, very few people survive hippo attacks. Therefore, do not provoke hippos, for example, by throwing objects at them. When canoeing, avoid going near hippos, especially those with young ones, or crossing between an adult hippo and its young.

BOAT CAPSIZE The following are guidelines for staying safe while using a boat; • Take a lockmaster’s course before operating a boat, • Ensure that you carry safety material like life jackets, fire extinguisher, bailers, oars etc. (it is an offence not to, for the first two items), • Never overload the boat and make sure that people and equipment are evenly distributed throughout the boat to maintain its stability and balance, • Keep a watch on weather conditions that may cause large waves, and • Avoid hippos especially those with young ones.

ACCIDENTS NEAR WATER Accidents that occur near water claim valuable lives. Where accidents occur at bridges or where vehicles plunge into water bodies, they take a high toll because some people die from injuries while the majority die due to drowning. The photographs below shows an incident that occurred at Palmgroove farm on 22 January 2005, when a lorry carrying farm workers plunged from the dam wall into a dam, drowning 22 people, mainly children who could not swim to safety. Important measures to prevent such accidents near water include not driving Members of the Sub-Aqua Unit while under the influence of alcohol, not overloading buses or other vehicles searching for bodies of people who and always approaching bridges with caution. In addition, all wells or other drowned when their lorry skidded pits and shafts must be covered. into a dam in Shamva (above). Retrieved bodies of those drowned BATHING For reasons of modesty, people usually take a bath alone in se- (below). cluded areas. Anyone intending to bath in a dam or river is encouraged to (Source: CPD) choose shallow places because, if a bath is taken in a deep spot, there is a danger of slipping into the water and drowning. People are also encouraged to bath with someone else so that, in the event of a mishap, help will be readily available.

MURDER The Sub-Aqua Unit confirms that they attend many reports of murder. Criminals forcibly drown their victims, in an attempt to simulate an accidental drowning, or discard the body of someone they have murdered into a water body. When swimming, people are also discouraged from pushing non- swimmers into the water because they may end up being charged with murder.

150 It is not recommended practice to fish alone One painful incident occurred in Rusape in February 2003 when a mother of in crocodile infested dams or rivers. A person who does is an easy target for crocodiles. two threw her children into a dam, claiming that she had no food for the chil- When fishing in crocodile infested rivers or dams, fish from a distance from the edge of dren and, therefore, had decided to drown them. She has since been convicted the water body. Never enter water that is known of murder. People are encouraged to seek counselling, especially from to be crocodile infested and keep hands away from the water surface when boating. churches and voluntary organisations, rather than resort to such measures, when faced with problems.

SUICIDE There are some people who, when faced with problems, commit suicide by jumping into rivers and dams. Once again, counselling is the better solution.

Rescue methods Before undertaking the rescue of a drowning person, consider your safety. Note: An angry bull hippo is characterised by stubbornness and will allow short distances Many people loose their lives while attempting to rescue someone else. Re- with an approaching boat before it submerges. member that speed is vital. Life can be lost through indecision. In addition to the rescue methods illustrated in the Figure 6.16, the ‘swim and tow’ is an effective method but it must only be attempted by a trained or strong swimmer. Before undertaking this type of rescue, always remember that a drowning victim can be dangerous because once they hold on, they will not let go. Therefore: • Approach the victim from behind to limit the chances of them holding you; • Allow the victim to loose energy before getting closer; • Hold the victim from behind and reassure them immediately so that they relax; and then • Tow the victim to safety.

Some children are also drowned when they First aid accidentally fall into uncovered wells and mine shafts. Teachers and students are encouraged to pursue short First Aid courses because many people undeservedly loose their lives because of lack of resuscitation skills by rescuers. First Aid is a broad subject but this section covers just some simple and straightforward hints on how to resuscitate a victim of drowning.

Firstly, determine whether the patient is responsive. If they are unresponsive and not breathing, resuscitation must begin as soon as the rescuer reaches the victim, even while in the water. The first aider should use the ABCs of first aid: A Ensure an open Airway (by tilting the head backwards or the chin lift). Buckets and tubs should be emptied when Assess breathing by looking, listening and feeling for ten seconds. not in use to avoid curious children putting themselves at risk by playing with the water inside. B If there is no Breathing, administer two effective breaths. Assess signs of life by checking for movement or breathing. C If there are no signs of life, carry out Chest Compressions at the rate of 100 compressions per minute. In adults, use fifteen compressions followed by two effective breaths through the nose or mouth and, in children, five compressions followed by one effective breath through the nose and mouth.

151 When ensuring an open airway, check for foreign objects in the patient’s airway. Assess breathing and if it is present, place the patient in the recovery position and check for continued breathing while you wait for qualified personnel to arrive, or refer the patient to hospital as soon as possible. Figure 6.16 Common and Rec- Reach With a long stick, a scarf, ommended Rescue Methods clothes or anything else. Crouch or lie down to avoid being pulled in. Adapted from RoPSA http://www.rospa.com/ safetyeducation/index.htm

Wade Test the depth with a long stick Do not attempt to relieve water from the before wading in and then use the patient’s stomach. Doing so could drive stick to reach out. Hold on to materials (usually food) from the stomach into the patient’s airway and cause obstruc- someone else or the bank. tion.

Throw A rope is best – you can then pull in the person. Otherwise throw something General advice that will float – a ball, a plastic bottle, a In order to ensure that the general public is safe from drowning hazards, children lifebuoy...this will keep the person afloat should be encouraged to learn how to swim until help comes. when they are very young.

It is hoped that people will take heed of all the information given and to help spread it so that lives are preserved, rather than be- Row Use a boat if there is one ing lost to this essentially life giving liquid. nearby and if you can use it safely. Do not try to pull the person on board in case they panic and capsize the boat.

• In 2002, at Zindimo Island in Masvingo, people were marooned on an island along BOX 6.9 SOME DROWNING INCIDENTS the Mutirikwi River and were rescued by the Air Force of Zimbabwe in conjunction with the Sub-Aqua Unit.

• In February 2000, 36 people perished when the Chawasarira bus driver attempted to cross the Mudzi River in flood. The bus was swept by the current and innocent lives, including those of several children were lost. The Sub-Aqua Unit attended and retrieved bodies of victims at the scene and along the river.

• In Mana Pools, tourists were canoeing down the Zambezi river when three large crocodiles approached from behind. The tour guide warned his clients to keep their hands off the edges of the canoe since the crocodiles were waiting for an opportunity to strike. On realising that the occupants were not careless, one crocodile knocked the canoe from the bottom. As the canoe was dangling, a 17 year old girl who was in the canoe with her father held onto the edges of the canoe, presenting the anticipated opportunity for the giant reptiles. She was dragged from the canoe and had disappeared within a few minutes. Sub-Aqua Unit divers were summoned and, with the help of the tour guide, two crocodiles were shot, dragged out of the water and had their stomachs ripped open. Remains of the girl were recovered from the stomachs of the reptiles.

• Another case occurred in Gache-Gache fishing camp, where six people in a canoe were attacked by a vicious bull hippo. Their small fiberglass boat was shattered before the occupants were bitten by the hippo. The Sub-Aqua Unit attended and recovered the badly injured bodies of the fishermen. The hippo was shot prior to diving in the dam.

• In 1995, 22 children from Moleli High School drowned when the boat they were onboard sank in Lake Chivero. Had the captain observed the requirements when operating a boat with this many passengers, the lives of the children could have been saved. If every child had been wearing a life jacket, no one would have died. Sub- Aqua Unit divers retrieved the bodies.

152 CHAPTER 7 Environmental Degradation Introduction The benefits to human beings of living in a healthy environment cannot be underestimated though it is not difficult to pinpoint humankind as the chief single player in the disruption and destruction of the environment. A lot of human activities – the basic quest for shelter, clothing and food, as well as more advanced activities related to industrialisation and economic growth – damage the environment. These processes, inherent to human behaviour and activities (sometimes combined with natural hazards), that damage the natural resource base or adversely alter natural processes or ecosystems, constitute ‘environmental degradation’. Environmental degradation is described by the Zimbabwe Environmental Man- agement Act (EMA) CAP 20:27 as “the depletion or destruction of potentially renewable resources such as soil, grasslands, forests or wildlife, by using them at a faster rate they are naturally replenished”. It is important to note that, as defined in the EMA CAP 20:27 and used in this chapter ‘environment’ is a broad term which encompasses biotic and abiotic variables occurring in the atmosphere, the lithosphere, the hydrosphere and so on. The interactions work in combination to determine the potential effects on the environment. These potential effects are varied and may themselves contribute to an increase in vulnerability, and the frequency and intensity of natural hazards. Zimbabwe is faced with a number of challenges pertaining to environmental protection and sustainable utilisation of natural resources. Some of the main processes involved in the land degradation in the country are outlined in Figure 7.1. Generally, recurrent droughts, poverty, HIV and AIDS, and the unstable macroeconomic environment have resulted in more people resorting to activities that have severely negative effects on the environment. This chapter is devoted to heightening awareness of the environmental activities of A holistic approach to understanding the environment assists in identifying the wide range particular concern in Zimbabwe and looks at some of the major environmental of issues responsible for the destruction of the environment in Zimbabwe. The Depart- risks and hazards in the country. It also discusses institutional measures that ment of Natural Resources (DNR) (2006) lists have been put in place to promote disaster mitigation and impact abatement these, according to the order of threat, as: in the environment sector, recognising that the effects of natural disasters, · Deforestation (destruction of trees through cutting, fires, gold panning, mining activi- such as droughts and floods, are exacerbated by negative anthropogenic ties etc); intervention and pressures on natural ecosystems, such as wetlands, land · Pollution through effluent discharge, gold panning, mining activities, etc; resources and forests. · Biodiversity loss through fires, poaching, cutting down of trees and overgrazing; · Drought, climate change and ozone deple- Principles of Environmental Management (according to EMA CAP 20:27) tion; · Land degradation through soil erosion, gul- Authorities, and all other stakeholders, including individuals, should apply lies, gold panning, over grazing and lack of conservation measures in agriculture; the following principles where their actions affect the environment signifi- · Poverty; · HIV and AIDS; cantly: · Threat from noxious weeds such as, water hyacinth and Kariba weed in some of the IMPLEMENT SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT which must be socially, environmen- country’s water bodies and lantana camara which invades the fields. tally and economically sustainable;

153 Figure 7.1 Interaction of the Processes Responsible for Land Degradation in Zimbabwe Gandiwa and Mutanga (2005)

PROMOTE ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION and environmental awareness, and the sharing of knowledge and experience must be promoted in order to increase the capacity of communities to address environmental issues and engender values, attitudes, skills and behavior that are consistent with and support sustainable environmental management; and

THE POLLUTER PAYS for damage to the environment.

The Act specifies that every person has a right to: BOX 7.1 STUDENTS SHOULD KNOW THEIR

ENVIRONMENTAL RIGHTS • A clean environment that is not harmful to health; • Access to environmental information; • Protect the environment for the benefit of present and future generations; and • Participate in the making and implementation of reasonable legislative policy that prevents pollution, and secure environmentally sustainable economic and social development.

Extracted from EMA CAP 20:27 Soil Erosion and Gullies cline, especially under extensive farming practices. Hence soil erosion has become an issue of major concern in Zimbabwe. The country ranks among Soil erosion is not uniform throughout the the top twenty worst affected countries of the 62 surveyed by the World country and is accelerated in certain parts. Bank. Studies done on soil loss show that, yearly, the country losses an average Areas of high erosion are those with soils that are easily damaged by wind and water, while of 76 tonnes, or 640 wheelbarrows, of soil per hectare. The most seriously moderate rate areas are those with soils that are not so badly affected. The soils in these affected area is the middle veld of the Save Runde catchment area, where areas suffer less erosion and often have more about 96 million tonnes are lost in a single year (DNR, 2005). Population plant cover. The two most important factors contributing to the statistical variation in ero- pressure, overstocking and poor farming practices like inappropriate tillage, sion are soil type and population density.

154 are the major culprits. It is estimated that it takes twenty years of careful conservation measures for the soil to be restored to an acceptable level of fertility. Since the people farming in these areas cannot move, are poor and depend exclusively on farming, this is almost impossible. Soil erosion is not uniform throughout the country and is accelerated in certain parts. Areas of high erosion are those with soils that are easily damaged by wind and water, while moderate rate areas are those with soils that are not so badly affected. The soils in these areas suffer less erosion and often have more plant cover. The two most important factors contributing to the statistical variation in erosion are soil type and population density. Studies show that there is a direct positive correlation between increases in the extent of eroded terrain, soil type and increases in population density. This relationship is especially valid for the communal lands, which are mostly located in agro- ecological regions III, IV and V. These are areas that receive little rainfall, naturally have less vegetation and where soils are of poor quality. When the rains fall in such areas, the soil is easily washed away. But of paramount importance in soil erosion and its distribution in Zimbabwe is human activity and the way that it interfaces with natural vulnerability. The relative ranking (high, medium, low) of districts in Zimbabwe affected by soil erosion and gullies is shown in Figure 7.2.

Figure 7.2 Districts in Zimbabwe Affected by Soil Erosion and Gul- lies Approximated from DNR data

The soil erosion process Soil erosion involves the detachment of soil particles from larger aggregates and the removal of the particles by flowing water and wind, but is an extremely complex phenomenon dependent on several forces, which vary both spatially and temporally. The process of detaching and transporting soil particles is determined by how much energy is applied, while resistive forces, which are mainly related to soil properties, help overcome the applied energy forces. This is why soils that have a high organic matter content and stable aggregates are able to withstand the effects of raindrop impact more readily than soils with low organic matter content and unstable aggregates. A good vegetation

155 Figure 7.3 How Vegetation Pro- tects Soil from Heavy Rainfall Source D Macdonald and M Archer: Rural Land Degradation

Rates of soil formation in Zimbabwe are very slow (400 kgs/ha/year), whereas rates of soil erosion are very much greater; estimates for average soil losses on croplands and grazing areas on commercial farms are 5 tonnes/ha/ cover constitutes a protective force as it neutralises energy forces by inter- year and 3 tonnes/ha/year respectively. The equivalent averages for communal lands are cepting raindrops and dissipating their energy before they reach the ground. 50 and 75 tonnes/ha/year (DNR, 2006). Protective forces may also include a variety of human factors, such as soil conservation practices, that either increase or reduce erosion, depending on their presence or absence (see Figure 7.3). Vegetation normally protects soil from being washed away by rain and also from ‘splash erosion’ caused by the impact of raindrops. The raindrops move the soil particles and pack them together on the surface, sealing the pores and thereby decreasing infiltration and increasing runoff. ‘Sheet erosion’ is a more serious form of erosion in which fine layers of topsoil carrying soil nutrients wash away. Unless the nutrients are replenished artificially, crop yields will decline. Zimbabwe is affected mostly by the following types of erosion:

SPLASH EROSION when the topsoil is removed from the surface due the force of rain drops. The soil particles scattered by the raindrops block soil pore spaces. This hinders percolation and results in sheet erosion.

SHEET EROSION is often associated with large areas of gently sloping land which is flooded evenly after a heavy downpour. The fertile surface soil over the whole piece of land is washed away if there is no vegetation to prevent this (see Figure 7.3). In the climatic conditions that prevail throughout most of Zimbabwe, sheet erosion is dominant as an effect of rain splash and run- off, both surface and sub-surface. Cutting down trees, burning of grass and the impact of dense population in some areas have created ideal conditions for sheet erosion. During the windy, dry season, especially in August, Sep- tember and early October, wind can also aid sheet erosion.

156 RILL EROSION occurs when raindrops on the soil’s surface cause particles to be gradually washed away along narrow and fairly steep channels, either already existing or caused by the rain water itself.

STREAM BANK EROSION is a combination if rill and gully erosion. The main factor causing it is streams or rivers with steep banks. Because the gradient is steep, rills, and later gullies, are easily created by water rushing down the slope after heavy rains. This type is most common in densely populated communal lands, and urban areas where stream bank farming is practiced. If the natural dense vegetation cover along the streams is removed, the soil becomes exposed and easily washes away down the slopes into the stream. Communal areas along all major rivers experience this type of erosion.

GULLY EROSION takes place when rain does not sink into the soil after a heavy or continuous downpour. A gully begins as sheet erosion, where fast flowing water rushes over the soft soils or rock loosening the soil and washing it away. Usually this fast flowing water is trapped in and confined to a small surface, which it cuts into, creating deep grooves and ditches that gradually lengthen, widen and deepen. The trenches so formed are known as ‘gullies’ and if not controlled can become large. This type of erosion can badly damage land and make it difficult to reclaim. Gully erosion is widespread and causes the greatest threat to the environment, especially in communal areas. Unless gullies are repaired through conservation measures, they render the land completely unusable. Causes of soil erosion and gullies The way people use the land has an effect on soil erosion. Certain activities, especially poor farming methods such as monoculture and its implications on soil resources, can loosen the soil and reduce its ability to absorb water. Human activities that accelerate soil erosion and ultimately cause gullies are: • OVERGRAZING If too many cattle, sheep, goats, and donkeys are reared in small areas without proper planning, overgrazing results. These Cultivating right in front of a animals, through heavy grazing, quickly remove plant cover, such as grass prohibiting sign for the City of and trees. Animals like goats and donkeys uproot the grass when grazing. Harare This exposes the soil, preparing it for easy erosion by water or wind. If (Source: CPD 2006) there are too many cattle in an area, their hooves can loosen the soil, especially along tracks converging on watering points or dip tanks. • GRASS BURNING This destroys the plant cover, thereby exposing the soil to wind and rain. The fire may also kill some trees. Humus in the soil is also burnt up, creating poor soil structure that will not absorb much water. • POOR FARMING METHODS In many steep areas contour ridging has not been established or is poorly constructed. The steep slopes make it easy for the rain to wash loosened soils down the slope and into valleys and streams. When farmers plough up and down slopes, instead of across, the furrows they establish accelerate soil erosion. Over cultivation and cultivation of land that is unsuitable for crops can also increase soil erosion. The result of overgrazing in • STEAM BANK CULTIVATION This is a common feature of many densely Beitbridge. populated communal lands. Farmers are attracted by the fertile soils (Source: CPD 2006) found along the river valleys as well as the proximity of the water source

157 and some plant vegetable gardens near to rivers. This practice has accelerated soil erosion and contributed to severe siltation of rivers.

• USE OF SLEIGHS Using sleighs, which loosen the soil, dragging of logs over bare land and careless handling of ploughs when transporting them to and from the fields all damage the soil and contribute to erosion.

OPEN PIT MINING Open pit mining and gold panning loosen the soil and expose it to erosion.

POOR SITING Construction of roads in unsuitable places as well as poor siting of dam spillways are contributory factors in erosion. Stream bank cultivation is Figure 7.4 shows how soil erosion leads to increased flood hazards. common in peri-urban Zimbabwe

Effects of soil erosion and gullies Allowing soil erosion to take place and gullies to form can affect people in the following ways: • Very high rates of siltation of rivers and reservoirs, especially of the flooding low lying areas as rivers may be diverted from their normal channels by heavy silt. • The soil losses its natural fertility, leading to a general declines in crop yields. It has been estimated by the DNR that, in some areas, the cultiva- Stream bank cultivation along the tion of maize may only be possible for another fifteen years before soils heavily silted Msengezi Reiver. become too shallow for crop growth, and that sorghum cultivation may (Source CPD 2006) be impossible within thirty years. • Expensive chemical fertilisers are washed away by flooding before being absorbed into the soil. • Land for crops is quickly lost, leading to a lack of suitable land for cultivation and grazing and, consequently, poor harvests and livestock. • A lot of soil washed into rivers means a reduction in the water carrying capacity of rivers as well as a lowering of the quality of the water. • Too much silt in rivers, streams and dams may cause the death of fish. • People’s homes, clinics and schools can be destroyed by gullies. • Features of the natural environment, including animals, trees and other plants are destroyed and wetlands are lost.

Figure 7.4 Flooding Due to Erosion Adapted from Natural Hazards, Disaster Man- agement Center (1989)

158 Preventive measures Preventing gullies is always cheaper than trying to control them when they have already formed. To prevent gullies, it is important to first manage the natural resources in the area, i.e. trees, vegetation, and soil, primarily by conserving the soil on which the other resources depend. Soil conservation involves using soil wisely. The most important and first step in conserving soil is to hold it in place and there are various methods for this. Erosion caused by falling rain can be prevented by keeping the land under crop or plant cover for most of the year. Cover plants like vertiver grass and creeping plants and trees should be grown to protect the soil by absorbing A huge gully that formed right the force of raindrops and enabling the water to trickle into the ground slowly. across the main road in Gokwe, Afforestation goes further in that it helps to replace soil cover. leading to temporary closure of the road. Where there are steeps slopes on hillsides, terraces should be built. Each (Source: CPD, 2006) terrace is like a level step on the hillside. Grass or stone banks hold the soil in place and prevent water from flowing downhill. Each terrace slopes backward into the hillside, so that water is held until it drains into the soil. Terracing has been successfully used for centuries by farmers all over the world and Nyanga

Adding humus, manure and chemical has many examples of ancient terracing. Also traditional terracing has been fertiliser to the soil improves its water hold- practiced in the eastern highlands where pineapples are grown in strips across ing capacity by creating a crump structure. This crumpy porous structure encourages wa- the hillsides. The rows of the pineapples catch the soil and so form terraces. ter to sink quickly to minimise erosion. Farming practices also have a marked impact. For example: • Mixed farming or intercropping practices stabilise soil particles; • Erosion caused by overstocking is prevented by reducing the number of cattle per person (destocking) or by resettling the excess population in sparsely populated areas, as the Government of Zimbabwe has done in communal areas throughout the country; • Strong, well planned grazing paddocks (rotational grazing) as established in Matanga in Mberengwa make it possible for grass and trees to recover after heavy grazing by cattle; and • Dip tank sites can be carefully chosen to minimise gully erosion along cattle tracks, using fairly level and wooded sites instead of steep slopes like river valley sides, and drawing the water for the tank from boreholes instead of streams. People need to be taught modern ways of farming, such as not to plough down slopes and that, wherever possible, steep slopes Controlling a gully should not be cultivated at all. Farmers should be taught to build contour ridges as in Gullies can be controlled by filling and shaping them with a variety of materi- Charumbira District in Masvingo, where ridges have been made and are being maintained. als, like brushwood barriers, log or stone check dams, stone pitching, gabions Stream bank cultivation must be stopped com- and trees, grasses and other vegetation. By doing so, further soil erosion will pletely. In Zimbabwe, by law, people are not allowed to cultivate within 30m of a river or be avoided because the speed and amount of run-off via the gully will be re- stream. duced. Where gullies start to form: • First find out what caused the gully and trace the root of the problem; • Prevent the primary cause and any other problems that may cause the gully to get worse; • Divert water run-off from the gully; • Keep cattle out of the gully area; • Slope the walls of the gully and plant trees, shrubs, and grasses along the Public awareness programmes should be stepped up so that people are aware of the slopes and bed so that water runs gently into and along the gully; and dangers associated with soil erosion, and this • Lay pruned or dead tree branches across the head of the gully to slow education should be backed by legislation. water run-off, trap soil and debris and allow grass to grow. 159 Blocks or barriers can be built at intervals so as to reduce the speed of running water. These can be made of tree poles fastened together across the gully or stones heaped across. After some time, sediment fills up the gully behind the barrier. To make these barriers more permanent, shrubs grass and trees should be grown around and on the sediment once it has been built up. Efforts to control a gully in Matabeleland South are shown in the photograph below. Some of the soil conservation and gully control methods used in Matabeleland South. (Source: CPD)

BOX 7.1 THE Z IMBABWE C ONSERVATION MOVE-

MENT

Recently, the Rural District Councils Act as amended by the Environmental Management Act has provided for the establishment of En- vironment Committees and sub-committees by all Rural District Councils.

160 Gold Panning as a Hazard Environmental inspections by the Department of Natural Resources (DNR) have revealed that gold panning is one of the major causes of environmental degradation in Zimbabwe. The past few years have seen a multitude of people resorting to gold panning as a coping strategy in the face of the increased frequency and periodicity of droughts and the prevailing harsh macroeconomic environment, which is characterised by hyperinflation and high unemployment rates. According to the International Fund for Agricultural Devel- opment (IFAD), by 1997 at least 60 percent of sub-Saharan Africa was vulnerable to drought and probably 30 percent was highly vulnerable. It is estimated that over 600 000 people are directly involved in gold panning activities along 5 000km of Zimbabwe’s major rivers, including Mazowe, Angwa, Insiza, Runde and Bubi rivers (Maponga and Ngorima, 2002). Nation- ally, the worst affected areas are Mazowe District, Kadoma District (wards 12, 14, 15 and 16), Makonde District (Dova Farm, Urume Farm, Chikuti area, Nyati Farm), Umguza District (wards 1 and 2), Shurugwi District, Kwekwe District, and Gutu District (see Figure 7.5). These districts are along the Great Dyke as this region is richly endowed with gold and other minerals. A further 2 million people in Zimbabwe are thought to be earning their livelihood indirectly from gold panning (DNR, 2005). Gold panning induced siltation has further reduced the water carrying capacity of rivers, thereby threatening the very existence of several millions of people who rely on water from rivers for irrigation, and domestic and industrial uses. Habitat destruction and fragmentation associated with gold panning affects biodiversity and riverine ecosystems as well as other sensitive ecological systems, such as wetlands. Rivers may also be forced to change course, thus threatening settlements during the rainy season.

CHEMICAL CONTAMINATION At Ran Mine, panners dug tunnels into abandoned slimes dams. The tunnels are now collapsing and posing a threat of water contamination by cyanide should there be a heavy downpour (DNR, 2003). Cyanide is an extremely toxic chemical, the effect of which on biodiversity and human health can be very dangerous. Figure 7.5 Districts Worst Affected by Illegal Gold Panning DNR (2005)

161 The presence of chemicals like mercury, which is used extensively in gold Table 7.1 Land Rendered panning activities, has severe and far reaching consequences for riverine eco- Unsuitable for Agriculture by systems. It is estimated that annually, gold panners use six metric tonnes of Panning Activities in Mashonaland mercury (Gandiwa, 2006). When mixed with water, as is the case in gold panning, mercury is lethal to plants and human beings. Mercury has a long life span in water, remaining active for up to thirty years, thus compounding the District Number of Extent of problem of water pollution and increasing risk to human health and aquatic Panners Damage(m²) life. A study carried out in Insiza revealed that panners are now showing symp- Bindura 3485 1 240 000 toms of occupational mercury poisoning, such as general body weakness, Shamva 860 202 000 Mazowe 10 000 58 000 nausea, and gum inflammation and ulceration (Ngorima and Maponga, 2003). Total 14 345 1 500 000 INFRASTRUCTURAL DAMAGE Irrigation schemes and other related infrastructure, such as roads and schools, have not been spared the effects of gold pan- Central ning. According to CPD reports, in 2004, a football pitch at Globe and Phoe- nix Primary School in Kwekwe was completely destroyed by panners. After digging up the pitch, the panners moved into the school grounds where they dug deep pits in front of classrooms and the school Principal’s office. A deep Box 7.2 Quote from a DNR Official tunnel was dug close to the main school block, threatening the stability of the structure and putting the lives of innocent school children and teachers at “Gold panning is an alarming risk. development whose ramifications on riverine ecosystems are equally In the same area, the panners went to the extent of digging under the railway frightening and so is the occasional line resulting in the Harare-Bulawayo train service being temporarily sus- loss of human life” pended. Gold panners excavated the sides of the road linking Zvishavane and Gweru, at Boterakwa in Shurugwi, leading to severe structural damage. Fur- thermore, they tampered with the water reticulation system as they vandalised the water pipes in search of water for cleaning their gold. In Bindura town, underground water pipes were vandalised and damaged by panners resulting in severe water leakage.

The socioeconomic hazards of illegal gold panning Illegal gold panning has a negative impact on society and on the country’s economy. The inevitable mushrooming of unplanned gold panning camps results in poor sanitation and waste disposal, leading to outbreaks of disease such as cholera and dysentery, not only among the panners, but also spreading to other community members residing in areas surrounding the gold panning sites. Illegal gold panning camps usually attract young male adults who, in turn, attract commercial sex workers, thus contributing to the spread of sexu- Gold panners left (above) power ally transmitted diseases, including HIV and AIDS. The pits built during gold cables exposed and (below) animal panning often collapse, leading to occasional loss of human life. It has been drinking water contaminated by observed that poaching is rampant in areas where illegal gold panners stay and mercury, in addition to degrading massive destruction of woodlands for fuel is also evident. the environment. These practices deprive local inhabitants of income and destroy their local environment, as the camps are usually inhabited by non residents. Gold panning induced siltation has reduced the water carrying capacity of rivers and mercury water pollution threatens the very existence of several millions of people, both nearby and far off, who rely on water from rivers for irrigation, domestic and industrial uses. Gold panning has both increased as a result of and had some negative effects on the land reform as many of the former farm workers have turned to panning which they are finding far more profitable than working on either the old or the new farms. Gold panning prevention and control methods

162 Resources

BOX 7.3 MESSAGE FROM THE DEPARTMENT OF Illegal gold panning has now reached unprecedented levels NATURAL RESOURCES hence this environmental problem that currently needs urgent attention to avoid disaster to both the biophysical and human environments. All stakeholders are thus called upon to practice, promote and adhere to principles of sound environmental management. We have a heritage to protect for future generations. Indeed, we should be prepared to endure pain as we undergo a phase of self-correction and the restoration of discipline in the environmental management sector.

Gandiwa (2006) Some approaches that need to be undertaken to either prevent or, at least, control gold panning are:

RECLAMATION Local authorities and schools should be actively involved in the reclamation of areas degraded by gold panning, by backfilling of the mined areas in the public streams.

GOLD PANNING PERMITS Issuing permits, would help to ensure that regulatory requirements are adhered to by panners in line with the terms of such permits.

LAW ENFORCEMENT Statutory Instrument 275 of the Mining (Alluvial Gold) (Public Streams) Regulations of 1991 and the Environmental Management Act (Cap 20:27), which set out regulations and punitive measures for those who engage in activities or operations that have adverse effects on the environment, should be enforced. Any person or agency wishing to extract minerals must carry out an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) to determine the implications of their activities and must develop a management plan to mitigate any negative effects on the environment. Law enforcing agents are seen inspecting the damage left by gold panners in the photograph above.

CAPACITY BUILDING AND ENVIRONMENTAL TRAINING This should be conducted for local authorities, whose officers should be trained to produce local environmental action plans in compliance with the EMA. Participatory method- DNR personnel conducting joint ologies to promote integrated sustainable development planning by commu- inspections with the Zimbabwe nities are recommended. The local communities should be made aware of Republic Police. methods to manage their environment and natural resources sustainably. (Source: DNR, 2005)

AWARENESS RAISING CAMPAIGNS Environmental education awareness campaigns should be carried out with a view to raising public awareness and sharing of knowledge to cultivate values, skills and behaviour among the population, that are consistent with sustainable environmental management.

Deforestation Forestry resources are essential to the energy and economic requirements of the majority of Zimbabweans. Wood fuel accounts for over 90 percent of the total energy provision of rural communities and almost 15 percent of this amount is taken from forests. The depletion this causes is accelerated by the demand for indigenous building materials, natural forest fires and the land

163 resettlement exercise. The single largest cause of woodland depletion, however, is from land clearance for agriculture.

Deforestation is the removal or damage of vegetation in a region that is predominantly tree covered. It is a slow onset hazard that may contribute to disasters caused by flooding, landslides, drought and desertification. It is one of the major causes of land degradation in Zimbabwe. This process has reached critical levels, as large areas of vegetation have been removed or damaged, harming the land’s protective and regenerative properties by exposing the land to the agents and processes of accelerated soil erosion. For example, from 1990 to 2000, the country lost, on average, seven times more of its forest cover than the world average rate (see Figure 7.7). The rapid rate of deforestation in some parts of the country is believed to be a driving force in the yearly increase of food shortages in these areas.

Earth Trends (2003) Of the total land area of 30.226 billion hectares, the combination of cropland and natural vegetation constitute the largest portion, at 54 percent, followed by grassland savannah at 43 percent. Forests take up a mere 2 percent, with 1 percent being wetland and water bodies (Figure 7.6). Zimbabwe’s woodland cover is being denuded at a rate of 1.5 percent per annum. The highest rates are in the communal areas, where a 50 percent decline in vegetation cover was experienced between 1963 and 1978. The need to clear land for agricul- Table 7.2 Ecosystem Areas of ture caused the loss of about 60 000 hectares of land annually over this pe- Zimbabwe by Type riod (DNR, 2006). The use of biomass fuels further compounds the gravity of deforestation as about 80 percent of household energy demands in both Total forest area, 2000 (000 ha) 19 040 rural and urban areas come from these. Thus firewood collection can contrib- Natural forest area, 2000 (000 ha) 18 899 ute to the depletion of tree cover, particularly in lightly wooded areas. The Plantations area, 2000 (000 ha) 141 outright destruction of trees for fuel occurs most commonly around cities Total dryland area, 1950-1981 (000ha 26 317 and towns, where commercial markets for firewood and charcoal exist. Well organised groups and individuals bring fuel wood by vehicle, and animal carts into cities, hastening local deforestation. The satellite image gives evidence of the massive deforestation in the communal lands as compared to the adjacent commercial farms, as shown by con- trasting light and dark tones on the satellite mosaic (Figure 7.8). The small administrative units are communal lands where the land cover is severely Figure 7.6 Ecosystem Areas by Type 1992-1993 Earth Trends Country Profiles (2003)

164 degraded (light colors). The difference in land cover between former commercial and communal lands, as shown by the satellite images, is dramatic. The former boundaries of the two land systems could be drawn on the image in many places without the need for a map of administrative boundaries, simply by outlining the degraded regions. The high vegetation cover in the former commercial areas reflects the very low population and good land conservation methods, which should be preserved by the new farmers.

The importance of trees Trees play a vital role in regulating our atmosphere, ecosystems and weather systems. They recycle carbon dioxide, a gas now increasing in the atmosphere and thought to contribute to global warming. They release moisture to the air, thus contributing to rainfall and moderating local and global climates. Their roots trap nutrients, improve soil fertility, and also trap pollutants, keeping them from the water supply. They provide habitats for many species Fig 7.7 Percentage Change in Forest Area by Type, 1990-2000

Analysis of multi-temporal satellite images between 1998 and 2002 for selected districts has revealed an average loss of 1.4 percent per annum for both forests and wooded areas. Certain districts have even registered wood losses of more than 10 percent during this period (Gandiwa, 2006). For the period 1990 to 2000, the total area of natural forest shrunk by about 15 percent, whereas forest plantations grew by a mere 2 percent (Figure 7.7). Uncontrolled veld fires have also led to the loss of vegetation in many districts in Zim- babwe, destroying thousands of hectares of natural ecosystems. thus engendering diversity. They nurture traditional cultures by giving shelter, wood, food and medicinal products. These benefits are lost as trees are destroyed. The root systems of vegetation help retain water in the soil, anchor the soil particles and provide aeration to keep soil from compacting. When

Figure 7.8 Landsat Mosaic of Commercial Farms and Parks, and Communal Lands

US Landsat Series, Earth Satellite Corporation, Land Cover and Land Use Change Program (LCLUC)(2000)

165 vegetation dies, the nutrients go back to the soil but when root systems are Impacts of deforestation Some of the negative impacts of deforesta- removed, the soil is destabilised. Water tends to flow off the top of the soil tion are that: · Destabilised soils are more susceptible to instead of percolating in, and carries valuable topsoil along with it. This silt landslides and may increase the landslide eventually forms sediment in the drainage basins. Deforestation poses the risk in areas vulnerable to earthquakes, like Matabeleland North and Manicaland; most immediate danger by its contribution to other disasters. · Loss of moisture from deforestation may contribute to drought conditions, which, in turn, may trigger famines; Prevention and control of deforestation · Soil nutrients may also be lost through erosion of topsoil, resulting in decreased food If the vicious circle of land degradation cannot be stopped, the source of production and possible chronic food shortages; existence of large parts of the country’s population will be severely damaged. · Erosion and dry conditions combined with loss of vegetation and soil compaction re- The following are some of the measures to reduce the problems caused by sult in desertification and unproductive deforestation: lands (see figure 7.8); · It causes destruction of biodiversity and traditional cultures, loss of ‘free’ goods, FOREST MANAGEMENT New farmers have deforested new areas to create agri- such as fuels, food and medicines; · Dryness may accelerate the spread of fires; cultural land. Forest management must be considered in the broadest sense · Research has conclusively proven that de- of land use planning to include solutions for these people as well as for the forestation of watersheds, especially around smaller rivers and streams, can in- trees. crease the severity of flooding, reduce stream flows, dry up springs in dry seasons and increase the amount of sediment REFORESTATION Social or community forestry, in which trees are planted entering waterways; outside of regular forested areas, is one viable long term strategy to meet · Additional strain is placed on women it terms of time and energy, which have seri- forestation targets. True community forestry involves participation by a large ous implications on their other work in agriculture, housekeeping, productive em- number of people, ensuring that trees are protected, and improving the liveli- ployment and childbearing; hoods of the local people by increasing the productivity of the land. · Trees contribute to the hydrological cycle as well as the regulation of the climate by acting as carbon dioxide sinks (carbon di- FARM FORESTRY This is a type of social forestry where woodlots are estab- oxide, greenhouse gas is removed by photosynthesis); and lished by farmers on their own land for personal use and for profit. · Deforestation tends to exacerbate other disasters. MANAGEMENT OF NATURAL WOODLANDS Recent data suggest that potential yields from natural woodlands have been underestimated and it should be possible to increase yields at a much lower cost than establishing new plantations. An advantage of natural woodlands is the natural production of a wide variety of harvestable products compared to single crop plantations.

Community participation in reforestation If local people have no say in the planning of their forests or do not understand the importance of them, it is likely that they will not maintain them. New saplings, if unprotected, can be quickly consumed by domestic animals. Furthermore, the labour input of the people is usually vital to the project. Specific steps that can be taken at the community level include: • Establishing community based education programmes as part of school curricula and at village councils and the use of media such as radio, television and newspapers; • Encouraging non governmental organisations to foster grassroots programmes involving small farmers and landless people who depend on forests and trees for their survival; • Encouraging programmes at the village or farm level for reforestation, and mitigation procedures for already deforested land using terraces and catch dams; • Introducing alternative cooking stoves that reduce fuel needs, and alternative sources of fuel; and • Promoting means to increase agricultural production, such as the use of fertiliser and improved seed varieties.

166 Figure 7.9 Comparison of Effects of Vegetated and Non-Vegetated Regions

Adapted from Natural Hazards, Disaster Man- agement Center (1989)

Veld Fires and Bushfires These are fires that get out of control and, in the process, destroy extensive tracts of forests and grasslands, as well as animals and other natural resources, and people and their property. Veld fires tent to be seasonal and are most common during the dry season. The speeds of onset vary with atmospheric temperature and wind speed. In Zimbabwe, the collective term ‘veld fires’ is used to cover all outdoor fires but, in other countries, ‘veld fires’ is used to describe fires on veld areas with few trees and ‘bushfires’ to describe those that ravage forests.

Veld fires as hazards The chance of a veld fire in any given locality on a particular day depends on the fuel conditions, topography, time of year, wind direction and speed, the past and present weather conditions, and the ongoing activities (debris burning, land clearing, bee smoking, etc.). Because the fire cycle is an important aspect of management for many ecosystems, controlled burns are routinely conducted. These are not considered hazards unless they get out of control. The Zimbabwean climate produces a long pe- However fires can end up as disasters, if not quickly detected and extinguished. riod of winter and spring drought, which translates as low plant moisture and, as a result, Even a small fire can get out of control and possibly cause a disaster in the high flammability. Land use patterns have changed. From early times, fire was used to wild. In the thickly forested areas of the country, veld fires usually spread as eliminate shrub land. This management prac- a thin front of flame, with flames usually about as thick as they are high. tice was used because it was thought to increase water yields, resulting in increased grassland production. It is during the driest These fires, especially in the plantations, can travel at 1 to 3 km/h, have flames period of the year, from July to the beginning of the rainfall season in October, that Zimba- 5 to 10 metres high and thick, and will pass a spot in 30 to 60 seconds. This is bwe has a large number of veld fires. Hu- because, in the drier seasons, dry grass and shrubs burn easily and, all too mans are usually the culprits in starting these fires. Incidences of lightning causing large veld quickly, veld fires can become huge, spreading to destroy everything in their fires are very isolated, except in some plantations where the exotic trees are flammable path, including human life, homes and other buildings, crops, livestock, for- even when they are wet. Figure 7.10 illustrates ests and veld life. Thus a veld fire can be considered one of the most destruc- the high frequency of veld fires in Zimbabwe, as compared to other forms of fire. The positive forces of nature. Fire fighters, both professional and volunteer, risk their tive aspect also being shown also is that the veld fire incidences show a downward trend lives each year to control and eventually extinguish them. Most of Zimbabwe’s during the period reviewed (1999 to 2003). most devastating veld fires have happened where they have raged through the

167 Figure 7.10 Common Types of Fire Experienced in Zimbabwe

Causes of veld fires Collecting honey from the forest is very popular in Zimbabwe but the main method uses fire to inactivate the bees. The fires, which dense plantations of the eastern Highlands and the dense forests of game re- are at times left burning at the site, can grow serves, where even some human life has been lost as well. to engulf the whole forest. Other causes are: · Sparks from moving steam engines; · Careless throwing away of lit cigarette Weather and veld fires stubs by the public; · Use of fires to clear vegetation and open Low relative humidity, high winds and lack of rain all contribute to increased up new arable lands, as is a long standing practice in Zimbabwe; fire danger. Sunshine and high temperatures rapidly dry timber and grass (fuel), · Use of fires to expose game, especially which burn very quickly. Hot air can lower the moisture content of forests recently among poachers on newly re- settled farms where the land is still vir- and grasslands, greatly increasing the speed of the fire. These determinants gin; · Deliberate sabotage, for example, to are discussed below: settle scores over land control, and · Lightning, which has been known to start WIND Air movement provides the oxygen the fire needs to keep burning. fires especially in plantations with exotic trees. Higher winds mean more oxygen and more intense flames. Doubling the wind speed will quadruple the rate of spread of the fire. Winds also carry burning embers downwind, which can start new fires. This is known as ‘spotting’.

RAINFALL Dry grass, parched native shrubs and dead leaves and twigs are a fire’s basic fuel. During droughts and in very hot, windy weather, even heavy fuels like large logs and the green leaves and smaller branches of large trees can become dry and flammable.

HUMIDITY Relative humidity is the most commonly used measure of atmospheric moisture and is defined as the ratio of the amount of water vapour actually measured to that which the air could hold at saturation point. Very low relative humidity of, say, less than 20 percent, causes fuels to dry out and become more flammable.

HIGH RISK WEATHER PATTERNS By world standards, Zimbabwe has a fairly low and very unreliable rainfall, and droughts are a significant feature of the Zimbabwean climate. Dry spells create a high fire risk, particularly if the dry spell follows a period of good rain that has encouraged lush growth. Weather systems, like the highs, lows and cold fronts that appear on weather maps, control the temperature, humidity and wind. Each part of Zimbabwe has its own special combination of weather systems that produces severe bushfire conditions but, in all cases, these conditions result from hot, dry winds blowing from Africa’s arid central region. 168 The fire danger index Temperature, relative humidity, wind speed, drought and the amount of fuel can be combined into a ‘fire danger index’, to which colour codes are then allocated to represent the various defined ranges. The ranges are as follows:

GREEN Burning may be carried out, but with caution; ORANGE If possible, postpone burning to another day when the fire danger estimate is in a lower range; RED Do not do any burning at all, as it could easily get out of control.

Effects of veld fires The effects of veld fires vary with intensity, area and time of year. Under adverse weather conditions, veld fires in Zimbabwe’s eucalyptus plantations cannot be stopped. Effects can be highly destructive, extending to complete destruction of valuable resources, such as buildings, livestock, crops, vegetation, timber, veld life and habitat, recreation areas, and watersheds. Losses of Forest fire danger rating index life and personal property occur as well. Severe fires producing high soil indicator. Such indicators are com- temperatures, create a water repellent layer below the soil surface. The soil mon in the Eastern Highlands above this layer remains bare and denuded, resulting in increased water run- where there are plantations, to off, and becomes highly prone to erosion, often resulting in mudslides. Thus show the public the rating of the veld fires also lead to land degradation and formation of gullies, as well as fire hazard on a daily basis. reducing soil fertility. A further result of this is decreased infiltration, which (Source: CPD) may leave farmers without enough water to recharge boreholes, springs and rivers, as well as less water for livestock, irrigation, wildlife and people. The high fire frequency is also a threat to historic shrub lands, which risk being converted to annual grasslands if they are burnt.

Prevention and control of veld fires Bushfires are usually fought by a large number of trained volunteers alongside a core of professional firefighters with vehicle mounted equipment (in It is necessary to be alert to fire alarms during the fire season and, in case of a fire out- accessible terrain). In large bushfires, bulldozers and graders are used to cre- break, one should: ate emergency firebreaks ahead of fire fronts. Back burning from firebreaks · When the fire is still small, beat the fire using a beater, tree branches or wet sacks is frequently effective in slowing or stopping the spread of fire. or blankets; · Douse the flame with water; · Clear (with a hoe or other implement) a It is a legal requirement that farmers intending to burn vegetation on their strip in the direction of the fire; properties notify the occupiers of adjoining land. The following are the re- · Use counter burning; and · Inform the fire brigade or the nearest quirements: police station. • Issue a preliminary notice stating the date of proposed burning; • Burning must take place not less than two weeks or more than eight weeks after the date of giving notice;

Figure 7.11 Fire Danger Maps of Zimbabwe, Rainfall and Dry Seasons

Figure 7.1l shows the fire hazard mapping using the fire danger index for different forecasting periods.

169 • Issue a final notice to all occupiers of adjoining land and the ZRP, stating the time of the proposed burning, not less than six or more than 24 hours before burning; • If, for any reason, the burning does not take place a fresh notice shall be given; • Members of the public shall not burn growing or standing vegetation on any land except in accordance with the law. Construct fireguards to control fires. These are belts of not less than 9m in width that should be cleared of all flammable materials. Fireguards should be maintained regularly to keep them clear of vegetation and fuel reduction (controlled) burning is to be carried out during the cooler seasons (May and June). The risk of a veld fire occurring can be reduced if people take a reasonable amount of care and use common sense when dealing with fire or materials Mutare Timber Plantation that ignite easily. A carelessly thrown cigarette butt, exposing game through destroyed by fire (above) after a fire, or a campfire not properly extinguished, are common causes of fires small fire was set (below ) to clear that could easily be avoided. the land for farming. Source: CPD 2003) Always follow the weather forecast on radio, television or in the daily newspaper for advice on when to schedule burning on your property or else use the fire danger placard if there is one erected near your home. If caught in a veld fire while driving, stay in the vehicle and do not drive through flames or smoke. You should: • Stop at a clearing or by the roadside in a low vegetation area; · Switch off the ignition and turn on the hazard lights and headlights; • Stay inside the car unless near safe shelter; • Keep vents, windows and doors closed; and • Lie down, below window level, preferably under a woollen blanket until the fire front passes. Research shows that in a bushfire, a car petrol tank is unlikely to explode in the period needed to stay inside the vehicle, using it as a shield against the deadly radiant heat of the fire front. If caught in a veld fire when on foot, don’t panic. Cover all exposed skin, then move across slope, away from the fire front, then down slope towards the rear of the main fire. Try to use open or already burnt ground. Do not try to Vital points to remember If you are in a house or car you will be safer out run the fire, run uphill or go through even low flames, unless you can than in the open while the fire front passes. If caught in the open you must protect your- clearly see a safe area close by. self from the radiant heat of the flames by every possible means. A heavy, pure wool If it is not possible to avoid the fire, protect yourself from heat radiation by blanket (to wrap around you) and a flask of water (to drink and to moisten a corner of the lying face down under an embankment, rock, loose earth or in a hollow, or if blanket as a smoke mask) are basic require- possible, get into a pond, dam or stream – but not into a water tank. The water ments for bushfire survival and will give protection against radiant heat, dehydration and tank may be heated easily by fire resulting in the water boiling. asphyxiation even in intense fires.

An Overview of Pollution Pollution is defined as the introduction by humans into the environment of substances or energy liable to cause hazards to human health, harm to living resources and ecological systems, or damage to structure. Forms of pollution include: • Chemicals which destroy flora and fauna or increase their growth to unacceptable levels; 170 • Physical parameters like radiation noise and temperature variations; and • Biological means, through the introduction of micro-organisms, which result in diseases like coliforms. Three types of pollution that can be tackled at national level – water pollution, air pollution and littering – are discussed below. This is followed by a discussion of major global level pollution issues.

Water Pollution Water is not an infinite resource and Zimbabwe may soon head towards a water crisis if the resource is not managed well. This crisis is already evident in many parts of the country, varying in scale and intensity depending on the year, time of the year and location. The main sources of freshwater pollution are the discharge of untreated waste, dumping of industrial effluent, and run- off from agricultural fields. Industrial growth, urbanisation and the increasing use of synthetic organic substances have already had serious and adverse impacts on freshwater bodies. For instance, the discharge of raw sewerage into aquatic systems by Harare City Council has polluted Lake Chivero, which is the major source of water for Harare Metropolitan Province (Gandiwa, 2006). Zimphos, a fertiliser company discharges nutrient rich effluent directly into the city watercourses (Mugadza, 1997).

The polluted water in turn provides a conducive environment for the proliferation of invasive alien species, such as the water hyacinth, which has now colonised large parts of Lake Chivero (DNR, 2006). This floating aquatic weed has affected tourism as well as economic activities such as fishing. Recent large scale fish deaths and the rate of spread of the water hyacinth suggest that the ecosystem is being stressed by high levels of pollution in the lake’s catchment area. Ecological degradation also adds to the problem. Re- cently deforestation on an unprecedented scale has lead to soil erosion, causing accelerated run-off and deposit of sediments in riverbeds. The sediment level in rivers has increased more than a hundred-fold in deforested areas during the rainfall seasons, leading to serious siltation. Siltation on a massive scale is now evident in almost all major rivers in the country (Nhapi, 2000). Therefore, this section concentrates on the fundamental information we need to resolve our persistent water pollution problems, including understanding the basic concepts, causes, and prevention and control measures. Table 7.3 shows the major dams providing water for various uses in Zimbabwe. The need to preserve these waters must not be underestimated.

Water resources are critical to Zimbabwe’s agriculture, as well as its rural and urban populations. The same is true for agro-industries, the manufacturing sector and mining, all of which depend heavily on water for their production processes. The country has no natural lakes and there are only a few perennial rivers. Water storage development is dependent on run-off accumulated during the rainfall season. In Zimbabwe, there are presently over 8 000 dams, of which only 135 have dam walls higher than 15 metres. Thus most dams have little storage capacity. The total storage capacity is approximately 4 900 million cubic metres, of which 80 percent is stored in 100 dams of more than two million cubic metres (ZINWA, 2006).

171 Types of water pollutants and their effects The effects of water pollution are not only devastating to people but also to animals, fish, and birds. Polluted water is unsuitable Some of the sources of pollution of the country’s water bodies are discussed for drinking, recreation, agriculture or indus- below: try. It diminishes the aesthetic quality of lakes and rivers. More seriously, contaminated water destroys aquatic life and reduces its re- SUSPENDED PARTICLES Suspended solids include silt and clay particles from productive ability. Eventually, it becomes a soil run-off, industrial waste, and sewage. A high concentration of suspended hazard to human health. Nobody can escape the effects of water pollution and yet, it is solids reduces water clarity, contributes to a decrease in photosynthesis (which undeniable that fresh water is our most val- converts carbon dioxide to oxygen), can bind with toxic compounds and heavy ued and sought after renewable resource. metals, and can lead to an increase in water temperature through greater ab- sorption of sunlight by surface waters. Warm water holds less oxygen than cold water, and so this can be detrimental to some aquatic life. Sediment that is carried by run-off from eroded soil is deposited in drainage basins, reducing the river’s water carrying capacity and thus exacerbating flooding.

NUTRIENTS Nitrates found in sewage and fertilisers, and phosphates found in detergents and fertilisers are the source of nutrients for aquatic plants and algae. Agricultural run-off, urban run-off, leaking septic systems, sewage discharges, and eroded stream banks can enhance the flow of these substances into lakes. When in excess, they over stimulate growth of these organisms and can clog navigable waters, use up dissolved oxygen as they respire and decompose and block light to deeper waters, in a natural process called entrophication. Human activities tend to accelerate this process by increasing the rate at which nutrients and organic substances enter lakes from the surrounding watersheds. This deprives fish and other aquatic invertebrates of life sustaining oxygen as they compete for the scarce commodity, leading to a decrease in animal and plant diversity. It also affects the general use of water for fishing swimming and boating.

PATHOGENS These are certain waterborne bacteria, viruses and protozoans that can cause human illness, ranging from typhoid and dysentery to minor respiratory diseases. The organisms can enter waterways through a number of routes, including inadequately treated sewage, storm water drains and septic systems, run-off from livestock pens and boats that dump sewage.

ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTANTS Deterioration of water quality may be due to its enrichment (entrophication) with degradable organic materials including sewage, or effluents from food or other industries, farms or fish farms. In addition, leaching of minerals from agricultural land or from other sources of enrichment can lead to the development of algal blooms which, when they die, cause increased biochemical oxygen demand. The higher biological oxy-

Water hyacinth in Seke River. Note that, in this section, the water is not navigable. (Source: CPD 2006)

172 Table 7.3 Major Dams of Zimba- Dam Catchment Capacity Purpose Other Uses bwe Kariba Zambezi 160 368 000 HY F T Mutirikwi Runde 1 378 000 IR WS F T Manyame Manyame 480 000 IR WS F T Orsbone Save 401 000 IR F T Mazvikadeyi Manyame 343 000 IR F T MI Manyuchi Mzingwane 309 000 IR F T Manjirenji Runde 274 179 IR F T Sebakwe Sanyati 265 733 IR WS F Chivero Manyame 247 181 IR WS F Insiza Mzingwane 173 491 IR WS F Bhiri Manyame Manyame 172 463 IR F

Key: IR = Irrigation; WS = Water Supply; MI = Mining; HY = Hydroelectric; F = Fishing; T = Tourism ZINWA (2006)

gen demand (BOD) resulting from these sources of pollution can increase loss of dissolved oxygen and can lead to the death of aerobes, including fish. Other problems arise due to release of effluents from manufacturing indus-

What is water pollution? tries. When toxic substances enter lakes, streams, rivers and other water bodies, some are dis- ORGANIC SUBSTANCES When organic matter, such as manure or sewage, in- solved, lie suspended in the water or are deposited on the bed. This results in the pollu- creases in a pond, the number of decomposers will also increase. These de- tion of water, whereby the quality of the water deteriorates, affecting aquatic ecosystems. composers grow rapidly and use a great deal of oxygen during their growth. Pollutants can also seep down and affect the This leads to a depletion of oxygen as the decomposition process occurs groundwater deposits. (eutrophication). Lack of oxygen can kill aquatic organisms. As these organ- When these pollutants are carried into a stream by surface run-off it leads to the seri- isms die, decomposers break them down, leading to further depletion of the ous deterioration of water quality and ren- oxygen levels. ders the water unfit to drink without treatment. FAECAL COLIFORM BACTERIA These are derived from the faeces of humans and other animals. These bacteria can contaminate rivers, lakes and oceans by direct discharge, from agricultural and storm run-off, and from sewage discharge into the water. In a combined sewer system, after heavy rains, untreated or inadequately treated waste may be diverted into a body of water. Faecal coliform bacteria by themselves are not pathogenic, that is, they do not cause illness or disease, but they are associated with viruses and parasites that do so. Since pathogens are usually scarce in water, they are difficult to measure; instead coliform levels are monitored, because of their greater abundance, and their association with pathogenic organisms (Nhapi, 2000).

RECREATIONAL USE OF WATER Untreated sewage, industrial effluents and agricultural waste are often discharged into the water bodies such as lakes and Raw sewage from a burst sewer rivers endangering their use for recreational purposes, such as swimming and (above) usually flows to contami- canoeing. Exposure to polluted water can cause diarrhoea, skin irritation, res- nate nearby streams (below) that piratory problems, and other diseases, depending on the pollutant that is in flow into dams providing drinking the water body. Stagnant water and other untreated water provide a habitat for the mosquito and a host of other parasites and insects that cause a large number of diseases. Among these, malaria is undoubtedly the most widely distributed in the country and poses the greatest threat to human health.

Prevention and control It is necessary that: • People stop the dumping and discharge of untreated effluent into water bodies. water. 173 (Source: CPD) • Attempts be made to improve soils, which decreases the possibility of TOXIC SUBSTANCES A toxic substance is a chemical pollutant that is not a naturally occurring water contamination by toxic chemicals and decreases run-off, thereby substance in aquatic ecosystems. The greatest contributors to toxic pollution are mercury lessening silting and sedimentation of waterways. Establishing terraces from gold panning, herbicides, pesticides and and contour bands, building check dams and planting trees and shrubs industrial compounds. can help to stabilise soil. • Watershed mapping, management and protection including avoiding unplanned stream bank cultivation and wetland cultivation, be conducted to ensure a safe and plentiful drinking water supply. • Proper systems to dispose of human waste are promoted. Regulations must be established and enforced by government agencies to protect citizens against the toxic effects of pesticides and other chemicals. Improvement of soils will also help to absorb and degrade toxins. • Further studies be made of the effects of pesticide residues. Farmers may use crop types resistant to pests or use an integrated approach to pest management, requiring less pesticide. • Pit latrines and soakaways (for most soils) are at least 30 metres from any groundwater source and the bottom of any latrine is at least 1.5 metres above the water table. Drainage or spillage from defecation systems must not run towards any surface water source or shallow groundwater source (SPHERE Project, 2004).

Case study: water pollution in lakes Chivero and Manyame Lakes Chivero and Manyame, which supply water to Harare and Chitungwiza, are the most seriously polluted water supply lakes in the country. Several factors have converged to compound the problem. The main one is that Lake Chivero is fed by the Marimba, Manyame, Nyatsime (not shown in figure 7.12 but upstream) and Mukuvisi rivers. These rivers make up the drainage system of the two cities. For example, the Mukuvisi River cuts almost right across Harare. It is the most polluted river as it receives both industrial and domestic effluent from the high concentration of industries and a highly populated city. On the other hand, Nyatsime, which starts off in Chihota communal lands, has some problems of occasionally receiving raw sewage from the city of Chitungwiza which contributes markedly to the pollution of Lake Chivero. Sewage samples from Harare City Council’s treatment works at Firle, Table 7.4 Natural and Introduced Crowborough, Mabvuku, Tafara, Marlborough and Hatcliffe ponds are col- Chemicals with Serious Health Ef- lected and analysed each year. fects

Chemical Source and Use Effects on Health Natural. Essential for protection against dental cavities and weakening of Fluoride Excess fluorides can cause yellowing of the teeth, and damage to the spinal bones. Found in higher concentrations in some parts of the country like cord and other crippling diseases Binga

Natural. Increased by overpowering aquifers and by phosphorus from Arsenic High concentrations can cause poisoning, liver and nervous system damage, fertilisers vascular diseases and also skin cancer Pipes, fittings, solder, and the service connections of some household Lead Accumulates in the body and affects the central nervous plumbing systems

Petrochemicals Petrol, diesel and other petrochemicals can cause cancer, even at low Contaminate the groundwater from underground petroleum storage tanks. exposure levels system. Children and pregnant women are most at risk

Pesticides Agriculture Affect and damage the nervous system and can cause cancer Salts Naturally occurring Makes the fresh water unusable for drinking and irrigation purposes Cause damage to the nervous system and kidney, and metabolic disruptions Other heavy metals Mining waste and tailings, landfills, or hazardous waste dumps

174 Figure 7.12 Location of Lake Manyame and Lake Chivero Relative to Harare

The other major potential sources of pollution along Mukuvisi River are industrial effluent in the Msasa industrial area, seepage from the landfill area between Old Chiremba Rd and Cripps Rd, run-off in the city centre area, and industrial discharges from Graniteside and Southerton industrial areas. Most companies do not pre-treat their waste before disposal and, where this is done, it is usually inadequate, as the technology has generally not been upgraded to match current high production levels. Storm water run-off from the built up areas usually carries a lot of chemicals, such as lead, phosphate and fertilisers, thereby accelerating the rate of entrophication in the rivers and, eventually, in Lake Chivero. A significant portion of Harare and Chitungwiza is composed of vleis. Vleis provide significant ecological diversity to the areas in which they are found as well as being an important element of the hydrological cycle. But these vleis are now the hub of intensive agriculture for city dwellers. Inevitably, fertilisers and pesticides used in this cultivation eventually leach into watercourses. As a result the quality of water in rivers and the lakes has continued to deteriorate and there have been instances in which fish were reported to have died in large numbers. The water hyacinth weed has colonised the nutrient rich waters and has become too stubborn to tackle, while, treating the polluted water to internationally accepted standards has become too expensive.

Lake Chivero catchment The catchment of Lake Chivero comprises 2 136km2 consisting of approximately 10 percent urban development and 90 percent rural area. The Water-borne epidemics and health hazards latter includes communal and commercial farming lands in nearly equal in the aquatic environment are mainly due to improper management of water resources. proportions. The population is heavily tilted towards urban, to the extent that Proper management of water resources has the current astronomical urban population growth will soon not be matched become the need of the hour as this will ultimately lead to a cleaner and healthier envi- by the water intake and waste water output for the urban areas. ronment. In order to prevent the spread of water-borne, infectious diseases, people should take adequate precautions. The city Case study: water hyacinth weed menace in Zimbabwe1 water supply should be properly checked and necessary steps taken to disinfect it. Water pipes should be regularly checked for leaks Water hyacinth in Lake Chiveo has received so much public attention due to and cracks. At home, the water should be its proximity to Harare that Zimbabwe had to institute drastic control boiled, filtered or treated by other methods and necessary steps taken to ensure that it programmes to tackle the negative effects of aquatic weed infestations in its is free of infection. rivers, wetlands and water bodies. Three free floating aquatic weeds – water

175 Table 7.5 Population in Lake Urban Area 1969 1982 1992 2002 Chivero Catchment, 1969-1992 Harare 386 000 658 000 1 189 103 1 435 784 Chitungwiza 15 000 172 000 274 912 323 260 Norton 3 400 12 400 20 405 44 397 Ruwa * * 1 447 22 155 Total Population 389 408 42 400 1 485 867 1 825 596 % of National Population 7.6 11.2 14.29 15.7

* no data available

National Census Reports, CSO data hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes), water lettuce (Pistia stratiotes) and the water carpet, azolla (Azolla azolla) are common in the country’s water bodies. Firle Sewage Works discharges into Mukuvisi However, water hyacinth has had by far the greatest negative social and eco- River and was designed to treat only 70 000m3 nomic effects and widespread infestations and is the most in need of lasting but is now treating 100 000m3 per day (Zaranyika, 1997). It is not suprising that stud- control strategies. ies done by Zaranyika (1997) show that virtually all the indicators of water quality rose after the Firle Sewage Works discharge point. The extent of water hyacinth infestation in Zimbabwe It was then concluded the Firle treated sewage effluent was a significant contributor to Water hyacinth is a native of Amazonia and Brazil in South America, which the pollution of the Mukuvisi River, especially in terms of nitrates, phosphates and heavy has, over the past 100 years, spread to many tropical and subtropical regions metals. With more than 36 000m3 of treated sewage effluent discharged daily into the of the world (Hartley, 1988). In Zimbabwe this weed has infested many rivers Mukuvisi river, the pollutants make the water and water bodies in different parts of the country since its first reported in- conducive for the growth of hycinth (Eichhornia crassipes) (Nhapi, 2000). Another study done troduction in 1937 (see Figure 7.13). The first serious infestations of the by Moyo and Worster (1997) using data from four sampling sites along the Mukuvisi river, weed were reported in the early seventies in Lake Kariba where it was con- shows that Lake Chivero receives water that tained for a while by aerial sprays of herbicides. In recent times, there have is physiologically ideal for the growth of the blue green algae Micrcystis aeruginosa. Gen- been reports of increased re-infestations by the weed. It is estimated that, in erally the phytoplankton species diversity increased after the discharge of treated sew- 1997, the infestations on Lake Kariba covered about 2 500 hectares. age effluent. Eichhornia crassipes formed The hyacinth has also seriously infested the Manyame and Mukuvisi river extensive mats at Firle Works and patches also occurred elsewhere downstream (Nhapi, systems, the Seke dams, Lake Chivero and the Chinamora wetlands. Estimates 2000).

Figure 7.13 Water Hyacinth Infestation in Zimbabwe Gurure, 1999

176 Methods of water hyacinth control of infestations range between 289 and 921 hectares, equivalent to 14.9 to There are four main methods for the control of water hyacinth: 34.9 percent of Lake Chivero between 1991 and 1996. Other severe NUTRIENT ELIMINATION Constant large inflows of improperly treated domestic and industrial infestations have since been reported in the Mana Pools area, Lake Mutirikwi sewage provide eutrophicating nutrients and the Mushagashe river, and in many other small rivers and dams in Bindura, (mainly nitrogen and phosphorous) from industrial and domestic effluent that support Mazowe, Mutoko, Mudzi, Triangle and Chiredzi, among others places. rapid proliferation of weeds. Eliminating the nutrient source can retard proliferation of the weed. Biological characteristics of water hyacinth MANUAL CONTROL This method entails the removal of weeds from the shoreline by hand Biologically, water hyacinth is characterised by: or with rakes and other implements. It is appropriate during the onset when infestation is low and scattered. However, this method MASSIVE VOLUME AND WEIGHT Water hyacinth has large, broad leaves, tubular may create other risks, such as drowning, attack by crocodiles or leeches, and the con- stems and large air tubes, which are either free floating or rooted in the ground traction of water-borne diseases. in shallow waters. It extends a large number of fibrous roots adapted to ab- MECHANICAL REMOVAL OF WEEDS This method is sorb nutrients from the water. The plant forms dense growths in eutrophic associated with high costs of procuring or hir- 2 ing machinery as it typically includes the use waters, forming mats, which may weigh as much as 25 kg/m or 2 500 t/ha. Its of bulldozers and aqua-dozers to mechani- cally pull out weeds from rivers and lakes. proliferation is associated with the levels of nutrients in the aquatic system. Since this method has been used success- For example, Lake Chivero is expected to have much higher rates of weed fully elsewhere, it could be tried in Zimba- bwe. growth than Lake Mutirikwi because of the high nutrient inputs available there.

CHEMICAL CONTROL Herbicides can achieve rapid and significant reductions in weed infestations RAPID GROWTH AND PROPAGATION The plant has very rapid rates of growth, but this methods has a high negative environmental impact from the after effects of which may be as high as 5 percent per day, depending on the nutrient levels. the chemicals. Its biomass, which consists of over 90 percent water, doubles in fifteen to eighteen days. Propagation methods are through vegetative means and through seeds. The seeds can remain viable for periods of up to fifteen years (Scott and Ashton, 1979). Thus, even if the weed were totally removed, the possibility for regeneration would be high, necessitating continuous monitoring programmes after initial eradication.

Problems associated with aquatic weed infestations The specific problems arising from infestation by aquatic weeds are:

EXCESSIVE EVAPO-TRANSPIRATION Large surface area carpets of foliage, allow evapo- transpiration which can be as much as six times that of water surfaces not covered by weeds (Friedel, 1979). Large quantities of water are also lost into the plants, which contain up to 95 percent water. This represents a major water waste concern where conservation of water is a national priority.

DISRUPTION OF FISHING AND TRANSPORT ACTIVITIES Boats and fishing nets get tangled in carpets of weed resulting in occasional breakdowns. The plant com- petes for oxygen and ultimately deprives other aquatic ecosystems of it. The presence of large carpets of weeds is not favourable in fish breeding areas because of its negative effect on fish populations.

OBSTRUCTION OF RECREATIONAL ACTIVITIES The large carpets severely affect accessibility to the water for recreational purposes. Dead and decaying weeds also affect the aesthetic appeal of tourist facilities when water and air quality deteriorate because of debris and unpleasant odours. The impact of weeds on the tourism industry in Zimbabwe needs to be investigated.

OBSTRUCTION OF WATER UPTAKE AND HYDROELECTRIC POWER GENERATION Weeds clog water uptake pipes, sometimes resulting in large costs for the

177 BOX 7.8 ACCESS TO CLEAN W ATER DETERIORAT-

ING

repair of damaged pumps and other machinery. Over the years, City of Harare has had to deal with the increasing costs of repairing and maintaining water uptake equipment from damages associated with weeds. At Kariba, the functioning of the hydroelectric plant has major implications for the economies of not only Zimbabwe, but also other countries in the region – Zambia, the INCIDENCE OF DISEASE Water hyacinth provides favourable habitats for breeding mosquitoes Democratic Republic of Congo and South Africa. Therefore, the hydroelec- and snails, agents related to the spread of tric power generation equipment has to be protected from clogging and dam- malaria and bilharzia respectively. age by weeds. Air Pollution as a Hazard Air pollution is largely the result of transportation and industrial processes, many of which release dangerous gases into the atmosphere. Thus it is basically concentrated in urban areas, meaning that much of our urban population breathes polluted air most of the time. Sulfur dioxide (SO2), a major pollutant, is a corrosive gas harmful to humans and the environment. Electricity generation using fossil fuels is the key source of this compound in some cities. Excessive release of carbon dioxide is largely blamed for the rising global temperatures. Burning of fossil fuels, such as coal, contribute also, emitting other air pollutants, including nitrogen oxides, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and lead, mainly from vehicle exhaust. In Bulawayo and Harare, air pollution problems have manifested themselves as smog, which is directly related to these emissions, especially in winter when they are trapped at the surface by temperature inversion. It has to be noted that, while it is necessary to control the levels of air pollution in Zimbabwe, the problem is not as serious as in other countries where gas masks are recommended at certain times of the season for those outdoors in the city streets. However, Zimbabwe has experienced a rapid expan-

BOX 7.9 DO Y OU K NOW T HAT… DNR (2006)

178 Figure 7.14 National Vehicle Fleet, June 1994-July 1999 IPINA Country Report (2003)

sion in the national vehicle fleet; the number of vehicles almost doubled between 1994 and 1999 (see Figure 7.14). Zimbabwe’s petrol contains about 0.6 to 0.8 mg Pb/l making it justifiable to monitor Pb levels in the country’s urban air, especially in the major cities. However, technological developments now make it possible to treat or collect pollution at its source and the present tight legislation (EMA) is now forcing companies in this direction. Wood is the single largest source of energy for Zimbabweans, supplying about 48 percent of total energy consumed by the total population of approximately 12 million. More than 6 million tonnes of wood are consumed annually, supplying mainly rural and urban low-income households (DNR). These developments have resulted in high emissions of air pollutants. According to city

health data, in 1994 the total annual sulphur dioxide (SO2) emission from thermal power stations was 141 350 tonnes. Emissions from the industrial

sector in the same year were methane (CH4) 19.08 Gg; nitrogen oxide (NOx) 0.21Gg and carbon monoxide (CO) 1.38Gg.

Figure 7.15 Annual Mean Levels

of So2 in Harare, 1995-2001 (μg/ m3) APINA Country Fact Sheet (2003)

179 The City of Harare’s air quality monitoring data show that the SO Effects of air pollution 2 The pollution of the troposphere (lower at- concentration consistently exceeded the WHO guideline of 50 μg/m3 by a mosphere) is damaging to agricultural crops, forests, aquatic systems, buildings and hu- factor of 2.25 (range: 1.73 to 3.96) times between 1995 and 2001, with the man health. Primary pollutants often react to year 2000 recording the highest SO concentration over the seven year period form secondary pollutants (acidic compounds), 2 a frequent cause of environmental damage. (see Figure 7.15). The following effects are possible: · Wood smoke has been identified as a significant risk factor for acute respira- Examples of areas seriously affected by air pollution tory infections, yet in Zimbabwe about 70 percent of the poor in rural and peri-ur- A visit to Torwood Township near ZISCO in Redcliff bears witness to the ban homes are daily exposed to high indoor air pollution concentrations; effects of air pollution on the environment as well as on health. The area has · Crop and vegetation damage by injury to plant tissue resulting in reduced growth literally assumed the colour of exhausts emitted from the blast furnaces at or death of vegetation, reduced crop pro- the mine. The minister responsible for the environment in 1988, had to halt duction in agriculture and increasing susceptibility to disease and drought; further expansions of the township because of compelling medical evidence · Decline in forests due to leaf damage by acidic compounds, acidification of soils, of serious health hazards posed by gas and dust emissions from the Zisco nutrient overload and the stresses of mul- Steel Works. For the same reason, cement and major chemical plants are tiple pollutants; · Damage to aquatic ecosystems so that normally sited west of towns e.g. Sable Chemical near Kwe Kwe and Cement they no longer support life due to water (salination and acidification); Siding in Bulawayo, so that the pollutants do not blow into inhabited areas · Reduced atmospheric visibility and cli- from the prevailing winds which have a predominantly easterly component. mate change; · Corrosion of building materials, such as metals, stone and brick; · Damage to the respiratory tracts of hu- Control of air pollution mans with a negative impact on overall human health; and Pollution can be controlled by laws to establish appropriate standards, and by · A greater burden of the effects on those technology to achieve these standards. Control measures must mainly be car- who are already the most poor and vulnerable. ried out at the source since, unlike water, air is difficult to clean once polluted. The strategies are contained in the specified duties of the Air Pollution Control Unit of Zimbabwe mentioned in Box 7.10.

The Air Pollution Control Unit is headed by an Air Pollution Control Officer BOX 7.10 AIR POLLUTION C ONTROL UNIT who works with Air Pollution Control Inspectors to execute the following duties:

• Examining plans and proposals for new specified processes and for extensions to existing, works like changing from fossil fuels to renewable energy, encouraging effective use of energy; • Advising industry on abatement technologies for air pollution from all specified processes; • Carrying out routine systematic visits to industries for the inspection of abatement equipment on its operation and maintenance; • Creating an awareness of air pollution problems in industry by regular consultation with the public; • Advising and assisting local authorities in the implementation of smoke control regulations within their areas of jurisdiction; • Engaging in isokinetic stack emission sampling of emissions from specified processes throughout the country; and • Enforcing the provisions of the Atmospheric Pollution Prevention Act.

Any establishment that emits substances that pollute the air will have to apply for a BOX 7.11 DID Y OU K NOW T HAT… license from the Environment Management Board and will have to operate according to the conditions stipulated in that license, otherwise it may to be cancelled.

‘The penalty for emissions that contravene the prescribed standards is five years imprisonment or a fine not exceeding 15 million dollars, or both such fine and such imprisonment. The offender is also liable to pay the costs for removing the pollutants and for restoration of the environmental damage’.

Air Quality Standards, EMA There are a number of specific activities undertaken in Zimbabwe to monitor air pollution. These are summarised in Table 7.6. 180 Table 7.6 Summary of Zimbabwe Main sources of Vehicular Air Pollution Information air pollution Industrial processes Extracted from Country Fact Sheet, APINA Mining and mineral processing (2003) Energy production. Agricultural and waste management. Status of monitoring No systematic national monitoring exists but random monitoring is carried out, including specific donor funded projects Data from City of Harare Monitoring Unit, research projects and industry available The Air Pollution Control Unit (APCU) of the City of Harare Health Department, -carries out routine air pollution monitoring at 8 sites (data available for 1995-2001) -investigates complaints from residents on air pollution -controls open burning -is expected to inform the public of air pollution in the City of

HarareThe unit focuses on three pollutants – SO2, nitrogen dioxide

(NO2) and black smoke/soot

Pollutants monitored SO2, CH4, NOx, volatile organic compounds (VOCs), particulate

matter (PM), hydrochloric acid (HCl) and ammonia (NH3) Number of monitoring Three sites used in 1990-91 study by the University of stations Zimbabwe and 8 routinely by the Harare City Health Department Capacity to study air Exists at the University of Zimbabwe, other research pollution institutions and in industry

Air quality standards Drafted and to be implemented

Littering The disposal of solid wastes is a major problem for many towns. Seemingly endless streams of lorries are used to haul wastes long distances to disposal sites from carefully designated collection points, keeping our towns clean. Littering is the ratepayer’s burden The accumulation of litter will need urban au- But, with the growing population in towns and consequent increase in produc- thorities to clean up, purify the dirty water and tion of solid wastes, there is a growing trend towards on-site disposal, which repair burst sewers clogged by litter, thus adding to their routine work and expenses. They only used to be practiced in the rural areas. The management of urban waste will not have any other alternative except to pass on these expenses to ratepayers, re- and surplus materials is very important for the proper environmental manage- sulting in high rates payable to the council. ment of a town and all stakeholders should play their part, especially as indi- The vulnerability of the area to diseases means that medical bills will be higher and viduals, in avoiding littering our towns. even death may result when there are disease outbreaks, such as cholera, dysentery and typhoid. Urban flash floods may also be Litter as a hazard caused by the blockage of storm drains causing traffic jams and road accidents to occur. If organic solid waste is not disposed of and has an odour, major risks are incurred of fly and rat breeding and surface water pollution. Uncollected and accumulating solid waste may also create a depressing and ugly environment, discouraging efforts to improve other aspects of environmental health. Health hazards may result, leading to the outbreak of diseases such as cholera, dysentery and typhoid. Solid waste often blocks drainage channels and leads to further environmental health problems associated with stagnant and polluted According to EMA (CAP 20:27) litter is any- surface water, such as bilhazia and malaria outbreaks. However, the most con- thing thrown away as unwanted material that accumulates in a disorderly manner. It is a spicuous and easily identifiable aspect is the loss of the aesthetic value and state of untidiness and dirt. People create litter in homes, workplaces, prison camps, beauty of an area. schools, college campuses, streets and roads (through vehicle windows as they travel). Lit- ter can be leftover food, empty food contain- Prevention and control of litter ers, plastic, wastepaper, broken bottles and rubble from construction, old scrap metal from Table 7.7 gives some of the actions that should and should not be taken to vehicles and engines, etc. avoid littering and the consequent damage to the environment.

181 Recommended treatment of refuse Figure 7.16 Grading of Litter In your own home, it is recommended that you: Using Labelled Litter Containers • Separate refuse by type, ensuring that material meant for the compost does not go into the litterbin. Compost materials include vegetable and fruit waste, garden waste, newspapers and cardboard boxes, i.e. material that is biodegradable. Biodegradable materials are materials that are capable of being broken down by living organisms into organic matter. • Newspapers, empty bottles, empty plastic containers can be collected and sold to companies that recycle e.g. National Waste Collections Company recycles newspaper. • Take a shopping bag or basket when going shopping to avoid carrying too many plastic bags from the shops, as these may create more litter at home. At school or on a collage campus, you are advised to: • Develop a college or school environment policy and implement it; • Collect all wastepaper from offices, classrooms and lecture rooms for recycling; There is growing trend towards • Set up an Environment Club, which will help in identifying and solving onsite litter disposal in most environmental issues at the school or college; and suburbs in Zimbabwe (below) • Label containers to assist in separating litter e.g. bottles, plastic (http://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Zimbabwe). containers, biodegradable waste and wastepaper (see Figure 7.16). Cooperate bodies and businesses should be responsible and practice recycling or collecting potential litter arising from company products. They can also design environmentally friendly and more biodegradable packaging for a cleaner environment. Offering deposits on packaging returns, such as bottles, tins and plastic containers for reuse is the best practice Municipalities, Rural District Councils and persons responsible for the maintenance at any site are required to: • Ensure that refuse is collected regularly and on time; • Provide containers that are suitable and large enough to contain the litter; • Put in place by-laws that help control litter within their areas of administration;

BOX 7.12 THE P ENALTY FOR CAUSING LITTER-

ING

Table 7.7 Litter Don’ts and Dos Don’t Do Discard, dump or leave any litter on any land, Place litter in a container provided for that storm drain, water surface, street, road or purpose on the street, roadside, school, site in any place not provided for such pur- college campus or at home pose Discard litter at a place that has been specially set apart for such purpose, like a waste Throw litter through windows and doors of disposal site or dumpsite private or public vehicles Put litter in a container provided for that purpose in a public vehicle

182 • Provide adequate, and well planned and designed waste dumping sites and landfills; and • Carry out public awareness raising campaigns for a litter free environment in their areas of jurisdiction.

Global Warming Global climate change is now viewed as a serious issue by the Government of Zimbabwe, as the weight of scientific evidence regarding climate change appears to indicate that the threat from global warming due to a build up of greenhouse gases (GHGs) is real. (Ministry of Mines, Environment and Tour- ism, 2003). Government has acknowledged that large scale anthropogenic activities throughout the world may have global consequences, traversing continents as well as national boundaries. The government signed the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in 1992 at the Rio Earth Summit and ratified it in November of the same year. While Zimbabwe’s contribution to global emissions of GHGs is relatively small, the driving force behind this concern is the potentially serious impacts that global climate change might have on the country (Ministry of Mines Environ- ment and Tourism, 2003). Human-induced global warming will present people and the government with real challenges in the future, particularly in terms of pollution control, regional water management policies, and food production. Given the heavy dependence of the country on rainmfed agriculture, the absence of natural lakes, frequent occurrence of droughts in the region and a growing population, the potential social and economic impacts from climate change could be devastating.

Zimbabwe Meteorological Office Figure 7.17 indicates a steady increase in both the annual minimum and annual maximum temperatures for Beitbridge town in Matabeleland South over the previous half century (1951 to 2001). However, there is no evidence to link this increase in temperature exclusively to climate change, as it could also be a manifestation of natural climatic variability. Despite this lack of a Figure 7.17 Minimum and Maxi- conclusive climate change related trend, the several models used to predict mum Temperature Trends, the temperature change for Southern Africa confirm that the region will not Beitbridge, 1951-2001 (oC) escape the effects of global warming (IPCC, 1990). Global warming is an increase in the average temperature of the earth’s atmosphere and oceans, caused by modification of the chemical composition of

183 the atmosphere, particularly by increasing those gases that absorb the earth’s infrared radiation.The term is also used for the scientific theory of anthropogenic global warming, which attributes much of the recently observed and projected global warming to a human-induced intensification of the greenhouse effect. Temperature change is just one aspect of the broader subject of (human-induced) climate change. The scientific opinion on climate change, as expressed by the UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is that the global average surface temperature relative to 1990 is projected to increase by about 2° C (http://www.wmo.ch/climate/1996/wmo/statement). Since comparable records began in 1861, the 1990s were globally the warmest decade. Figure 7.18 shows an increase in global temperatures since 1860. Recent scientific evidence also indicates that the 1900s were the warmest century during the last 1 000 years. The ten warmest years have all occurred since 1983. The four warmest years were 1998 (+0.58°C above normal), 1997 (+0.44), 1995 (+0.38) and 1990 (+0.35) (http://www.wmo/climate/1999). Like most other regions of the world, the temperature series in Africa show long term warming. The warmth of the last century is near record levels in Southern Africa (WMO, 1998). The (GHGs) emitted by Zimbabwe, in order of importance are, carbon dioxide, (CO2), methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O). These national emissions are significantly influenced by a population distribution that is approximately 30 percent urban. The remaining 70 percent live either in rural areas or on commercial farms. Wood fuel forms the main energy source for most rural people. Paradoxically trees play a vital role in recycling carbon dioxide by taking in carbon dioxide, transforming it chemically, storing the carbon and releasing the oxygen into the air. When trees are cut down for fuel wood, they release stored carbon to the air as carbon dioxide to further aggravate the global warming problem. Recently, in Central Africa, the virgin rainforests were found to have air pollution levels comparable to industrial areas (Nhapi, 2000). A major cause of this pollution is the fires that rage for months in the dry season across huge stretches of land to clear shrubs and trees for the production of crops and grasses and, at times, to aid in hunting. Forest fires have become annual outbreaks of unprecedented levels and are causing major concern in Zimbabwe as well. The concerns do not stem from deforestation alone, but the considerable amounts of carbon dioxide emitted into the atmosphere during the process.

The impacts of climate change on Zimbabwe Zimbabwe is landlocked, largely semi arid, has no natural lakes, and suffers from periodic droughts. A shift in rainfall patterns and to a warmer climate could have severe implications on the economy, especially in terms of water resources, vegetation and forestry, agriculture, manufacturing based on agriculture, and tourism. It is also vulnerable to a high incidence of malaria due to possible expansion of malaria endemic areas. Thus critical areas of potential climate change impacts are related to water supply, food security and health. The two main climatic parameters that determine the socioeconomic pros- pects, as well as the problems in the country, are the annual rainfall (its spatial and temporal distribution) and temperature fluctuations. Some socioeconomic constraints may manifest themselves in the following sectors: SUBSISTENCE AGRICULTURE The majority of the population is still engaged in subsistence agriculture and depends on rain (and catchment dams) for crop

184 Figure 7.18 Global Temperatures in the Past 150 Years

production. A warmer regional climate poses threats of reduced water supplies and expanding areas in which the staple crop, maize, may become more difficult to grow. Increase in rainfall extremes may lead to highly variable yields in arable agriculture (both rain fed and irrigated). Livestock production may face the problem of poor and variable rangeland productivity and desertification processes. WATER DEMAND The water demand is made up of water used for domestic purposes, irrigation, livestock, industry and energy generation. Increased drought frequency and severity of droughts is likely to add more stress to water demand for these uses, especially an increase in irrigation water requirements due to increased potential evapo-transpiration. Preventative and rehabilitative afforestation activities may be negatively affected by deficient rainfall. THE WATER SUPPLY-DEMAND RELATIONSHIP Studies done on the Zimbabwe river catchment system shows that, although the catchments will in any case be water scarce as a result of an increase in demand due to population growth and allied uses, climatic change will make conditions more severe. HUMAN HEALTH Another threat from global warming is its impact on human health. A particular threat is the potential spread of malaria to a wider geographical area of the country. Presently, malaria tends to be a year round prob-

TOURISM This depends on sustained lem only in low lying areas such as the Zambezi valley, although the trends are biodiversity, both in terms of favoured wild- on the increase. (refer to Chapter 5 for more details on malaria). Warmer life species, such as elephants, and a healthy, supportive ecosystem. A warmer climate could temperatures allow mosquitoes that transmit diseases such as malaria and result in changes to the ecosystem, the food dengue fever to extend their range and increase both their biting rate and their chain, and the wildlife that tourists come to ability to infect humans. Thus the vector mosquito may migrate into higher see. Most of the tourism in Zimbabwe is particularly susceptible to droughts. If water lev- elevation areas where malaria is presently not a serious problem. Other cli- els are low in the Zambezi river, this cuts back mate change associated diseases that are expected to increase, are cholera, on recreational activity in the Kariba Dam and at the Victoria Falls. Recurrent droughts and dengue fever, yellow fever and general morbidity. the expansion of human settlements may lead to decimation of wildlife population. For example the 1991/92 drought resulted in the Adaptations to ameliorate climate change deaths of wildlife, especially elephants, in major national parks. The major national The following are actions to consider in order to lessen and reverse the impact parks of Hwange and Gonarezhou are located of climate change: in semi-arid ecological zones of the country and other tourism centres that are also de- CHANGE LAND USE PRACTICES Forest diversity and extensiveness, should be pendent on good rains to maintain their beau- tiful scenery and sustain flora and fauna may maintained by altering land use, harvesting and planting practice to allow for- not be spared. 185 ests to adapt to climate change, conserving large tracts of natural forest (for HYDROELECTRIC POWER GENERATION Generation of example, the demarcated forest reserves, nature reserves and national parks) hydroelectric power at Kariba (Zimbabwe) could be adversely affected. For example, the and expanding as well as connecting protected areas with conservation corri- Kariba Hydroelectric Power Station on the gi- dors for wildlife (NDR, 2006). ant Zambezi River was unable to provide the normal supply of electrical energy to either Zambia or Zimbabwe during the 1991/92 PROTECT AREAS UNDER STRESS Protecting critical habitat and potential areas drought. of expansion of species and forest communities likely to come under stress TROPICAL CYCLONES Tropical cyclone increasingly due to altered climate regimes. With tourism, water management within na- cause flooding due their increased frequency and intensity. From 1950, twelve tropical cy- tional parks may have to be explored to keep wildlife within the parks and clones affected the country, but four of these were in the past decade. These were Bonita, reduce migration to external areas. 1996, Lissette 1997, Eline 2000, and Japhet 2003. The most intense tropical cyclone of IMPROVE FOREST MANAGEMENT Managing and planning land uses around for- the century, as measured by rainfall and destruction was Eline in 2000 (Met Office). ested areas, to identify and manage areas of potential forest migration or decline, especially corridors or buffer zones along water bodies.

INCREASE DAMS AND GROUNDWATER RESOURCES More dams could be built to increase national water storage capacity. The amount of water stored as groundwater is still unknown in Zimbabwe. Improvement in the knowledge of groundwater storage may indicate that groundwater is a feasible source of water that can be developed to cushion the impact of climate change.

INVEST IN WATER CATCHMENT AND DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS Investment in water catchment and distribution systems, like the Zambezi Water Project, could counter the effects of climate change, by tapping water from the Zambezi River. Immense volumes of water, which otherwise flow daily into the Indian Ocean, could greatly reduce water problems to the perennially water deficit provinces of Matabeleland.

USE WATER EFFICIENTLY It is estimated that agriculture currently uses about 80 percent of the country’s surface water resources. Irrigation efficiencies vary from 40 to 60 percent. The improvement in water use efficiency is one form of adaptation that has minimal costs.

CHANGE TO DROUGHT RESISTANT CROPS The agriculture sector is quite vulnerable, with marginally productive areas likely to shift to non-agricultural use. For areas where crop production becomes non-viable, livestock and dairy production may be developed as major agricultural activities. Other solutions relate to developing new plant varieties that are more drought tolerant and disease resistant crops, so that farmers can change to these. They could also switch to different crops that grow in the new climatic conditions.

INVEST IN IRRIGATION SYSTEMS In areas of high temperatures and high evapo- transpiration rates the introduction of irrigation systems would help to sustain agricultural production. Switching from monoculture to diversified agriculture is one of the more popular adaptive measures. However, it can be expected that local farmers – mainly subsistence – are conservative and would only gradually accept growing other crops. INTRODUCE NEW SPECIES Introduction of both native and exotic species, as a means of facili- INCREASE FARMING SKILLS Cash crops, such as tobacco, need high levels of tating shifts in forest range (for example, planting native or exotic species that may skill, specialised equipment and capital to grow successfully. already be favourably adapted to future climate at the latitudinal or altitudinal ecozones of present community ranges). Such species USE SUPPLEMENTARY FEEDS Use of supplementary feeds and livestock breeds may include drought or heat resistant species for regions projected to become drier.

186 that are adaptable to drought will enable farmers to cope with some adverse climate change impacts. This again requires cash injections and the more vulnerable groups are usually not considered creditworthy, or are sceptical of borrowing and possess no formal training on agricultural practices.

MANAGE THE CHANGES Changes in agriculture management practices can also offset the negative impacts of climate change. The timing of farming operations (for example, planting dates, and application of fertilisers, insecticides, and herbicides) becomes imperative if farmers are to reduce their vulnerability to climate change. Changing plant densities and application rates of fertilisers and agrochemicals would also help farmers to cope with the impacts.

Reducing greenhouse gas emissions To protect the health and economic wellbeing of current and future generations, it is necessary to reduce our emissions of heat trapping gases by using the technology, know how, and practical solutions already at our disposal. Existing strategies include: • Reducing the rate of deforestation (see section on deforestation above). Planting trees helps to meet community needs for wood and to provide profits for individual farmers practicing agroforestry. • Increasing the efficiency of energy production and use. Energy efficiency should be promoted in urban areas and renewable energy sources such as wind power, water power, geothermal, and solar, should be supported. These may be of great use in areas where no electricity sources exist. • Developing regulations to curb pollution from traffic emissions and industry in urban areas.

Ozone Depletion Chloroflocarbons (CFCs) are used in the country as coolants in air conditioners, and propellants in aerosol spray cans. They are also used to clean electric parts, as hospital sterilising agents, and as blowing agents to puff liquid plastic into Styrofoam and other foams used for insulation and packaging. In addition, they are used in preserving stored agricultural products like maize. CFCs were first produced by General Motors in 1928, specifically to replace the more expensive and toxic refrigerant ammonia. The inventor was highly regarded as the multiple purposes of CFCs became apparent. The problem arose when it was discovered that the presumed friendly gas lowers the concentration of an even more life sustaining gas in the atmosphere, ozone. Ultraviolet radiation is a high energy wave that can cause cell damage in plants and animals. It is associated with skin cancer and cataracts, and reduced phytoplankton in the oceans (Fig 7.19). The depletion of ozone in the atmosphere removes the shielding effect provided by ozone, thus exposing the earth to the harmful effects of UV radiation. The ultraviolet light interacting with oxygen molecules also creates natural ozone. Problems occur when chlorine is present because the ultraviolet light breaks down ozone, to oxygen molecules. The chlorine atom then frees itself to attack other ozone molecules, repeating the same process (see Fig- ure 7.20), eventually depleting the atmosphere of this shielding molecule. Thus the thinning of the ozone layer is caused by released CFCs (i.e. with

187 BOX 7.13 INDICATORS OF CLIMATE CHANGE IN SUB-SAHARAN A FRICAN Union of Concerned Scientists (UCS) and World Resources Institute (WRI) (1999)

chlorine). A trend of decreasing ozone has been observed since the industrial revolution due to the increase of CFCs, which are non-reactive in the lower atmosphere but catalyse the destruction of ozone in the upper atmosphere. All substances containing CFCs are collectively known as ozone depleting substances (ODS).

Effects of ozone depletion Ozone depletion has negative effects at a number of different levels, as elaborated below:

HEALTH EFFECTS Reductions in ozone levels lead to higher levels of ultraviolet light reaching the Earth’s surface. The sun’s output of ultraviolet light does not change; rather, less ozone means less protection, and hence more ultraviolet light reaching the earth. Non-melanoma skin cancer will certainly increase in light skinned individuals and people living near the equator. Ultra- violet light also reduces the ability of the body’s immune system to fight foreign substances entering through the skin. Diseases of the eye, such as cataracts and deterioration of the cornea and retina, are also associated with UV light.

Ozone is a rare form of oxygen, which is com- EFFECTS ON MARINE LIFE Phytoplankton form the foundation of aquatic food posed of three (normal oxygen gas has two) webs. Phytoplankton productivity is limited to the euphotic zone, the upper atoms of oxygen. Most of the atmospheric ozone is concentrated in the upper atmo- layer of the water column in which there is sufficient sunlight to support net sphere, or stratosphere, forming the ozono- sphere or the ozone layer, and is located from productivity. Ultraviolet radiation can penetrate the ocean’s surface, 11 to 24km above the earth. The gas is a damaging the phytoplankton, thus affecting their growth and reproduction. As natural sunscreen that filters some (about 30 percent) of the ultraviolet radiation travelling fish provide an average of 14 percent of the animal protein in the world (60 from the sun to Earth, as some of the UV is used up in the breakdown of ozone to oxy- percent in Japan), the impact could be significant. gen gas.

188 Africa’s “Shining Mountain” may soon shine no more. The snow and ice on the summit of Mount Kilimanjaro is melting so fast that some scientists believe its icecap could be gone by the year 2015. The icecap formed more than 11 000 years ago. Researchers say the ice fields on Africa’s highest mountain shrank by 80 percent over the past century.

About a foot and a half of the summit’s glacial ice is lost each year due to rising surface temperatures. There is concern that the loss of Kilimanjaro’s icecap could impact upon both the local climate and the availability of fresh water for local populations who depend upon the glacial melt runoff, particularly during the dry seasons.

The Landsat 5 and Landsat 7 satellites captured this pair of images over Mount Kilimanjaro on February 17, 1993 (top), and February 21, 2000 (bottom).

Melting Snows of Kilimanjaro in March 1993 (above) 2000 (below)

http://ocrl.kordi.re.kr/directory/20021224e.htm A Shadow of a Lake: Africa's Disappearing Lake Chad

(NASS Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) Online News Release 27/02/01)

Lake Chad, once one of the African continent's largest bodies of fresh water, has dramatically decreased in size due to climate change and human demand for water. Once a great lake close in surface area to North America's Lake Erie, Lake Chad is now a ghost of its former self. According to a study by University of Wisconsin-Madison researchers, working with NASA's Earth Observing System program, the lake is now 1/20th of the size it was 35 years ago.

Found at the intersection of four different countries in West Africa (Chad, Niger, Nigeria and Cameroon,) Lake Chad has been the source of water for massive irrigation projects. In addition, the region has suffered from an increasingly dry climate, experiencing a significant decline in rainfall since the early 1960's.

The most dramatic decrease in the size of the lake is shown in the fifteen years between January 1973 and January 1987. Beginning in 1983 the amount of water used for irrigation began to increase. Ultimately, between 1983 and 1994, the amount of water diverted for purposes of irrigation quadrupled from the amount used in the previous 25 years. The first image, taken with the Argon satellite in October 1963, and three subsequent Landsat satellite images taken in January 1973, January 1987, and January 1997, show the progression of the lake as it shrinks. This additional time lapse sequence shows Lake Chad shrinking ever smaller over the course of four decades. The red color denotes vegetation on the lake bed and the ripples on the western edge of the lake denote sand dunes formed by the wind.

The Landsat 5 and Landsat 7 satellites captured this pair of images over Mount Solar UV light radiation has been found to cause damage in the early develop- Kilimanjaro on February 17, 1993 (top), and mental stages of fish, shrimp, crab, amphibians and some animals. The most February 21, 2000 (above). severe effects are decreased reproductive capacity and impaired larval development. Even at current levels, solar UV radiation is a limiting factor, and small increases in UV exposure could result in a significant reduction in the size of the population of animals that eat these smaller creatures.

EFFECTS ON PLANTS The physiological and developmental processes of plants are affected by UV radiation, even by the amount of ultraviolet light in present day sunlight. Despite mechanisms to reduce or repair these effects and a limited ability to adapt to increased levels of UV light, plant growth can be directly affected by UV radiation. Indirect changes caused by UVB (such as changes in plant form, how nutrients are distributed within the plant, timing of developmental phases and secondary metabolism) may be equally, or sometimes more, important than the immediate damaging effects of UV light. These changes can have important implications for plant competitive balance, herbivory, plant diseases, and bio- geochemical cycles.

International cooperation International cooperation to limit CFC emissions through an international A composite of Landsat-7 images from Novem- treaty called the Montreal Protocol intended to reduce production and use of ber 2000 to February 2001 shows the present CFCs by 50 percent from 1986 levels before the year 2000 in industrialised stage of Lake Chad. The small patch of blue nations, but developing countries were allowed to increase their use slightly. that is now the lake stands in stark contrast to Meanwhile research is attempting to address the need for CFC substitutes, the wide swath of the old lake bed (shown in green, indicating vegetation). minimising loss to the atmosphere, and recycling. Countries can regulate im- (source GSFC 2001) port and use of aerosols and disposal of refrigeration units.

189 Figure 7.19 How the Ozone Layer Shields Earth’s Life from Uultraviolet Radiation

Table 7.8 Country Sta- Area/Sector Substance Application Consumption ODP ODP tus: ODS Consumption in Zimbabwe (tonnes) Refrigeration R12 Charging and servicing 113.0 1.0 113.0 (Domestic)

Refrigeration R12, R115, Car and 15.0 1.0 15.0 (Commercial) R11, R22 room AC; Commercial 0.5 0.6 0.3 display units; Room AC cleaning 68.0 1.0 68.0 and system purging; 28.0 0.056 1.54 Large display units

Foams R11 Blowing agent 20.0 1.0 7.0 8.2 10.0 82.0

Fire fighting H1301, H1211 Charging fixed and portable units 5.0 3.0 15.0

Aerosols R12 Propellant; Seedbed fumigation; 7.0 1.0 7.0 Soil

Agriculture MeBr Sterilisation; Grain stack fumigation 600.0 0.7 420.0

Figure 7.20 How CFCs Destroy Ozone in the Atmosphere

Possible risk reduction measures are: · Total prohibition of importation and use of ODS; · Increased tariffs on ODS imports; · Code of practice/conduct of sale measures on use of ODS; · Individual governments specifying ODS phasing out procedures; · Procedure for permits and period of validity for ODS use; · A ban on second hand ODS equipment; · Penalties for non-compliance including deterrent fines, imprisonment and cancella- tion of permits; · Providing incentives for recovery of ODS equipment already in use; and · Providing incentives for importers of non- ODS and ozone friendly equipment.

190 CHAPTER 8 Disaster Risk Managemnet in the Education Sector

Introduction As discussed in previous chapters, Zimbabwe is so prone to various disasters that the important role that educators and students can play in creating awareness in their communities is obvious. Moreover children are among the most vulnerable population group during a disaster, especially those attending school at the time of the event. During disasters, it is quite common for school buildings to be destroyed, at times, injuring or taking the lives of children and teachers. Access to education in the aftermath of a disaster can be interrupted and rebuilding schools can take years because of the, often high, costs involved and the limited resources available in a country such as Zimbabwe.

Learning about disaster risk management in primary and secondary schools The photograph below shows how an educa- and even at higher levels, helps students to play their essential role in saving tion institution can easily be turned into a disaster prone institution, churning out ‘haz- lives and protecting members of the community in times of a disaster. Mak- ardous’ graduates. The Bindura University of Science Education’s faculty of Commerce was ing disaster risk education an integral part of the national school curriculum gutted by fire during a student demonstra- helps to build greater awareness of the issues across entire communities. tion on 10 May 2006. Such incidents clearly demonstrate a lack of disaster literacy among Educators and students can do a lot of work in generating awareness, identify- the students. Fortunately no one was hurt during the fracas but the event goes down in ing areas of vulnerability, coping with them and working together as a team to history as the worst in the country’s institu- reduce the impact of disasters on the community. They should manifest the tions of higher learning. deep social responsibility that an institution such as a school or college has within its surroundings. In addition to their role in formal education, institutions must also protect students from natural and human made hazard. Invest- ing in strengthening school structures before a disaster occurs, reduces the long term costs, protects generations of children and ensures educational continuity after the event.

The country’s worst fire disaster at an institution of higher learning. The whole of Bindura University Faculty of Commerce was razed to the ground along with property worth more than $Z 280 million during student unrest on 10 May 2006. (Source: BUSE May Newsletter, 2006)

191 In this chapter, we look at how schools can entrench a culture of disaster resistance. A three part approach to reducing the vulnerability of schools is adopted, focusing on the roles of buildings, teachers and students, and the community. The purpose is to make schools, especially those in high disaster risk areas safer, enabling them to act as a locus for disaster risk reduction and helping to build the disaster risk reduction awareness of children, parents, teachers and local communities. Schoolteachers and children can become model disaster managers for a community that has faced a severe disaster in the recent past. It is with this chapter that teachers should be able to ascertain that students have acquired disaster prevention literacy, and knowledge of local disaster history and local natural disaster mechanisms, and have developed a spirit of volunteerism and harmony. The underlying factor is the recognition that disaster training/education at all levels is the key to creating a

“…If education is meant to prepare students for life, then it must take into account that there are natural and man-made hazards which simply cannot be ignored. Every BOX 8.1 DISASTER EDUCATION community is vulnerable, to a greater or lesser extent, to the threat of loss of life and property as a result of a disaster. A proper education does not promote fear or fatalism. It empowers students to take the necessary measures to reduce the level of risk, and to act as multiplying agents in their own communities.”

Manuel Ramirez, Regional Consultant, Disaster Education, Costa Rica

cadre of trained personnel in the global battle for disaster reduction (see Box Although the reviewed Civil Protection Act (2005) advocates the integration of disaster 8.1). risk reduction issues into the education system, hazard mitigation is not the responsibility of government agencies alone. Small, In this section we concentrate on primary and secondary school buildings and inexpensive measures can be taken to re- the children in this age group, as our information indicates that, by virtue of duce vulnerability in the education sector and can make a great impact. Simple things like their location and numbers, they are the most vulnerable. However, lecturers wrapping textbooks in plastic bags and storing them a few metres off the floor at the should recognise that universities and colleges can also play a key role as end of each school term may save thousands agents for change, by exercising their immense capacity to modify attitudes of dollars if wind and torrential rain from severe storms or tropical cyclones happen to and customs, a key factor in disaster risk management. Because they train flood a classroom. teachers, among other professionals, the effects can multiply and cascade to primary and secondary education, ensuring that future generations are disaster risk management literate. During Cyclone Eline, many schools were blown to pieces, especially in Matabeleland South and Manicaland. Such incidences of severe damage to schools show the vulnerability of Zimbabwe’s educational sector to hazards. There are a number of notable hazards with a direct bearing on educational institutions, some of which are: • Droughts that have occurred over the years and are the most serious hazard in Zimbabwe, especially affecting the school going age group; • Scores of school children being swept away by flooded rivers every year while trying to cross on their way to and from school; • Water bodies that pose a serious threat, as in the case of the Lake Chivero ferry tragedy of 1997, in which 22 school children perished when their boat capsized; • Bus accidents e.g. the Nyanga bus disaster of 1990, in which 89 school children were killed; • Many school buildings being gutted by fire every year, e.g. the complete destruction of the Faculty of Commerce Staff Block worth Z$ 280 million at Bindura University, during student demonstrations in May 2006;

192 • Mass hysteria, which occurs intermittently, particularly in boarding schools; • Infrastructure damage, such as roofs being blown off by strong winds and collapse of buildings; and • Other potential hazards, including disease outbreaks, fires, food poisoning. etc.

As gloomy as this picture may appear, there is much that can be done by school A school whose roof was blown off officials to plan for disaster, to mitigate the risk, to protect the safety of during a severe thunderstorm in students and educators, and to ensure that schools recover quickly. The Civil Zvimba Protection Department (CPD) cannot undo the damage of a severe storm on (Source: CPD, 24 November 2004) an unprepared school or push back the clock after a flood has swept away a child’s school year. Prevention is always the best disaster action.

Types of School Crises There are many types of crises that can affect schools but they fall broadly into three categories – personal tragedies (both in and out of school), in- school or on-site crises, and out-of-school or off-site crises.

Personal tragedies Copping with bereavement, of individual pupils and/or staff, is one of the biggest challenges facing many institutions. Occasionally, the need to deal with shock and bereavement among the entire staff and student body occurs after the death or serious injury of a pupil or member of staff, perhaps as a result of a road accident or sudden serious illness. Personal tragedy, such as death or bereavement, is difficult for any person to handle. Schools need to be aware of the main symptoms that pupils and staff might exhibit when they have been unable to grieve; a decline in performance and an inability to concentrate are two particularly noticeable ones. Counselling facilities should School under water December be made available at any institution and symbolic acts of comfort, such as 2007. The school was built near the attending funerals or holding a memorial day when someone who was a part banks of the Save River of the institution has died should be considered. (source CPU, December 2007)

In-school or on-site crises These include: • Death of a pupil or member of staff through accident or illness; • Fire or flooding of building (or other destruction); and • A deliberate act of violence, such as a knife attack or the use of a firearm.

Death at school: BOX 8.2 WORST CASE EXAMPLES A deputy headmaster of Rusvingo Primary School in Harare’s Highfield suburb, was shot CPD dead through the mouth while one of the female primary school teachers, was shot three times in the shoulder, hip and stomach right in front of primary school children by an identified woman.

Death out of school: Such whole institution shock occurs occasionally, as seen earlier (Chapter 6) when Moleli Secondary School and Masvingo Teachers’ college lost 34 and 23 students respectively in different accidents.

Incident at school:

Students from Belvedere Teacher’s College in Harare jumped out of the second floor of a dormitory building after an earthquake at midnight on 23 February 2006. Fourteen were injured, three of them seriously.

193 Out of school or off-site crises Some examples are: • Deaths or serious injuries on school trips; • National tragedies affecting many schools; and • Civil disturbances, including acts of terrorism. Box 8.2 below shows some of the worst cases of deaths and other incidents that have occurred in Zimbabwe involving students in and out of school premises.

Disaster Risk Management Training and Education in Schools Zimbabweans naturally regard schools as a refuge during disasters as well as a gathering place for various other functions, such as national election polling stations and food relief distribution points. Schools also have another important function, in that that they offer the only place where disaster risk management education can be carried out systematically. Schools thus have two functions – a place of refuge and a place of disaster mitigation education (see Figure 8.1). Figure 8.1 Disaster Cycle and School Functions

Disaster risk management training and education are essential components in ensuring the long term benefits of disaster risk reduction strategies and goals. Their natural function of knowledge dissemination makes schools the most relevant institutions to lay the foundation for an understanding of the concepts and the knowledge necessary for disaster resistant communities. This section follows the approach of Glasgow (1986), who emphasises the necessity of using the formal education system to,

…teach deliberately towards, not just acquisition of knowledge with respect to possible disasters, but towards the development of mental problem solving skills and most importantly of all and most difficult of all - towards the inculcation of an attitude of concern for the environment which will lead to a commitment to However, as disaster risk management edu- participate in a disciplined way in activities for its protection and cation is just beginning in Zimbabwe’s improvement. schools, it is assumed that there are neither sufficient materials nor a concrete approach to this type of education at the moment. Disaster management education so far has been aimed mainly at ensuring that Teachers facing this problem should not feel at a loss when carrying out disaster mitiga- staff and students know how to respond during an emergency and immedi- tion education. Disaster prevention and miti- ately after a disaster has occurred, e.g. training in evacuation and extinguish- gation should be taught, starting from the student’s own immediate reality – their so- ing fires. When the Total Disaster Risk Management (TDRM) approach was cial, economic, and natural environment. It is vital that students be encouraged to change introduced in Chapter 2, learners should have noticed that not only concrete their perceptions and attitudes toward risk aspects, such as building codes, reconstruction of buildings, roads and bridges, management, instead of the educator simply providing information and expecting stu- a reliable supply of water and so on are vital, but also that less tangible as- dents to memorise it. This book can always be supplemented through consultation with pects, such as the importance of the community, help from neighbours, the the CPD. 194 importance of human life, and welfare and human rights, are also an integral Students need personal and social skills to: · Learn and practice safety skills; part of disaster mitigation. This should stimulate students to think about how · Take responsibility for their own actions and those of others; we live in a symbiotic society by linking the natural and the social environ- · Be able to ask for help; ment, thus making it easy to relate disaster mitigation to every aspect of school · Develop the confidence to give advice; · Deal with unhelpful stereotypes and pres- studies. It is possible for teachers to offer disaster mitigation education as a sures; and · Recognise risk and make the safest pos- part of every subject if they wish to. sible choices.

Developing the curriculum Disaster risk management education is not necessarily about isolating children and young people from all potential hazards, but about equipping them to deal with situations safely. The curriculum developer’s aim should be to identify where in the curriculum they can teach the personal and social skills vital to disaster risk management. Safety issues provide an excellent context for the development of these personal and social skills. But in an overloaded curriculum it is necessary that the range of important safety contexts are covered – home, school, work, road, rail, water, leisure – and that they are introduced and developed to match the age and ability of children and young people. Regular participation in mock drills and minimum emphasis on learning of concepts should be encouraged at school going age. The national curriculum has health and safety as an important requirement in the teaching of subjects that are laboratory based, and in those subjects where students carry out practical activities and use tools and equipment. Since the students work in an environment with hazards and risks in these subjects, it is during the introductory stages of these subjects that pupils can be taught (based on the understanding provided in Chapter1) to: • Recognise the types of hazard they face, the risks and risk control; • Identify the nature of hazards, assess consequent risks and take steps to control the risks to themselves and others; • Use information to assess the immediate and cumulative risks; Figure 8.2 Safety Education in the • Manage their environment to ensure that they do not expose themselves English Curriculum and others to risks; and Adapted from RoSPA Safety Education (http:/ • /www.rospa.com/safetyeducation/info/ Be able to explain the steps they take to minimise or eliminate the risks. keystage1.pdf)

195 BOX 8.3 THE GREEN C ROSS C ODE

Personal and social skills Entrenching a culture of taking responsibility for social and moral issues in students is vital. This can be achieved by designing safety rules and safer ways of doing things within the school environment. Students are very prone to peer pressure and they need skills to deal with these pressures and the kind of stereotypes that can encourage risk taking. Envying and imitating the habits of their film heroes e.g. of driving fast, are some examples. Personal and social skills like assertiveness are useful in situations where pupils need to ask for help or ask someone to stop doing something dangerous. The green cross code is a very important road crossing skill to be adopted by every student (Box 8.3). Health skills, such as first aid procedures, also need to be taught and practiced.

Selecting and adapting disaster material to meet specific subject objectives Figure 8.3 Safety Education in the The educational objectives of the teacher or trainer should be based on the Mathematics Curriculum needs of the course participants. The following are some examples of how Adapted from RoSPA Safety Education (http:/ the resource book could be used in developing programmes. It is envisaged /www.rospa.com/safetyeducation/info/ keystage1.pdf) that teachers will be able to find relevant material to assist in achieving the

196 long term goal with respect to disaster reduction, in developing an educated If counselling services are presently absent at the institution, they must be established and trained Zimbabwean society, capable of building resilience to natural haz- alongside health facilities. Integrating ado- ards. Teachers can incorporate disaster preparedness into lessons of science, lescents needs in health services, including counselling, enhances their access to neces- geography, art, reading and other subjects. They can also use stories, activi- sary information. Intersectoral linkages, mass awareness, local community mobilisation, ties and games to make disaster preparedness appealing, especially when deal- health service providers’ orientation and ing with youngsters. Examples of how disaster risk preparedness could be sensitisation, peer education and information centres would be instrumental in sustaining a incorporated into the Mathematics and English curriculums are shown in Fig- pragmatic approach for HIV and AIDS pre- ures 8.2 and 8.3. These are by no means exhaustive and could also be repeated vention and management in schools. in other core subjects. Information on several types of disasters that may be selected for illustration and demonstration can be found in the earlier chapters of this resource book. This includes graphs and pie charts as well as raw data.

Incorporating disaster management in the secondary curriculum Several chapters in this resource book can be used to provide case studies, projects and success stories for various subjects in the curriculum, as outlined below:

CASE STUDIES While studying disaster mitigation, the students should not only attend lectures to obtain knowledge, but also set problems or give themselves tasks to accomplish, possibly in cooperation with other students. They may use case studies, such as the one concerning a solution flooding in Muzarabani (Chapter 3) or the one on possible downstream and national effects of the Kariba Dam wall failure (Chapter 4).

PROJECTS Students may be encouraged to do projects or field assignments on various aspects of preparedness, like hazard mapping of their community, how vulnerable their school would be in the event of a disaster and the procedures to follow if such an event occurred. They may also recognise other potential hazards in and around their communities.

SUCCESS STORIES Students may want to discuss how Zimbabwe has managed to lower the AIDS infection rate and other success stories in the fight against common hazards in the country. Integrating HIV and AIDS prevention and management in the education system. The gravity of HIV and AIDS in Zimbabwe schools clearly shows that sporadic effort alone will not address adolescents’ vulnerability to the disease in the country context. This has to become an integral part of the public health and education systems, which have the largest network and outreach. Teach- ers should be aware that adolescence has specific reproductive and sexual health needs. In the absence of appropriate information, education and coun- Road safety education can contribute to the general educational goals of the whole cur- selling, and silence around sexuality, adolescents tend to indulge in high risk riculum by promoting moral, cultural, mental, and physical development, and prepar- behaviour, thereby becoming susceptible to HIV infection. ing children for the opportunities, responsibilities and experiences of adult life. School Schools should work towards devising and implementing strategies that road safety education programmes should address the safety needs of all ages, although primarily include community awareness and mobilisation as well as the recommendations and activities described in this resource book are mainly applicable orientation and sensitisation of the nearest district functionaries, health to school age children. Teachers must also service providers and other schoolteachers on adolescent sexual and not forget the needs of pre-school children and of adults, especially the needs of young reproductive health (ASRH). Efforts should be made to frequently work with adults who may be the most in need of a steadying influence. 197 Within an education for living programme, and bring relevant key stakeholders together on a common platform to share road safety education could be: · Offered as a specific topic; experiences about adolescent vulnerability to HIV. This may help in · Offered as part of a section on safety or personal safety; developing an enabling environment for ASRH. If counselling services are · Included within themes such as responsi- presently absent at the institution, they must be established alongside health bility, citizenship, leisure, relationships etc; or facilities. Integrating adolescents needs in health services, including · Promoted as part of events, for example theatre in education performances. counselling, enhances their access to necessary information. Intersectoral linkages, mass awareness, local community mobilisation, health service Within curriculum subjects, road safety education could be offered: providers’ orientation and sensitisation, peer education and information · As a specific life skills option; or · Within national curriculum subjects; centres would be instrumental in sustaining a pragmatic approach for HIV and AIDS prevention and management in schools.

Incorporating road safety education into the curriculum We focus on how to incorporate the section on Road Traffic Accidents in Chapter 6 because this is the most worrying technological hazard faced by Zimbabwe. Road traffic accidents are one of the main causes of death and injury to children of school going age. Most road accidents are preventable and the risk can be reduced through measures that include education, training and environmental improvements. Road safety education is an essential part

BOX 8.4 EXAMPLE OF ROAD SAFETY POLICY DOCUMENT FROM AN UNIDENTIFIED SCHOOL

198 of a child’s education and the time and resources available for road safety education should be safeguarded against curriculum pressures. Pupils at primary level are generally beginning to make independent journeys on foot, by bicycle and by public transport, while students at secondary level begin to experience an even wider range of opportunities for independent travel. The safety lessons learnt at primary school should help to establish a sound basis for safer behaviour as pedestrians and cyclists and prepare children for the transition to secondary school and associated freedoms, while those learnt at secondary school should assist to establish a sound foundation for safer behaviour as adult road users. A number of teaching ideas are provided here that demonstrate how road In addition, this meeting gives the school an opportunity to explain to parents: safety education may either be taught within ‘education for living’ or · The policy of the school when taking pupils on outings; and integrated into curriculum subjects. The bottom line is that learners need to · The possible need for parents to act as know: volunteer helpers to accompany children on school outings or to help with activities • How to keep themselves and others safe, now and in the future; such as pedestrian training and cycle train- • About the road environment and how it functions; and ing. • How to influence positive changes in that environment. Practical activities and events might include: • Pedestrian awareness training; • Cyclist training; • Pre-driver training; • Theatre in education and road shows, which are usually coordinated by the local road safety officer; • A suspended timetable safety day, e.g. if the school has a traffic police officer who is willing to come into school and talk to the pupils about their job and how the children should use the crossing patrol.

Road safety education before children start school The most appropriate time to initiate road safety issues with parents is when their children are about to start school. The issue of road safety education should be highlighted to parents or guardians who accompany their children on the first day of school. Schools have the option to develop a letter or agreement for the parents to sign that outlines parental responsibilities for the safety of their children on the roads. The advantages of parents walking to school with their children should be outlined to encourage this practice. They are: • Daily exercise and fresh air for both the parent and the child; • A time to talk to the child; and • An opportunity for parents to practice road safety with their child, study Rural schools Due to the scarcity of traffic on rural roads, the effects of different weather conditions on road safety, plan a route children living in rural areas who travel to town with the child on which there are protected crossing places, discuss how to attend school face more problems than children familiar with urban areas. Some ways of to walk on roads where there are no footways or crossing places and helping children from rural areas cope in an urban road environment include: explain the importance of wearing reflectors so as to be seen by other · Arranging class outings to a nearby town, road users. where the children can experience a planned traffic trail; and · Investigating the specific problems of transport and travel in rural areas, the Developing responsibility types of traffic using the roads and safety issues relating to walking and cycling, es- Road safety education should aim to develop pupils’ understanding of the pecially where danger warning signs have dangers of traffic, so that they appreciate safer strategies appropriate to their been removed by vandals.

199 own circumstances. Possible activities include school debates, pupil road safety committees and school outings and visits.

Every child is entitled to a safer journey to and from school. Teachers should ensure that surveys are carried out of the most frequently used routes and then record information on the safest crossing places so that this is available for all parents and pupils to follow. This could also lead to the identification Other road safety practices to consider While identifying safe practices, teachers and of possible improvement, e.g. a request to the local council for a school students could also consider writing a safety policy for the school, covering: crossing patrol or zebra crossing. · School transport, school vehicles and school trips; · The journeys of pupils to and from school, Checklist for pre school and primary school road safety training especially arriving and leaving; · Use of bicycles; Children should always: · School uniforms and other clothing; and • • · Dangerous behaviour. Be protected, supervised and accompanied on any school activities off the premises; • Walk on the pavement where available; • Recognise that roads are for traffic and pavements are for people; • Recognise features of their local roads and the people who will help them to cross the road; • Be able to distinguish between safe and unsafe places to walk and to cross- roads; • Know that they must stop at the edge of the carriageway, look all around and listen before crossing; • Recognise and play in safe places; A safe road environment is not the responsi- • Develop the ability to keep themselves safe; bility of schools alone but they have an im- • portant role to play in helping to provide Know the safest route to school; safety education for all their pupils. The school • Know how to travel safely to and from school; can make a difference. Useful working partnerships with external agencies, such as road • Understand and use the principles of the Green Cross Code; safety units, the police and health promotion • units, will certainly assist. Know that there are rules governing the behaviour of pedestrians and traffic; • Understand the problems faced by all road users, particularly problems associated with visiblity and with the effects of weather; • Understand that traffic accidents cause avoidable deaths and injuries; and • Be given the opportunity to take pedestrian and cyclist training.

Checklist for secondary schools and colleges’ road safety training Training at this level requires the development of self esteem and the ability to value others. Students need to gain skills in decision making, combined with an understanding of the consequences of choices, and they need to know how to use roads safely.

Students should be: • Given the opportunity to investigate the local road environment, consider the safety aspects of traffic movement and identify hazards; • Assisted to develop an understanding of how accidents happen, and of common accident situations, particularly those involving their age group; • Encouraged to think clearly about their own and other people’s use of the roads as pedestrians, cyclists and passengers; • Required to consider the consequences of an accident and the effect on those involved, and their families and friends; • Given the opportunity to take cyclist training if they have not already done so;

200 • Encouraged to explore and understand their own behaviour relating to road use, both as an individual and as a member of a group; • Able to understand the effect of alcohol and other drugs on the body’s physical and mental performance, particularly the detrimental effect on pedestrian and driving skills so that they are able to make informed decisions about drinking and road use; • Encouraged to consider how best to reduce the probability and consequences of road accidents; and • Given the opportunity to explore the transport options open to them and decide which best meets their needs, wants and resources, taking into account training, safety factors, legal requirements and environmental consequences.

Disaster risk management in other curriculum subjects The ways in which disaster risk management can be incorporated into other subjects in the school curriculum include: ART Secondary school students may develop road safety advice that is designed and produced (poster or leaflet) for pupils in feeder primary schools. A competition could be initiated to find the best designs. Some students might develop their designs using computers if these are in place in their school.

DRAMA Pupils could be encouraged to write and perform short plays on road safety issues that are relevant to them. These may be based on safety themes such as speed, drink driving and joyriding.

GEOGRAPHY Hazard mapping of areas of high road traffic accident risk may TECHNOLOGY The design of traffic lights taking account of speed, distance and stopping dis- be done for the local area, based on information from the local police station. tances could be studied. Speed data to be The planning of safe routes to school and other places may be included in the collected outside the school from the Traffic Police (who use radar guns) and average map making. Emphasis might be placed on a discussion of safe routes, gen- speeds and stopping distances calculated from the data obtained. Factors affecting ve- eral safety concerns and the behaviour of road users, as well as on the map hicle stopping distances, such as rainfall and reading skills. the condition of tyres, could be investigated. This topic is easy to link to what students see happening in real life. The students have to MATHEMATICS Students could undertake a drink and drive survey at a local report the results and comment on the safety police roadblock during an important holiday. The data would then be analysed implications and consequences of inappropriate stopping distances during different by age group with the results as well as the national implications being pre- weather conditions. sented at a parent’s day. Accident data provided in Chapter 6 could be used for drawing national graphs and carrying out trend analysis to strengthen the presentation.

ENGLISH All students are expected to be road safety literate. Topics related to road safety should feature prominently in essay writing e.g. topics like preparing for a trip by school bus or developing a school trip policy.

SCIENCE When considering health issues, the effect of alcohol and drugs on the ability to drive is to be considered and discussed. First Aid skills should be incorporated as part of the science curriculum.

BOX 8.5 THE I MPORTANCE OF A D ISASTER MAN- “Most schools will have no experience of disasters and when they do occur much of the response AGEMENT PLAN is a ‘flying by the seat of one’s pants’ activity. This is why two things are particularly important: ensuring there is a ready made plan to help deal with the incident, and ensuring that there is an adequate command and control system.”

David G. Kibble

201 The schools need to incorporate health and Understanding the work of disaster management professionals safety and this will include a range of sensitive issues, such as death and violence. Plans Students should be given the opportunity to visit career guidance shows and should be made to explore these within the curriculum, so that students will be able to see for themselves disaster related professionals exhibiting and describing cope with and resolve the range and complexity of feelings that a crisis can engender. their work. The opportunity should also be taken to invite these professionals Schools that adopt the ‘ostrich’ approach are into the school, especially after a major disaster has taken place, to talk about at a disadvantage and are likely to take longer to recover in the event of a disaster. their experiences during and after the disaster. Guest teachers or lecturers The essential stages in the planning process could come from universities, police stations, fire stations, life line related are shown in figure 8.4. This process of disaster planning often leads to an improve- companies, government departments, non governmental organisations, ment in procedures that ensures a greater level of safety. Preventive measures are de- volunteer organisations, and so on. Identifying the responsibilities and skills vised that lower the likelihood of tragedies of the school crossing patrol, firefighters or police sub-aqua units, for and accidents. example, could be the basis for thinking about their own safety skills and knowledge. Discussing the roles of disaster management professionals can help children to understand the importance of disaster related issues.

Figure 8.4 Planning Process Stages in an Institution

The planning process Although no amount of foresight and planning can completely prevent disas- Disaster risk management planning in schools ters occurring, since many tragedies are entirely outside the control of the While safety planning is familiar to schools, disaster planning is relatively new to the school, the school must be prepared to cope with the effects. The Total Di- country’s education sector. High profile acci- saster Risk Management (TDRM) approach described in Chapter 2 offers dents and disasters in the education sector, referred to above, have demonstrated the effective measures to deal with local disasters. This is an ‘all hazards’ ap- common sense of disaster planning and, con- proach involving joint consultation of all stakeholders. By planning in adversely, the often tragic cost of failing to identify hazards and their potential for sudden, vance and anticipating as many health and safety variables as possible, schools dramatic escalation if the arrangements to control and contain them are inadequate. Each can ensure that the decisions made on the day of a crisis are not only made school, therefore, should develop plans that quickly and effectively, but are correct and automatic responses arising out include teaching students and staff what to do during the sort of disasters that are likely of the time spent on pre-planning for the disaster. When an incident does to occur in their area, whether these occur while occur, the school should be in a strong position to contain and control events, they are at school or at home. thus ensuring that normality returns to the institution as soon as possible and that unnecessary damage is not done to the children and staff, or to the valuable relationships built up between the school, parents and the local community.

The school disaster management plan The Civil Protection Department (CPD) recommends the following actions for all school officials:

IDENTIFY HAZARDS LIKELY TO A FFECT THE SCHOOL Begin with a determination of which natural and technological disasters are possible in your area. Con- tact the CPD for help. Don’t assume you know all the risks. You may be sur- prised to learn that your area is subject to natural disasters you hadn’t anticipated. For example, earthquake risk is not restricted to Matabeleland North alone, but southern Manicaland is also active. Also, remember that disasters can have a cascading effect, e.g. tropical cyclones can bring mudslides, earthquakes can cause fires, thunderstorms can cause downed power lines and so

202 on. Think about how transportation routes or other external factors may also affect your schools, e.g. if you are near a major highway where hazardous chemicals are transported, your school could be in danger of the effects of a chemical spill.

Once you have worked out what disasters are possible in your area, assess your structures. If you are in a wildfire area, for example, do you have bushes trimmed back from the buildings and non-flammable roofs? If you are located in a tropical cyclone prone area, do you have the roof securely attached? And if you are in earthquake active areas, like Chipinge and Matabeleland North, ensure that heavy appliances are securely bolted to the walls. Most of the injuries and deaths related to natural disasters are caused by falling objects, fires, the release of hazardous materials, flying debris and roof collapse. Therefore, these are some of the hazards to look for when doing your assessment.

MITIGATE AGAINST THESE HAZARDS Hazard mitigation is any action taken to reduce the loss of life or damage to property from any hazards. Based on your assessment and using information on mitigation contained in the earlier chapters of the resource book, it is best to prioritise your needed mitigation measures by degree of life safety, cost, frequency of identified potential hazard and potential number of people exposed. Some hazards cannot be mitigated Figure 8.5 Stages of a Disaster Response Plan

In addition to the plan, it is useful to place emergency telephone numbers of the following at strategic points: · District Administrator and directors of Area Civil Protection and District Education; · Chair of Parents-Teachers Association; · Home School Liaison Officer; · Education social worker; · Social Services; · Emergency services – ambulance, police, fire brigade; · Medical team – school doctor, school nurse; · Emergency Department at the local hospital; · Emotional/behavioural support team – educational psychologist, clinical child psychologist, child guidance clinic; · Counselling services; · Local religious group leaders; · Local traditional leadership e.g. Chief and Headman; and · Local press and media contacts.

203 Necessary follow up actions to the response against; others are too costly to mitigate. For example mitigation efforts in plan include: · Determining the best escape routes from the future might include moving schools that are in particularly risky loca- each building in case of evacuation; tions. Mitigation of community risks is probably beyond the control of school · Identifying a preferred assembly point and alternative assembly point in case of officials. evacuation; · Making arrangements for the management of psychological distress; DEVELOP A RESPONSE PLAN Mitigation activities alone cannot prevent the oc- · Making arrangements for a sick bay; and currence of disasters. Therefore a school disaster management plan, includ- · For large institutions, providing a ground map and ensuring that the grid reference ing the definition of an evacuation route, can be seen as an insurance policy of the school is known. for the school against disasters. Disaster management is planning how to re- Your plan should also address the needs of spond when an emergency occurs and is designed to help save lives and students and staff with disabilities and this must be incorporated into the practice of di- minimise damage by preparing both students and staff to respond appropri- saster drills. ately. It leads to an awareness of the possibilities of preventing disasters from happening in the first place. This type of preparedness involves proper planning, organisation, staff, student and community involvement, training and dissemination of information. Remember that, at all stages, good communication is vital to the successful management of any crisis.

DEVELOP A STRATEGY FOR COPING AFTER A DISASTER This is a sequence of steps recommended in preparing an emergency contingency plan (see Figure 8.5). The drafting of the strategy should be an interactive and consultative process, resulting in a clear understanding of roles and responsibilities, greater awareness of the prevailing hazards, the establishment of a communications Signs to look out for include withdrawn or quiet system and danger warning signals, and a written plan. students, those acting in an overly responsible or parental manner, hyperactive children with little focus, children who are edgy, jumpy or quick to anger, vying for attention, out of Facilitating coping and psychological healing after a disaster control or with an attitude of not caring. Very young children may show regressive and an- Schools need to be aware of the range of symptoms children and teachers tisocial behaviour. Classroom exercises that may show after a traumatic event. Never underestimate the traumatic effects can help include discussions of the recovery from the disaster, as they can temporarily of a major crisis on people’s lives and never try to forget or ignore what has reduce academic performance expectations. happened. There may still be funerals to attend, legal processes to get through They also encourage involvement in school recovery efforts and, thereby, more speedy and people to support, and anniversaries of an event serve as reminders, whether resumption of social activities. we like it or not. Psychological trauma after a disaster is very real. Therefore, it is important that schools plan ahead of time to deal with the inevitable psychological aftermath and monitor the situation on a regular ba- The reactions of children to disaster are af- sis. Watch particularly for major changes in behavior that may suggest post fected most by the following five factors: 1 Their perception of the adults’ reactions; traumatic stress disorder [PTSD]. The CPD has a pamphlet that includes in- 2 The direct exposure they have had to the formation that teachers may use to identify children at risk psychologically destruction; 3 The child’s developmental age; and for conducting classroom exercises to help students voice their fears and 4 The existence of problems prior to the event; and overcome them. 5 Previous experience of another disaster. Identifying at-risk students is one of the most important things your staff can do after a disaster. The children most likely to be affected by a crisis include: • Those who had the longest contact with the hazard, and whose lives were at the greatest risk; • Those who actually witnessed death or carnage (e.g. a violent act or accident); • Children from unstable homes (where support systems are lacking); • Weak or less able children; and • Very young children, for whom vivid memories of the event may linger until they become mature enough to understand and cope with them. Students are responsible for policing each other so that they maintain the facilities and Once the immediate crisis is over, it is important to facilitate recovery from refrain from vandalism. the traumatic event. This requires an environment where students, faculty and

204 staff receive support. Fear itself can be extremely debilitating following an emergency. The much needed sense of security in the school and in the lives of all those affected is restored by providing a safe atmosphere in which students and adults can voice concerns, fears and feelings, and can express grief. Facts, whenever possible, about what has actually happened and what can be expected to happen (including burial ceremonies, if appropriate) should also be freely provided. There should be as little disruption of normal school rou- tines as possible.

The roles of teachers and students Teachers are to ensure that: • The disaster response plan exists and is revised regularly, preferably annually; • Recommendations are made to the local disaster management team and thus to Government, of the school’s urgent disaster related needs, etc; • Security measures are in place for off limits areas of the school; • Students, teachers and other workers who are at work are accounted for daily, usually by means of roll call; and A hazardous learning environment. • Necessary drills identified in the Response Plan are carried out regularly One of the schools that was badly with the students. damaged by the earthquake of 23 March 2006 in Chipinge. The The importance of school buildings in disaster management school has been earmarked for Safe school buildings are as important as disaster risk management education reconstruction by the CPD. and they are a key priority area for action outlined in the Hyogo Framework for Action 2005-2015: Building Resilience of Nations and Communities to Disasters, which 168 Governments adopted at the World Conference on Di- saster Reduction in January 2005. In line with this Framework, integration of disaster risk education into national curriculums and building safe school fa- School buildings often serve multiple pur- cilities are two priorities that contribute to a country’s progress towards the poses in a community. For most of the day, they house one of the nation’s most precious Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). resources – the students. Although intended primarily to serve as educational institutions, they may also be used as polling stations It is possible, of course, to construct solid disaster resistant buildings. Al- during elections, gathering places for com- though there are likely to be economic constraints, schools must meet vari- munity, meeting places for clubs and religious organisations, storage places for books and ous requirements so that they are ready to withstand various kinds of disaster. other technical equipment, post disaster food distribution centres and public shelters in Depending on the type and severity of a particular disaster, the building may emergencies. Therefore, when a school build- have to provide shelter for a large number of people who could end up staying ing is vulnerable to hazards, the welfare of the entire community is at risk. A school build- there for several days. The vulnerability of school facilities must not be seen ing in the state shown below is no longer safe only in terms of the need to prevent catastrophic damage that may destroy the for either the students or the community. buildings. It is also necessary to prevent lesser damage that might affect the continuity of the services provided. For example, if a school is unusable, the children will have to go to other schools, often in shifts, and their education will suffer. Some of Zimbabwe’s school buildings are gifts from donor organisations or foreign governments. Decisions to donate to a particular When an extreme natural event is expected, emergency shelters, often school community and specific site are usually made hastily, in concurrence with politicians, and the buildings, might be opened to house the local population and keep them out funding agencies do not always take into con- of harm’s way, as was the case with tropical cyclone Eline in Chikwarara, sideration the local natural hazards. The schools, therefore, may not be built with spe- situated at the confluence of the Bubi and Limpopo rivers. Many people had cific hazard vulnerability criteria in mind, but based on the immediate need of the com- to seek refuge at the school, which is located on high ground. Thus they relied munity. on the structural integrity of the buildings to protect them and save them from In addition, schools are usually built on mar- the weather elements. Unfortunately, in many other cases in the country, school ginal pieces of land owned by the government that are unsuitable for commercial or buildings have not withstood the impact of a cyclone and have ended up agricultural use. Thus, proper site selection roofless or flooded. criteria are usually not applied.

205 The maintenance of existing buildings cov- Reducing vulnerability with reference to buildings ers two areas: 1 General maintenance on an annual ba- Ideally, vulnerability to natural hazards should be considered before sis to prevent the building from falling into a state of disrepair; and construction begins. Engineers estimate that safety measures against natural 2 Specific maintenance, including any upgrading or renovation required to enable hazards add a very small fraction to the capital cost of an entire project at the the building to resist tropical cyclones, time of initial construction. The cost of structural mitigation varies according earthquakes, fires and floods. to the hazard. For example, mitigation for earthquake prone areas is typically more costly than mitigation against wind and rain.

It is common knowledge that a structure that is not properly maintained is more vulner- Before going into the problem of vulnerable buildings, the first step is to able to natural disasters. Unfortunately, school create a database or profile of the existing stock of school buildings. How- buildings are often poorly maintained and usually little money, if any, is set aside for ever, the record keeping systems of schools often do not allow easy access to maintenance in recurring budgets. Even though school building manuals for some basic information about school or shelter buildings, such as the date of con- schools were developed for non-technical staff struction, design type, as-built drawings and plans, or the institution that fi- (school principals, principals, and teachers), the manual contains only a series of check- nanced the construction. It is necessary to know what types of hazards are lists and hints on how to prolong the life of school buildings. School maintenance should prevalent in the area and how the building will perform if faced with these become a routine activity, like changing the hazards. Once this information is collected, a strategy can be developed and oil in a car or visiting the dentist for a six- monthly cleaning. priorities set to retrofit or upgrade the buildings. Experts in structural engineering can suggest ways to mitigate hazards at the school. After school officials have the necessary information about existing hazards and structural mitigation possibilities, they can identify the costs of mitigation and the feasibility of the steps to be taken. The building maintenance section of the Ministry of Education must also be informed to allow for timely and appropriate maintenance within resource limitations. The need for community capacity building has to be recognised. Where possible,

Information on disaster preparedness can community/local builders should be used during construction to help build be expanded through the preparation of in- identification and ownership. It may even be possible, based on the nature dividual or family plans, and plans prepared by churches, local organisations, etc. The in- and scope of the work to be done, to implement youth skills training modules, volvement of the Parent-Teacher Association is also a means of involving the community thereby enhancing the construction skills capacity of the local community at large. A disaster risk management literate and building greater awareness among young people. The community should school should strive to let the information spill over to produce an equally literate local com- be made aware of the reasons that the school has decided to retrofit its munity that will be disaster resistant. buildings so that members are encouraged to do the same at their homes.

Education and training on disaster management for communities The role that teachers and students can play in creating awareness in local communities cannot be overemphasised. Schoolteachers and children can become model disaster managers for a community that has faced a severe disaster in the recent past. They can work in generating awareness, identifying the vulnerabilities and recommending coping mechanisms. Working as a It should be recognised that schools have team, they can reduce the impact of disasters on the community. These are multiple roles in enhancing the disaster reduction activities carried out by local commu- examples that reiterate the strong social responsibility that an institution such nities. When a local community organises itself to prevent disasters and prepares to cope as a school bears. To achieve this end, the school’s curriculum activities should better with an insurgent major hazard, schools not be tied to the classroom alone. Students should be encouraged to do projects become a focal point for the spread of knowledge of the risks and the resources present or field assignments on various aspects of preparedness, like hazard mapping in the community. They are also responsible of their community, how vulnerable their school would be in the event of a for instilling in the younger generation the educational element that facilitates respect- disaster, and the procedures to follow if such an event did occur. They may ful behaviour, and interaction between groups in the society at risk and the local environ- scout for other potential hazards in and around their communities or identify ment. Schools can provide a suitable inter- the most prevalent hazard in the region or locality. A detailed study of these face between the disaster reduction programmes that they initiate themselves and local hazards can lead to the discovery of ways to reduce the vulnerability of the less accessible groups of the society at both the school and the community. risk, including families.

206 TERMINOLOGY

Basic Terms in the Field of Disaster Risk Reduction The following is a list of terminology selected and adapted from those that the International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR) Secretariat presented in 2004. These basic definitions were produced in order to promote a common understanding of this subject, for use by the public, authorities and practitioners.

Acceptable Risk The level of loss a society or community considers acceptable, given existing social, economic, political, cultural, technical and environmental conditions. In engineering terms, ‘acceptable risk’ is also used to assess structural and non-structural measures undertaken to reduce possible damage at a level which does not harm people and property, according to codes or ‘accepted practice’ based, among other issues, on a known probability of hazard.

Biological Hazard Processes of organic origin or those conveyed by biological vectors, including exposure to pathogenic micro-organisms, toxins and bioactive substances, which may cause injury or the loss of life, property damage, social and economic disruption or environmental degradation. Examples of biological hazards are outbreaks of epidemic diseases, plant or animal contagion, insect plagues and extensive infestations.

Building Codes Ordinances and regulations controlling the design, construction, materials, alteration and occupancy of any structure to ensure human safety and welfare. Building codes include both technical and functional standards.

Capacity A combination of all the strengths and resources available within a community, society or organisation that can reduce the level of risk, or the effects of a disaster. Capacity may include physical, institutional, social or economic means as well as skilled personnel or collective attributes, such as leadership and management. Capacity may also be described as ‘capability’.

Capacity Building Efforts that aim to develop human skills or social infrastructure within a community or organisation that are needed to reduce the level of risk. In extended understanding, ‘capacity building’ also includes development of institutional, financial, political and other resources, such as technology, at different levels and in different sectors of the society.

Climate Change The climate of a place or region is changed if, over an extended period (typically decades or longer), there is a statistically significant change in measurements of either the mean state or variability of the climate for that place or region. Changes in climate may be due to natural processes or to persistent anthropogenic changes in atmosphere or in land use. Note that the definition of ‘climate change’ used in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change is more restricted, as it include only those changes that are attributable directly or indirectly to human activity.

Coping Capacity The means by which people or organisations use available resources and abilities to face adverse consequences that could lead to a disaster. In general, this involves managing resources, both in normal times as well as during crises or adverse conditions. The strengthening of coping capacities usually builds resilience to withstand the effects of natural and human-induced hazards.

Counter Measures All measures taken to counter and reduce disaster risk. They most commonly refer to engineering (structural) measures but can also include non-structural measures and tools designed and employed to avoid or limit the adverse impact of natural hazards and related environmental and technological disasters.

Crop Failure Abnormal reduction in crop yield such that it is insufficient to meet the nutritional or economic needs of the community.

Disaster A serious disruption of the functioning of a community or a society, causing widespread human, material, economic or environmental losses which exceed the ability of the affected community or society to cope using its own resources. A disaster is a function of the risk process. It results from the combination of hazards, conditions of vulnerability and insufficient capacity or measures to reduce the potential negative consequences of risk.

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) A group of chemical compounds used in industry and in the household, the excessive and universal use of which is believed to be one of the causes of ozone depletion, with resulting environmental damage.

Declaration of Disaster Official issuance of a state of emergency upon the occurrence of a large scale calamity, in order to activate measures aimed at the reduction of the disaster’s impact.

Disaster Management The body of policy and administrative decisions, and operational activities pertaining to the various stages of a disaster at all levels.

Disaster Risk Management The systematic process of using administrative decisions, organisation, operational skills and capacities to implement the policies, strategies and coping capacities of the society and communities to lessen the impacts of natural hazards and related environmental and technological disasters. This comprises all forms of activity, including structural and non-structural measures to avoid (prevention) or to limit (mitigation and preparedness) the adverse effects of hazards.

Disaster Risk Reduction (Disaster Reduction) The conceptual framework of elements considered to have the potential to minimise vulnerability and disaster risk throughout a society, to avoid (prevention) or to limit (mitigation and preparedness) the adverse impacts of hazards, within the broad context of sustainable development. The disaster risk reduction framework is composed of the following fields of action, as described in ISDR’s 2002 publication, Living with Risk: A Global Review of Disaster Reduction Initiatives, page 23: • Risk awareness and assessment, including hazard analysis and vulnerability/capacity analysis; • Knowledge development, including education, training, research and information;

207 • Public commitment and institutional frameworks, including organisational, policy, legislative and community action; • Application of measures, including environmental management, land use and urban planning, protection of critical facilities, application of science and technology, partnership and networking, and financial instruments; and • Early warning systems, including forecasting, dissemination of warnings, preparedness measures and reaction capacities. Early Warning The provision of timely and effective information, through identified institutions, that allows individuals exposed to a hazard to take action to avoid or reduce their risk and prepare for effective response. Early warning systems include a chain of concerns, namely: • Understanding and mapping the hazard; • Monitoring and forecasting impending events; • Processing and disseminating understandable warnings to political authorities and the population; and • Undertaking appropriate and timely actions in response to the warnings. Ecosystem A complex set of relationships of living organisms functioning as a unit and interacting with their physical environment. The boundaries of what could be called an ‘ecosystem’ are somewhat arbitrary, depending on the focus of interest or study. Thus the extent of an ecosystem may range from very small spatial scales to, ultimately, the entire earth (IPCC, 2001). El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) A complex interaction of the tropical Pacific Ocean and the global atmosphere that results in irregularly occurring episodes of changed ocean and weather patterns in many parts of the world, often with significant impacts, such as altered marine habitats, rainfall changes, floods, droughts, and changes in storm patterns. The El Niño part of ENSO refers to the well-above-average ocean temperatures along the coasts of Ecuador, Peru and northern Chile and across the eastern equatorial Pacific Ocean, while the Southern Oscillation refers to the associated global patterns of changed atmospheric pressure and rainfall. La Niña is approximately the opposite condition to El Niño. Each El Niño or La Niña episode usually lasts for several seasons. Emergency Management The organisation and management of resources and responsibilities for dealing with all aspects of emergencies, in particular preparedness, response and rehabilitation. Emergency management involves plans, structures and arrangements established to engage the normal endeavours of government, and voluntary and private agencies in a comprehensive and coordinated way to respond to the whole spectrum of emergency needs. This is also known as ‘disaster management’. Drought Index A computed value which is related to some of the cumulative effects of a prolonged and abnormal moisture deficiency. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Studies undertaken in order to assess the effect on a specified environment of the introduction of any new factor that may upset the current ecological balance. An EIA is a policy making tool that serves to provide evidence and analysis of environmental impacts of activities from conception to decision making. It is utilised extensively in national programming and for international development assistance projects. An EIA must include a detailed risk assessment and provide alternative solutions or options. Environmental Degradation The reduction of the capacity of the environment to meet social and ecological objectives, and needs. Potential effects are varied and may contribute to an increase in vulnerability and the frequency and intensity of natural hazards. Some examples are, land degradation, deforestation, desertification, veldt fires, loss of biodiversity, land, water and air pollution, climate change, sea level rise and ozone depletion. Forecast Definite statement or statistical estimate of the occurrence of a future event (UNESCO/WMO). This term is used with different meanings in different disciplines. Geological Hazard Natural earth processes or phenomena that may cause injury or the loss of life, property damage, social and economic disruption or environmental degradation. Geological hazard includes internal earth processes of tectonic origin, such as earthquakes, geological fault activity, tsunamis, volcanic activity and emissions, as well as external processes, such as mass movements – landslides, rockslides, rock falls or avalanches, surfaces collapses, expansive soils and debris or mud flows. Geological hazards can be single, sequential or combined in their origin and effects. Greenhouse Gas (GHG) A gas, such as water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), that absorbs and re-emits infrared radiation, warming the earth’s surface and contributing to climate change (UNEP, 1998). Hazard A potentially damaging physical event, phenomenon or human activity that may cause injury or the loss of life, property damage, social and economic disruption, or environmental degradation. Hazards can include latent conditions that may represent future threats and can have different origins – natural (geological, hydrometeorological or biological) or induced by human processes (environmental degradation and technological hazards). Hazards can be single, sequential or combined in their origin and effects. Each hazard is characterised by its location, intensity, frequency and probability. Hazard Analysis Identification, studies and monitoring of any hazard to determine its potential, origin, characteristics and behaviour. Hydro-Meteorological Hazards Natural processes or phenomena of atmospheric, hydrological or oceanographic nature, which may cause injury or the loss of life, property damage, social and economic disruption or environmental degradation. Hydro-meteorological hazards include floods, debris and mud floods, tropical cyclones, storm surges, thunderstorms, hailstorms, rain and wind storms, blizzards and other severe storms, drought, desertification, wild fires, temperature extremes, sand or dust storms, permafrost and snow or ice avalanches. HydroMeteorological hazards can be single, sequential or combined in their origin and effects. Industrial Hazards A disaster term used to describe technological accidents of an industrial nature or involving industrial buildings (e.g. factories). It comprises a number of disaster subsets – chemical spill or leak, explosions, radiation leakages, collapses, gas leaks from industrial sites, poisoning, fires and other technological accidents involving industrial sites. La Niña see El Niño-Southern Oscillation. Land Use Planning Branch of physical and socioeconomic planning that determines the means and assesses the values or limitations of various ways in which land is to be utilised, with the corresponding effects on different segments of the population or interests of a community being taken into account in resulting decisions. Land use planning involves studies and mapping, analysis of environmental and hazard data, formulation of alternative land use decisions and design of a long range plan for different geographical and administrative scales.Land use planning can help to mitigate disasters and reduce risks by discouraging high density settlements and construction of key installations in hazard prone areas, control of population density and expansion, and in the siting of service routes for transport, power, water, sewage and other critical facilities.

208 Mitigation Structural and non-structural measures undertaken to limit the adverse impact of natural hazards, environmental degradation and technological hazards. Natural Hazards Natural processes or phenomena occurring in the biosphere that may constitute a damaging event.Natural hazards can be classified by origin namely, geological, hydro-meteorological or biological. Hazardous events can vary in magnitude or intensity, frequency, duration, area of extent, speed of onset, spatial dispersion and temporal spacing. Pest Infestation Pervasive influx and development of insects or parasites affecting humans, animals, crops and materials. Preparedness Activities and measures taken in advance to ensure effective response to the impact of hazards, including the issuance of timely and effective early warnings and the temporary evacuation of people and property from threatened locations. Prevention Activities to provide outright avoidance of the adverse impact of hazards and means to minimise related environmental, technological and biological disasters. Depending on social and technical feasibility and cost/benefit considerations, investing in preventive measures is justified in areas frequently affected by disasters. In the context of public awareness and education related to disaster risk reduction, changing attitudes and behaviour contributes to promoting a ‘culture of prevention’. Public Awareness The processes of informing the general population, increasing levels of consciousness about risks and how people can act to reduce their exposure to hazards. This is particularly important for public officials in fulfilling their responsibilities to save lives and property in the event of a disaster. Public awareness activities foster changes in behaviour, leading towards a culture of risk reduction. This involves public information, dissemination, education, radio or television broadcasts, use of printed media, as well as the establishment of information centres and networks and community and participation actions. Public Information Information, facts and knowledge provided or learned as a result of research or study, available for dissemination to the public. Recovery Decisions and actions taken after a disaster with a view to restoring or improving the pre-disaster living conditions of the affected community, while encouraging and facilitating necessary adjustments to reduce disaster risk. Recovery (rehabilitation and reconstruction) affords an opportunity to develop and apply disaster risk reduction measures. Relief/Response The provision of assistance or intervention during or immediately after a disaster to meet the life preservation and basic subsistence needs of those people affected. It can be of an immediate, short term, or protracted duration. Resilience The capacity of a system, community or society potentially exposed to hazards to adapt, by resisting or changing in order to reach and maintain an acceptable level of functioning and structure. This is determined by the degree to which the social system is capable of organising itself to increase its capacity for learning from past disasters for better future protection and to improve risk reduction measures. Retrofitting (Upgrading) Reinforcement of structures to become more resistant and resilient to the forces of natural hazards. Retrofitting involves consideration of changes in the mass, stiffness, damping, load path and ductility of materials, as well as radical changes, such as the introduction of energy absorbing dampers and base isolation systems. Examples of retrofitting include the consideration of wind loading to strengthen and minimise the wind force, or in earthquake prone areas, the strengthening of structures. Risk The probability of harmful consequences, or expected losses (deaths, injuries, property loss, livelihoods and economic activity disrupted or environment damaged) resulting from interactions between natural or human-induced hazards and vulnerable conditions. Conventionally risk is expressed by the notation: Risk = Hazards x Vulnerability. Some disciplines also include the concept of exposure to refer particularly to the physical aspects of vulnerability. Beyond expressing a possibility of physical harm, it is crucial to recognise that risks are inherent or can be created or exist within social systems. It is important to consider the social contexts in which risks occur and that people, therefore, do not necessarily share the same perceptions of risk and its underlying causes. Risk Assessment/Analysis A methodology to determine the nature and extent of risk by analysing potential hazards and evaluating existing conditions of vulnerability that could pose a potential threat or harm to people, property, livelihoods and the environment on which they depend. The process of conducting a risk assessment is based on a review of both the technical features of hazards, such as their location, intensity, frequency and probability, and also the analysis of the physical, social, economic and environmental dimensions of vulnerability and exposure, while taking particular account of the coping capabilities pertinent to the risk scenarios. Structural/Non-Structural Measures Structural measures refer to any physical construction to reduce or avoid the possible impacts of hazards, including engineering measures and construction of hazard resistant and protective structures and infrastructure. Non-structural measures refer to policies, awareness, knowledge development, public commitment, and methods and operating practices, including participatory mechanisms and the provision of information to reduce risk and related impacts. Sustainable Development Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs. It contains within it two key concepts: the concept of ‘needs’, in particular the essential needs of the world’s poor, to which overriding priority should be given; and the idea of limitations imposed by the state of technology and social organisation on the environment’s ability to meet present and future needs. (Brundtland Commission, 1987). Sustainable development is based on sociocultural development, political stability and decorum, economic growth and ecosystem protection, all of which relate to disaster risk reduction. Technological Hazards Danger originating from technological or industrial accidents, dangerous procedures, infrastructure failures or certain human activities, which may cause injury or the loss of life, property damage, social and economic disruption or environmental degradation. Some examples are industrial pollution, nuclear activities and radioactivity, toxic wastes, dam failures, transport, and industrial or technological accidents (explosions, fires, spills). Vulnerability The conditions, determined by physical, social, economic, and environmental factors or processes, which increase the susceptibility of a community to the impact of hazards. For positive factors that increase the ability of people to cope with hazards, see definition of capacity. Veldt Fire (Wild Fire) Any fire occurring in vegetation areas regardless of ignition sources, damages or benefits.

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211 ANNEX I

GUIDING PRINCIPLES AND POLICY GUIDELINES 1. GUIDING PRINCIPLES 1.1 Humanitarian Charter The Humanitarian Charter is derived from international human rights laws. It describes the critical tenets that guide humanitarian action and asserts the rights of populations to protection and assistance. This manual recognises the overall principles of the Humanitarian Charter. Thus preparedness in the education sector advocates for the preservation of and the right to life with dignity, protection against threats and availability of basic necessities in case of disasters.

1.2 The Rights of the Child The Convention on the Rights of the Child is a United Nations agreement that outlines the rights of children worldwide. It has five broad areas: i. Survival rights - these are basic rights to life and include shelter, food and medical care. ii. Development rights – these are requirements that enable a child to reach their fullest potential and include access to information, education, and freedom of thought, play and cultural activities. iii. Protection rights – these relate to safeguarding children from neglect and other forms of abuse. The African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child also advocates for mentally or physically disabled children to have the right to special measures of protection in keeping with their physical and moral needs and under conditions that ensure their dignity, and promote self reliance and active participation in the community. iv. Participation rights – these advocate for children to be able to actively engage in various roles in their communities. v. Environmental rights – every child has a right to a clean environment.

1.3 The Rights of the Teacher 1.3.1 Employment injury benefit According to ‘The 1966 Recommendation Concerning the Status of Teachers’ by United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation in cooperation with International Labour Organisation, Paris, 5 October: i. Teachers should be protected against the consequences of injuries suffered not only during teaching at school but also when engaged in school activities away from the school premises or grounds. ii. Certain infectious diseases prevalent among children should be regarded as occupational diseases when contracted by teachers who have been exposed to them by virtue of their contact with pupils.

1.3.2 Means of providing social security for teachers i. The social security protection of teachers should be assured as far as possible through a general scheme applicable to employed persons in the public sector or in the private sector. ii. Where no general scheme is in existence for one or more of the contingencies to be covered, special schemes, statutory or non statutory, should be established.

1.3.3 Professional freedom While teachers should exercise the utmost care to avoid accidents involving pupils, employers of teachers should safeguard the teachers against the risk of having charges levelled against them in the event of injury to pupils occurring at school or in school activities away from the school premises or grounds.

1.3.4 School buildings i. School buildings should be safe and attractive in overall design and functional layout; they should lend themselves to effective teaching. They should be constructed in accordance with established sanitary standards and with a view to durability, adaptability and easy, economic maintenance. ii. Authorities should ensure that school premises are properly maintained, so as not to threaten in any way the health and safety of pupils and teachers.

2. POLICY GUIDELINES 2.1 Civil Protection Policy in Zimbabwe The policy states that every citizen of this country should assist where possible to avert or limit the effects of a disaster. Central Government initiates hazard reduction measures through relevant sector ministries with the local administration taking the responsibility for implementing and maintaining its effectiveness. The education sector is bound by this policy.

2.2 Ministry of Education, Sport and Culture/ Ministry of Higher and Tertiary Education - Commitment and Policy Guidelines The two Ministries are committed to emergency preparedness and response issues. This is evidenced by the following: 2.2.1 Legislation i. Section 57 of the Education Act ensures healthy practices in schools to avoid health hazards. The purpose of this section is to safeguard the health of pupils and students attending any educational institution. ii. Statutory Instrument 59 of 1993 Section 5, ‘Inspection by Health Authorities’, states that any school and the pupils thereof shall be subject to inspection by government medical officers, health inspectors or other qualified officers of the Ministry of Health and Child Welfare. Section 4 of the instrument details specifications for standards facilities, sanitary and water requirements for schools. iii. Statutory Instruments 87 of 1992 and 70 of 1993 on School Development Committees and Associations respectively empower School Development Committees and School Development Associations to take all measures that appear to them to be necessary or expedient to preserve and maintain the property and facilities of the school.

212 2.2.2 Related policies There are a number of policy circulars that relate to risk reduction and emergency preparedness in the education system e.g. i. Policy Circular No. P. 5: Scholars Participation in Inter-School Non Sporting Competitions This policy circular is intended to protect children against injuries, abduction, abuse and other forms of maltreatment. A contract is entered into between the parent and school before the child participates in any such competition. ii. Policy Circular No.51: Medical and Health Topics: Policies and Procedures to be Observed. The policy stresses important medical and health topics. The school environment should be kept scrupulously clean with adequate and functional sanitary facilities. iii. Policy Circular No. P.19: Fire Precaution and Procedures and Civil Defence Procedures in Private and Government Schools and Institutions The policy spells out precautions that should be taken by every learning institution in the prevention of fires and the preparation of contingent measures for fire disasters. It also instructs heads of schools to conduct preparedness fire drills in their respective schools at least twice a year in which both teachers and pupils participate. Assistance in preparedness education and fire drills procedure can be sought from the Fire Brigade. The circular also advises heads to invite Fire Brigade officers to give lectures/ lessons on fire disaster preparedness.

2.3 Ministry of Health Policies and Guidelines i Immunisation A record on immunisation must be presented to early childhood education and care and to the school. This must be up to date. ii Allergies Schools should oblige parents to provide information on a child’s allergies and the steps to be taken in case of emergency. (Teachers are encouraged to believe parents when they provide such information) iii Chronic Diseases A record must be kept of children who suffer from chronic diseases. These include heart conditions, asthma, diabetes mellitus, epilepsy etc. The record must include essential information on dos and don’ts and medication taken, if any. iv Other Medical Conditions A record must be kept indicating other medical conditions like prosthesis and various forms of disability etc.

2.3.1 Hygiene i Food Handling Strict hygiene practices must be observed in food preparation and storage in terms of prevailing regulations. A system must be in place to ensure facilities for washing of hands. ii Environmental Hygiene o The environment must be clean with provisions for appropriate refuse collection and disposal. o If children are to do the cleaning, for instance toilets, they must be provided with recommended protective clothes such as gloves and heavy duty, rubber soled shoes.

2.3.2 Safe water and sanitation These must meet the set minimum standards according to the Public Health Act of 1996, Chapter 15.09. Environmental Health Technicians should reinforce set standards without discrimination.

2.3.3 Nutrition Nutritious meals must be provided or arranged for by parents and guardians. Where possible there should be a nutrition garden and an orchard.

213 ANNEX II CIVIL PROTECTION DEPARTMENT BASIC SAFETY REQUIREMENTS

i. Safe education infrastructure. All development of education infrastructure must meet prevailing regulations and set standards as per building by-laws. Due care must be taken in siting of schools particularly with regards to pre existing or anticipated hazards such as blasting in mining areas. Buildings in such environments must be constantly monitored for structural defects and requisite corrective action should be taken timeously. In general all educational infrastructure must be adequately monitored to ensure that it does not pose danger to the occupants.

ii. Sick Bay o Person with basic knowledge in First Aid and resuscitation o Two to four beds, hand washing facilities, refrigerator and furniture items e.g. desk and chair, cardiac table and two to four stools, bed linen e.g. bedspreads, blankets, sheets, pillows and pillow slips o Back rest o Skips for dirty linen, bins for refuse o Toilet with hand washing facilities and a shower o Over the counter essential drugs e.g. Paracetamol and lotions like Betadine and Sodium Hypochlorite (bleach) o Oxygen cylinder with tubings and masks (different sizes) o Gloves, bandages, sanitary pads, sterile blades or new razor blades. o Blood pressure (BP) machines and thermometers for checking vital observations o Up to six receivers for vomitus, bedpan o Take note of expiry dates of medicines, drugs and chemicals

iii. First Aid Teachers and pupils/students should be trained in First Aid. o Schools are to provide fully equipped First Aid kits

iv. Traffic Safety and Educational Trips (Circular No. P54) o A system must be in place to ensure children are conversant with traffic safety rules o Parental consent must be sought for school trips o Correct and appropriate roadworthy public service vehicles must be provided o Use a vehicle with a certificate of fitness o No overloading. Daylight travel encouraged o Correct record of those on a trip must be maintained at the school o Students/pupils should be under supervision

214 ANNEX III

WORKSHOP HAZARDS (Metalwork, Woodwork, Laboratory, Home Economics and Technical Graphs) Introduction Workshops or rooms for practical subjects may be dangerous places due to the nature of the tools, equipment and materials that are used. The following are some of the dangers or hazards that may be experienced and ways of minimising them. Hazard 1: Fire and Explosion Risks (suffocation, shock, death and destruction of property Causes: Electrical faults, gas, highly flammable liquids (spirits, solvents, resins, petroleum based adhesives) Remedy, Prevention: o Switch off all electric switches and gas taps o Use fire-fighting equipment i.e. hoses, sand, extinguishers, etc. o All electrical equipment, eg. plug wiring, insulation , fuse size, earthing, voltage and current, to be regularly checked for faults, by qualified personnel o Gas connection to be checked for leakages o Workshops and storage rooms to be well ventilated o Storage rooms to bear bold danger warning signs o Cabinet to be used for keeping harmful materials, under lock and key o No smoking, no forms of natural flame in the vicinity of inflammable stores o Inflammable stores should be under strict supervision by someone fully conversant with the dangerous nature of the content o Only enough quantities of flammable liquid should be available outside the store or cabinet o Containers of flammable substances must be kept closed, when not in use o Training operations on how to use fire fighting equipment and fire drills to be practiced regularly Hazard 2: Burns (a) Fist Degree (b) Second Degree (c ) Third Degree Causes: a) Scalds/contact with hot objects b) Heavier contact with very hot objects or solvent flames c) Severe burns (evidence by white/charred look) Remedy, Prevention: o Submerge burnt part in cold water and apply dry dressing o Submerge burnt part in cold water until worst pain subsides , gently blot dry and apply dry sterile gauze then consult a doctor NB Do not use an antiseptic preparation ointment or spray o Call a doctor /ambulance immediately. Apply dry sterile dressings NB Do not remove clothing, use cold water or apply any burn remedy Hazard 3: Electrocution (shock, death) Causes: Defective or faulty electrical equipment Remedy, Prevention: o Switch off all main switches and gas taps o All electrical equipment to be efficiently earthed o Reduced voltage tools (and use of power packs) strongly recommended o All electrical equipment to have good insulation o Wear protective clothing (like rubber soled shoes) o Avoid wet or damp areas Hazard 4: Poison Causes: a) Swallowed b) In contact with skin c) In eyes Remedy, Prevention: o Dilute poison by giving patient as much water or milk as possible; Try to get a conscious person to vomit (salt water will help); Do not try to make an unconscious or convulsing patient drink anything; Keep all chemicals in locked sore rooms o Wash contaminated area with cold water for at least 15 minutes; Remove all contaminated clothing; Do not use any medication on affected skin o Wash thoroughly the affected eye(s) with cold or lukewarm water for at least 15 minutes and keep eyelids open Hazard 5: Skin Hazards Causes: Direct handling of harmful materials (liquids) Remedy, Prevention: o Use industrial gloves o Use barrier creams o Such materials to be used under strict supervision Hazard 6: Breathing Hazards (suffocation/fainting, death) Causes: Inhaling toxic fumes and dust Remedy, Prevention: o Workshop to be well ventilated o Provision of respirators and face masks Hazard 7: Injuries, Cuts, Bruises, Bleeding Causes: a) Inhaling toxic fumes and dust b) Sharp objects c) Careless and incorrect use of hand tools and machines d) Ill maintained, defective or faulty tools and machines e) Poor storage of tools and materials f) Slippery floors g) Congestion Remedy, Prevention: o Rinse the cut under a running tap, and then apply dressing; Consult doctor (for tetanus injection) o Tools and machines to be used for the job they are designed to; Users/operators to be well trained and to demonstrate a high level of competence in the use of tools and machines; Strict supervision encouraged o Regular maintenance of equipment o Checking and rectifying faults before using equipment o Tools and materials to have proper racks o Floors to be free from fluids eg. water, grease and oils o Workshop to provide sufficient, clear and unobstructed space

215