Emerging Climate Justice Discourse

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Emerging Climate Justice Discourse: Perspectives of Grassroots A dissertation submitted to the Department of Environmental Sciences and Policy of Central European University in part fulfillment of the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Networks in Yulia BARABANOVA Yulia November, 2013 November, Budapest

the UK the

CEU eTD Collection

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wnership of any intellectual property rights which may be described in this dissertation

Details may be obtained from the Librarian. This tives of Grassroots Networks in the UK. the in Networks of Grassroots tives

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appropriate acknowledgment is made in form the of bibliog alification of this or any otheruniversity other or institute of ii

Yulia BARABANOVA raphical

CEU eTD Collection Keywords: provide an empirically provide an Climate Action and Rising Tide, which have taken direct action on climate justice in the UK. To to provide appropriate solutions. The study explores the discourse of two networks, Camp for and the failure of the dominant climate politics fixated oncarbon emissions and market advance climate politics. The research is motivated a by concern about the intensifying climate crisis This dissertation captures the emerging grassroots theoretical lenses of post alternative climate politics against the backdrop of the dominant discourse, this study adopts the to re to encompasses multiple scales and sides of justice rather than a singular distributional logic, and politics that prioritizes community rather nation- the tensions and contradictions, it is contended that it offers directions for an alternative climate a constant struggle between reproduction of and resistance to the dominant discourse. Yet despite The overarching argument of this dissertation is that grassroots’ discourse on climate change reveals framework of critical discourse an It is concluded that such conceptualization constitutes counter a in common. many ways transcends the dominant discours - socialize economic relations rather than rationalize them through the considerations of profit. climate justice, networks,grassroots climate activism, critical discourse analysis

rich and in and rich - politics and amulti and politics alysis. - depth account of how grassroots

e and offers distinctive forms of being, living and acting Abstract - scalar justice combined with the methodological iii ’

discourse on climatediscourse justice on as to having potential state approach to climate change. Further, it

- discourse on climate politics that climate in politics on discourse

networks conceptualize an - based logicbased

seeks seeks

CEU eTD Collection My last expressions of gratitude are dest motivating and pushing me forward! overcome seemingly insurmountable barriers andmake steady progress. Thank you for encouraging, attentiv your the from Fuchs Don and CEU from Steger Tamara administrative procedures and linguistic pitfalls.Two academics are particularly dear to my heart like to acknowledge valuable help of Gyorg GuntraAistara from CEU for your insightful andtimely comments and encouragement.I would also Petr Jehlicka from the Open University, Richard Filcak from Slovak Academy of Sciences, and but fulfilling academic exploration. Thank t from you Featherstone David I’m also grateful for the support of scholars from various resisting and creating. I felt truly inspired your by actions and ideas. networks for their open attitude and time that they spent with me while being extremely bus dissertation happen. I’m thankful to all the activists from Rising Tide, Climate Camp and other colleagu roommates, classmates, privileged at the same time. Among these people there are activists, scholars, administrators, with people who I came across duri As revising I finish the version final of dissertation, this faces, v Valera, for directing me i me directing for Valera, somebody who is never tired of dreaming, planning, learning, and exploring. Thank you, Iv at the unconditionally along the way. And even more so, for encouraging me to plunge into the unknown years five of studies these that have marked been with. living all me these with little moments j of

decisive moment and find my own way in life. Finally, I’m so grateful for sharing my life with e guidancee and practical help in the most critical moments of my studies helped me n

the right direction when I was at the crossroads and supporting me es, and others who indirectly or directly contributed to making this ng my studies appear in my in appear studies my ng

Acknowledgements ined for my family. I’m so th I’m so family. for my ined oy and sadness, hope and despair, wonde yi Puruczky and Denise Mirat in dealing with the the dealing Mirat with Puruczky in yi Denise and iv

University of Manitoba. Throughout these years

countries

mind and make me feel thankful and and thankful feel me make and mind oices, conversations and meetings

that I received during this hard hard this during received I that a nkful to my parents, Veraand he Universityhe of Glasgow, r and discovery discovery and r a y with n, for for n, – CEU eTD Collection 7 6 5 4 3 2 networks grassroots and politics change Climate Introduction:

6.5 6.4 6.3 6.2 6.1 5.3 5.2 5.1 4.2 4.1 3.4 3.3 3.2 3.1 2.5 2.4 2.3 2.2 2.1 1.3 1.2 1.1 7.1 International International 5.2.1 5.1.4 5.1.3 5.1.2 5.1.1 consensus? carbon in Locked justic Climate 3.2.4 3.2.3 3.2.2 3.2.1 3.1.6 3.1.5 3.1.4 3.1.3 3.1.2 3.1.1 change climate of discourse political the on framework Theoretical 2.3.3 2.3.2 2.3.1 design Research 7.1.2 7.1.1 solutions true endorsing and false Confronting

False solutions False Conclusions ecocide? = crimes Climate "No borders, nations, no stop deportations!" debt Ecological The root causes and responsibility Conclusions a re as change Climate imagery apocalyptic and targets Emission justice climate Defining concern overarching an as justice Climate Conclusions studies justice climate of Overview counter a justice: Climate justice distributive and solutions market emissions, change: climate on discourse dominant The Reflection on the research process and the researcher’s role d and Coding collection Data Defininggrassroots networks analysis discourse Critical chapters of Overview Study focus: Camp forClimate Action and RisingTide networks UK the in activism Climate Financial fixes Financial Techno Coalescence ofdiscourses “We just need to break a post From emissionsthe to systemic causes Contextactions of against polluters “We are armed…only with peer justice climate of scales The capitalism neoliberal and solutions false debt, climate discourse: justice Climate Alter history brief a concept: justice Climate The post Justice in the dominant climate discourse The dominant solutions to climate change Ecolog Neoliberalism politics/policy to science from change: Climate Documents Interviews Participan - globalization movement globalization ical modernization and neoliberal discourses neoliberal and modernization ical - fixes - ...... political condition and the dominant climate change discourse change climate dominant the and condition political t observation t dimension of climate change politics change climate of dimension

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CEU eTD Collection Appe guide Interview 2: Appendix list Interviewee 1: Appendix Bibliography 9 8

9.5 9.4 9.3 9.2 9.1 8.5 8.4 8.3 8.2 8.1 7.3 7.2 9.3.3 9.3.2 9.3.1 politics climate alternative an towards justice: Climate world commodified a Navigating 7.2.4 7.2.3 7.2.2 7.2.1

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CEU eTD Collection changes in our climate: on Climate Change (IPCC) strongly affirmed2013 in gravity the and human- century Climate change has come to be the most pressing and overriding environmental c Introduction: Climate change politics and grassroots networks major official major official climate change has become the target for global social movement mobilizations under the name of Climate Justice at 2008 Chiro Di and social reproduction ( market and change rests upon scientific, apocalyptic and neoliberal discourses that foster narrow technologi behind, support and resist ex ideas, intentions, decisions and behaviours, with a focus on processes that prop up, challenge, lurk social relations infused with power, authority and varying perspectives. ‘Politics’ involve proposals, climate change politics can be understood as “the management and contestations of policies, through determined by these factors that in turn affect climate politics on various levels. Following Boykoff, political, socialand or economic systems in place. Yet the responses to climate change are often non and human affects change Climate these movements challenge the dominant climate politics and discourses ( focused on justice and equality between and within countries, solidarity, commons and well andthe con ocean have warmed, the amounts of snow and ice have diminished, sea level has risen, observed changes are unprecedented over decades to millennia. The atmosphere and Warming of the climate system is unequivocal, and since the 1950s, many of the 20th century ( century 20th human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid ( Ban 2008 Ban - based solutions and fail to address the fundamental issues of justice, equality, democracy ; ; Vinthagen 2012 2013Parr ) . Despite scientific controversies and climate skepticism, the International Panel centrations of greenhouse gases have increased […] It is IPCC 2013: 3, 12 2013: IPCC Building Bridges Collective 2010 Collective Bridges Building - related events and beyond. B plicit actions” ( ) - .

human populations unequally regardless of national borders, ) . That is why climate politics and its and climate underlying politics discourses why is . That Boykoff 2009: 3 2009: Boykoff 1

; Bullard and Müller 2012 and Bullard y constructing an alternative discourse ) . The dominant politics of climate politics dominant . The Featherstone extremely likely likely extremely induced naturethe of oncern of the 21 ; Dawson 2010 Dawson

2013; that that - - being, being, Smith cal cal

st ;

CEU eTD Collection introduces the context in which the discourse of two grassroots networks has been developing, as particularly from the perspective of Western liberal democracies. The remainder of this chapter dissertation, the dominant discourse is embodied grassroots’ discourse has to be done in relation to the dominant one. In the context of this politics, onthe other. The word ‘alternative’ in research the question suggests that the examination of networks attach to the concept of ‘climate justice’ on the one hand, and their vision o Answering this question requires thorough a examination of the particular meanings that grassroots methodologicaltools of crit change climate of politics alternative an conceptualize overarching research question to guide this study: To find out how grassroots networks approach this new politics, I developed the following the face of civic engagement has changed dramatically in the recent years: fo Camp and Tide literature onclimate justice,I chose to focus onthe discourse of two grassroots networks, Rising changes. This is exactly what this dissertation sets out to do. To contribute to the growing body of we need to study the discourse and practice of these civic promises to be a paradigmatic shift in the way think we about and address these interrelated issues, through and showing the ways for profound social transformation. Therefore, to capture what through linking up the causes of the climate, social, economic and financial crises that we are li 2012 Duncan and aware that old politics, old economics, need to change ( forwar complex ways of connecting, learning, sharing knowledge and strategic ways to move more in much fluid, operating is […] action civic Today’s movements. meta traditional Civic action is moving away from institutionalized campaigns and projects of the d, in place and across places, based on a sense of possibility for new politics, r Climate Action, campaigningon climate (2012 in the UK. As Harcourt ) . The broaderaim of theircritique bringing is profound changes to society ical discourse analysis (CDA) discussed in the chapter that follows. ? To answer? this broadresearch question, employ I the 2

in climate politics of the UNFCCC process,

How does grassroots discourse on climate justice justice climate on discourse grassroots does How

actors, the forerunners of the coming Harcourt 2012: 152 2012: Harcourt ) .

n climaten )

argues, argues, ving ving CEU eTD Collection week together with other networks, have ignited and invigorated climate activism in the UK. Their tactics, 2009 ( Commentators underestimated. The role of grassroots networks in the processdeveloping of a distinct climate movement cannot be networks. activist scientific community as a whole, and thus attracted gre issue onthe political agenda as a result of the alarming findings of the IPCC and the international - the mid in occurred activism for climate boost major movement and make environmental issues moreprominent ( environmental movement whose relatively recent focus climate on change helped invigorate the Woodsworth 2008 Woodsworth First!, and Dissent! back in the 1990s ( 1990s the in back Dissent! and First!, anti ( contribute to the discourse climate on change and to various extents affect climate change politics Stupid, Climate Rush, Transition Towns,Sands Tar Network and many others), all of which Stop Climate Chaos Coalition), and grassrootsnetworks (Camp for Climate Action, RT, Plane (Greenpeace, Friends of the E The broad picture of climate activism in the UK consists of various environmental NGOs 1.1 of subsequent chapters. well as their key o Doyle 2009 Doyle - globalization protests led such by direct action networks such as Reclaim the Streets, Earth ; - long camps and actions against polluters, organized by Camp for Climate Action (CfCA) Plows 2008 Plows Climate activism in the UK ) . The roots of climate activism in the UK stretch back to the anti rganizing principles. This introduction concludes with a brief outline of the content ;

) Saunders Saunders . At the. same time, climate activism in the embedded UK is within the wider and Price 2009 Price and arth, WWF), campaign groups (Campaign against Climate Change, Change, Climate against (Campaign groups campaign WWF), arth, Monbiot 2007; Monbiot

; Doherty Skrimshire 2008 Skrimshire Van der Zee 2011 Zee der Van 3

et al. et

2000s climate when change became a key at attention from NGOs and grassroots NGOs and from at attention

Rootes 2009b Rootes 2003 ; Woodsworth 2008 ; ; Vida Plows 2008 Plows l 2008 l ; Woodsworth 2008 - roads, anti roads, )

and scholars ( ;

) have noted how Skrimshire 2008 Skrimshire - GMO and and GMO ) Doyle Doyle . The The . ; CEU eTD Collection discourse of two UK grassroots networks presented in the next section. Copenhagen and Bolivia. This dissertation therefore seeks to fill this empirical gap by exploring the the perspective of the overall climate movement in the UK and int climate justice, except for the study by There is currently of CfCA (Saundersof Price climate possibilities activism and 2009), limits and the and ( environmental movement ( grassroots netw articles a by group of researches examine the knowledge claims of CfCA ( explores growth and retention of newcomers in CfCA to date covers different aspects of the movement: a doctoral dissertation by Woodsworth (2008) 2012 the negotiation of various agendas within CfCA ( comprehensive scholarly attention ( climate activism UK, its the grassroots, in especially strand direct action is still receive to While the body of lite 2010). (Dawson activism climate current in networks incorporate the perspectives of the affected communities point to the vital role of grassroots general tr corporate structures that distinguishes such networks from their counterparts. NGO Besides this, the NGOs (Doyle 2009). Specifically, it is the genuine resistance to engage with and emulate state and organizing principles and values are very much ) , the definition of success of the general g end of institutionalization of the environmental movement and the failure of NGOs to orksthe in environmental movement (Doyle 2009), tensions within the no research that provides an in- rature climate on justicehas started growing rapidly in the last few years, Pusey and Russell 2010 Russell and Pusey Schlembach 20 Russell (2012 Russell reen protest movement (

opposed to those of mainstream environmental

11 ) ) , radicalism and reformism in CfCA ( CfCA in reformism and , radicalism Schlembach 2011 Schlembach

depth analysis depth analysis the grassrootsof discourse on ;

which examines climate justice discourse from Schlembach

and Rising Tide networks; several academic

et al. et ) , strategies and the role of

ernational mobilizations in 2012 Plows 2008 Plows Schlembach ) . The existing analysis existing . The ) , utopic visionsutopic , North 2011 North

et al. et Saunders Saunders

2012 ) ) . , CEU eTD Collection decision Reclaim the Streets group (Woodsworth 2008).Organized non- network uniting activists from previous cycles of contention, in particular, activists of a disbanded according to the activists themselves (Sydney pers.comm). At the center of the co justice’ and against corporate solutions that did address not the problem making ita radical demand firstThe political statemen in Hague. The meeting at the UNFCCC change climate on to campaign that formed acoalition as 2 1 point of entry to the grassroots climate action movement” (RT 2011a) action groups and the formalized structure of local avital branches providing NGOs, of national Mexico and Germany positioning itself as “an important bridge between the covert world of direct RT is an international network with fully autonomous branches in the UK, US, Australia, Finland, networks whose discourse will analyzed be in this dissertation. (RT). what In follows, provide I brief a outline of the history and organizing principles of the two the UK grassroots climate activism scene – role in advancing climate activism, I chose to focus this study onthe most prominent networks on Given the lack of comprehensive analysis of the grassroots networks’ discourseand their pertinent 1.2 supporting the establishment of CfCA (RT 2011a). in 2005 activism by for climate the foundations and laying movement action climate wider Such materials usually come from online sources, therefore page numbers are not provided. provided. not are page numbers therefore sources, online from come materials usually Such terminate its terminate movement, RT highlights winning a campaign to make the Natural History Museum in London industry, corporations and banks. Among the key successes and contributions to the overall climate

Specifically, Shell’s sponsorship of the Wildlife Photographer of the Year Award the of Photographer Wildlife the of sponsorship Shell’s Specifically, Note that all activist materials c Study focus: Camp for Climate Action and Rising Tide - making principles, RT has focuse

sponsorship contract with Shell ited throughout the dissertation can be located in Appendix 3, not in the bibliography. bibliography. 3, the in not Appendix in can located be dissertation the throughout ited t written in the early 2000s had already called for fighting for ‘climate

d on direct and creativeaction against the fossil fuel Camp fo Camp 2 , devising and introducing and , innovative devising tactics in the 5

r Climate Action (CfCA) and Tide Rising UK

hierarchically and using consensus

1 . The network started in 2000 2000 in started network The

networks alition was UK the

CEU eTD Collection change group in the next four years and an event (involving squatting the land and a week GM and G8 direct action groups organized CfCA, a network that was to become the key climate In the coming year (pers.comm. Sydney). also exists which annually brings all groups together for a gathering to decide on key strategies for groups are autonomous in choosing targets and taking actions, a national decision- several local groups, continues to exist onthe British climate activism scene to this da and downs in the numbers and the amount of energy in the group, the RT network comprised of While the networks have experienced various levels of involvement of activists since 2001 with ups characteristic of global justice movement protests (CfCA 2009a). squatting onlands and setting up camps on their own terms rather than in a reactionary way action creating by struggles previous from learn to attempted it Besides, 2008). (Woodsworth would bring together environmental, anti climate change askey a m agenda of the G8 ( the of agenda ) 2010 Saunders compos of a sustainable convergence space with renewable energy, composting toilets, recycling and theUnlike previous summit village held in 2005 in opposition to the first Climate Camp with the elements of direct action and education came from Hori camping) that gathered from600to several thousand people at different times. The idea of making 2006 UK activists from various networks such as RT, the Dissent! network, anti network, Dissent! the RT, as such networks various from activists UK 2006 ting run by horizontal politics without leaders and hierarchies ( . The. issue of climate change had already at thattime the on been activist and political ) 2010 Saunders obilizing issue and an aim to create broad a climate change movement that - hopping mobilizations, Hori . Therefore, CfCA network came into being with a special focus on the G8 meeting in Gleneagles

- war, alternative ecological networks and others 6

- zone attempted to create a living example

(Woodsworth 2008; Plows 2008). 2008). Plows 2008; (Woodsworth Pickerill and Chatterton 2006 Chatterton and Pickerill - making process roads and anti and roads y. While localy. While - zone eco - long s, s, - - ; CEU eTD Collection Its activity was focused first once on about the role of anti issues in the network (an informal hierarchy, desire a formore a decentralized structure, discussions (e.g.actions Clima summer camps were held in various locations across the UK, along with a number of high profile neighborhoods started taking actions locally on a regular basis. From 2006 to 2010 a total of four require the mammoth preparations of the annual camp was acknowledged. That is varioushow need for smaller directactions held throughoutthe year in between the bigger camps that would not to simply negating and resisting the authorities as was done during the G8 protests. Later on, the and resources collected tactics and improve its organizational methods under a new name (CfCA 2011). The skills, contacts statement announcing disbandment it was declared that CfCA was dissolving but only to find fresh machno Functioning in affinity groups emulated anarchist movements in the Spanish civil the and war At the outset, CfCA adopted various organizing principles from a number of past movements. focus will discussed be in more detail in the empirical chapters. name CJC reflects the new focus that evolved from climate activism to climate justic based network that was named Climate Justice Collective (CJC), and partly to other networks. The (CfCA 2009a; Pusey and Russell 2010) . At the same time, practices such as affinity group organizing, organizing, group affinity as such practices time, same the At . 2010) Russell and Pusey 2009a; (CfCA feed their (representing geographical regions in most cases) division of the network that allowed local groups to particular1970 feminist text “The Tyranny of Structurelessness” (CfCA2009a); ‘neighborhoods’ a opposition to group hierarchy are said to be inspired by the feminist and indigenous circles and a politics are ascribed to have come from anarchism; consensus decision - vite movement in Ukraine (CfCA 2009a); rejection of any kind of dogma, pre dogma, of kind any of rejection 2009a); (CfCA Ukraine in movement vite

decisions to the central was one modeled afterthe 2001 Piqueteros Rebellion in Argentina te Swoop). 2010 In itclear became that there were organizational and ideological - capitalist politics and so on) that had taken th eir toll onthe network. In the last over the year at the CfCA were partly passed on to a new, initially London - a - year camping a actions positive that with was filled 7

- making practices and the and practices making e. This shiftinge. This - s opposed opposed s figurative - CEU eTD Collection framework enables identifications of ways in which co politics applied specifically to climate change (Swyngedouw 2013).Itargued is that the post major interface between science and policy, the role of neoliberal and ecological modernization discourses, first axis addresses the key elements of the dominant discourse climate on change, including the this dissertation. To lay the foundation for the empir Chapter 3 presents a review of the debates in the literature and a theoretical framework adopted in role of the researcher in the context of this study. detailed procedures usedthe for analysis of the data outline the data collection methods (interview, participant observation and document research) and providing a definition of grassroots networks and a justification for focusing onthese actors,I analysis research area and presents the methodological steps that guided this dissertation. This dissertation is comprised of nine chapters. Chapter 2 locates this study in the critical discourse 1.3 decision consensus participants took part in the actions, the majority of activists were white. categories (from 20 to 60+) and social backgrounds attended the meetings. While a few non diverse in both networks. At the time of my fieldwork both female and male activistsvarious in age funded, i.e. through donations of the internal or external participants. The profil as networks broadly embodying both anarchist and autonomist principles. Both networks are self interchangeably to refe well as in online publications, networks’ participants used the words ‘anarchist’ and ‘autonomous’ ‘autonomous geographies’ stemming from an autonomist Marxist tradition. During the interviews as

Overview of chapters Overview solutions and a focus on distributional justice, as viewed from the theoretical lens of the post - making and spokes councils are part of what r to their organizing practices. Thus, CfCA (as well as RT) can described be

ical chapters, it is structured along two axes. The . The chapter concludes with reflections the on unter - discourse reproduces or entrenches the Pickerill and Chatterton (2006) call call (2006) Chatterton and Pickerill e of participants is - political - white white After After - - CEU eTD Collection multi based onthe articulations of justice at the fore of this discourse, the second theoretical lens of a climate disco acounter as movements climate global by dominant climate discourse. The second axis addresses the climate justice discourse pushed forward require going beyond the distribution multial responses. The understanding of climate change as complex a problem comprising various interrelated injustices that meanings that challenge the narrow dimensions of the prevailing climate politics. It also offers an on the same concepts as the dominant one, it extends these concepts and/or imbues them with accountability for the climate impacts. The findings suggest that although grassroots’ discourse draws the root causes o Chapter 6 moves the discussion to the level of the international aspects of climate politics, such as discourses, arguing that both reproduction of and resistance to, the dominant discourse is evident. context, Chapter 5 examines the dialecticalrelations Through the in- activists’ discourse in its relation to the dominant discourse addressed further in the dissertation. empirically based definition of the term. It also draws attention to the presence of tensions the in justice as central a thread running through grassroots networks’ discourse and providing an Chapter 4 introduces the empi justice constructed grassroots by networks’ conceptualizes the alternative climate change politics. make it possible to gain a broad andrich understanding of how the counter at the heart of the counter the heart of the at matters through the articulations of the need for just transition and energy democracy. These of the discourse in terms of linking climate justice not only to international issues - scalar justice (Fraser 2005) is proposed. It is argued that the c the that argued is It proposed. is 2005) (Fraser justice scalar urse and politics. The major components of the counter depth diachronic analysis of actions taken by the networks and the surrounding f the problem, relationship between the global North and South, migration and - discourse is further explored in Chapter 7. It also points out the evolution rical part of thisdissertation by highlighting the notion of climate - discourse that seeks to challenge and resist the dominant 9

hip between the dominant and counter - dimensional character climate justice of dimensional ombined theoretical approaches - discourse are reviewed, and - discourse on climatediscourse on

but equally to UK to equally but

CEU eTD Collection that marksan area in counter addressingof multiple the injustices. The articulations reveal the importance of transferring control to the affected communities as a key way thesis. sections of the chapter offer directions for future studies and a final look at the key message of this socializes economic relations rather than rationalizing them through considerations of profit. The last approach, encompasses multiple scales of justices rather than a singulardistributional logic, and re directions for an al and resistance to the dominant discourse. Yet, despites the tensions and contradictions, it offers is that grassroots’ discourse on climate change reveals a constant struggle between reproduction of followed by a synthesis of its major empirical findings. The overa Chapter 9 wrapsup this dissertation with a brief overview of key contributions to knowledge displays attempts to refocus economic relations on the social and environmental aspects. the wider issues of economic exchange. It is argued that despite a number of tensions, the dis ternative climate politics that prioritizes a community rather than a nation a than rather community a that prioritizes politics climate ternative - discourse where discussions shift from climate from shift discussions where discourse

empirical part of this dissertation concludes with Chapter 8 10

rching argument of this dissertation - related problematic to

course course - state - CEU eTD Collection approach chosen. For instance, one of the most commonly used approaches to discourse analysis engagement with linguistic means in a discourse study may vary depending on the particular of the constructive role of language in the social processes. In the words of Fairclough ( forms, such as visual images or body l body or images visual as such forms, this angle, to study discourse would mean to study languageuse in together with other semiotic social life, so that social analysis and research always has to take account of language”.Viewed from language is “an irreducible part of social life, dialectically interconnected with reality as involved in the creation of social identities, social relations, systems of knowledge and thus the well as some fundamental assumptions and principles. Broadly speaking, discourse can be regarded analysis, and others. Each approach offers a specific definition of disc using multiple approaches, such as conversation analysis, critical discourse analysis (CDA), narrative If study this In 2.1 study.analysis with a discussion of the data analysis process and the role of the researcher in a qualitative discourse d this used in of grassroots networks is followed by a detailed description of the key methods of data collection rationale behind using a qualitative approach for answering the research questions. The introduction chapter begins by locating this study in the tradition of crit grassroots discourse climate on justice conceptualizes an alternative politics of climate change. The This chapter outlines methods and tools employed in this dissertation to investigate to how 2

Research design Criticaldiscourse analysis ( Rogers issertation (interviews, documents and participant observation). The chapter concludes -

Hayden ocus onthe discoursegrassroots of networks in the UK. Discourse can be studied

et al. et

2011

) . What. all approaches to discourse analysis share is the recognition anguageexpressed as in ‘texts’

ical discourse analysis and providing the ( ourse and a particular focus, as as focus, particular a and ourse Fairclough 2006 Fairclough

otherelements of ) . The level of 2003: 2 2003: ) , CEU eTD Collection resilient discourses can be overcome existing problems and offer better futures” ( p happening in the present, including why the previous systems have failed, and imagine and advocate Furthermore, discourses “represent and narrate what has happened in the past and what is challenge the dominant discourses and thus open the space f hegemonic and dissident discourses that circulate in society through social movements or academia ( including language, plays key a role in the consolidation of economic, political and ot Meyer 2001: 88 2001: Meyer as powerful onits own, but “itgains power by the use powerful people make of it” ( contributing to radical social change ( identities identities role of language in social relations of power and domination, ideology, and in the negotiation of CDA as one of the types of discourse analysis specifically concentrates onthe increasingly important integral part (Ibid.).Consequently, the level of abstraction in these two CDA approaches is different. chapter), text and its linguistic components are the point of departure for discourse analysis and its ap Fairclough’s Norman in contrast, In 1992). constituting areas of knowledge and the relationship between knowledge and power (Fariclough means of written and spoken texts. Instead, Foucault focused types on of discourse as rules for language and discourse, his analysis is known for a very limited engagement w recognizing the role of language in discourse and the socially constructive properties of both de was ) 2006 Fairclough ossible alternativesossible the for future, (social, political, cultural) economic possible might orders which veloped by Michele Foucault in his works the on discourses of human sciences. While ( Fairclough 2001b Fairclough ) . Therefore, discourse as a way of representing the world through semiotic means

and in making them dominant or hegemonic. At the same time, counter operationalized or enacted in new practices, new types of economic order )

with the aim of critically investigating aimp the of these with Wodak 2001 Wodak 12 proach (which will be further discussed in this

) . However, as notes Wodak, language is not seen

Fairclough 2006: 24 2006: Fairclough or social change ( ) Harvey 1996 Harvey . Most successful and ith actualith linguistic henomena and her systems Wodak and and Wodak ) .

- CEU eTD Collection accordance with the aims and research questions of particular studies ( methodological prescriptions in CDA suggests that the methodological tools ar inplays emanation of power legitimizing and social inequalities”. of absence The theoretical or dialecticthe relat may vary, the common goal of all approaches, according to Ahmadvand ( discourse, and Foucauldian a practice,social van Dijk’s socio conducting CDA are distinguishable in the literature, such as Fairclough’s treatment of discourse as resisted by text and talk in the social and political context” ( primarily studies the way social power abuse, dominance, and inequality are enacted,reproduced, and CDA tradition. According to Van Dijk, C change. The study of the discourse of particular groups and networks is often undertaken within the particular discoursesgrassroots of networks in challenging the dominant discourse onclimate political systems and contributing to social change, this dissertation seeks t materialor new realities method It should be noted that since CDA is transdisciplinary a approach rather than a concrete theory or emphasis onthe analysis of domination and resistance to it, is particularly suitable research. this for grassroots discourse and the dominant discourse on climate change, the CDA framework, with its the overarching question of this dissertation presupposes examining the interaction between interviews as the key data source, but is certainly not limited to it. Observ 2009b Meyer against the power and control of an elite group other on people” ( “methodfor examining social and cultural modifications that could be employed in protesting ( Fairclough 2001a Fairclough ) . CDA, like other types of discourse analysis (Hepburn and Potter2007), relies on ionship between language, power, ideology, and the influential role that language ( Fairclough 2006 Fairclough ; nalysis, among others. While the set of elements in each CDA approach ; 2007 Wodak - cognitive model, Wodak’s sociological and historical approach to ) . Thus,given this constitutive role of discourse in shaping Wodak and Meyer 2009b Meyer and Wodak DA 13

is a is

“type of discourse analytical research that Van Dijk 2001: 352 Dijk Van Ahmadvand 2011: 68 2011: Ahmadvand ) , and several approaches to Wodak 2007 Wodak 2011: 89 2011: o examineo the role of ation and any kind of ) ) , is “representing “representing , is . CDA is then a ; e chosen in ) . Given that that Given . Wodak and and Wodak

CEU eTD Collection inter Fairclough (2003) differentiates between three levels of abstraction within discourse analysis: the interact, discursively and not, with other agents. v entities in the form of texts recurring over time in various social contexts. Discourses are enacted by (2006), consider I discourses ways as of representing a particular aspect of social life and abstract contexts), I Fairclough’s chose linguistically and how to do it is based on the written and spoken texts produced by various actors in specific 1992).Given that climate politics has a clearly discursive nature(i.e. what do about climate change actualand practices which allows producingvery a grounded and concrete analysis (Fairclou (Fairclough 1992). As noted earlier, Fairclough’s approach is based on a close engagement with texts understanding of discourse as constructive of reality and Bakhtin’s emphasis on intertextuality In this dissertation I chose to adopt Fairclough’s approach to CDA which draws on Foucault’s 3 ( existing written documents related to the research problem are also necessary for an in events and are mediated social by practices. At the same time, discourses interact with various genres structures are languages or an economic structure. Discourses thus can function through social abstract entities in the discourse, define a potential or a set of possibilities. Examples such of for instance organizational or teaching practices “articulations of different types of social element which are associated with a particular area of life”, visual data, body language, sound and so on ( in texts in a broader sense of the word, i.e. going beyond written pieces to encompass oral speech,

) 2007 Wodak arious social agents,the in case of this research the agents in focus are grassroots networks that These terms correspond to “text”, “discursive practice” and “social practice” used in his earlier work (Fairclough 1992). (Fairclough earlier work his in used “social practice” and “discursive practice” “text”, to correspond These terms relation between social events, social practices and social structures .

- orient

14 (

ed approach for this study. Following Fairclough ) 25 2003: Fairclough

) 2006 Fairclough ibid.; 3 . Social structures, the most most the structures, . Social . Social events are expressed . are practices Social - depth analysis gh gh

CEU eTD Collection direction of climate of ondirection various politics levels. discourse embodied in practices and texts surrounding the UNFCCC process that determines the discourse climate on change embodied in their discursive practices and texts, and the dominant 1992).In the context of my dissertation, I examine the discursive struggle between g tensions and struggles between discourses are of the one factors that create social change (Fairclough discourses either attempt approach to discourse analysis pertinent for this research is on the tensions among competing shifting of scales from micro to macro analysis is evident. Finally, an important focus in the adopted and orders of discourses comprising it. These three levels of analy distribution or consumption of texts), and ending with the macro- explorati the to later chapter), this is presented in proceeding linguistic analysis this for framework analysis (a detailed amicro on texts examining from departs analysis the that means This structures. social In order to perform CDA is it therefore necessary to oscillate between or ( an order of discourse in its semiotic form, that is characterized by the tendency to be dominant calls an order of discourse (Ibid.). The neoliberal global order is an example of such a social order, or –waysstyles of being. combination A of variousgenres, styles and discourses forms whatFairclou in the semiotic mode, while discourses are ways of representing social life in different ways, and briefly specify what is meant by the term ‘grassroots networks’ in this dissertation and give an Before providing an in- 2.2 and styles. In Fairclough’s definition ( Fairclough 2001a Fairclough Definin on ofon social practices which surround texts (i.e. practices related to the production, g grassroots networks g grassroots ) .

depth account of the data collection and analysis process, it is necessary to ing to become dominant or resisting the dominant discourses. These 2006 ) , genres, are ways of interacting and producing social life

analysis a wider socialof structure sis are integrated and a constant aconstant and integrated are sis ders of discourse, texts, and discourse, and ders texts, of - level through through level rassroots’ gh gh CEU eTD Collection (website posts; press posts; (website has known”. In addition, this term is used consistently by activists in various written documents movem grassroots growing, afast is Action Climate for “Camp read website title CfCA’s on ". main The change climate of independent groups and individuals committed to taking action and building movement a against onl in its term the mentions network (n.d.) RT illustrate, point of view, as the networks and individualparticipants refer to themselves in this way. To ac organize non- networks of people in the UK from various professional and social backgrounds who choose to additional justification e this for direct actions that grassroots networks carryare out examined as important practices in which t from a few minutes to a few hours, depending on the reaction of authorities. In this dissertation composed of people breaking the law. To prepare such an action, activists split into so- sit to blockades from forms, various democracy and a way of collectively re defined by the Handbook of Direct Action circulating in grassroots networks, direct action is direct ‘ to is commit networks but through a voluntary engagement and desire to take action (RT n.d.). The type of action that they consist of loosely affiliated individuals,tied not to the networks by any membership schemes from the government or any kind of authorities. The network st individually from the bottom up” (pers.comm. Fe) without asking for permission or authorization The key tion as tactical tool of such a fight. Thethe use of term ‘grassroots’ justified is from an empirical

feature of such networks, articulated as activists by themselves, is the ability “to take action hierarchically to fight against climate change and organize various forms of direct ent of diverse people taking action on climate change, the biggest threat our world - releases, emails) and in oral communication. oral in and emails) releases, “who know and tr direct action’ carried out by the whole network or an affinity group. As mpirical focus. By grassroots networks I first of all mean loose - - ins to banner drops to ‘ethical shoplifting’, and can involve asserting control of our destinies. Direct ust each other” (RT 2007d). Time 2007d). (RT other” each ust 16

ine documents: "RT is a grassroots network ructure of these groups suggests these ructure of that

called affinity groups who are - wise, direct action can last

action thus can take he he CEU eTD Collection into the analysis. and retained the same organizing principles which made it methodologically possible to integrate it discourse. Second, the new network gathered the to the more pronounced social justice critique to the articulation of a fully fledged climate justice discourse around climate change: from the early years of activism dominated a by scientific rhetoric documented and analyzed. Including CJC in the analysis allowed me to trace the evolution o CJC as an important discursive development within grassroots climate activism in the UK to be following reasons. First to other groups across the UK. I decided to include the actions of CJC in the analysis for the ‘metamorphosed’ in 2012 into the Climate Justice Collective (CJC) based in London but also linked note that in 2011 CfCA formally disbanded but following for providing rich data for the analysis of the emerging climate justice discourse. It is important to due to their key role in the UK climate movement ( Paul Brown),Hacan, as well as in the media. Thus, the two networks were selected for the analysis activists whom have I interviewed (interviewswith Charlie Kronick,Greenpeace, John Stewart, also have repeatedly been mentioned as important actors in the UK climate movement by NGO campai climate national prominent change and organize non- have a radical analysis (Woodsworth 2008; Schlembach 2011) of the underlying causes of climate The two networks, CfCA and RT, arethe biggest and the oldest gr workshops, teach- discourse is constructed and articulated. Together with other practices, such as organizing meetings,

ins and gatherings, direct actions are treated as units of analysis. analysis. of units as treated are actions direct gatherings, and ins and foremost, I regardedthe disbanding and metamorphosing of CfCA into hierarchically. Both networks have been heavily involved in the most gns in recent years (for example, Heathrow and Kingsnorth) and 17

core CfCA activists that I had already interviewed

Goodman 2011 Goodman

discussions and meetings, it finally oups, respectively, in the UK that ; Rootes 2012 Rootes )

and their potential f the the f CEU eTD Collection my interest in filling thisresearch filling gap. interestmy in academic account of the emerging climate justice activism with a focus ondiscourse analysis, hence on both local and global levels ( significantly on past social movements, are employing innovative techniques to bring about changes concerning global and climate justice have a g implemented in the society that interested me most. Scholarsagreethat grassroots initiatives organizing, contrasting repertoires of actions and a radical vision of the changes that need to be importantly, however, it is the nature of grassroots activism with its non- climate activism have been researched to a much lesser degree (Schlembach al et grassroot contrast, From the functional perspective, texts represent the world, enact social relations between includeswhich written and oral texts, visual images, body and language ( globalization discourse and language of ‘new capitalism’, Fairclough relies onthe study of semiosis observation have been widely used ( participant and documents interviews, from data qualitative traditional that means which sources previous section, critical discourse analysis does not have any specific prescriptions regarding data clarify what is considered data in the context of this dissertation. As it was pointed out in the Before providing the discussion of data collection methods used in this study, it is necessary to 2.3 organizations of the NGO, and charity type in the UK ( reasons. One of them lies in the considerable amount of scholarly attention to the conventional networks campaigning on climate change as opposed to, for example, NGOs for a number of Regarding the type of networks that I look at my in study,I chose to focus onradi Data collection s initiatives that have sprung in up recent years and have been at the forefront of

Plows 2008; Plows Hepburn and Pott Skrimshire 200 Skrimshire reat mobilization potential and though they draw 18

; 2007 er 8 Doyle 2007 Doyle ) . To date, I have not found a thorough Wodak 2007 Wodak ; Rootes 2009b Rootes Fairclough 2003 Fairclough ) . In. his study of the hier archical way of . 2012). More More . 2012). cal grassroots grassroots cal , 2009a , 2006 ) . In In . ) . CEU eTD Collection and third stages of data collection, I had a few weeks off lack of time and the amount of information and activity to observe. However, between the second transcribe and code interviews as they occurred, this strategy did not completely work out due to the of written information flowing from the networks under study. Although my initial plan was to This was an intensive period filled with interviews, actions, meetings, as well as an immense amount clarified later), I conducted participant During the second stage of data collection (which also included some elements of analysis to be also included getting physical access to the networks. Climate and Stupid Plane Greenpeace, climate change in the UK, campaigns and actions taken by the networks and other actors, such as operated. The study of the context included examination of key policy developments regarding key figures in the networks and getting to know the immediate research and pilot interviews onthe issues of climate activism in the UK with a goal of identifying stage The data for this research was collected during a five the next sections. material)areunit the of analysis. The details of data collection and the analysis process are given in in a broad sense of the word (i.e. interview transcripts, documents, vis specificby actors are the suitable data sources analyzedbe to and theorized. In this dissertation texts context participants of social events and connect texts together, as well as link texts with the situational interviews that were useful for refining the research focus and questions. Specifically, asresult a of interviewing and participant observation process, I wasable to go through the field notes and key s lasting fromFebruary to October 2010. firstThe stage of data collection started with desk ( ) 2003 Fairclough

. Given the centrality of texts in discourse analysis (Ibid.), texts produced

Rush, and media coverage of climate activism. The first stage first The activism. climate of coverage media and Rush, observation within the networks and most of the interviews. 19

- month field study in the UK and included 3

the field. Duringthis pause in the

context in which the networks ual images, audio and video video and audio ual images, CEU eTD Collection the participants and the impact of the researcher’s beliefs own and experiences ( potentially affected two by kinds of biases: the effects of the researcher’s presence theon behavior of phenomena studied ( observation, documentation and reflection and results in a “thick description” of the setting and the interaction between people ( contextual factors that influence a phenomenon under study, especially if it is closely connected to of a researcher into a particular setting advantages and disadvantages to be considered. One the one hand, a partial or complete immersion around them ( understanding of how a particular group of people work, interact, and make sense of the world Participant observation is a method of data collection in qualitative research use process. the used at of all stages to the neoliberal agenda through direct action. Sections that follow discuss data collection techniques coding. Specifically, the new focus of the study included the concept of climate justice and res research questions that had emerged during the previous stages of interviewing and preliminary stage final includedThe also interv dropped at the early stage of data collection. participant observation did not provide any empirical support for this focus; therefore it was p a as served review, be contributing to. This initial research focus, developed prior to the fieldwork through literature potential securitization of climate change discourse ( preliminarythis 2.3.1

Participant observation Delamont 2007 Delamont

screening of the incoming data,dropped I initial research questions regarding Geertz 1973 Geertz oint of departure rather than a rigid framework. Subsequent interviews and and interviews Subsequent framework. rigid a than rather departure of oint )

. As a data collection method, participant observation has both Iacono ) . On the. other hand, participant observation is subjective a process iews and observation but was guided the by empirically developed

et al. et is beneficialis because it provides valuable insights onthe

2009 20

)

. Such immersion is accompanied by continuous Buzan et al. et 1998 ) that grassroots networks could DeWalt and DeWalt DeWalt and DeWalt d to gain istance istance CEU eTD Collection Besides, the fact that where possible, the validity of such interpretations in the informal conversations or interviews. emerged through the observation and reflected on possible alternative interpretations, checking, my cultural own filters. However, in orderto keep it in check, and interpretation of what observed I would affected be my by knowledge, ideas, and beliefs due to Regarding subjectivity the bias, following pub also confirmed my confidence in my relative acceptance the by networks. arrival or that anyone tried to speak out of ear shot. The invitations to join the group for outings in a presence was cumbersome, I never noticed that the topic of the conversation was suspicions or reservations that those individuals had. As I watched closely for any signs that my the of members was that my regularand discrete presence during the meetings, as well as interviews with key with such participants and answer theirquestions about the nature research. of my My perception their full participation the in meetings. aware Being o my presence at the initial stage of participant observation, and thus my presence might have inhibited During my fieldwork I came across a few individuals within the networks who were suspicious about possible (Ibid.). observation, care should be taken to detect the degree and minimize such influence to the extent Twitter and on the email list and encouraged people to come and bring friends along. In contrast, at differences in access to CfCA and RT networks. CfCA advertised widely their regular sessions on Getting access to the meetings and actions proved to relative be analysis also played a role in the reduction of researcher’s bias ( 1998 ; Iacono et al. et

network (which they knew about), helped reduce, if not eliminate, any initial 2009

my major sources of data included also interviews and an extensive document ) . While it is virtually impossible not influence to the. it impossible is virtually participants While during the ) (2002 Ratner 21

f this fact, I made an effort to establish contact to establish an I thiseffort made fact, f

I chose to acknowledge that the observation ) 2002 Ratner

I highlighted any interpretation that ly easy, although there were .

changed upon my CEU eTD Collection notes onthe spot. To make the observation unobtrusive to the extent possible, I decided to refrain expressions used and so on. The difficulty was to register these details without making extensive involvement and non- approximate age, styles), hand signals used during the meetings, distribution of roles, types of possible: the setting, interactions between participants, profiles of activists present (gender, For each observation session I tried to explicitly be aware ( national gathering. hours at weekly meetings4 to meetings. The duration of observation varied depending on the type of event, starting from2 and social events/parties organized activists by as a separate occasion or right after the weekly of CfCA in Manchester, workshops, skillshares,action planning meetings, direct action blockades campus and social at a center in London), other observation sessions included the national gathering observation was at the networks’ gathering places during the weekly meetings (held at a University out observations in various locations and situations. While the most common location for To make sure the data collected was in a systematic way after each observation session. constantlybe aware of how my presence affected the dynamic at the meetings and to reflect on it one or two persons but coming across the reluctance of some of them reminded me of the need to general, participants in both networks agreed to interviews without hesitation with the exception of event at RT, I found key informants in CfCA who helped me get in touch with people in RT. In took me longer to get access to RT than to CfCA. To shorten the waiting time for the next social group was by coming to their film nighta or social event which takes place once a month. Thus, it the time I was conducting my f involvement in the discussions, as well - 5 hours5 duringaction events and weekend long sessions during the ieldwork, RT stated ontheir website that the best way to join the 22

( Delamont 2007 Delamont Spradley 1980 Spradley

as topics discussed, language and ) , I made an effort to carry carry to effort an made , I )

as as details many as of - 2.5 2.5 CEU eTD Collection files had the same structure of a table w two lists. My observations were recorded in two separate files: one for CfCA and one for RT. Both it and then took a decision on a meeting. This resulted in a certain time lag in the observation of the disc email an had apparently list, their on request email my circulated first activists RT as I had to ask for authorization from the London group to be added to the list. This took few a weeks CfCA was not problematic as the list of the discussions onemail lists of both networks. It should be noted that joining the email list of Apart from attending meetings and events, I found it useful to observe and make systematic records proc remember any particular aspects or situations and incorporate observations into the already days after the meeting, minutes would circulated be the on email list of the networks which helped to the sessions and notes that have been refl observation session was over. My field journal contained rough notes taken while commuting from recording observations from memory was an important task to be completed as soon as the about my research. Since taking notes during the meetings, let alone acti saw that all the people in the room had already met me at previous meetings,I skipped the part group the get to explanation of hand signals. During that time I was able to introduce myself and my research briefly The activist meetings normally started with introduction from the people in the room and an activists were taking notes as well. For this reason I took notes onthe spot only when the atmosphere permitted, i.e. wh aen few accentuate the suspicions of those individuals were who reluctant to my presence at the beginning. from taking notes if nobody else was doing it, since it could attractunnecessary attention and essed fieldessed notes. ’s consent for the observation and answer any questions that they had. With time,I if

is open to anyone wishing to be added to it. With RT however, ith the following columns: Date, Sender, Subject, Purpose ected upon, edited and organized outsidethe field. few A 23

ons, was not always possible, ussion about CEU eTD Collection decision ideas, preparation, implementation and evaluation of actions, mundane interactions, consensus profiled and which were not. discussions, in particular, the how issue of climate change was treated, which other issues were reflect observation of discourse in the making. I also recorded any questions or issues that needed to be messaging of an action is done, which wording is used and how it is justified. This was in fact the to the language of the activists: for example, how an idea for action emerges and develops, how the organizations, for the analysis of links between the networks. Furthermore, I was explicitly attentive of the case in or, interviews for targets as either groups, and networks other from activists who was present at the meetings and the nature of their involvement was helpful in id arrangement of furniture, hand signals used; rituals and profiles of people present. Taking notice of focused several on aspects witness the process of choosing a targetandmessage a or wording with valuable insight into the life and interactions of the radical grassroots networks. I was able to parti Overall, list were used for subsequent quotations in this study so that the persons could not be identified. myself. Also, onthe grounds of security for the people involved in the group, nonames from that purposes only and care was taken to keep it in a secure pl activists agreed who to be interviewed. This email observation list was compiled for research be my potential interviewees. It also provided me with insights about particularquestions for the of important discussions for a quick future reference, as well as to single out individuals who c and Notes. This way of observing the two email lists was useful for me to identify and keep a record ed on or pursued or tested in the interviews. Finally, I paid attention to the content of - making process, as well as difficulties in accepting a particular decision. While observing I cipant observation was a particularly useful data source in my research. It provided me . At the initial stages I took notice of the organizational process:

ace with one no having access to it except

of the action,of emergence of new entifying ould ould CEU eTD Collection whole. For this reason, interviewing is regarded this in research as one constructed and articulated by the individuals who are part of the networks and by the networks as a mentioned above, this study aims to analyze the discourse of climate activist networks which i interview, it is open interviews are used as data in this research, the discourse analysis approach suggests that the aim is collection techniques along with the analysis of documents and participant observation. Although and complexity superior to other methods, such as surveys, for example ( it to react and talk other’s and collaboratively produced event in which both the interviewee and the interviewer mon approach. Interviewing as tool a in qualitativeresearch is generally characterized an as interactional not surprising that interviewing is a central data source for a research using a discourse analysis emphasis 15, original produces our contemporary cultural experiences and knowledge of authentic personal, private selves private personal, authentic of knowledge and experiences cultural our contemporary produces explore the nature of Interviews have been recognized not only as a key resource in social sciences that allows one to interviewing stage of data collection that will discussedbe in the next section. interviewing or document analysis. continued I to attend I until finished I could that all meetings participants, my observation was focused on particular questions and reflections that emerged during I became familiar with the organizational peculiarities of activistmeeting and knew most of the of other groups or a government decision on climate change). At the later stages of fieldwork, when possible to trace how the networks reacted to contextual aspects (for example, campaigns or actions Since I was doing document analysis in 2.3.2

Interviews - ended and mostly various social problems and phenomena, but also as practice a that“ ) . Since discourse analysis can described be as a study of talk and text, it is then

Rapley 2004 Rapley looselysemi or ) . Although. some structure can be present in a qualitative parallel observations with interviewing, and it was also 25

- structured, which allows for achieving depth

of the datasources and data ( Seale 2004 Seale

) ” . As itbeen .has ( Rapley 2004: 2004: Rapley pervades and and pervades itor each each itor s

CEU eTD Collection new thnew following criteria were met. The first criterion was the data saturation indicated the by exhaustion of pre a have Regarding the sample size, due to the lack of genders; participants were who known to be involved in several networks simultaneously. were mostly active online but did not participate in the meetings; participants of different ages and the email lists); those stayed who quiet atthe meetings but showed up regularl subjective criterion, it was established through observation, word of mouthand by following closely particiincluded pants who were active within the networks (the degree of activeness being a with the networks (which were themselves preceded review by of relevant literature and media).I interviewees representative sample was not practically possible, my strategy to was ensurea relevant range of the total number of peopl terms of membership and the absence of any kind of statistical information on the population, be it from which the interviewees would selected. be Such featuresare the looseness of the networks in sampling strategy was determined taking into account the particular This is not to say, however, that sampling was done on an ad hoc basis. On the contrary, the discourse rather than people also determines the choice of sampling technique. context of the issue and other texts that they produce as part of the networks. T co a not to establish ‘true’ inner states of the interviewees or reveal beliefs or attitudes that they are not ware of ( - construct and contribute to through the use of language in a particular way in relation to the emes or concepts coming up in the interviews. The second criterion was meeting the Taylor 2001b Taylor - determined number of people but to stop the interviewing process as soon as the ( Byrne 2004) Byrne ) . Instead, the overallInstead, the aim focus is to the discourse on that these individuals

from both networks.This range was determined after initial encounters e involved, their gender, ages, status and so on. Since aiming fora

data regarding the wider population, I decided not to 26

features of the wider population

y; participants who he focus on the

CEU eTD Collection 2004 partici interview requests. Given the limitation of snowballing technique in terms of providing access to the approach individual participants, other than those recommended by previous interviewees, with where I was a visiting student. After gaining physi interviewees. First interviewees were identified with the help of contacts in the Open University At initial stage the interviewing, of a snowball sampling technique was primarily used recruit to (Fairclough 2006), i.e. discourses thatare employed outside the networks other by actors. grassroots networks. In essence, the interviews with non- discourses and shared representatives provided yet another outlook at grassroots networks and was useful in highlighting Huberman 1994 Huberman the studied networks, the bias stemming f perspective ontheir former (or current) networks. In addition, by including informants from outside thus included in the interviewing process because they could potentially provide an unexpected time or used to be part of one of those networks until they joined another one. S early stage of fieldwork that some activistsengaging were with two (or more) networks at the same following reasons. First,giv interviewees). Interviewing actors not directly related to either CfCA or RTuseful was for the environmental commentators and NGO representatives (see Appendix 1 for the full list of The overall number of interviews conducted was 34 inc described above. requirement of covering a wide range of participants to the extent possible according to the features ) , purposeful, sampling technique was necessary to ensure the range of views. This technique was pants with similar viewsdiscursive and repertoires as those recommended who them ( )

was minimized.was Second, including seemingly peripheral actors such NGO as

discursive strategies,well of points as of divergence between NGOs and en theen fluid characterof the grassroots networks, it became evident at the rom the effects of the site on the researcher ( 27

cal access to the networks it was relatively easy to

luding activists networks, grassroots from members helped establish interdiscursivity uch activists were Miles and Byrne Byrne CEU eTD Collection analysis. also I inquired whether the interviewee could quoted be andusing if so, his her or real name consent to recorded. be All 34 interviews recor were have concerning the nature of my study or my university affiliation and asking the person for their stating briefly the goals of the research, answering any specific questions that the interviewee could As mentioned above, before the actual interview informed consent was secured. This involved to keep such interviews to a minimum. to communicate over Skype or telephone duedistance to or time constraints but an effort was made person, either in parks, pubs or cafes or at activists’ homes. Some of the averageOn interviews lasted between 45 minutes and 1 hour and most of them were conducted in analysis. dictated the by decision to cover the range of participants but also by the insights of initial data the interview. Thus,a snowball sampling technique was used in parallel with purposeful sampling as about the nature, goals and methods of my research and then we would make an appointment for person would be willing to be interviewed. To secure an informed helpful in recruiting interviewees. I usually briefly introduced myself and my research and asked if the or the person w requests email by to activists whom I have not met in person. In such cases I eitherreceived a refusal person. The main reason for doing so was previous unsuccessful experience in sending interview fin to tried I first email), by or meetings (at the directly in the media and thus could provide a new perspective for the research. Before contacting them prior to and duringthe field work it helped identify some prominent activists who had been profiled interviewees with various degrees of involvement in the networks. Desk research conducted both employed in the following way. Participant observation was useful for singling out potential ould not answer at all. In contrast, approaching people directly after the meeting was

d contacts who could introduce me to that ded and transcribed verbatim for further further for verbatim transcribed and ded consent, I wouldanswer questions interviewees were only able CEU eTD Collection of potential participants available for interviews ran short. It shou taken it when became apparent that themes new no were emerging from the interviews and the list data the coded a few interviews from the first session, I deliberately pursued themes that were emerging in second interviewing round that took place in September – testing and the themes emerging from participa reflect any pertinent issues raised previous by interviewees that needed more explanation and/or that the initial interviewguide (Appendix 2) evolved considerably over the period of fieldwork to and asked them to elaborate on those specific concepts that they had mentioned. It shouldbe noted ideas that needed to be expanded on, I returned to them after the interviewees had finished speaking non or verbally minimum but at the same time following up on the “markers” in the conversation and reacting interviewees a chance to fully express their ideas in their own terms, keeping my intervention to the interviewing can described be as engaged and interactive ( and where appropriate, to echo activists’ problem and visions of the future. Effort was made to use open- about the organization the person is involved in; questions on solutions to the climate change personal experience in activism; questions on understanding of climate change issues; questions consisted in a cluster of questions covering the following topics: introductory questions about their intervi each For details, if this had not been done prior to the interview. asked. In this caseasked I them about their decision after the interview while exchanging contact were not sure about usingtheir real name a pseudonym before they knew what questions would be or a pseudonym. The interviewees could also stay anonymous if they preferred. Some of the people

while also registeringany themes new or questions. The decision to stop interviewing was - verbally to wh ew an interview guide(see Appendix 2) was prepared and/oradapted. guide This at the person was saying. As I registered in my mind some concepts or

vocabulary to frame some of the questions. My approach to nt observation and document analysis. During the 29

Rapley 2004 Rapley October 2010, after I had transcribed and and transcribed had I after 2010, October ended questions as much as possible ld be noted however, despite the ) , the, goal of which was to give CEU eTD Collection documents were collected in this study for analysis: any visual and audio documents can also be used used data as be also can documents audio visual and any produced the by actors under investigation. While the bulk of such materials is usually written text, critical disco Besides the core data sources such as interviews and ethnographic fieldwork, with its focus on texts, emerged and concentrate entirely the on data analysis. continue indefinitely. decision since the data flow fed the by activities,new events and changes in the context would asubjective still was it apparent, became saturation data the fieldwork of point at acertain that fact saving the most relevant pieces in folders on the computer, highlighting relevant events, actors or dimensions. First, I systematically reviewed media coverage concerning CfCA and RT networks, research was launched prior to and during, the fieldwork. Desk research included several and grassroots networks campaigning onclimate in the UK was delineated. To do so, initial desk In order to select documents that would become data for the analysis,the context of climate activism 2.3.3 • • • • • • • •

Published press - press Published Minutes of the meetings available activist’ on websites or archived external on sites; Posts onthe forums and Emails on the activist the Emails on list serves; banners; posters, flyers, as such materials, Visual Audio and video materials produced by grassroots themselves or by external actors; Media articles, me including activist media traditional and Website archives Documents urse analysis incorporates the analysis of various documents with semiotic aspects

It was thus necessary to draw the line at that point when nonew themes

. releases and website articles/entries produced grassroots by networks;

social networking social sites;

( Fairclough 2001b Fairclough dia;

) . The following types

of of CEU eTD Collection 4 Crabgrass Youtube, Twitter, (Facebook, media social etc); Standard Evening Mail, The Daily The Guardian, (The magazines and newspapers looked at throughout my desk research can be roughly divided in the following ca I that media The basis. adaily on almost updated was information the as at times overwhelming inciden discussions, as well as about generating ideas t asdiscussions, well active and informed persons for interviews and keeping track of networks’ events,twists in capturing the construction of discourse around climate change by various actors, identifying the most Apart from providing contextual information about the networks, deskresearch w listening and coding to save time onthe transcription. coded at later stages, most of the videos were worked onfrom the recording, i.e. through repeated making short notes on the most relevant videos. While a few relevant videos we (located ontheir websites, Youtube andVimeo and other social networking websites), savingand organizations prognostic and diagnostic framing of climate change), as well as links to other groups and representation), internal forums (a good source of discussions on activists’ range of views on Second, I examined the content of the networks’ own websites (focusing on actions coverage and the discourses of external actors for further analysis at later stages. necessary step that helped map out the immediate context of climate activism in the UK and identify Although I did not collect this a information was it analysis, media with conducting th of aim e providing providing

Crabgrass is a social media developed by volunteers to assist radical groups and networks around the world by by world the around networks and groups radical assist to volunteers by developed media a is social Crabgrass ts. Given the abundance of media, this task proved to be time secure and free software for every day and action day every for and free software secure . Finally,I went through the extensive video and audio archives of both networks

4 );and blogs, radical activists media (Indymedia, Schnews). he futurehe direction of my research. - 31 specific interaction. specific

- consuming and even re transcribed to be to re transcribed as useful for for useful as tegories: tegories: CEU eTD Collection the margins. These notes often led to new questions to pursue in the next interview or as indications questions and answers, I highlighted sep arate words or whole phrases and made short comments in light new concepts. The process of transcribing also contained elements of analysis: while typing in re available, made after the previous interview, listening to parts of the recording or, if the transcr sessions were conducted. Preparing each interview guide requiredgoing over the notes that I had st data analysis of stage initial The the nature of language, interaction and society and interrelations between them” (Ibid.: 39). search for “patterns in language use, building onand referring back to the assumptions […] about a systematic process with distinct stages and procedures. The guiding princi process. Although data analysis had an iterative and open- As it has been noted in the sections above, the data analysis went in parallel with the data collection 2.4 re and reading (e.g. articles in the media about prominent direct actions carried out by theiron websites and list serves, as well as a few key documents originating from external sources analysis were prac analyzed comprehensively (see analysis outline in the next section). The core documents for further Given the volume of this contextual data, it was necessary to further select documents that would be participant observation notes. lays section outnext full in th key themes and further reduce the amount of documents for subsequent micro textual analysis. The Coding and data analysis - reading it and highlighting questions that produced unexpected answers or brought to - reading of the selected materials combined with coding made it possible to identify tically any materials produced the by grassroots networks themselves and available

e procedures used in the analysis of documents, interviews and arted shortly after the first interviews and participant observations

ended character (

the networks). Consecutive Taylor 2001b Taylor ple for all stages was to was stages for all ple ipt was already already was ipt ) , it was also also , was it

CEU eTD Collection was reading the te reading of the transcript, I started coding the transcripts, applying both open and in vivo codes as I example to view all codes or quotes together or organized into categories and families). After initial switch to easy from relatively it making layer manipulated, to and layer organized stored, (for because it served as a convenient platform onwhich all written and visual documents could be together with any text documents that were selected during desk research. I opted for ATLAS written material. an Once interview was transcribed, ituploaded was into the ATLAS Ti soft The second stage of data analysis involved working with transcriptions of the interviews and any emerging concepts and pursuing them in the datacollection process. of what I needed to examine in specific documents. Thus, the first stage consisted in identifying in multiple data sources asgeneral a requirement for triangulation). data sources (i.e. the rationale behind this was to ensure that the generated categories were traceable t criteria mind: in with the help of linguistic analysis. The decision regarding the themes to pursue was made with two categories. At this point I made a decision to select several themes that would analyzed be further Several rounds of coding resulted in the identification of severa comparing and contrasting. Stages 1 reg attached either to specific codes, quotes or pieces of documents, allowed me to record observations description, proved actually to be the most lengthy and labor according to the emerging themes. This stag re involved stage third The were coded in the same fashion. arding any emerging patterns or inconsistencies in the data, and thus served as a basis for he numberhe of categoriesgenerated within the themes and the reliance multiple on xt line by line. Non line. by xt line - reading and refining codes, as well as grouping them in categories - 3 were repeated with any new data that appeared during coding. - interview material (statements, pressreleases, blog posts etc) e of data analysis, although it takes limited space in this in space limited takes it although of e analysis, data 33

l broad themes containing a group of -

intensive. Writing short memos

ware, CEU eTD Collection stages: themes. Following Fairclough ( The next stage of data analysis involved linguistic analysis of key selected texts within the selected arguments ( arguments intertextualityestablish interdiscursivity and express other networks and environmental NGOs; scientific events on climate change and so on) in order to information concerning context (key political decision onclimate change; prominent campaigns of linguistic aim” 2007: (Wodak linguistic this 207). At of stage analysis I the the reviewed also al l intentional plan of practices […] adoptedachieve to a particular social, political, psychological or it. in Discursive played strategie they role Furthermore, using the linguistic lens, I started identifying discursive strategies in the texts and the • • • •

Analysis of whole of Analysis to each other); assumpt intertextuality (texts/voices that are excludedincluded,and they how are textured in relation identification of genre of the text, styles drawn up and their characteristic features; speech. denotative and connotative meaning; collocations (patterns of co- (causal Clauses combination Words: Words: necessity) (declarative, interrogative, imperative); modality (degrees of commitment to truth or Clauses: Fairclough 2006 Fairclough -

reason, consequence, purpose; conditional, contrastive/concessive etc); choice of vocabulary; semantic relations between words (synonymy, hypony ;

transitivity (transitive or intransitive verbs); voice (active, passive); mood mood passive); (active, voice verbs); intransitive or (transitive transitivity Wodak 2007 ; Wodak - text language organization language text ions made and their types (existential, propositional, ideological etc); : semantic/grammaticalrelations between sentences and clauses Fairclough 2001b Fairclough s can be defineds can be as “more less or accuratemore and or less ) .

34 ,

2006 ed in texts on similar topics or using the same ) , linguistic analysis included the following, analysisthe included linguistic : examination of the text structure; structure; text the of : examination occurrence); figures of

my etc.);

CEU eTD Collection a and final writing up. The next section concludes this chapter with the discussion of the of quality of analysis raises issues of the researcher’s role in the process of data collection, analysis and the theoretical framework. This sub degree of coherence and completeness of the produced account in relation to the research question 2003 impossibility to produce an exhaustive analysis of any given text or combination of texts data in a coherent w created several versions of conceptual maps that I started organizing the emerging patterns in the already begun to formulate chapters in the early stages while writing memos, it was only after I had along the way, of course) and checking for any previously unnoti coding, this time with a specific goal of enriching the existing codes (while also creating new ones a the possibility of viewing all codes and quotes ona specific theme brought together in one place, highlight any emerging links or sub - re and I arranged that quotations) attached (with codes example “power issues”, “climate change as vehicle”, “justice” and so on. These maps contained pulling together codes by creating network maps in Atlas organized by the emerging themes, for linguistic analysis. to led This expanding some or writing memos old coding and some observations in memos, and re Having completed linguistic analysis, I returned to the themes and categories identified through bovementioned methodological issues. llowing for cross ; Taylor 2001b Taylor - ) examination and refinement. Mapping was followed by yet another round of , the, decision concerning the end of analysis was based on my evaluation of the ay into empirical chapters. Given the richness of discourse data and the practical groups. This mapping exercise was extremely useful because of jective decision regarding the end point and the assessment 35

- examined them in light of findings from the - arranged into groups while also trying to ced concepts or ideas. While I had new new ones. Next, I started ( Fairclough Fairclough CEU eTD Collection The implication for the researcher is that self themselves from forms of domination through self analysis seeks to “produce and convey critical knowledge that enables human beings to emancipate rather than full and universal throws light onmy identity as a person and a researcher. does not constitute any specific bias, it is a position to be acknowledged ( the nature of research questions that I wanted to explore. While this motivation behind the study determined by my previous education in and passion for languages and linguistic a change. Second, the choice of discourse analysis as a broad methodological approach was partly group due to my gen grassroots initiatives springing up in the UK back in 2009, the focus of my study shifted to that latter focused onenvironmental NGOs as the main actors, having discoveredgrowing a number of identity my is relevantwhich thisproject. for all, First of although my initial research proposal was analysis processes in particular. Forthis reason, I find necessary it to briefly outline the ways in the infl analysis because it allows constant monitoring, acknowledging and addressing to the extent possible lens of the researcher ( truth of reality cannot be established but the reality can only be interpreted through the particular critical traditionthat its theory with the underlyingEpistemologically, thisresearch follows claim in this project and discuss the role of the researcher informed by the choice of such a position. Having presented the research design, it is now time to address the epistemological position adopted 2.5 Reflection on the research process and the researcher’s role uence of the researcher’s identity the on research design in general, and data collection and uine interestuine in community and action civic initiatives the in field of climate Taylor 2001b Taylor ly applicable (Ibid.). The critical nature of CDA also suggests that the the that suggests also CDA of nature critical The (Ibid.). applicable ly ) . Such interpretation is bound to be partial and context - - 36 reflexivity becomes key in conducting discourse

reflection” ( Wodak and Meyer 2009a: 7 2009a: Meyer and Wodak Taylor 2001b Taylor nalysis, as as well

)

) because it . specific

CEU eTD Collection dissertation as a whole. The step The asdissertation a whole. collection and analysis were organized, undertaken and described in this chapter and in the academi theon researcher (Ibid.). Guided the by generalprinciples of rigor and coherence required from an day none of them has been widely accepted, which puts the burden of justification and explanation produced within this scientific tradition. Despite numerous attempts to develop such criteria, to this research due to the difficulty of applying standard validity note The final point to discuss in this chapter is criteria for the evaluation of this research project. As interview, documents or during participant observation. mo about it. However, I did try to mitigate this issue, for instance by studying the history of the social decade –long contact with the English language and culture, it is still not possible to know everything is indeedThis a limiting factor that is rather difficult to address, given that despite my more than a language or culture my being a non- Regarding the influence of the researcher’s identity onthe data analysis, it should be pointed out that intruding. This is to emphasize that these factors facilitated data collection rather than obstructed it. respect, equality and so on, permittedme to access the gr status composition combined with the adherence to the principles of openness, non- The the discourse onneoliberal globalization ( framework proposed by Fairclough ( vement struggle in the UK or by following up on any new reference that I came across in the Taylor (2001a Taylor d by general characteristics of the networks in this study, such asmixed a gender, age, race and social c work, I have made an effort to make the study systematic and explicit in the way the data native English speaker might have affected the degree to which I could detect - specific references and thus it could have affected the interpretations that I made. ) , analysis studies issue is this discourse qualitative a serious generally in in and - by - step data analysis presented in sec in data presented step analysis Fairclough 2001b Fairclough 2006)

and the lang the and 37

, 2003 - reliability oups without being regarded as alien and uage of ‘New Labour’ ( Labour’ ‘New uage of , 2006 - ) replicability replicability criteria the to works . Fairclough’s own research on research own . Fairclough’s tion 3.4 was modeled after the the after modeled 3.4 was tion 2001b discrimination, )

serve as a a as serve CEU eTD Collection explores the resistance to this study given that it addresses discourse neoliberal the of globalization, while research my essentially good example of this analytical framework in action. The former work is especially relevant for this relationship between utterances, language immediate “(1) the evaluation of finding the to refers also Triangulation sources. data these across valid was claim particular this sure that I cross claims, engages more than one form or method of data Finally, to argue forquality the of interpretation,I relied on the triangulation asapproach an which which is called ‘the context of situation’ and explained by middle stages helped reduce this bias and ensure the quality of the final work. data and the researcher’s influence combined with clear and systematic procedures for all research subjective in the way the data is selected, collected and proce To conclude, while this research located in the critical theory approach to social science is admittedly stemming from the researcher’s subjective perception of data (Ibid.). sociopolitical and historical contexts”. Navigating through these contexts helped bias minimize the - examined the data from interviews, documents and participant observation to make s from the perspective of the following contexts dominant discourse. -

or text or

texts,genres discourse; and the (3) extralinguistic (social) level, - internal co internal 38 (

Taylor 2001a Taylor

- text; (2) the intertextual and interdiscursive interdiscursive and intertextual (2) the text; ssed, continuous self ) . To. be specific, before making any - range theories; and (4) the broader

( Wodak and Meyer 2009a: 93 2009a: Meyer and Wodak - reflection on the the on reflection ) : CEU eTD Collection apocalyptic imagery, market imagery, apocalyptic greenhouse gas emissions reduction imperatives based onscientific prescriptions a onwards, the dominant discourse onclimate change is mostly concerned with discussions of the climate change v provide an in- discourse. While grassroots’ discourse onclimate change is the focal point of this study, in order to dimensions reflected in the perspectives of the actors who engage in the construction of this out in Chapter 1, climate change politics and discourse encompasses various theoretical and practical counte grassroots’ does theoretical framework adopted in this dissertation to answer the overarching research question: This chapter revisits the discussions in the literature concerning climate change politics and outlines a 3 econom climate justice discourse neoliberal the to links climate change that logic fosters unequal socio discourse constructed by global climate movements. With roots in the alter 2013). The second part of this chapter is thus co ncerned with (section 3.2) the contours of a counter change discourse by foregrounding the notion of climate justice (Chatterton et al. 2012; Featherstone contrast, the articulations of some climate networks display attempts to re stifles the emergence of a politicized discourse on climate change needed to address the proble lensof post the global South. It is proposed here to ex justice related to the allocation of emission rights and abatement costs between the global North and

change Theoretical framework on the politicalclimatescourse di of ic relations between and within countries. Nancy Fraser’stheoretical perspective on the - politics as depoliticized and linked to the entrenchment of the neoliberal paradigm that depth account of this discourse, I juxtapose it with the dominant representation of

iewed diachronically and synchronically. As it will shownbe in section 3.1 and r - discourse on climate justice conceptualize an alternative politics of climate change? climate of politics alternative an conceptualize justice climate on discourse - based and technological solutions to curb the emissions, and distributive amine this dominant representation through the theoretical 39

- globalization movement, - politicize the climate the politicize

As pointed nd often m. In In m. How How - - CEU eTD Collection social injustices and inequalities with which climate change impacts are associated with. nation- conclusion of the first part of this chapter is that the dominant discourse onclimate change has a prominent on the political with a brief outline of the ways in which climate change, initially a scientific problem, became market discussion of neoliberalism and its specific relationship to climate pol neoliberal and ecological modernization discourses. Therefore, this section will also include a consensus this chapter is that the dominant discourse climate on change predicated upon the scientific follow deconstruct this discourse further. The key argument that is constructed in the first partof arguedbe that sufficiently it reflects the con representation of climate change has nuances and variations in the political context but overall, it can a cost in gas emissions discourse onclimate change in the UK and the EU is concerned with the reduction of greenhou discourse can be pitted. To summarize,the sections that follow demonstrate that the dominant basis for sketching out the The analysis of climate change discourse from the perspective of political actors serves as good a 3.1 chapter concludes with an outline of the gaps in the literature that The elucidating of discourse. climate asjustice a justice means social is proposed of dimensions and distributive justice The dominant discourse on climate change: emissions, market solutions - state bias that excludesthe consideration of non- based solutions to climate change on the national and international levels. The section begins regarding the nature and extent of the phenomenon is constituted along the lines of the - effective manner while maintaining economic growth. Granted, this particular

agenda and was appropriated the by neoliberal discourse. The overall

dominant discourse onclimate politics against which the grassroots’

tours of the dominant discourse. The sections that 40

state actors and obfuscates and actors state

this dissertationthis seeks fill. to itics through the promotion of

the issues of issues of the

se se CEU eTD Collection Although scientific inquiry onclimate change slowed down in the beginning of the 20 from the industrial fossil fuel combustion onclimate change ( resp as methane and dioxide Tyndall and Langley; identification by the Swedish scientist Arrhenius of water vapor, carbon the atmosphere theby French scientists Fourier and Pouillet which was later elaborated on by Environmental Quality that called for United States leadership in demonstrating a commitment to consequences in light of projected global warming; the 1981 assessment by the Council of recognition: the 1979 Charney Report that pointed out the importance of socioeconomic a focus for policy. A number of reports aimed at politicians paved the way for this international sci However, despite the decades of scientific research and findings, it was only in the late 1980s thatthe previo in Arrhenius and Callendar as potentially beneficial for human kindterms in of agricultural production the first decades of scientific research, global warming was mostly viewed scientistsby such as the climate change theory and its introduction to the pu Gilbert Plass, and Charles David Keeling, among many others, contributedthe to development of sources as primarily linked to climate change. The works of Guy Steward Callendar, Roger Revelle, was further pursued with a renewed interest and a focus CO2 on emissions from the indu process dates back to the early 19 economy and justice. Scientific inquiry into climate change and potential human influence on the scienti Climate change as a problem that threatens life on Earth has evolved from being an exclusively 3.1.1 entific assessments were recognized on the international political arena as a source of concern and fic point of inquiry to becoming an overriding issue that transcends the domains of politics,

usly unsuitable climates ( Climate change: from science to politics/policy science from change: Climate onsible for the insulation effect, and the first assessment of the impacts Hulme 2008 Hulme th

centuryand is linked to th ) .

blic and political agenda. It is notable that in e discovery of the insulating effect of Arrhenius 1997 Arrhenius

; Rodhe

th et al. et

century, it

1997 strial strial ) . CEU eTD Collection the human the agri in analyze to attempt report the by Climate Research Committee of the Climate Board of the US NAS that was the first reduce the risks of global climate change g conferences in 1980 in conferences international meeting place for scientistsand politicians of Bert Bolin, a major figure in the international scientific community, “an organ that provided an responsible for taking appropriate action.adoption The of the UN climate change as the scientific data collected by scientists was fed in directly to the policy 1988 in light personal contacts with key political figures scientists to publicize the issue of climate change through publications in non- missing” (Bolin 2007:39; original emphasis). Not least because of the efforts of Bolin and his fellow kno language she usedto describe the scientific finding the transposition of climate change from the scientific to the political agenda, even though the Margaret Thatcher’s speech to the Royal Society in 1988undoubtedly provided an extra leverage for disc increases became the focal point of the conceptualization of climate change in the dominant greenhouse gas emissions in the atmosphere and the related projections of future temperature scientific consensus over the nature and extentof the climate change problem. Concentrations of and political alliance even further. Fromthat point on, any policy action was justified by the growing Climate Change (UNFCCC) in 1992 andKyoto the Protocol in 1997 institutionalized this scientific culture, sea levels and (Bolin so on 2007). Yet, despite a growing scientific consensus regarding wledge concerning global climate change and its possible socio ourse. ourse.

- induced nature of climate change and its potential impacts voiced throughout the Villach

with the creation of the IPCC. This forum became the nexus of science and politics on - -

depth the potential impacts of human- 1985, it was the proper political eng iven the country’s high energy consumption; and the 1982 ( Bodansky 2001 Bodansky 42

are told “We are stills was cautious:

to take responsibility for assessing the available agement that was still amiss. In the words words the In amiss. still was that agement ) induced climate change wateron supply, , such an international forum finally saw

- Framework Convention on economic implications was specialist circles and

that a warming awarming that - makers makers CEU eTD Collection 1970s, not least due to works such as Limits to as Growth such works to due least not 1970s, traceable in the construction o the early were not unique in the sense that climate has always linked been to the cultural imageries of fear in scientific claims. It should noted be however that the apocalyptic o around climate change and perhaps contributed to the conflation of alarmist rhetoric with the the with side cited scientific data by a prominent political figure set the tone for future discussions and general public, as wellthe as political establishment. This use of the apocalyptic imagery side by apocalyptic rhetoric (as related specifically to climate change) that would be picked up the by media nationalthe level to the international climate change as an entirely issue global thus diluting responsibility the shifting and the focus from effective if it is taken at the international level” (Ibid.). Not only did such Moreover, the “problem of global climate change is one that affects us all and action will only be da irretrievable with which international diplomacy has concerned itself for centuries. It is the prospect of described as an “insidious danger”, and “as menacing in its way as those more accustomed perils later, Thatcher’s representation of climate change several feet overthe next century” ( warming economic growth, industries was framed according to the dominant economic discourse through its emphasis on the vital role of Further, Thatcher’s1989 speech can consider be and dramatic picture of the future world. effect of 1°C per decade - modern and modern eras (Hulme 2008). Besides, the gloom and doom rhetoric was also was rhetoric doom and gloom the Besides, 2008). (Hulme eras modern and modern could cause accelerated melting of glacial ice and a consequent increase in the sea level of mageto the atmosphere, to oceans, the to earth itself” would and markets: markets: and f other environmental problems that became prominent back in the

greatly exceed the capacity of our natural habitat to cope. Such Thatcher 1988: n.p.; emphasis added ( Carvalho 2005 Carvalho

ed as one of the first instances when climate change 43

takesunexpectedly an dramatic turn: the issue is

) , but it ,it but

or or Population Bomb Population also paved the way for the spread of an vertones in Thatcher’s speech

which painted an uncertain ) . In contrast, just a year year a just contrast, In .

representation construct ( Thatcher 1989: n.p. 1989: Thatcher ) . CEU eTD Collection and markets in dealing with environmental issues. The section that follows briefly examines this speech) would be framed along the lines of Thatcher’s position on the role of economy solutions proposed within the UNFCCC process (for the creation of which she was calling in moment thus informed to great a extent further discourse on climate change: the dominant for framing the solutions to the problem in neoliberal terms, onthe other. This discursive and the apocalyptic rhetoric as applied to climate change onthe one hand, and set the scene construction of the dominant climate change discourse: it brought together scientific claims (Carvalho 2005). It can be thus arguedthat is instead reinforcedquestioned, its order legitimacy is or thus political existing economic not threat to our environment is more and more people and their activities” (1989: n. p.). The Thatcher generalizes the causes referringby to all human beings as discussion of the genuine causes behind the rising emissions is entirely absent. In fact, role of economy in relation to climate crisis is strongly emphasized in Thatcher’s speech, the the dominant framing of climate change in the UK and beyond. At the same time, while the in the coming sections, together neoliberal and ecological modernization discourses represent modernization discourse that became prominent in the 1980s mechanism can efficiently deal with the problem can traced be back to the ecolog This idea that environmental protection requires economic growth and thatthe market shelves. (Thatcher 1989: no page). page). no 1989: (Thatcher shelves. sell and those which make nuclear waste safe […] The market itself acts as a corrective the products new degradable plastics.It is industry which will find the means to treat pollutants and chemicals for refrige develop will alternative safe solutions. which is industry the It research find and environment. Far from being the villains, it is on them that we rely to do the blame consequences tomorrow. And second, we must resist the simplistic tendency to does not plunder the planet today and leave our children to deal with the required to pay for the protection of the environment. But it must be growth which [F]irst we must have continued economic growth in order to gene modern multinational industry forthe damage which is being done to the rators and air and rators

caused environmental damage are disappearing from the the from disappearing are damage environmental caused -

conditioning. It devise will conditioning. is industrybio which

44 Thatcher’s speech was a landmark in the

( ) 1997 Hajer

responsible: “the main . As it will be shown shown be it. will As rate the wealth - ical ical CEU eTD Collection as as shared concern for power relations. The discourse approach makes it possible to view neoliberalism approaches are not diametrically opposed but dialectically interrelated, not least because they have a reference suggested Springer by seeks to unite and reconcile this dichotomy b analysis, while policy and state form approaches fall somewhere in between. The discourse frame of perspective and gov the ideological hegemony view of neoliberalism as belonging to the Marxian political economy exists between these approaches, as noted Springer. by Specifically, the dichotomy is evident between phenomenon (Springer 2012: 133). 2012: (Springer phenomenon neoliberalism and analyze its manifestations ( manifestations its analyze and neoliberalism sc some analytical nature of these framesreference of suggests the existence of hybridized approaches, i.e. an ideological hegemonic project, as policy, as state form, as governmentalityand as discourse. The subjecti “encompasses material forms in state formation through policy and program, and via the 2007 a common understanding and definition of the concept. In agreement with ( term neoliberalism is one of the most ambiguous phenomena in the social sciences given the lack of ( predecessor its from it distinguish that features roots of the neoliberalismWhile classical are liberalism, in found its form particular current has climate change as bearing the mark of this discourse. neoliberalism in order to lay the basis for discussion of the current dominant solutio 3.1.2 a “circuitous process of soci )

and Springer ( vation of individuals onthe ground, even if this articulation still takes place through

holars combine the features of the frames of reference while attempting to define Neoliberalism ernmentality as a poststructuralist conceptualization influenced by Foucauldian 2012 ) , five analytical frames of ref of frames analytical , five

o -

spatial transformation” rather than a top- The benefit of such understanding liesthe in fact that discourse Springer 2012 Springer 45 Turner 2007 Turner

erence can be distinguished: neoliberalism as ) . At the same time, a certain dichotomy dichotomy certain a time, same . At the ) . its Despite clear historical roots, the down or bottom y claiming that these that claiming y Ward and England England Ward and ns to to ns - up up CEU eTD Collection markets is established include for example deregulation, privatization of resources and assets ‘frictionless market rule’ through a variety of means ( means of variety a through rule’ market ‘frictionless encompasses context Overall, neoliberalism can regarded be as a highly uneven, mut relations. discursive performatives” (Springer 2012:143) which presents an integral approach to social extended and consolidated economy and the state within which commodified and marketized forms of social life are imposed, Neoliberalization as a regulatory reorganization concerns primarily the relationship between past but at the same time signifies features new acquired: process of neoliberalization can be conceptualized as regulatory restructuring that has its roots in the character, rather ona monolithic and static meaning suggested by the term neoliberalism neoliberalism point to the need for focusing onthe concept of neoliberalization Ever notthey be constrained by the state through regulation or labor unions ( of generating wealth and using resources efficiently, as well as guarantying individual freedom, should the free market economic theory postulating thatmarkets are self - changing combinations in time and space of processes, discourses and practices associated with innovation, overreach, correcti overreach, innovation, could never be fixed as a stable formula, and has which lurched through moments also denotes the repeated (necessity for) renewal and reinvention of a project that positioning formulation, can be taken to refer to the project's historical and ideological those associated with Keynesianism and developmentalism. “Neo,” in this an by aby (broadly) sympathetic critique of nineteenth negotiated at the boundaries of the state, and occupying the ideological space defined …neoliberalization refers to a contradictory process of market tipathies to collectivist, planned, and socialized modes of government, especially after - specific practices, processes and discourses with a general aim of attaining

nine ( Brenner teenth - century liberalism… In a more processual sense, “neo”

al. et on, and crisis (Peck 2010: 20). 2010: (Peck crisis and on, 2010 ) . Concrete. practices 46

Peck 2010 Peck

- century laissez able and variegated phenomenon that ) . This goal is based on the claimsof - regulating structures social capable

through which the supremacy of - Shaikh 2005) Shaikh like rule, principally - faire and deep

as reflecting its fluid reflecting its fluid as .

. In turn, the the turn, In . CEU eTD Collection However, the role of neoliberalism in the process of globalization and vice versa cannot be g between national economies and between nation- border economic interactions and resource flows, producing a qualitative shift in the relations global mentioning one of the key processes associated with the spread of neoliberal discourse and practice Finally, a brief overview of the key tenets of neoliberalism would not complete be without 2005) Robbins more efficient management, and commodification of ecosystems through pricing ( then rebuilding governance, privatizing and enclosing common resources with the excuse of their profit. The concrete practices through which a neoliberal logic interacts with the environment are owned resources - stewardship of the environment through market rationality and private ow As pointed out by Castree ( the management of the environment. costs” costs” “eliminate bureaucratic red tape, increase efficiency and pr assets and deregulation thus become key for attaining this goal since these practices presumably help all le individuals (including corporations) to create enterprises in order to generate wealth. Competition at competitive business climate supported an by appropriate legal framework that will enable programs provided by the state, previously managed by the state, liberalization of trade across borders and reduction of welfare lobalization is an independent process occurring through the expansion of international trade. vels (individual, business and between countries) in conjunction with privatization of public ization. The process of globalization is often defined as “an increase in the volume of cross ( Harvey 2005: 65 2005: Harvey .

as opposed to ineffective government efforts - ) . These practices areonly not valid for the economy but are also applied to 2008 ) , neoliberalism claims to ablebe to provide superior ecological among many others. These practices are meant to ensure a

states” states” oductivity, improve quality, and reduce reduce and quality, improve oductivity, ( ) 2002 Kotz

while simultaneously generating . From this perspective, perspective, this . From nership of commonly Heynen and - -

CEU eTD Collection how the solutions to this crisis have been intertwined with neoliberal discourses and discourse and was significantly shaped thisby discourse. While many scholars focus exclusively on EM discourse that emerged in the 1970s was both developing in parallel to the dominant neoliberal (EM) discourse that was becoming dominant in the OECD countries at thattime not only reflected her neolibe diffused responsibility of specific actors, and the emphasis on the market as an appropriate solution Her framing of climate change asglobal a problem (based onthe emerging scientific consensus) that long a had 1989 As discussed in the previous section, Margaret Thatcher’s speech to the UN General Assembly in the 1960s propelled globalization even further as evidenced from the cross neoliberalism came to play an importantrole. However the rise of neoliberal policies that began in transnational corporations, thus affecting the competitive structure of capitalism before demonstrated the by increased international trade during the colonial era and the emergence of underestimated. According to Kotz ( discussed in the next section. neoliberalization and the environment, and specifically, climate change. They will be thor most pertinent for this thesis are those that relate to the interaction between processes of While there are many issue features of the current form of capitalism. often referred to as ‘neoliberal globalization’ to capture both the global character and the neoliberal arglobalization financial capital that grew rapidly from that point on (Ibid.). Thus, neoliberalism and the process of 3.1.3

Ecological modernization and neoliberal discourses neoliberal and modernization Ecological e mutually reinforcing phenomena that define the current form of world capitalism - term consequence for the dominant 2005). discourse (Carvalho climate on change s associated with the spread neoliberal globalization,practices and the

ral views but was also in line with the wider ecological modernization 2002

) , globalization started well before World Wa 48

border flows of real and real of flows border ( ) 1997 Hajer r I as Ias r oughly . The The . CEU eTD Collection market Recognizing the similarity between EM and neoliberal d practices through which we conduct environmental politics” (Fisher and Hajer 1999:6). system but of “the implicit systems of meanings and frames that underpin the various institutional this perspective, environmental problems are the result not only of a particular economi context used by the authors refers to the anthropological definition of culture as ‘a way of life’. From that EM sees no conflict between the existing socio In 25). (1997: environment” the for care the internalize problematique but none the less assumes that existing political, economic, and social institutions can Hajer defines EM as “the discourse that recognizes the structural character of the environmental the construction of the dominant climate change discourse. ) (2013 thro the wider cultural critique of modern society that determines problems how are routinely addressed expert organizations. In fact, the emergence of the environmental problematic should be linked to str discursive the of result a as 1970s industrial economy, yet it is positioned by the author as a separate discourse that emerged in the Hajer (1997) EM has similarities with neoliberalism concerning the need for restructuring the essential means of addressing environmental problems through particular ma restructured needed. as Another key feature is that EMrelies technological on innovation as an equally t with On the contrary, it is based onthe assumption that environment is compatible with the system and approaches ugh scientific, technological and management means ( , I argue that it is important to recognize the intersection of neoliberal and EM discourses in - driven approaches or public ( Brand 2009 Brand he goal of economic growth, provided that the institutional governance is reformed or ; Lohmann2010 2012 Chaturvedi and ; Doyle - private partnership for example, Pellizzoni (2011 uggles between governments, environmental movement and 49

- economic system and the environmental crisis. ternalizing the care for environment suggests iscourse as concerns their shared focus on Fischer and Hajer 1999 Hajer and Fischer

) Coffey and Marston Marston and Coffey , following nagerial practices. For For practices. nagerial ) . ‘Cultural’ in the the in ‘Cultural’ . )

c or political or c

argues that that argues CEU eTD Collection these approaches have in common is thei Emissions Trading, Joint Implementation and Clean Development Mechanism. One feature that tool to deal with climate change onthe global level within the UNFCC prevalent approaches are reflected in policy instruments under the Kyoto 2006 Lövbrand and climate change have framed been within the dominant neoliberal and EM discourses Margaret Thatcher and climate scientists (e.g. Bert Bolin, James Hansen), approaches to solving Ever since the n influence of the wider culturalunderstandings of modern society. change which was in many ways similar to the construction of other environmental issues under the necessary to recognize their mutual influence the on construction pointed out above. The implication is that while it is easy to conflate the two frameworks, it is a Thus, while EM and neoliberal discourses tend to share the preference for a techno- the neoliberal discourse as vital for competition. of justice and the need to address social and nature of EM’s concept of ecological citizenship based on non- reality. There also is little in common,according to Pellizzoni, between the two discourses in terms human agency, material this neoliberalism manufacture to acapacity with endorses agency human dimensions: while EM, influenced Beck’s by theory of risk, views the material world impinging as on the diverging understanding of materialreality as merging of separate natural and socio- there is an ontological discord between the two frameworks. This ontological disco rd is reflected in pproach to environmental problems, the two discourses also diverge in a number of dimensions 3.1.4

The dominantThe to solutions climate change egotiation of the UNFCCC in 1992 advocated by key political figures such as ; Bailey

et al. et

2011 ; Catney and Doyle 2011 r market r 50 - based nature which makes it possible to establish a

- related inequality of inequalities, role the and in

contractual and non-

;

Newell and Paterson 2009 of dominant solutions to climate . TheseC. include International

Protocol, the main policy territorial obligatio ( Bäckstrand Bäckstrand managerial technical ) . The The . ns ns CEU eTD Collection extension of the neoliberal logic to another common resource – as commodities (Bond 2012). Turning carbon emissions into trad notional value, including environmental commons, such as water, land,genetic material, to be traded 2009 instruments and services as part of th of as part instruments services and economic growth. Such commodification became possible with the spread of various financial absorb carbon for the sake of creating new opportunities for capital accumulation and unlimited ( ways” in familiar environment the natural and relations structuring human dynamics, capitalist of sustainable development or emission reduction goals since they are part of “a continuous trajector from multiple perspectives. The overall critique is that carbon markets hardly help achieve ( Despite its widespread endorsement and acceptance onthe national and international policy l present in the dominant discourse on climate change (Giddens 2009). m techno occurring worldwide and the dominance of the explained by the wider economic processes of globalization and liberalization that have been climate change onthe international and national levels. The preference for this perspective can be price mechanism to ensure that polluters reduce emissions in a cost equity” equity” provide dynamic incentives for technological change and address concerns about distributional instrumen Robert Stavins, one of the key economists behind the design of the Protocol, market Böhm von Malmborg and Strachan 2005 arket ) . As. precursors of carbon markets, financial markets were able to essentially commodify any - -

et al. et based instruments, technology managerial approach to solving environmental problems ( Stavins 1997: 302 1997: Stavins ts are preferable to regulatory measures because they “offer cost

2012: 3 ) . By familiar ways the authors mean the commodific the mean authors the ways familiar . By ) . The. economic perspective was thus decisive in determi ) , market e neoliberal framework - based ones (renewable energy and geoengineering) have been - based approaches to climate change have been criticized ecological modernization discourse that prioritizeda 51

( Lohmann 2012 air. The result of carbon trading trading carbon of result The air. ( able commodities was then an Bailey

- effective way. According to ation of nature’s capacity to

al. et ; - effective alternatives, Newell and Paterson Paterson and Newell 2011 ning solutions to ) . Alongside Alongside . - based based evels y CEU eTD Collection consequently economic growth ( problem and provide financial returns without having to genuinely reduce emissions and entreprene scholars argue that geoengineering is inherently neoliberal in its core belief in the power of atmosphere by afforestation, carbon capture devices or ocean fertilization, for instance. While some brightness of marine clouds. In contrast, CRD is concerned with the removal of CO2 from the atmosphere through by for example, releasing aerosols into the stratosphere or increasing the (SRM) and carbon dioxide removal (CDR). The goal of SRM is to reflect light and heat back to the the aim of reversing climate change, encompasses two main methods: sola change. Geoengineering, understood as a manipulation of the global environment solution, started to be discussed on the policy level as a pot global Although carbon trading and large scale renewable energy projects are currently the most accepted discourse that favors technical solutions and economic growth ( climat in state the to name a few. Even though there have been calls for capping the markets and increasing the role of projects implemented in the global South and fraudulent accounting methodologies ( in the global South, reduction (Bond 2012), adverse effects on the indigenous population as a result of offsetti actual their than rather emissions of replacement temporal and a spatial markets include carbon general critique of transposing neoliberal logic to the domain of climate change, specific crit emissions are produced and technologies used reduce to them ( obscures the discussion of the historical roots of the problem, the significance of the place where becoming the ultimate solution to climate change is that the abstract character of carbon markets - scale solution by the policy urs to innovate market solutions to any serious problem that will both address the e changee politics

concerns over distribution( equity al Buck 2012 Buck , such approaches remained squarely with - makers, recently geoengineering, essentially a technocratic ; Mirowski 2013 Mirowski 52

Storm 2009 Storm ) , it would incorrect be to consider this ential viableential future to solution climate et al. et Giddens Lohmann 2008 )

and the colonial character of r radiation management management r radiation 2009 in the dominant EM ) ) . ( . Apart from the the from Apart . ) 2000 Keith

Bachram 2004 Bachram ng projects icisms oficisms

with with ) , CEU eTD Collection the civil society rather than policy outlined later in this chapter (section 3.2.1) shows that c the dominant climate change discourse in the form of ‘climate justice’. This brief history of the term After the UNFCCC meeting in Copenhagen in 2009the notion of justice came to the forefront of temperatures warming by Arctic seas suggest that it was a science production in the US (Buck 2012), the Soviet Union’s attempts around the same time to increase spirit of neoliberal capitalism can be discerned in the idea of producing rain to boost crop seeding ventures in the US ( included removal of the Arctic sea ice, a chemical control of evaporation (the USSR), and cloud umbre the Under 2012). Buck 2000; (Keith 1960s and 1950s the weather control and climate modification techniques applied both in the USSR and the US in the approach as an entirely neoliberal project for the following reason. Geoengineering has its roots in discourse as reflected in the principles of the UNFCCC ( Thus, this section has shown that the dominant approaches to solving climate change neoliberal logic. it is evident that this approach has already been to some extent ap propriated by actors following a pressure fromthe commercial sector to develop this technology a on large scale for the purpose of selling carbon offsets generated from oceans fertilization and that there has bee control over natural forces. Yet, given that a number of companies have been established specifically and a minimal intervention of the state. discourse that and technology 3.1.5

Justice in the dominantJustice climate discourse

prioritize cost - based mechanisms - mechanisms based - Keith 2000 effectiveness, the possibility for growth and creation of markets new - makers. Yet the notion of justice is inscribed in the dominant

are shaped by the neoliberal and ecological modernization

) . While the While. entrepreneurial and economic motives in the 53

United Nations 1992 limate justice has primarily been voiced by lla of atmospheric sciences, the projects

- driven process aimed at gaining driven process ) :

( Humphreys 2011 - market - based based ) n , CEU eTD Collection between the two groups with the distributional aspects of justice onthe following issues: the allocation of emission rights Overall, from the very start of negotiations the policy discourse within the UNFCCC was concerned development and growth. consequently, developing countries should enjoy the same right to emit carbon as part recognition of the industrialized countries’ contribution and benefit from past emissions, and projected to be growing. In c relieve their developing counterparts of any obligations to reduce future emissions which are recognizing their historical and present contribution to the emissions, do not agree that it is fair to policy circlespolicy ( guidelines within the statement, this implied equity has widely been debated in the literature and responsibility of the developed countr originatedhas in developed countries” 3(1) (Article Nations 1992) United implies which is clearly stated that “the largest share of historical and current global emissions of greenhouse gases common but differentiated responsibility and capabilities the word ‘equity’ is opposed in the UNFCCC to the burden - regardless of the ma less capacity to deal with the problem, and thus are expected to contribute less than others, more responsible for the greenhouse gas emissions than others, and conversely, some countries have responsibility” and “capabilities” as it suggests that some but differentiated “common the with equityguiding principle, the it conflicts a is while proclaimed According to Schlosberg ( common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities. generations of humankind, on the basis of equity and in accordance with their The Parties should protect the climate system for Baer

in equity principle. In other words, the egalitarian distributive justice reflected in et al. et of countries; the overall emission targets; the associated costs of meeting the ) 2013

2008 ontrast, for developing countries the notion of fairness is related to the , this formulation contains a number of competing notions of justice: ; Caney 2006 Caney ies towards developing ones. However, in the absence of clear ; Vanderheiden 2008 Vanderheiden 54

(

the benefit of present and future Vanderheiden 2013 Vanderheiden countries due to historical emissions are sharing approach implied by the ) . Developed countries, while

) . Further in the text it text the in Further . of their their of CEU eTD Collection ) (2011 relations. Regardingthe focus onadaptation in dominant the climate policies, according to Pelling of the defining features of the dominant discourse linked to the overall structure of international ( states nation of scale chan climate Finally, the while in first years the of UNFCCC the was focus almost exclusively the mitigationon of benefits analysis, and so on( strong reliance onmonetary valuations, such as related to calculation of emissions, sinks, costs and with the transfer of technology or financial resources or rightsto development which suggestsa of these approaches is their distributional orientation, i.e. they are concerned to var development i central in the IPCC reports, and the vulnerability is regarded as a factor that can hinder sustainable non- 2002 conceptualizing climate justice have been proposed, such as per capita equity Since the COP should be compensated from climate abatement and adaptation goals; and the liability arising from greenhouse gas emissions, i.e. who 2008 ( transfers financial intrastate sharing, vulnerability of certain countries in terms of climate change impacts and inter, as well as negotiat 2001 political process. Increasingly, adaption and vulnerability from climate change are becoming ) ; ) , historical responsibility ( , historical responsibility . ) 2006 Caney , the problematic aspect of it is that it is often cons

ion process still revolve around the issues of historical responsibility for the emissions, cost ge, it is now shifting more towards adaptation to the effects of climate change on the n nation- - 16 meeting in Cancun in 2010the key discourses climate on justice within the , and capability approach ( Schlosberg 2012 Schlosberg states (Ibid.). by IPCC the defined terms of susceptibility in Vulnerability, a of De Lucia 2009 Lucia De Audet 2013 Audet Agarwal - related damage, how and onwhat basis ( ) . The nation-

et al. et ; ) . Barrett 2013 Barrett

Holland 2008 Holland

2002 55

; state bias is important to note because it is one Neumayer 2000 Neumayer ) . A number of theoretical approaches to idered to be entirely an technological and ; Schlosberg 2012 Schlosberg ) , rights framework ( framework , rights ) . The common feature ( Jamieson 2001 Jamieson ; 2011 Baer ious extents either Baer Wiegandt Wiegandt ; Singer

al. et CEU eTD Collection entrenchment of the sobeen considered by some scholars as contributing to the de been shaping the dominant representation of the problem. This dominant discourse and practice has change can be attributedthe to wider neoliberal and ecological moderniz the problem. As discussed in previous sections, technological and managerial approach to climate vulnerability through adaption measures which in turn open a path for technological approaches to mainlyconcerned with distributional justice on a nation Overall, as it has been demonstrated in this section, the dominant discourse on climate change is networks. dominant discourse on climate change and the counter Russell 2012). The next section discusses this critical theoretical perspective for analyzing the Pusey and Russell 2010)Pusey Russell non and as essentially been viewed been by The dominant discourse on climate change mapped out in the previous sections of this chapter has mit distributional dimension, in this case, climate change impacts and associated costs of adaptation or system to the adverse climate impacts ( managerial decisions within the dominant neoliberal paradigm that treats CO2 emissions as a de the in results reduces the climate change problem to curbing CO2 emissions, and calls for the urgent actions. This expert arenas ( politics has been constructed around the ongoing ‘fetishisation’ of CO2 in the political, scientific and 3.1.6 igation measures, South global particularly the for (

discourse post The Swyngedouw 2010 Swyngedouw - Swyngedouw (2010 politicization theof climate political condition and the dominant climate change change the dominant climate and condition -political

called p called ost ) . This ‘fetishisation’, as expressed in the apocalyptic imaginations, - , political condition (Swyngedouw 2011b; Catney and Doyle 2011; 2013 IPCC 2001 IPCC )

and other scholars (Catney - political. The argument goes that the dominant climate change problem which puts it in the domain of techno 56

) , essentially is a concept that focuses onthe UNFCCC 2007 UNFCCC - - discourse constructed by the grassroots state basis as a means of dealing with dealing ameans as of basis state - politicization of and climate change the )

. and Doyle 2011; Russell 2012; 2012; Russell 2011; Doyle and

ation discourses that have -

CEU eTD Collection becomes a k commodity (Ibid.). The broader implication of this, according to Swyngedouw, is that climate change The emergence of the post 225). 2010: (Swyngedouw fosters consensual u the diffusion of governance into a host of non- considered to be a question of expert knowledge and not of political position. It is accompanied by aspects of life, the reduction of the political to administration where decision and entrenched. By the post definition of the post literature Marxistradical by philosophic influenced po and modernization discourse in the environmental politics. The term post western world, and as faras environmentconcerned, is by the dominance of the ecological the condition that is characterized by the triumph of the neoliberal agenda in all spheres of the life in ideals onthe global scale, as suggested by Fukuyama in The End of History(Russell 2012). Itthus is that signified a triumph of liberalism over comm antagonism and adversarial relations which she calls agonism: calls agonism: she which relations adversarial and antagonism properly political is of course a debatable question. For Mouffe, the political relates to the inclusion (Mou proper political dimension and its reduction to a mere social administration based on consensus and enemies ( nevertheless recognize the legiti parties, although acknowledging that there is no rational solution to their conflict, not share any common ground, agonism is a we/they relation where conflicting While antagonism is a While ey arena through which a post ffe 2005; Žižek 1999; Swyngedouw 2010; Rancière 2001). What constitutes the the constitutes What 2001). Rancière 2010; Swyngedouw 1999; Žižek 2005; ffe Mouffe 2005: 20 2005: Mouffe nderstandings of political action and the particularization of political demands” - political by the key thinkers in this theoretical strand is the foreclosure of the

- political condition is associated with the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1998 1998 in Wall Berlin the fallpolitical of the is associated with condition -

political the author means “predominance of a managerial logic in all we/they relation in which the two sides are enemies who do ) .

macy of their opponents. They are adversaries not - political and post state or quasi or state 57 unism, act that political a would final propel liberal

- state institutional forms and actors, and and actors, and forms institutional state - democratic world order configured is st - structuralist thought. The basic - political has itsroots in the - making is increasingly CEU eTD Collection prominent in the past – change is far from unique.In fact, other environmental problems that of this chapter that the particular apocalyptic and techno- novelty of the to which this entrenchment is characteristic of the overall climate discourse and the usefulness and post the fits with easily mechanisms) as the only appropriate and possible one, is simultaneously defined by the post issue that has been managed according t similarvein. This is not to say that the neoliberal thinking has not shaped the environmental policy society which are defined by the rationalism and individualism that ignores the inherent pluralism of the ) 2006 Žižek one that leads to ‘the end of politics’ and its substitution with the rule of technocrats ( consensus and the impossibility of exclusion is thus a defining f reveal the difference of a society to itself”. The substitution of the contestation or conflict with a 32) (2001: Rancière While the dominant discourse embodied in the UNFCCC process condition and constitutive of it. rather than the disagreement with a sp universal one, i.e. when it goes beyond a particular case to denote the opposition to those in power occurs for example when a particular demand voiced at a protest or demonstration turns into a will entail the exclusion of certain optionspolitical that are prioritizedthe Žižek, over others. For the cultivation of dissensus and disagreement” (2013:7). Such view suggests that the proper political Swyngedouw views the politi ( Mouffe 2005 Mouffe . The post theoretical framework itself. Regarding the latter, it argued was in the earlier sections , the political is expressed also , political the of “the modes in dissensual subjectification that ) - . Thus, it follows from this theoretical perspective that climate change, as an political condition is associated with condition political its liberalism specifically in various forms, - political description, there are disagreements in the literature over the extent overpopulation, energy crisis, DDT and so on- cal as “the space for the enunciation and affirmation of difference, for

ecific policy or decision ( o neoliberal logic (i.e. through commodification and market 58

managerial discourse around climate climate around discourse managerial eature of the post ie 1999 Žižek

and apocalyptic representations

have been framed in the ) had discursively been . Finally, to according - political condition, Rancière 2001; Rancière - political CEU eTD Collection thus proposes an alternative direction for climate politics. how grassroots discourse on climate change resists or reproduces the dominant representation and pro will framework on climate change and introducing an additional theoretical perspective. Such a theoretical 2013 McCarthy passes for strictlyfor passes political can have multiple manifestations logicsand ( political is pervasive and overwhelming is to deny such struggles significance and a radical potential through and resist the non- second part of this chapter are examples of such politicizing struggles in which movements challenge critique in the context of this dissertationthat is post movements, technological and scientific progress and so on(Hajer 1997). Even a more important has also closely been linked to the wider processes in environmentalism in the 1960s. This construction has nodoubt been influenced by neoliberalism but example environmental of how problems have constructed been since the emergence of early 1990s to climate change alone. Rather, the dominant climate change disco that it would not be correct to link post and discourse around certain type of s post and politicization of climate change that are directly at odds” with Swyngedouw’s thesis regarding hegemonic as demonstrated by “substantial, significant, and ongoing struggles around the politics Goldstein 2013 Goldstein - politics al. et (Chatterton action direct ( McCarthy 2013: 23 2013: McCarthy ) . The. second part of this chapter is thus devoted to discussing a counter ) . Furthermore,. these struggles are important because they demonstrate that what vide a fuller understanding of the grassroots discourse, making it possible to trace political framing of climate change and the underpinning neoliberal solutions ) . Mobilization olutions, but according (2013 to McCarthy 2013 - politicization which is considered to have emerged since the ; Featherstone 2013). Therefore, to claim that the post the that claim to Therefore, 2013). ; Featherstone s on climate justice that will be discussed in the 59

- politicization is far from being universal or being is far from politicization

the society related to the rise of social ( Featherstone and Korf 2012 Korf and Featherstone urse is yet another another yet is urse ) , the argument is argument , the - discourse discourse - ; CEU eTD Collection use the term‘counter By counter remained firmly grounded in the inter possibility for NGOs to t change has been driven by nation- dichotomy. Ever since the landmark speech by Thatcher in 1988, the dominant discourse on climate market previous sections, the dominant discourse is centered on emission reductions through specific 2013 Featherstone in Copenhagen and beyond has been recognized by scholars ( The climate justice discourse of various global movements and networks that have been mobilizing 3.2 of a counter 2010 that unitedthousands of non- global grassroots mobilizations in Copenhagen in 2009 anda counter suppressing their views ( views their suppressing ‘voiceless’ expressed through the act of speaking against the discourse that ha dimension but also raise the questions of rec actors, and specifically social movements whose justice claims go beyond the distributional approach adopted within the dominant climate discourse generates resistance on behalf of non- multi constitutes a just approach to climate change shape discussions concerning climate politics and to reveal multiple understandings of what - scalar nature of the problem and has deprived the non- Cl - based instrumentsbased distributive following and justice logic coupled with the North/South imate imate - - discourse I mean the discursive resistance of the actors who have been formerly discourse being formed to challenge the dominant discourse.

justice )

as challenging the dominant climate policy discourse. As demonstrated in - hegemonic’ discourse which is often applied in the analysis of climate justice Moussa and Scapp 1996) Scapp and Moussa : a ake part in the negotiation process, the issue of climate change has counter state actorsunder the banner of climate justice are the

state interests and forms of cooperation. Despite the formal - state framework. The nation The framework. state -discourse on climate change ognition and political representation ( Burnham 60 . It is important to note that I deliberately do not

al. et 2013b state actors of the discursiv the of actors state Bond 2012 Bond - ; state approach has obscured the ) 2012 Fisher - summit in Cochabamba in Cochabamba in summit

; Chatterton s been dominating and

. Such an exclusive ( Fisher 2012 Fisher

et al. et e power to

reflection

) 2013 . The The . state ; CEU eTD Collection variety positions, radical to ideological from reformism of anti- below’ was meant to strengthen and solidify this discourse further. Behind this emerging ‘movement from climate change” and chanting “climate justice now!”. The alternativ in Copenhagen when thousands of people marched in the streets demanding “Social change, not Climate justice discourse became prominent through the mobilizations during the COP the term ‘counter ( for example), I regard grassroots networks’ discourse as non as discourse networks’ grassroots I regard example), for and general distrust towards state (as pointed out in interviews and in RT (2011b) political statement, networks em replacing the oppressive discourse with another kind of dominant discourse. Given that grassroots for hegemony between the dominant and oppressed groups directed at capturing state power and the counter anarchist and autonomous currents. As it will be shown in section 3.2.3, t I locate the roots of this counter The rest of this chapter is s the emerging counter globalization movement. Section 3.2.4 provides a theoretical perspective suitable for the analysis of hegemonic ( the climate justice discourse literature. social justice that supersede the nation ; 2010 Bedall and Austen 3.2.1 (

Bond 2012 Bond Climate justice concept: a brief history brief a concept: justice Climate - Day 2005 Day discourse climate on justice draws significantly antagonisms on articulated the by alter phasize their anarchist and autonomous traditions that reject any form of domination - hegemony’ based on Antonio )

are years of campaigning both on the international and national levels, and a ) - . discourse based onNancy Fraser’s conceptualization of the dimensions of

Carroll 2010 Carroll tructured as follows. Having traced the history of the term climate justice, - discoursealter in the

; - state framework. The chapter concludes with an overview of Carroll and Ratner 2010 Ratner and Carroll Gramsci’s conceptualizations brings in the struggles 61

- globalization movement and particularly in its particularly and movement globalization in

; De Lucia 2009 Lucia De - capitalism and environmentalism environmentalism and capitalism hegemo e summit in Bolivia a year later ayear Bolivia summit in e his link is criticalhis because nic rather that counter ) . The reason is that - 15 meeting 15 meeting - - CEU eTD Collection the world met in at the ‘alternative’ Summit running parallel to the COP Summit in 2000 in The Hague. Severalgrassroots networks and community activists from around Justice Climate First the organizing by further issue the took CorpWatch 2010). Dawson 2009; Parks justice concept were the COP afterwards (Roberts and Parks2009). The other important moments in the history of the climate Delhi declarations, as well as that of the 1991 Principles of Environmental Justice, appeared of organizations and networks. A to the environmental and human rights issue was drafted in Bali in 2002. It was signed by hundreds that made an attemptreconfigure to the debate on climate change from greenhouse gases emissions Dec first The change. climate on campaigning activists community and The UN meetings on climate change continued to the be rallying place of international NGOs, local statement. political first its Climatefor Justice – ( promote human rights, equity, labor rights and environmental justice globally and locally” climate justice, participants in the Summit called “solutionsfor to the climate change problem that Justice Climate end of the 1990s an American NGO CorpWatch Network was the first network to use the term from the movement perspective ( through the UN conferences in the late 1990s te the appeared in the academic works of Edith Brown Weiss and Henry Shue in the early 1990s. However, the establishment of transnational networks such as Climate Justice Now! (CJN!) in 2007and ( ) n.p. 2000: CorpWatch Reitan and Gibson 2012 rm was popularized the by environmental justice movement in the US (Dawson 2010) and

in an attempt to bridge climate change with global and local justice issues (Roberts and originated. Climate jus . This is where the full name of the RT network studied herein ) .

Roberts and Parks (2009 Parks and Roberts - 13 and COP 13 and

few more declarations, incorporating the major points of Bali and - tice was highlighted as a key priority for the network in 14 Conferences in Bali (2007) and Poznan (2008), and and (2008), Poznan and (2007) Bali in Conferences 14 - early 2000s. Namely, the Indigenous Environmental Environmental Indigenous the Namely, 2000s. early 62

producedvs a report entitled Gangsters Greenhouse )

claim that as a concept, climate justice first climate aconcept, as that claim laration Climate Justiceon - 6 meeting. By demanding Cox 2013) Cox –

Rising Tide Tide Rising . At the CEU eTD Collection 2004 alter members also took part in the alter later joined by some partisan networks and NGOs from the global South (Ibid.). Yet some CJA and among activists themselves, such as the anti the as such themselves, activists among and The precursor of the climate justice movement has several widely used names in the literature, media necessary to review the key features of its predecessor, the alter movement of movements. Before discussing axes climatethe justice the thus of discourse it is Featherstone 2013) leading to the proclamation by some activists of the birth of a climate justice Copenhagen in 2009 as it is there that the discourse became p 2009 root cause of eco groups from Germany, Denmark and the UK with explicit and networks small relatively of up made was CJA the as summits, UNFCCC the in participating ( 2007 in CJN! instruments in line with the dominant policy discourse that pushed some CAN members to create of CAN reflected in the support of ecol dominant solutions to climate change ( accused of monopolizing the civil socie of confrontation during COP13 in Bali with moderate a Climate Action Network (CAN)that was network uniting radical groups that had been part of the alter Climate Justice Action (CJA) in 2008. The origins of these two network 3.2.2 - ) ) globalization globalization , anti . Finally, landmark the history the in of climate justice discourse is the COP -

Alter - capitalist movement ( movement capitalist Reitan and Gibson 2012 - globalization movement globalization nomic and social and destruction injustices allnomic ecological ( over and world the ( Hosseini 2006, Hosseini Müller 2006 Müller - 2010 globalization movement that contested neoliberal capitalism as a Bullard and Müller 2012 Müller and Bullard ty space within the UNFCCC negotiations and endorsing the ) , movement of movements ) . In. contrast, CJA participants did not have a historyof ) , global justice ( , global ogical modernization principles and market

- 63 globalization movement (

anti Routledge 2009 Routledge - - globalization movement emerged out - globalization movement. capitalist and anti and capitalist ) . It is thus the reformist orientation orientation reformist the thus It is . et al. et (Chatterton rominent

( Klein 2004 Klein s are important: CJN! as a a as CJN! important: are s Day 2005 Day ) and justice and globalism - ; authoritarian roots Mertes and Bello ; Epstein 2001 Epstein 15

meeting in Goodman Goodman

- based based 2013 ) , ; CEU eTD Collection Forum that fostered a constructive dialogue of movement participants with theimagining go al of form of protest was also important: the organization of counter summits, namely World Social a detailed account of major mobilizations see protests, some of which were marked by violence on the part of participants and police brutality (for institutions in collaboration with national governments. The opposition took the form of mass Bank, IMF and WTO, as well as specific agreements – implementing the neoliberal agenda in practice.These are the financial bodies such as the World movem alter the injustices and inequalities between and within countries is thus an overarching discursive frame of opposition to neoliberal capitalism as the sy adjustment programmes and increased impoverishment to the global South” ( which brings privatization, deregulation and unemploym their “opposition to the agenda of globalizing capital and the neoliberal ideology associated with it, th in of various formations, entities and organizations with diverging agendas and tactics but interrelated movement organizations, the global justice movement can be regarded as a huge network consisting In line with Della Porta and Diani’s Della and Porta with In line ( levels various anarchists, environmentalists, feminists and other movements and actors have been involved on and environmental NGOs, networks from the global North as well as global South, political parties, networks organizing onthe basis of non- movement. Just as the names of the movement are diverse, so are its constituents: direct action ( Goodman 2009 Goodman eir common goal of resisting neoliberal globalization. What unites these heterogeneous entities is ent channeled its energy in the opposition to various institutions that are in charge of - globalization movement. resist To the hegemony of neoliberal ideology, the global justice Cumbers ) , among others. Each name highlights a different focus or character of the et al. et

) 2008 .

( 2006 hierarch ) stem behind the economic, social and environmental

differentiation between social movement and social Curran (2006 Curran 64

y and consensual decision making, development

ent to the global North, and structural NAFTA, GATTS, - GATTS, NAFTA, ); ); Pleyers (2010 Pleyers ) ). However, a peaceful Day 2004: 728 2004: Day

en acted by these ) . The The . CEU eTD Collection and enacting alternatives to the current neoliberal order, as well as addressing movement issues. Overall, the goal of the alter the issues.goal of the Overall, participation in the in participation decision economicthe profit whileneoliberal logic also re economy foregrounds the social aspect of economic relations, effectively re markets, the exchange, be it a transaction, a type of enterprise or labor, is governed by a logic other than that of market logic) are recognized as contributing but also non - neoliberal capitalism, i.e. not only commodified understanding that leaves space for forms of economic exchange not limited to the ones imposed by of a ‘diverse economy’ and re discourse that aims at dislocating the hegemony of neoliberal capitalism through prom Gibson- organizationsocietal isa also significan capitalism is a shared goal of the movement participants, the construction of alternative visions of neoliberal capitalismin ( drawing onthe anarchist praxis, and a common recognition of the systems of oppression embodied ideological positions of the participants, the overall horizontal and decentralized organizing structure The key features of the movement are its diversity in terms of the diverging backgr forms of exchanges are valued and supported (Ibid.). constructing a language new of ‘community economy’ where non socialization happens through concrete practices that the movement engages in, butalso through Graham (2006 Graham i.e. it can be based on ethical or informal principles. Thus, the notion of diverse - maximizing motif, encouraging as and as modeling well active an civic ) , some, of its strands (e.g.World Social Forum) are producing new political a Day 2005 Day - making process ( - introducing - socializing economic relations. ‘Diverse economy’ relates to an ; - globalizationmovement has been to challenge the hegemony of Müller 2008 Müller

t part of the alter the of t part the social and political questions to spheres dominated by Pleyers 2010 Pleyers ; 65 ) 2010 Strasinger

forms (for profit and monetized, following the

) .

- commodified ones. Non- globalization discourse. According to - . While contestation of neoliberal commodified and non- - socializing them. Re oting a vision aoting commodified commodified ounds and monetized - related related - CEU eTD Collection problems, the alter linking local and national level problems to the transnational actors as responsible for these pow the existing order is not challenged.Moreover, this approach “insulates extra and non- iswho included or excluded from the contests over justice, which implies that the underlying logic of approach suggests accepting the principle of state affirmative the Namely, of framing. issue tackling the to approaches transformative and affirmative the ‘transformative’ character of the movement, a distinction is made Fraser by between the alter the that suggest to Fraser state and are thus excluded from the “authorized contests over justice” (Fraser 2005: 8). This leads communities affected someby kind of injustice are not necessarily located on the territory of one injustices beyond the nation address because to justice is novel claims it are makes possible articulation which an Such handled. it advocated the by movement in gener would apply to all the diverse groups makingup movement, the nevertheless the contours of justice forward by the movement. Granted, it virtually is impossible to identify the universal conception that Finally, one feature that is particularly pertinent for this thesis is the specific concep tion justice of put reframe the dominant conception of justice as a prerogative of the nation particular Given the g meta the “reconstruct to attempts alter the territorial, longer no are contesting the appropriateness of the state oriented approach which does not lead to any significant change in the statusquo. In contrast, by ers [such as corporations] from the reach of justice” (Fraser 2005: 13). It is then a reform a then is It 13). 2005: (Fraser justice” of reach the from corporations] as [such ers lobal nature of climate change as problem a that concerns the whole world as opposed to - states, the implication is that climate justice discourse continues this attempt to attempt this continues discourse justice climate that is implication the states, - globalization movement has challenged the state - state framework, capturing the nature of globalized injustices in which - globalization movement is transformative in orientation. Regarding - political foundations of justice for a globalizing world” (Ibid.: 15). - globalization movement offers a transformative approach that al can sketched be out. According) (2005 to Nancy Fraser - e in a globalizing world where injustices a globalizing where in world e territorial principl 66

- te

rritoriality deciding basis for appropriate the as state. - territorial princi territorial

ple according to territorial territorial , by by , - CEU eTD Collection 2009 The physical moment of the resurrection of global justice, or the coming of age moment ( (Ibid.). of the global justice movement, wit yet movement and become its bellwether issue. The authors regard climate activismas ‘part and parcel’ climate change brought by the wider environmental movement has galvanized the global justice justice anti the of ‘resurrection’ ‘global terrorism’ began to wane” ( and … the legitimation crisis that global authority has been suffering since the power of the story of intended to solve “the crisis of overaccumulatio change it would inevitably mean a ‘green fix’ in the form of various carbon trading instruments climate For (2008). Müller argued itself, restart and transform to neoliberalism for tool perfect a was realities. And the issue of climate change which has been onthe international agenda for a neoliberalism, in the sense used by hook, without an enemy, without a goal” and without a story (Ibid.: n.p.). The ‘death’ of justice it,global the “ movement market know as leaving we neoliberalism and capitalism According (2008 to Müller transition between the alter concept of justice commonly used within the dominant framework. What is left to address is the globally, the construction of alternatives to the dom neoliberal capitalism as the culprit for social, economic and environmental injustices locally and Overall, the discourse of the alter ; Reitan and Gibson 2012 (

Müller 2008 Müller , 2010 - capitalist politics of the global justice movement in the fight for climate fight climate for the in justice global the movement of capitalist politics ) - ) . similar Along lines, , the, bailouts of banks in 2008signified in some way the death of free globalization and climate and globalization justice movements. ; ) 2009 White

Müller, was more of a transformation and adjustment to the new - globalization movement is structured upon the resistance to Müller 2008: n.p. 2008: Müller h distinctiveh featuresthat attestthe movement’s to differences , is considered to be the mobilization in Copenhagen in n … that has given usthe current financial chaos, 67 Reitan and Gibson (2012

inant system and foregrounding the limits of the ) . That is Tadzio why Müller declared the

)

argue that the issue of of issue the that argue without a a without

decade Klein Klein CEU eTD Collection change and the direction of climate politics that they call for. the concept of climate justice, as is it indicative of their preferred course of action in terms of social It thereforeNGOs. is important to explore the particular meaning that grassroots networks assign to 2010 speak about climate justice as an empty signifier, i.e. devoid of any meaning ( as CfCA and RT) brought it to the front and made it resonate worldwide. Thismade some scholars ( summit the climate justice movement. While some networks such as RT UK had been using the term prior to of climate justice became so prominent, with some activists believing tha Whether or not the global justice movement was truly revived, it is in Copenhagen that the concept commodity like CJA to resist NGO cooptation of the mobilization in Copenhagen was generally a failure due to the inability of grassroots networks commentators were as optimistic as TadzioMüller, however. Simons and Tonak(2010 Scholars (Chatterton al. et link the emergence of climate justice to the global justice mov which gave some commentators the opportunity to compare it to the mobilizations in Seattle and/or 2009. The UNFCC summit in Copenhagen saw large -

discourse constructed by the specific grassrootsnetworks in the UK, this section will outline the and preference for actions. While the empirical chapters of this dissertation will be focused on the Collective 2010) note that climate justice as concept and a a p 3.2.3 ) , since, it is widely used not only by radical grassroots networks but also governments and

capitalism neoliberal and solutions debt, false climate discourse: justice Climate - based solutions. Chase 2004) Chase

, CJA and CJ and , CJA

2013

; Fisher 2012; Austen and Bedall 2010) and activists (Building Bridges Bridges (Building activists and 2010) Bedall and Austen 2012; Fisher ; N! networks (that comprised smaller grassroots networks, such such networks, grassroots smaller comprised (that networks N!

the radical message and tactics, and the imposition of imposition the and tactics, and message the radical 68

scale protests on the issue of climate change

ement erspective can have multiple meanings ( Goodman 2009 Goodman t the event gave rise to the to rise gave event t the Austen and BedallAusten and ) . Not all of the )

argued that that argued CEU eTD Collection the key actors engagedthe in construction of the counter broader contours of climate justice discourse embodied in the actions of CJN!and CJA networks, perspective), and rejection of market and ecological debt, the root causes of cli countries for the emissions and unequal socio- these actors encompasses the following major themes: historical responsibility of the developed justi climate The 2012). Gibson and Reitan 2011; Goodman 2012; (Russell beyond by CJN! as two as CJN! by debt. The climate debt caused by developed countries through the industrialization is conceptualized The premises of climate justice discourse rest onthe notion of historical responsibility and climate 2010. in People’s Concference on Climate Change andRights the of Mother Earth (WPCCC)Cochabamba in through the mobilizations in Copenhagen during Movement: Reflections from Bolivia Climate on Justice, Social Movements and the State) and (Dealing with Distractions: Confronting Green Capitalism in Copenhagen and Beyond; Space for themes have been developed in various statements ( global North has a history of exploitation of the global South through colonization and unequal However, the notion of climate and ecological debts also is underpinned by the wider idea that the poor majority ( ecological, social and economic debt owed the by rich industrialized world to the and adaptation debt – contribution to the effects of climate change – “emissions debt” to developing countries; and For their disproportionate developing countries their fair share of atmospheric space – For their excessive historical and current per person emissions – debt” to dev to debt” – and damage impacts climate rising to adapt

- fold: fold: eloping countries. Together the sum of these debts –

CJN! 2009?: n.p. 2009?: CJN! constitutes their climate debt, which is part of a larger - based solutions to climate change (a shared perspective). These ) .

economic relations reflected in the concept of climate mate change in neoliberal capitalism (mostly CJA (mostly capitalism neoliberal in change mate 69

the COP - n.d. CJA they have run up an “adaptation - requiring developing countries to discourse onclimate change in Europe and - b 15 meeting (2009) and the World World the and (2009) 15 meeting ; CJN! 2008 CJN! they hav emissions debt debt emissions ) , activists’ publications e run up an denying ce discourseof CEU eTD Collection climate justice activist: reproduction in climate change pol historically unequal relationship between North and South, the rich and the poor, and their are one of the material manifestations of the underlying symbolic meaning of climate debt as a concept with which activists imbue it: financial reparations are fa as a mechanism for the reparations. However, this interpretation misses the key point behind the ) (2010 based on the logic of fair distributions, the concept of climate debt according to Simons and Tonak treats the issuemainly in distributional terms(see section 3.1.5). On the other hand, even though for distributional justice and in this sense, in line with the dominant discourse on climate change that pointing out here: first, the call for technology and financial transfers can be interpreted as ademand historic and current excessive contribution to climate change (Ibid.). Two implications are worth developed countries according to t through technology and finance transfers from North to South, and by cutting emissions within to climate change impacts and hinders their development, CJN! called for redressing the debt As a compensation for this historical injustice that made the countr exploitationthe of poor: America by Christopher Columbus and the beginning of the colonization era and continued for the global day of direct action on October 12 as the unequal social and economic relations between the two actors. This is evident from the CJA’s call economic development. The historical responsibility is thus not limited to the emissions but captures implicitly supports the commodification of carbon and potentially promotes carbon trading cultures, and causes the climate crisis ( never mad, its drive fuels to fossil metals that drove them to wipe out entire cultures; today, it is capital’s search for Then, it was the colonisers’ mad search for the profit obtained from precious five Today it is all of us, and the entire planet, who increasingly suffer the fate that some centuries ago befell the indigenous of the Americas and their native lands.

he UNFCCChe commitments that reflect the full measure of their itics ( Featherstone 2013 Featherstone - ending expansion, that still wipes out entire CJA 2010: n.p. 2010: CJA 7 0

a symbolic date that marked the discovery of ) .

) . In the words of Nicola Bullard, a r from being the goal; rather they they rather goal; the being from r ies of the global South vulnerable CEU eTD Collection and production” ( industrialised North [who] have borne the toxic burden of this fossil fuel extraction, transportation global South, the climate debt concept also extends to the “low The second implications is that while the reparations are destined for nevertheless adopted by the network through the close cooperation with CJN! during the COP inequalities e and Although CJA’s original analysis of the climate debt was more structured around historical subjects of climate justice because they are affected the by underlying socio communit marginalized the that means this debt life possibilities, in patterns of advantage and disadvantage” (Fraser2005: 13). In the case of climate which sets the ground rules which govern their social interaction, thereby shaping their perspective geographical proximity, buttheir co- affected principle posits that “what turns a collection of people into fellow subjects of justice is not than rather 2005) (Fraser principle’ affected Further, the extension of the category implies that the concept of climate debt is based on the ‘all discourse framed aroundunequal distribution of environmental goods and bads in the United States. repayment of ecological debt to the global South by industrialised rich countries” mobilizations, as reflected in one of the goals of the network “to support reparations a features in climate justice discourse as a special subject of justice. The Indigenous Peoples’ Along with the global South and marginalized communities in the North, the indigenous population

accumulate. relat Ultimately, the only way that the debt can be repaid is by ensuring that the historic ( Bullard 2010: n.p. 2010: Bullard ions of inequality are broken once and for all and that no“new” debt will ) 2009 CJN! xploitation as evidenced from the focus of their statements,the term was

This requires system change, both in the North and in the South ) .

. Such extension of the concept connects with the environment imbrication in a common structural or institutional framewo rk,

on the geographical or territorial principle. The all 71 ies physically located in the global North are also

the developing countries of the - income communities in the - economic system. ( CJA n.d. CJA al justice nd the - - 15 15 a ) - - . CEU eTD Collection climate justice discourse afterthe Durban Climate Justice Summit2004 in under when the i renewable energy, rights transfers as discussed above, leaving fossil fuels in the ground and investing in community real solutions to climate change” indigen solutions. idea is This well articulated Indigenous the in Declaration Peoples’ sovereignty (Ib corporations liberalization and privatization pushed by governments, financial institutions and multinational called ‘false solutions’ defined as carbon offsetting, carbon trading for forests, agrofuels, trade The second theme shared the by two networks in climate justice discourse is the rejection of so ( their incorporation into the research, design and implementation of climate change policies” recovery, revalidation and strengthening of Indigenous Peoples’ technolog equal partners in shaping the solutions to climate change ( the justice they are calling forthat is of culturalrecognition that allows them to be considered as ways of life that are being destroyed theby dominant econo UNFCCC process and as an affirmation of their rights to preserve traditional cultural knowledge and This demand came as a reaction to the exclusion of the voices of indigenous communities from the demanded: Cochabamba in PWCCC Declaration (the main points of which were incorporated WPCCC 2010: n.p. 2010: WPCCC ous peoples, fisher folk, and peasant communities are proposed to “be seen as offering the model”, as a way to confront climate change ( wisdom for the construc and cosmovisions based on ancient and ancestral Indigenous knowledge and recovery,The revalidation strengtheningand of our civilizations, identities, cultures ( CJN! 2007 CJN! id.). In addition, traditional knowledge and ways of life are life regardedid.). of ways and In addition, knowledge traditional as genuine )

and is also present in the CJN!’s statement where the sustainable practices of ) . In. contrast, the ge - based resource conservation, sustainable family farming and food tion of alternative ways of life to the current “development ( CJN! 2008 CJN! nuine solutions include reduced consumption, financial ) . concept The of false solutions became central to 72

WPCCC 2010: n.p. 2010: WPCCC Fraser 2000 Fraser

mic model (Ibid.). From this perspective, perspective, this From (Ibid.). model mic in the final statement) made during the the during made statement) final the in ) .

) . ies and knowledge, and for

that calls nfluence “ for the - led led - CEU eTD Collection additional adjective: “market adjective: additional While both CJN! and other non- Trading. This declaration positioned carbon trading as exacerbating climate change and undermining of Carbon Trade Watch the participants of the summit produced the Durban Declaration on Carbon reproduction rather an isolated environmental problem: crises in the current political and economic system separate climate crisis from the economic and financial crisis (Ibid.), CJA located the roots of all system that is causing the cli 2012)Gibson its ideological identified stance through clear the rejection of capitalism: “This is the contrast, CJA as a network with roots in anti radical having explicit so anti an - to the principles of CJN!, it is natural that their ideological backgrounds would vary significantly and change being related to capita that split from the CAN network have a moderate stance on the issue of root causes of climate that of CJA. This can be explained by the backgrounds of the network members, i.e. many NGOs economy” stopping climate change will not be possible without addressing “neo a - of the two networks slightly diverges.Although CJN!recognized in the Poznan statement that neoliberal capitalism (CJA n.d.). In fact, the position on the role of capitali To struggle for climate justice, then, is to recognise the domination of, and destruction caused, by industrial agribusiness; it is about creating socialised renewable energy systems; it about is food sovereignty against back power over their own lives. Itabout is leaving fossil fuels in the ground and though we probably should do both. It is about empowering commu disaster…Climateenvironmental justice isn’t about saving trees or polar bears – crisisthat as climate economic crisis it the is is an as much as and social market based existing solutions ( ( CJN! 2008 CJN!

CJA use the term ‘false solutions’ in the same context, CJA often employs an ) , their critique of the current econom - mate crisis, and it has a name: capitalism” ( capitalism” aname: has it and crisis, mate based solutions” which points to the link between climate change and lism. Also, given that there are more than 700 organizations adhering capitalist focus could potentially alienate so alienate could potentially capitalist focus Goodman 2011 Goodman - capitalist and anti and capitalist 73

and framed climate justice as a struggle for social social for a struggle as justice climate framed and ) .

that all these crises are linked;

ic system is much more restrained than - authoritarian movements (Reitan and (Reitan movements authoritarian liberal and corporate CJA 2010 CJA sm is where the discoursesm is where nities to take take to nities me of the actors. In ) . By refusing to to refusing . By - based based CEU eTD Collection The previous section has mapped the contours of a counter (government and corporations serving in the name of capital). In light of the post Moreover, the CJA statement made a division between ‘us’ (grassroots social movements) and ‘them’ meanings behind these notions point to responsibility and climate debt, the role of neoliberal capitalism and market activists as ‘climate ideas of justice’. core The of notion this climate justice relate to historical by global movements. At the heart of this discourse lies the notion of justice ref here for analyzing the counter underestimated (Goodman 2011). The next section highlights the theoretical perspective adopted micro climate relations betw dominant policy discourse structured around market CJN!and CJA networks seek to develop an antagonistic climate change politics that contests the Viewed together as contributing to the const capitalist logic and opposing the key actors behind this discourse. dominant framing of the problem that seeks to solve the problem according to the neoliberal cle CJA 3.1.6, section in discussed framework ( While the existence, coherence and strength of a global Bullard Müller and 2012 3.2.4

n.p.). South. Climate justice, us for short, life a struggle in good all is the (CJA for 2010: reducing overproduction for overconsumption by elites in the North and the massively reducing live lives; different working starting and it hours, to is about The scales of climate justice of climate scales The

een the global North and global South ( - politics and their potential of influencing the macro- ) , the existence and significance of the local discourses as an exp - discourse of specific gras a multi

ruction of a global climate justice counter - scalar framing of justice in the counter 74 arly politicizes climate change contestingby the

climate justice discourse is questionablehighly sroots networks through the lens of justice. - Chatterton based solutions and reinforcing unequal - discourse climate on change put forward

al. et 2013 politics should not be - ; based solutions. The The solutions. based Featherstone 2013 Featherstone - political theoreticalpolitical erred to the by - discourse on ression of a - discourse, discourse, ) . CEU eTD Collection repres questions of identity, i.e. which kinds of issues require recognition and which do not. The issue of which distributive principle it should be carried out. The scale of cultural recognition relates to pertaining to the allocation of resources, i.e. how much redistribution is required and according to distribution, cultural recognition and political representation. The first scale is concerned with issues participation, justice according to Fraser should include three dimensions, or scales: economic thus helpful in revealing the scales of climate justice (Fraser 2005). Understood as parity o climate change. Nancy Fraser’s theory of three contestation, i.e. the question of “how” (Ibid.).In climate justice discourse this scale is evident in the the same time, the political dimen ‘framing’, or the boundary reciprocal recognition” (Fraser 2005:6). The political dimension is what the author calls the issue of “tells us who is included, and who excluded, from the circle of those entitled to just a political dimension. The political dimension is intertwined with the other two dimensions as it justiceof discernible in discou the practices which are currently not recognized in the dominant discourse, is the second analytical scale the indigenous populations and various communities who rely ontraditional knowledge and this scale is not central and is intertwined with the other two. Cultural rec and developing countries. Although present in the climate justice discourse of climate movements, t transfer financial examples, the scale of distribution is evident in the discussion of climate debt and the need for as it reflects the notions of justice put forward global by climate movements. To illustrate with determined (Ibid.).I argue here that Fraser’s theorizing of social ju dimensions, i.e. who are the relevant subjects for distribution and recognition and how are they entation according to Fraser is concerned with a meta o the affected actors in light of unequal impacts of climate change ondeveloped - setting process that seeks to answer the question of “who” of justice. At rse. Finally, the third scale is representation which Fraser considers sion concerns the procedures related to the processes of - dimensional social justice in globalized the world is 75

- frame issue encompassing the other stice is applicable to to climate isstice applicable justice ognition, as in the case of distribution and f CEU eTD Collection beyond a nation- literature climate on justice needs to be addressed exploring by the meaning behind climate justice grass the emerging climate justice discourse from the perspective of non climate change in media and international politics are well covered in the literature, the analyses of and policy discourse onthe international and national levels. While the dominant discourse on Doulton in the literature and (2005), Brown (2009 to various degrees. Carvalho The works of address. Climate to seeks change dissertation discourse this that shortfalls has the and been covered Before concluding this chapter it is necessary to briefly review the existing research on climate justice 3.3 the dominant climate discourse. What they suggest is thus a radical re working out just solutions ( UNFCCC process and positioning social movements and communi framing in the international arena. By challenging the authority and legitimacy of the state c discussions of the solutions to climate change being defined and determined by states and Bond (2012 Bond ) (2009 Olausson counter communities as a way of regaining control over one’s life and achieving justice (Ibid.). Thus, the the only decision- representation that goes beyond the dominant logic centered onnation- ( missing in the dominant discourse structuredaround nation- Burnham orporations as opposed to the affected communities. This is duethe to prevailing nation- roots networks and groups, have been limited to date.) (2012 As Fisher Overview of climate justice studies - discourse climate on change shows a multi et al. et ) , Methmann (2010 Methmann

2013a

state scale, i.e. by looking at movements’ conceptualizations of the term becauseit examine discursive construction of climate change in the media. Giddens (2009), making actors. Instead, the movements seek to transfer the power to the ) .

CJA 2010 CJA ); ); Me thmann ) , global climate movements question the who and the how of

et al. et 76

) (2013

- scalar approach to justice which is currently

and and De Lucia (2009 Lucia De states and distributional concerns ties asthe appropriate actors for - - state actors and particularly particularly and actors state arrangement onthe le states and corporations as

argues, this gap in the )

engage with politicsengage with - centered vel of of vel ) , and and , state state CEU eTD Collection relations formed within the neoliberal logic, a for an antagonistic climate change politics that foregrounds the unequal social and environmental mobilizations in Copenhagen provide an insight on how the emerging climate justice framing allows The accounts of Chatterton al et action. uncovers the multiple meanings behind climate justice and thus multiple potential directions for discourse and counter bas Based the on identified gaps in the literature, thisdissertation seeks to provide concrete, empirically side discoursemethodological thusof analysis and fail provide a to textually d to attempt least at or 2012), Russell example, discourse is not captured. Finally, the studies that do analyze discourse climate on change (for heterogeneous actors comprising this movement.Asresult, a the richness and diversity of grassroots of this close engagement is that often there is no, or very limited differentiatio translocal mobilizations are no doubt important for developing climate politics, the problematic side ) (2012 ); (2010 Dorsey and Bond of works In fact, the focus ontransnational mobilizing prevails in the current literature onclimate justice.The overall movement as opposed to specific actors within this praxis. Although Russell’s work analyzes the discourse of climate movements, his focus is on the diachronically the failure of the ‘radical climate movement’ in the UKto develop a genuinely radical the temporal point is aroundthe mobilizations in Copenhagen, the study by Russell(2012) examines politics of climate change. While these accounts examine climate justice discourse synchronically, i.e. ed account of how grassroots’ discourse is constructed through the interaction with the dominant , among others, are s are others, , among - discourse on climate change. By employing the methodological tools of CDA ome of the examples of studies with this focus. While transnational and ) and Featherstone. (2013 (2013) focused onth translocal e ); ); (2012 Müller and Bullard nd develops a prefigurative solidarity and 77 o so,o display a very limited engagement with the

movement. movement. Dawson (2010 Dawson - supported analysis. ); ); Reitan and Gibson n betweenn - oriented

- CEU eTD Collection the lens of the theory of post theoretical approach consists of two axes: the dominant discourse climate on change viewed through adopted here for the analysis of grassroots discourse on the politics of climate change. The This chapter has sought to review the debates in literature and present the theoretical approach 3.4 discourse and its complex interaction with the dominant discourse onclimate politics. frameworks adopted in this study will produce a rich and deep understanding of the counter within the wider movement contesting the dominant discourse.The theoretical and methodol diachronically with the discursive construction of climate justice fromthe perspective of two actors contribute to this growing body of l capable of producing a very meticulous analysis ( explored in the empirical chapters. Counter articulated global by climate movements within which is embedded grassroots’ discourse that will be climate problem. This exclusion is resisted through an emergent counter that excludes the voices of non articulated scientif narrow in lens of justice. It was argued in this chapter that the dominant discourse on climate change politics as conceptualized by grassroots networks might look articulations generated the by counter reproduce the dominant discourse while simultaneously resisting and reframing it through the (Moussa and Scapp 1996). Overall, by investigating to what extent grassroots networks draw on discourse. The counter of the actors whose voice is generally

Conclusions

- discourse thus is considered as a practical engagement in political struggles ic, apocalyptic, distributional and economic terms has a nation - - politics, and the counter - state actors who wish to participate in shaping solutions to the iterature climate on justice engaging by both synchronically and

- suppressed aimed at challenging and resistingthis dominant discourse, I attempt to reveal what the alternative climate climate alternative the what reveal to I attempt discourse, - discourse understood is here as a discursive intervention Coffey and Marston 2013 Marston and Coffey 78

- discourse examined through the theoretical

like. As pointed out in the previous - discourse on ) , to seeks dissertation this

climate change change climate state bias bias state ogical ogical and and - CEU eTD Collection actors. grassroots section, this research focus is warranted by the gap in the literature onthe discourse of non-

state, state, CEU eTD Collection statement dating back to the early 2000s. However, it only is in the pre started using the term from the very first days of its existence whic workshops as part of “radical grassroots solutions” to climate change (CfCA 2006c). Likewise, RT networks. early stage of networks’ activism the notion of justice was discernible in the discourse of both Regarding the varying strength of the climate justice discourse, it should noted be that already at the 4.1 gravitates towards being a counter the main title of this chapter is also meaningful as it indicates that while grassroots discourse networks, although the strength of the thread varied at different points in time. The question mark in subsequent chapters, climate justice has been the overarching concern and goal for grassroots grassroots networks analyzed in the empirical chapters that follow. As it will arguedbe the in The title of this introductory chapter reflects the central thread running through the discourse of that will be further unpacked in the rest of this dissertation. trace back the origins of term ‘climate justice’ of this dissertation from the perspective of grassroots discourse. It is comprised of two sections that The goal of this chapter is to set the scene for the presentation and discussion of empirical findings 4 the dominant and counter making the counter orientation debatable. The empirical chapters thus explore this tension between climate discourse, the analysis has also revealed ways in change politics change

empirical chapters Climate justice: a counter Climate justice as an overarching concern For example, at the very first Climate Camp in 2006 climate justice was discussed at the . - discourses that marks grassroots networks’ conceptualization of climate

- discourse in the sense of resisting and challenging the dominant - in networks’ discourse and highlights its key meanings discourse? Introduction to 80

which it reproduces the dominant discourse,

h is reflected its in first political - and post - Copenhagen period

CEU eTD Collection CfCA areregarded here as sharing the counter activists sent strong a message aboutthe focus of their future actions. Overall,CJA, RT, CJC and Climate (CJC). Collective Justice including 'climate By justice' n the in justice became even stronger after Copenhagen: In 2011 CfCA disbanded and transformed into ‘ conference in order to articulate a climate justice agenda based on ‘real’ solutions as opposed to the CJA, CfCA organized a Reclaim Power action in Copenhagen that aimed at disrupting the participate in the preparation of the actions in Copenhagen (CfCA 2009p; 2009q). Together with CJA network back in 2009 by donating 10,000 pounds for the actions and by sending activists to were republished on the networks’ websites. Moreover, CfCA took an active part in building of the produced CJA, by entitled "What does Climate Justice Mean in E members of the network which indicates the endorsement the by two networks of the statement marked by an “unprecedented level of environmental destruction” (CJC n.d.). As CJC emphasizes, highlights climate change as an environmental catastrophe “killing 300,000 people a year” and environmental and social jus from various angles, in general their usage of the term suggests a fusion of two concepts: While the subsequent empirical chapters analyze grassroots discourse climate on justice in 4.2 and "a total systemic transformation of our society" (CJA n.d.) movement for climate justice that encourages urgent action to avoid catastrophic cli network formed in the run- popularized togr a that the use of the term ‘climate justice’ came to the fore of grassroots discourse. The term was materials this analysis in the for false’ ones proposed by governments and corporations (CfCA 2009k). The emphasis on climate Defining climate justice eat extent throughthe work of the international grassroots network CJA. This up to the Copenhagen summit with a broad goal of building"aglobal tice. The environmental justice idea is reflected in the way CJC dissertation.

- discourse climate on justice, the hence use of their 81

urope". This and other statements .

Both CfCA and RT became ame of the new network, mate change" mate - depth depth CEU eTD Collection many activists felt strongly about climate change being so "to a Michele activist As ‘climate justice’all? at understanding of climate justice that the networks display is: is why it necessary to havethe term justice ‘under one banner’ (Sydney pers.comm.).The question that arise CfCA, RT’s understanding of climate justicepremised is onbringing in environmental and social statements 2011b).to 2002a; (RT Similarly climate articulated justice RT’s political in was explicitly what true solutions should be like, according to their own assessment (RT 2011a). The concept of early 2000's, the first days of its existence, which played a key role in fostering the understanding of (CfCA 2008b). For example, RT network is displeased when they are referred to as environmental environmental as to referred are they when displeased is network RT example, For 2008b). (CfCA NGOs and media would position it, and expressed a desire to take it'out of the environmental box' As noted in the previous section, the RT network has been using the following quote consider fromformulated, the CJC ‘About Us’ statement: in economic and social relations. To illustrate how such an understanding of climate justice is to the ‘systemic’ issues: a disregard of the needs of people and the domination of growth and profit change should take responsibility for stopping it”(CJC 2012b). not cause it in the first place, hence “climate justice means that those who have caused climate p imed at showing the connection between the environment and social justice but also in the attempt eople severely affected by these environmental consequences of climate change are those who did

get away from climate change being just an environmental opposed to the genuine needs of people and our planet (CJC n.d.). based on the 'needs' of the market, private profit and endless economic growth, as we see both climate change and pover believe that climate change is merely a result of misguided energy policies. Instead, To us, climate justice means both environmental and social justice.do We not

explained, introducing a new term into the discourse was a conscious move that

ty as being rooted in the economic system 82

much much issue" (Michele

The social justice component relates not

the term ‘climate justice’ since the

about the environment, as most s in the light of this shared

pers.comm.). pers.comm.).

In fact, fact, In CEU eTD Collection networks to highlight the socio - Thus, such emphasis on the social justice aspect of climate change points to the desire of grassroots justice is insepar separated from,and treated in isolation from,other the crises facing humanity...The fight for climate CfCA declared that “We don't believe, as many environmentalists do, that the climate crisis can be similar Along 2005c). just lines, the (RT transformation before environment" into a new network, the of as well as justice social of issue an is change climate that say to great pains at is and similar, or group in the media be reveal this how discourse is constructed and what the tension climate change has been articulated in the dominant discourse. The empirical chapters that follow some extent from the scientific, binary (North/South), technical and economic terms in which able from the fight from for the able justice” social (CfCA 2010m). cause" cause" the group always describes itself as a 'climate justice direct action group' political causes and implications of climate change and abstract it and abstract change of climate and implications causes political 83

are. involved s

to to CEU eTD Collection discu the examination of its dialectical relationship with the dominant discourse as reflected in networks’ This chapter traces the formation of grassroots’discourse onclimate justice diachronically through 5 contributes to the creation of a post scienti quantitative variations ona predetermined identity”. Thus, carbon consensus is a result of placing characterized by “the exclusion of real difference, and the reduction of contestation to nothing but consensus carbon that 2012) Russell 2010; and so on) as predicated the by wealth of scientific data.In fact, it suggested is (Pusey and Russell fixation on the symptoms (CO2 emissions) and technocratic solutions (renewables, geo- elimination of any contestation over the true systemic causes of the climate chan these scholars is reflected in the formation of so antagonistic discourse influencedthese by post been have UK the in networks grassroots climate that argued have who 2012) Russell 2010; Russell discourse. This argument challenges the claims of some schol that grassroots’ discourse has oscillated between reproduction of and resistance to the dominant discourse as post The findings discussed in this chapter however suggest that the characterization of grassroots’ construction of apocalyptic imagery, populism and the individualization of blame for the emissions.

Locked in carbon consensus? rsive framing of actions. By engaging the theoretical lens of the post fic discourse at the centre of the problem that allows de - political risks ignoring significant evidence that reveals the contestation of the

on climate change. The post - political perspectives to the extent that they have failed to produce an - political space (Ibid.). It is also accompanied by the

is version a modified theof liberal consensus 84

- called ‘carbon consensus’ that can be defined as

- politicization of politicization of climate networks argued by et al. et ars (Schlembach - politicization of the issue the and of politicization - politics, it is argued here

2012; Pusey and and Pusey 2012; ge problemand engineering CEU eTD Collection 2008 Kingsnorth, at Camp 2007 Heathrow,Camp at 2006 Power,Reclaim Drax; Camp at Title Action urgent in as such modifiers, various by accompanied oriented group (CfCA2009b).Indeed, the word ‘action’ is used nine times in that statement name full its in emphasized as (and statement emission targets and apocalyptic imageryearly in the actions of CfCA Given the central role of action in grassroots’ identity and discourse, this section examines the use of 5.1 networks, this chapter sheds light onthe intricacy of grassroots discourse onclimate politics. as well as the internal discussions over the direction of the discourse and the political positions of the dominant discourse. By examini Table 1 2011. in CfCA of out grew that newly formed networked 2006. It also includes the most recent actions undertaken Climate by Justice Collective (CJC), the Table 1 lists all major actions thatCfCA has undertaken or participated in since the day of its birth in a is practical scale, the matter way no of ‘doing action, something’. direct in part Taking 2009b). perspective, is a direct response to the “empty government rhetoric and corporate spin” (CfCA achieve the broader goal of stopping climate change. Taking action for climate change, from CfCA’s documents, conversations and practices, marking it both as a goal of their activity and tactics to

Emission targets and apocalyptic imagery and . Chronology of CfCA Actions CfCA of Chronology .

group group

action. The concept of action in its various forms permeatesCfCAs’ discussions,

coal plant by E ON plantcoal Heathrow ON byat E Stopping of construction new a growth of jets use inprivate the building fighting of third runway; a Helping residents stop the local polluter. major a CO2is emitter and Shutting down power a that station Goal

ng theng messaging, visuals, context and targetsgrassroots’ of action,

dividual 85 –

Camp for Climate Action), CfCA is an action an is CfCA Action), Climate for Camp

and and there is” “No “Coal new thefuel coal!”, is dirtiest to plans expandits airports” rhetoric on change climate stopping and contradiction between the government’s “highlight expansion!”, airport “Stop “CleanEurope”; energy right now!” “D slogans and messages Key

rax is the is biggestrax carbon emitterin collective

action, . According to the ‘mission’ mass

action,

direct

action, -

CEU eTD Collection 2010 shame, of fortnight Bp 2009 Copenha 2009 Swoop Ratcliffe, at ClimateGreat 2009Factory Occupying Vestas 2009 London, 6 Blackheath 2009 in the city,G20 2008 RBS, 2010 f.off, e.on

gen,

coal new of construction Opposing institutions part ofinstitutions part capitalist sys financial and banks Opposing Justice People’sit to Summit a for Climate Taking UNtalks over to transform Op managementworkers into public ownership, under Demanding Vestas taking factories emissions responsible for rising continuously thecaused economic recessionis disastrousthe same reasoning that change; demonstratingclimate how to solutions false Challenging economicand system power coal and stations:political change, climate airport expansion Targeting Keeping out of BP sands the tar posing coal posing - fired power stations

the underlying of cause - fired power stations

86 tem

wind- workers, Investinstate all in developing Occupation. SaveGreen Jobs,” Re- “Vestas Workers “tar capitalism”; sands oilbloody is oil” is“capitalism crisis”; “more nature –less doesn’t“Nature do bailouts”, CO2reduce now!” carbon, about get real get the science, change “social war”; change not climate earth “economicgrowth consuming is the doesn’t“Nature do bailouts”, emissions”.overall efforts maketo reduce wemay our decades to undermining come, other any - multi “Building Kingsnorth us would lock into species tospecies survive we need to move Enbridge pipeline; In order our for respectRBS indigenous rights no peopledon’t land steal s for biomass; use ourcashRBS to chaos; fund climate “No no new sands extraction”; coal, tar changeclimate chaos/the quickest routeto runaway project on pipeline earth/a to climate the singlecrime; mostdestructive Canadiantar sands sponsors BP oil blood Stop tar sands tar Shell’s hell; sands oil is our own future” ones”;their false “to power reclaim over justice,climate of real solutions against of agenda an below, from agenda an the use to talk space ouragenda,about false solutions!” disrupt the sessions and nomore as usual, business more “No “System change, not change”, climate kills is crisis bloc;Capitalism “climate change Off Retool plant to the produce Vestas for to stop burning it!” burning stop to have we survive To coal. burning than donehas more to climate cause change “Nothing change”; climate not change - - Shore Wind Generation shut downshut Ratcliffe “; “social - power in Britain reduce CO2”; reduce “capitalism means million carbon for emissions ”; “G20 aims for human survival:

Solidarity in

– global climate

climate chaos; climate

CEU eTD Collection (G20 in the City, Blackheath, Vestas) or international issues (COP issues international or Vestas) Blackheath, City, the (G20 in fossil fuel industry or CO2 emissions of large enterprises in the UK focused economicon actors that generate huge amount of CO on interrupting operations of power stations, airports, oil refineries or oil companies, i.e. enterprises As faras targetsare concerned, Table 1 demonstrates that bit a more than half of all actions focused about cl scientific sources, or employing apocalyptic metaphors and/or imagery to communicate a message the use of various emission targets, reference to tipping points and temperature thresholds as set by arguments and prescriptions regarding climate ch to what extent the justification of their demands involves reference to or reliance on scientific networks, as reflected in messaging and identification of goals and targets, have been formulated and from the same sources as the goals. The aim of this table was to see how the demands of gra ofcommunications activists (email lists, media social and/or interviews). key messages The originate explicitly identified in the press releases and action materials, they or were extracted fromthe internal Each action had a specific goal and messages that were included in the table. The goals were either Bash, May 2012 The Big SixEnergy 2010 Crude awakening, economic system”, “world’s governments” and “capitalism” were ‘opposed’ through the direct could be disrupted. However, along with physical and actors, “political as such targets ab stract infrastructures, i.e. targetedactors that a had physical presence in the UK and whose operations Goal sands). tar Canadian

imate change. change. imate

energy companies; biggest of six CEO’s Disrupting Stopping oil industry - wise, actions mostlyaimed at‘shutting down’‘stopping’ or particular 2 emissions. Targets that did not have a direct link with either the

87 ange. The indicators of these in the analysis was

“energy democracy” “People profit”, not justice”, “climate chaos climate a chancehave of avoiding catastrophic If wedon’t on move from wedon’t oil, transforming relations. social human beyond by radical capitalism

- 15 meeting in Copenhagen

ssroots , CEU eTD Collection (CfCA 2006a) . 2006a) (CfCA parts of the world, the extinction of the polar bear, and most worrying of all runaway climate chaos” this point include the Greenland ice sheet collapsing and sea levels rising, water shortages in many we will have emitted enough C02to cross the dreaded 2 21 million tons of carbon released by Drax each year. If we carry at on this rate in the next few years “As Drax shareholders rake shareholders Drax “As emissions have on climate worldwide was important: less CO2 than Drax does, so it is a major polluter” (CineRebelde n.d.). Also, the effect these is the biggest em chosen as a target due to its emissions profile, as the following quote illustrates: “Drax power station The first ClimateCamp took place at Drax power station in 2006. The power station was primarily Station Power Action at for Drax Climate Camp discussion of selected key actions will be presented in this and other sections of this chapter. in detail. Due to the number of actions undertaken and space limitation of this dissertation, a snapshot of actions and general discursive trends started to become apparent in grassroots’ actions. Given that the table format can only providea discussed later in this chapter, the year 2009 is thus significant for these discursive changes that ‘systemic’ changes, ‘climate justice’‘reclaiming and power’ had appeared since 2009. be it As will messaging: along with slogansthat mention CO2 reductions, number a of slogans focusingon physical targets had been actions. Italso is notable that these abstract targets started to appear from the year2009, whereas

itter of CO2 in the UK. There are hundreds of countries in the world that produce

present throughout existence the of CfCA. This is alsoreflected in the

in the profits, the rest of us tremble as we wake up to the effects of the

, it is necessary to examine these actions and trends 88

- degree temperature th reshold. Predictions at

CEU eTD Collection CFCA (2006d) CFCA Source: indicators of scientific rhetoric are the references to a 2 over the regarding 2012) Russell 2010; This quote epitomizes the argument advanced Swyngedouw by (2013) others and (Pusey and Russell Fig. 1 Fig. used in the promotional flyer of the Drax CfCA. supported visually (Fig.1. below) through the image of a power station half submerged in the sea apocal The ‘chaos’. and ‘shortages’, ‘collapsing’, ‘runaway’, ‘worrying’, ‘dreaded’, use of verbs, nouns and adjectivesassociated with fear, destruction and lack of control: ‘tremble’, sources of such predictions. T employed to point out sea levels rising, extinctions of polar bears and so on, implies scientific There is direct no references to scientists in the last sentence, however the word ‘predictions’ sentence, the blame is shared between everyone, as the use of ‘we’ i profit from their investment in the power station are differentiated from ‘the rest of us’ in the first part in their production and thus is responsible for the emissions. Even though ‘shareholders’ who danger, the use of the personal pronoun ‘we’ in relations to the emissions implies that everyone takes estimation of carbon emitted (21 million tons). While carbon is positioned as the source of potential . Drax CfCA Flyer CfCA Drax .

. he apocalyptiche imagery of climate change is rendered here through the - reliance on scientific arguments and apocalyptic imagery. The

- degree temperaturethreshold and an n then next sentence indicates. yptic imageryyptic is also CEU eTD Collection has a double meaning: onthe one hand, it iscoal a system”.In the final sentence of the second quote the use of the pronoun ‘it’ in “by challenging it”, o strong necessity co profit and power (together with fossil fuels) of the economy are contrasted with sustainability and the current system. In the quote that follows additional feature of commitment) to ‘humanize’ the economy, i.e. putting societalvalues before economic ones, unlike solutions. Such decoupling serves to highlight the commitment (the verb ‘will’ indicates a high degree over co and sustainability - to change has which asystem of part alarge “Drax is from each other, with one relying on fossil fuels and the other In the first quote, economy and society are treated as two separate entities functioning independently based on co- “Is our future to war, be famine, hurricanes, droughts and floods? Or can we create a societynew 2006b). fossil fuels and towards a society based co on P “Reclaim quotes: power and politics and the need for radical systemic changes. Consider for example the following paved the way for what became their focus in a later stage relating climate change to the issues of wider effects than merely a reduction in the emissions. The first statements produced theby network beginning (i.e. since 2006 the when network was formed) CfCA made it clear that was it after much However, even though the emissions argument dominated the justification of actions, from the very - operation (and local solutions) of the society. The use of the modal verb “have to” signals the

ower is a day where people will take action to move away from an economy based on operation and local solutions, a new world in the ruins of the old?” (Ibid.). f the change which is based on the statement that Drax is “a large part of the - operation. By challenging it, we challenge our whole way of life” (CfCA - operation and local solutions”. 90

- fired power station that is challenged, onthe

system where profit and power are value – s of the two entities are highlighted: on cooperation of people and local

d CEU eTD Collection there a larger source of CO2 emissions. Most countries emit less greenhouse gases climate change, already accounting for 13 per cent of UK emissions” and “Nowhere in the UK is ma other targeted carbon emissions and their disastrous consequences continued in the actions following Drax that demands targeted at the links between climate change and the economic system. The evocation of CfCA remained a contested space where the s organization. As noted by Schlembach (2011) and Schlembach al. et apocalyptic scenarios were dominant, they were accompanied a by critique of current societal Thus, the analysis of the action against Drax power station reveals that a attainability of such a world and emphasizes people’s contribution to its creation. Modality expressed in the verb ‘can’ and reinforced by personal pronoun ‘we’ helps support the through the strong commitment to truth by means of a modality marker ‘can’ ( the structure of the second sentence is meant to provid ‘co droug In the last quote scientifically predicted consequences of climate change, such as hurricanes, the proposed direct action. other hand, it is the whole system based on power, profit and fossil fuels that is challenged through symptoms, science and solutions to climate change”. According to this document, climate change perspecti its out laid complex ones emphasizing the need for the overhaul of society. For example, already in 2007 CfCA However, just as it was in the case of Drax camp, these arguments were accompanied by other, more 2007d). (CfCA planes” - operation’ and ‘local solutions’ is asserted. Both sentences are interrogative but the position and hts and floods, are attached to the ‘old world’, while the possibility of a ‘new world’ based on jor polluters, such Heathrow airport: ves science on and climate change in a document entitled “Our views the on

cientific arguments coexisted with more radical

e an answer to the first one. This is achieved “Aviation is the fastest growing cause of (2012), throughout its history history its throughout (2012), lthough scientific and

Fairclough 2003 Fairclough

than Heathrow's ) . CEU eTD Collection emissio apocalyptic rhetoric is the phrase ‘We have less than 10 yearsto radically reduce our carbon which emphasizes the optimistic message expressed in the flyer. The only trace of previous u colors the 2), (fig. flyer first the of the ‘time to act is now’ is used in the last sentence. In contrast with the bleak grey and white colors involved, implying that changes indeed come from everyone’s direct participation, the hence slogan of men and women manually setting up the turbines represent collective action in which pulling wind disconnecting from the ‘old world’ optimistic message to convey. A group of people on the left are pulling a plug to symbolize grim picture of a flooded power station devoid of human presence, the 2007 flyer had a more abo fig.1. with (compare flyer year’s previous the unlike imagery, time) situation. The flyer advertising CfCA in 2007 (see fig. 2. below) did not have the apocalyptic how disc Despite such a cautious approach exhibited in the early stages of CfCA’s activism, the changes in ‘enemy’ that the network seeks to confront. opposed to “dignity for all”. Such obfuscation reveals cautiousness a towards naming explicitly the “world” in this quote obfuscates the agent who pursues extraction of profit and economic growt all” (CfCA 2007a). geared towards the extraction of profit, for action), social aspect had an implicit critique of current societal organization: aspect was articulated in the scientific terms (global average temperature increases and timeframes has two aspects that are important for activists: environmental and social. While the environmental ns to avoid catastrophic climate change’ at the center of the flyer. However,the catastrophic ourse was framed could detected be in the visual representations of the current (at that - turbines in, suggesting that the ‘new world’ is powered renewableby energy. Silhouettes The use of the passive voice (the world is geared) together with the generic term

associated with consumption of energy and those on the right are sed in the 2007 flyer are vivid blue, green and a bit of yellow yellow of bit a and green blue, vivid are 2007 flyer the in sed and increasing economic growth, and not lives of dignity for 92

ve). While the 2006 flyer portrayed a portrayed 2006 flyer the While ve).

“The world is is world “The everyone is h as as h CEU eTD Collection follow, the scient of the phenomenon and the scale of the threat that it represents. As seen from the quotes that change used by grassroots is that there is a scientific consensus regardingthe human induced nature al et Schlembach 2012; (Russell discourse grassroots’ extensive use of scientific rhetoric. This feature, according to some critics, is also characteristic of t Besides ( Source: 2 Fig. affirmative and constructivevision rather than a bleak scenario. representation is totally absent from the picture, making the overall message sound like an actions of CfCA. discourse focused on the broader causes and effects of climate change were already discernible in the discourse cli on reduction targets and apocalyptic imagery reproduced the themes and framing of the dominant Overall, it has been argued in this section that in the early stages of climate activism emission 5.1.1 . Heathrow CfCA F CfCA Heathrow .

Shroomstudio n.d. he emissions targets and apocalyptic imagery, the dominant discourse is linked to the “We are armed…only with peer armed…only with are “We mate change. At the same time, it has been shown that the signs of a counter ific consensus means for them the agreement of a large number of scientists that lyer )

- reviewed science” science” reviewed . 2012). The basic argument about climate climate about argument basic The . 2012).

- CEU eTD Collection action and not to be taken for extremists but also to attract new people into the movement, people process”(Ibid.). As these quotes demonstrate, scientific rhetoric is used not onl who signed postcards and petitions for Copenhagen, only to be let down by the whole sorry expanding our The other CfCA activi extremists. (CfCA2010h). The activists thus seek legitimacy from science in order not to labeled be as give confidence in what we are doing and deflect any accusations online discussion forum that “ justification for action based on‘facts’. By the same token, one CfCA activists suggested onthe unassailable scientific fact” (pers.comm.). This quote suggests that science provides a rational credible, it’s authoritative, it’s emotional the rambling not of the environmentalists, it’s factual, totally the reasons why grassroots use scientific rhetoric vary. In the w While the urgency and legitimacy of actions is reinforced theby back activists and the articulations are in line with the dominant discourse. Clearly, by emphasizing the weight of scientific opinion, the need for action is atmosphere behaves. The only area of debate is how serious the impacts are likely to be” (RT 2001b). that the changes we are 1,500by prize scientists winners” including 110Nobel 2001a) (RT “It fact and is absolute scientific and impacts. Scientific organizations have produced repeated calls for action- “So everyone agrees there is a huge problem. There are 2,000 climate sc emissions: the causes of climate change are anthropocentric and are the direct result of greenhouse gas

movement movement st added that “s that added st

making to the concentrations of different gases will affect the way the -

for example, by helping to draw in andthen radicalise the quiet millions It seems important to set up a sound scientific basis for actions. It will cientific credibility would also givemuch us a better chance of 94

ords of Rebecca, “…it’s [science is]

of irresponsibility or extremism” - up of an objective authority, ientists studying the causes one in 1997 was signed signed 1997 was in one y toy legitimize an justified the by CEU eTD Collection this one: not homogeneous but contested. This proposal generated objecti quotes below, and never actually adopted by the network, suggests that the strategy within CfCA was awareness of the downside of over Furthermore, despite extensive use of this rhetoric in earlier actions, activists demonstrate an apolitical type of action and relates the use of scientific targets to the process of de As it can seenbe from the quote, the activist makes a clear distinction between a political and 2010 behalf of a climate camper could be interpreted as a ‘scientization’ of climate change ( objects own emission reduction targets based onthe available science and shut down any infrastructural debated in CfCA in the online discussion forum. Certain activists advocated for CfCA to develop its grassroots rather than attempts to comply with science se per prescriptions regarding climate chang werewho disappointed the by failures of climate negotiations but firmly convinced the by scientific legitimized through science: This response was supported by another activist who disagreed that the networks’ actions should be causes systemic mask the to aims ) , the fact that the proposal was challenged by other activists, as it will be demonstrated in

confines of the existing system - targets, however drastic, suggest that we demand 'x%' adaptation within the …targets shouldn't numerical, be '10% this or 90% that'. Accepting these numerical 2010i) 'apolitical' demand open to appropriation by business and governme that are driving crisis. this solution, former latter the is an The is a political and then demand a complete overhaul of the social and productive relationships science indicates a morbid direction for our ecosystem, a adaptation will resolve the crisis.It would be preferable to recognize that most is that if it is the system that is ultimately responsible, then no percentage of that violate these targets through direct action (CfCA 2010i). Although such a proposal on

of the crisis. crisis. the of - e. Such arguments point to the instrumental use of science for relyin

is 40% less bad!". Yet the reality reality the Yet bad!". "if only capitalism less 40% is g on science. The question of emissions targets was 95

( Schlembach nd the scale of the crisis, ons from other campers, such as et al. et 2012 nt (CfCA (CfCA nt - politicization that ) .

Bowman Bowman CEU eTD Collection can implicitly encourage green authoritarian solutions external sources. For instance, John Archer from Shift magazine warned that using science too much In internal to addition critique the of overreliance on scientific discourse, criticism from came also uncritical reproduction of scientific rhetoric within the networks wa corporations. Such a critical attitude of the science of climate change supports the argument that interests into research agenda and researchers’ potential dependence on governments or distinguished between “good” and “bad” science and challenged the penetration of corporate asscience the main justification targets and related scientific prescrip (CfCA 2007b). This example suggests that from the very beginning, despite the use of emission research institutions, and the close ties between researchers, universities and the fossil fuel industry science in the UK, such as provision of expertise for military purposes, eliti Response Scientific State’s British this argument is the briefi been present in grassroots’ discourse since the first years of climate activism. A good illustration of that threw a shadow of doubt over the IPCC scientists, a critical attitude scientists and science to has scientific discourse surfaced in 2010 after the email hacking scandal at the Univer naturally not everyone agreed with it in the network. Moreover, while internal criticism of the use of put forwar and discussed contested within grassroots networks and the need for politicization of the issue was indeed These examples illustrate thatthe scientific framing of the climate problem was challenged and and the effects it has o has it effects the and which I mean armed with an analysis of this society, the way it is run, who benefits come armed with more than peer reviewed science.... or at least we should be! By clearly it isn't. Justifying our actions in this way also has a depoliticizing effect. This reinforces the myth that science is some unarguable and neutral force, when ng paper produced by climate campers in 2007, entitled d (through making more explicit messages in the actions), even though . This paper sought to expose some controversial aspects of climate n the

for climate action. Grassroots action. climate for rest of us and the planet tions in the actions, grassroots networks did not blindly rely on 96

from the state, such as personal carbon (CfCA 2010i). 2010i). (CfCA

critiques show that they actually actually they that show critiques s always contested and resisted.

sm keysm climate of sity of East Anglia Climate Change: The The Change: Climate

We We CEU eTD Collection Table 2 source of scientific evidence. scandal, the IPCC as an institution and the reports that it produced remain legitimate and reliable the lay public, including the expected impacts of climate change. Even in light of the email hacking scale of climate change was doubted. This report is used to explain the basics of climate science to allowed activists to speak about “scientific consen the scale of research, the activists use it as the mainstay of the scientific arguments. The IPCCreport amount of media and public attention that the IPCC received thanks to the Nobel Peace Prize and report thatused is the as mainreference point regarding the science of climate change. Given the another with the science of climate change. First of all,unsurprisingly, itthe is IPCC assessment grass (by cited commonly most lists So what expert or scientific sources do grassroots use when speaking about climate change? Table 2 studies are being cited greenhouse effect the and Change Climate Economics of Climate Change The the Living within UK for airimplications traffic carbon emissions and the Contraction & Convergence: UK Change Avoiding Dangerous Climate report assessment Synthesis Name 2007 rationingquotas instance,for instead of dealing with the systemic causes of climate change (

Stern Review theon ) . Archer also Archer .

. Documents Used as Scientific/Expert E Scientific/Expert as Used Documents .

report of IPCC 4th 4th IPCC of report

Carbon Budget

noted that “ that noted ” (Ibid.: n.p.). (Ibid.: ”

it is rarely considered necessary to know which scientists and which

roots networks) documents or reports that deal in one way or Research Hadley Center for Climate Prediction and SternNicolas Tyndall Center Tyndall Center Book based onSymposium proceedings IPCC Author/Organization

97 sus”, especially in situations where the existence or

vidence

2005 2006 2006 2006 2006 2007 Year

Archer Archer CEU eTD Collection 3). (Fig. 2007 in Heathrow at march a during carrying Contraction Another example of using a policy document as a scientific reference is the Tyndall Center report was quite handy for the activists campaigning against building a new runway. aviatio current the that argues the amount of reduction than any other scientific sources thus far. At the same time, the report in further goes and 2050) by (90% needed reduction emissions drastic for argues report the that fact referenced Change in the CfCAClimate documentof Science The techno obviously run counter t be developed into an “economy to be brought under carbon a tax or an emissions trading scheme, the latter one is even envisaged to analysis undertaken. To highlight some points of the report, a Such formulation of the objective of this policy report clearly demonstrates the direction of the grow and people to maintain examining whether “it is possible to live within a carbon budget whilst allowing the economy to and funded by the Friends of the Earth and the Cooperative Bank, stemmed from the goal of others, is referenced in the links of the climate science se Change Research in the UK. Namely, theirreport entitled Living Budget the within Carbon The second most trusted scientific source for grassroots seems to the be Tyndall Center for Climate - fixes in chapter 7) but the report is nevertheless used as a source of scientific evidence (it is and Convergence: UK Carbon emissions and the Implications for UK Air Traffic Air UK for Implications the and emissions Carbon UK Convergence: and o grassroots’ ideas about solutions to the climate crisis (see the section on n growth is unsustainable which at the time of the Heathrow campaign high qualityhigh dissimilar not lifestyles today’s” to ( - wide personal carbon trading scheme” (Ibid.). Such conclusions 98

ction (Ibid.). This report, commissioned ll sectors of the economy are required ). The reaso The ). n for this is possibly the

Bows

that activists were

et al. et

2006b: 7) 2006b: , among among , . CEU eTD Collection misleading message onthe banner (Fig.above), 3 CfCA was in fact advocating political a option slogans, such as “Stop Airport Expansion” (Heathrow campaign). Therefore, despite a somewhat most with activists was the recommendation of curbing airport expansion as it echoed their own passenger load factors to 90% through integrated ticketing arrangements stopping airport expansion or find an appropriate technical solution, for example, increasing recommendation of the report, the UK government should either make a political decision of reduce the industry’s emissions carbon balance growth in acti “ this report (Ibid.). To be more specific, one key message of the report was to demonstrate that this document climate campers implicitly were supporting a the UK’s carbon emissions targets in relation to the acknowledged model. This means that by using The report, although based on scientific predictions, is a policy document (Archer 2007) evaluating Photo credit: Kristian Buus 3 Fig. Aviation growth must curbed be until sufficient steps are taken to ensure fuel efficiency . CfCA Protesters at 2007 Heathrow C Heathrow 2007 at Protesters CfCA . vity, until or there is widespread use of alternative fuels that

” ( Bows amp 99

et al. et

2006a: 2 2006a:

certain political solution advocated in in advocated solution certain political ) . Thus,. in accordance with the . Apparently,. what resonated

significantly significantly

gains gains

CEU eTD Collection with science was science with a itself, goal in not as Schlembach which turned out to be supported by a leading research center. From this perspective, compliance the society ( the workshops because they advocated for lobbying the government rather than radical a overhaulof challenged state solutions in any form, the network has Furthermore, given that CfCA from the very beginning subscribed to the anarchist principles that dominant discourse. we added that tool articulated organizations Center Tyndall like by the Climate for Change, are timely as also they fit the (Schlembach of their claims, rather than as having a goal of complying with science, as some critiques have argued scie their expertise and proper credentials. However, this mismatch actually shows that the reference to climate change and their choice of experts who are supposed to back this dataup with the weight of Apparently, there is an obvious mismatch betwe supported by hard data and people who have a certain authority among the general public. scientists, the activists seek to demonstrate that their arguments cannot be rejected because they are What this engagement of prominent public figures suggests is that, just like referring when to with do to scientificNASA, reality the se in nothing per field have campaigned on (Schlembach (Schlembach on campaigned Hansen or Al Gore, has been regarded as having a de journalists Mark Lynas and George Monbiot, and “particular intellectual figureheads”, such as James nce is done for emotive, attention- Charsley 2010 Charsley et al. et

ight to their essentially political demands, even though it largely reproduced the 2012). In addition, as I have demonst I have as addition, In 2012). ) . The inclusions of speakers such as environmental commentators and al. et 2012). These figureheads, except perhaps for James Hansen from from Hansen James for perhaps except figureheads, These 2012). grabbing purposes and as a way of emphasizing the credibility 100

en activists’en reliance on ‘hard’ scientific data on

et al. et - politicizing politicizing effect issues on the th

been criticizedbeen for the choice of speakers at

(2012 rated above, the scientific arguments ) .

argue, but a convenient and timely at campers at campers CEU eTD Collection that there that reduce emissions nomatter the amount revealsthe reproduction of the dominant science was important for activists, even though the am It is obvious from thisquote that the actualreduction of emissions from a coal coal from growing in the all over the world, every hour thou reasons why action and consequently, its discursive framing. For instance, Michelle noted that for the analysis because itthrows light onthe factor It is argued in this section that the socio- i context of criticism and demands thatgrassroots put forward in their actions. This brings usthe to importance reason for tar discourse that fixated on carbon emissions. On the other hand, as Michelle indicated, the pragmatic against coal, it is necessary also to consider the broader context in which climate activism operated. grassroots’ discourse. While this example sheds light onthe national context at the time of actions that contextual factors did play a role in the choice of targets for the direct action and thus affected that the activist referred to pending governmental decision as a justification power stations which at the time of the campaign was on the agenda of the government. The fact 5.1.2 g ht ht

that we wanted to stop emissions right because then people are dying from climate change Context ofContext actions polluters against ’ s gonna be resistance to it if they do n the discourse which is discussed in the next section. climate campers tried to stop operation of a coal geting coal was discouraging the investment and stopping the renewal of coal

[ and wanting to discourage RWE in i ], andthen the ], other... side of things was kind of wanting to stop new political action an which context takes in is meaningful place ” (Michele 101

ount reduced was not significant. This driveto

s that determined the choice of targetsthe for

pers.comm.). pers.comm.). - fired power plant:

nvesting in new coal and showing for the action suggests - fired power station there were various

“A t the time we time t the - driven driven - fired fired CEU eTD Collection

Table 3 predictions and apocalyptic imagery as part of the justification for taking action. related discursive events and texts that app a number of extreme weather events worldwide. Table 3 below gives a snapshot of key climate given to the IPCC and Al Gore; and key statements political by leaders on climate change, as well as of climate change, including Truth the release of Al Gore’s Inconvenient The 2006 2005 2004 Year publishing of the 4 2006 years the all, of First 2008 apocalyptic terms and made use of the scientific evidence to justify this p 1980’s 1980’s peak of climate activism in the UK, whereas climate change has been theon public agenda since t national scenes. Naturally, the table presents only a fraction of discursive events that occurred at the ( Boykoff 2008 Boykoff

; Risbey 2008 Risbey solution to climate change to solution Nuclear power promotes Review Energy UK Government Change”; Climate of Economics the on “Stern Review statement) Academies’ Change (Sciences Climateto and Responding Understanding effect Protocol takes Kyoto Earth) the of (Friends Draft Climate Bill Change Fear Crichton) (M. of State Robinson) (K. Rain of Forty Signs and Decisions Publications ( . Boykoff Key Climate Key ;

Doulton and Brown 2009 et al. et th ) . It is then nosurprising that grassroots networks relied heavily on scientific

IPCC Assessment Report in 2007; a number of films and books on the dangers

- related Events and D 2009

- 2008 an saw unprecedented amount of media coverage climate on change as as )

. These. events and texts portrayed climate change in alarmistand

COP 12 meeting meeting 12 COP agenda the on Change Climate Gleaneagles, in G8 meeting formed Durban Conference Change Climate Bonn Aires Buenos in meeting COP10 and Meetings Conferences

;

Group for Climate Justice Justice Climate forGroup eared in the years 2006 years the in eared Hulme 2008 Hulme ecisions 102

)

as keyas climate related events unfolded:

- Camp for Climate Action Action Climate Camp for Government) UK (UK the in Announced Law New Climate (documentary); “An change) climate on campaigning (grassroots established network Stupid UK Plane Earth) the of (Friends Campaign Big Ask (film) Tomorrow After Day The Campaigns and Events 2011 onthe international and Inconvenient Truth” Truth” Inconvenient

articular rhetoric ( rhetoric articular ; the ;

Nobel Peace Prize

Hulme Hulme

he he - CEU eTD Collection 2009 2008 2007

and Rajan) and Fawcett (Hillman, Catastrophe Climate Global Prevent to How Planet: The Suicidal Global Climate Change Impacts Impacts Change Climate Global Change) Climate on Panel International (Nongovernmental Report Reconsidered Change Climate Hulme) (M. Opportunity and Inaction Controversy, Understanding Change: Climate About Disagree Why We cc to a solution as nuclear positions Power Nuclear Paper on White Act Change Climate UK climate change fear points tipping scientists With Lomborg) (B. Warming Global to Guide Environmentalist's The Skeptical Cool It: Hotter Planet (M. Lynas) onaFuture Degrees: Our Six Government) Draft Climate Bill Change (UK 4 IPCC al) et Change (Buckland Burning Ice Act Energy Sustainable and Change Climate UK Back – Fighting is Earth Why the Gaia: The of Revenge (J. Lovelock) (J. Save Can we Still How Humanity

speed and violence: why why and violence: speed th

Assessment Report ;

Art and ClimateArt and

(F. Pearce)

and

in in

prior to COP15 meeting COP15 to prior formed Action Justice Climate Geneva Conference Climate World Copenhagen in UNFCC the of 15 COP Poland Poznan, in meeting COP14 meeting COP13 during founded Now! Justice Climate Bali meeting, COP13

103

- 3 in 3 in

Kingsnorth Power Station Kingsnorth scaled Protesters Greenpeace Service) Ice Canadian by (published Internet the on viral goes bears polar Picture stranded of Exhibition Photo Worlds Drowned (BBC1) Concert Earth Live Swindle” Warming Global “Great “Arct documentary); “The 11 “The Prize; Nobel Peace the win and Al Gore IPCC change climate of danger acknowledges CEO ExxonMobil Established Houses of Parliament to protest protest to Parliament of Houses climbed activists Greenpeace targets reduction Unprecedented BillScotland’s sets Climate controversy UnitClimatic email Research documentary “The 380 ppm to emissions globalin carbon increase states Keeling Projects case station Power Kingsnorth in guilty not found activists Greenpeace time low Arctic ic Tale”; Tale”; ic Age of Stupid” (drama Stupid” of Age

Ice Sheet reached all reached Ice Sheet

Hour” (feature film film (feature Hour”

- animation)

- CEU eTD Collection Greenpeace’s high Namely, more adecade. than for of the Earth and Friends Oxfam Greenpeace, as such organizations Secondly, in the UK national context climate change has been an issue for campaigning 2011 2010 such such Finally, the choice of targets for actions was also affected by political decisions surrounding targets scene. CfCA but were influenced by these actions of other actors on the UK environmental direct action others. Therefore, the focus on coal as well as the discurs six month occupation of an open cast mining site in Scotland by Mainshill Solidarity Camp,among fra which later became the target of CfCA. Other actions against coal included occupation of the Ffos station, power Kingsnorth the of 2007 scaling their for trial faced activists several when coverage pending governmental decisions at the time of anti as planning permissions for several other coal fired power stations and the government’s decision to example E. On’s application for permission to construct well 2006, as in a new plant Kingsnorth in n coal mine construction site by local activists, stopping of a coal freighter by Greenpeace, and a

as Kingsnorth and Heathrow. In the case of coal

point of no return no of point a approaching of warns IEA McKibben) B. by (book Eearth ofSciences) Academy National (US Change Report Climate of Science the Advancing and Wolfe) (Schmidt Science the Picturing Change: Climate in the United States - profile campaign against coa

COP 16 meeting in Cancun in meeting 16 COP Africa South Durban, in meeting 17 COP M of Rights and the Change Climate Peoples’ World other Earth other

l - 104 , Bolivia fired power stations in the UK received wide media

Conference on on Conference -

coal campaigns. Among such decisions were for -

fired power stations there was a number of ive strategies employed were not unique to

Union Speech State in climate change of the of mention no makes Obama (documentary) Change of Climate record on decade warmest reports NASA Guardian) (The Campaign 10:10 (Copenhagen) Justice Climate forMarch ( demonstration The Wave change climate against London)

- y - CEU eTD Collection Consider, for example, how activist Connor O’Brian put it: “So you’ve got large NGOs and the and demonstrate the power of ‘grassroots resistance’, independently from NGOs or scientists. rationale behind this particular discursive framing was the intention to give factors, the these from apart that notable also is it Yet messaging. their framed discursively and aviation industry in the Earth and Greenpeace; and pending governmental decisions concerning the future of coal and the carbon emissions carried out by high- on the international and national scenes; a number of c rhetoric and included several dimensions: a massive surge in climate To sum it up,the context surrounding grassroots’ actions focused oncarbon emitters and scientific airports. at Stansted runway a new next decades 2003 the UK’sgovernment startedrevealing plans for the expansion of air transport capacity in the of actions and stunts by Plane Stupid and Greenpeace, was also linked to the political context: from The opposition to aviation in the UK that involved CfCA at Heathrow in 2007, a introduce carbon capture and storage for coal on effect onsix to eight coal when really coal becomesmoment a major issue.By stopping Kingsnorth we will have a huge knock Radio 2008), “Kingsnorth was picked because it was such a significant target, ‘cause is now the decisions were central. As one of the activists, Connor O’Brian, explained on Climate radio (Climate involvement of other groups was important for gras as Friends of the Earth, Greenpeace, WWF, and grassroots campaigners (Ibid.).Although the These decisions generated a wave of statements,protests and actions by environmental groups such ( Dunn 2006 Dunn UK.All these factors affected the way grassroots networks chose their targets ) . The. plans included the construction of a third runway at Heathrow and - fired power stations that the government is planning to build”.

profile environmental organizations, such as Friends of the - fired power stations ( 105

sroots, the political implications of future ampaigns and actions against sources of - related publications and events BBC 2009

voice to ordinary people ; s well as a number a number as well s Carr ington 2009

) - . CEU eTD Collection Consider, for example, how Margaret puts it: “ it: puts Margaret how example, for Consider, evolved into a focus deeper on causes of the problem, extending beyond particular energy sources. main contributors to climate change through emissions of carbon. This underst sections, were marked by discussions of and opposition to the coal and aviation industries as the significantly as major causes of climate change and the deeper, underlying causes of the climate crisis have What emerged from the interviews with grassroots activists is that their perception of CO2 emissions every and ordinary issue, careabout this largest that or it’s just it’sgrassroots scientists who NGOs not just a shows few other side of the coin when people are engag change As it has been demonstrated in this section, although the explosion of scientific evidence on climate grassroots resistance to these plans” (Climate Radio 2008). w what economic spheres rather than a technical issue of energy production and distribution. the notion of climate change came to be linked to the issues of equity and justice in the political and that give doesn’t have we system the justice, change energ alternative find and fuels role in the discursive framing of actions against carbon emitter of other environmental groups and the intention to empower ordinary people that played a major 5.1.3

[…] I

e are doing is demonstrating to the corporations and government that there is massive did affect CfCA’s discourse, it was also a specific political context, resonance with the focus

From emissions to the systemic emissions to systemic the causes From

just feel the whole system is not an equitable one, not just a matter of energy, there needs to be social social be to needs there energy, of matter a just not one, equitable an not is system whole the feel just changed over the years. The early days of climate activism, as shown in previous - day people who are coming down and say “look, we don’t want it to happen” and y sources but I but sources y . ” (Margaret Smith pers.comm.). It is evident that for Margaret, Margaret, for that evident is It pers.comm.). Smith (Margaret ” think I think moved on to see the whole economic and political system has got to to got has system political and economic whole the see to on moved I

106 think in the beginning I beginning the in think ed in civil disobedience and being purely from

s. s.

thought we had to stop using fossil fossil using stop to had we thought anding gradually gradually anding CEU eTD Collection links between climate change and the economic system that contributes change, such as banks, financial institutions and energy companies. They were chosen to reflect the directed no 1 in section 5.1). Later, however, the targets the and messaging started changing: attacks were most of the actions taken by CfCA. It especially is obvious in the first three years of action (see table years. As illustrated in the section above, CO2 emissio level, i.e. in the way the messaging and targets of the actions taken by CfCA have changed over the This evolution in the understanding of climate change and its causesalso is expressed on the macro the dominant discourse. Financial and economic crises pushed climate change down on the political b then until has that critique in Copenhagen undoubtedly provided an opportunity for grassroots to put forward their systemic financial crisis COP the and Unfolding wasrhetoric central. still longer evident, no albeit d 2009) action (G20 now!” CO2 reduce science, the get carbon, about “Economic growth is consuming the earth- How concerns and issues dealt with in the global arena. actions to targeting the economic system was a pragmatic decision that fully reflected the major the COP discursively marked by two importantglobal events: the G20 meeting in April 2009 in Lond targeting ‘the system’ started at nearly the same period of time – associated with the production of CO2 emissions. If we look at these actions diachronically, the ones economic and political systems, while the rest of the actions were against an industry or actor These later actions aimed at pointing to the root causes of climate change embodied in the current ever, this is not to say that carbon reduction arguments totally disappeared. Slogans such as - 15 meeting in Copenhagen. In light of financial and economic crises, dedicating several t at the CO2 emitters but at the actors were who rather indirectly involved in climate een overshadowed by the emission reduction arguments resonating with

reduce CO2” or “G20 aims for human survival: get real real get survival: human for aims “G20 or CO2” reduce 107

ns reduction was indeed a major thread in

the year 2009 year the to it (CfCA 2010a). 2010a). (CfCA it to emonstrate that scientific scientific that emonstrate - 2010. These years are are years These 2010. - 15 meeting

on and CEU eTD Collection (Schlembach RBS. Despite the fact that some scholars saw this action as mostly affected by scientific rhetoric sands as focus, one and RBS. These four targets were eventually narrowed down to two: coa possible targets was first narrowed down to four,including actions against aviation, coal, BP and tar 6 5 The decision The decision to focus onRBS was taken during national the meeting in Lewes onApril 17 good example to illustrate the point about scientific arguments becoming activists. the secon to dary Edinburgh. The process of deciding onwhere the camp should take place,messaging andtactics a is 2010 CfCA In was conceived and discursively framed. economic system became prominent in grassroots’ discourse,us let consider a how specific action economic system, specifically neoliberal economic policies. To demonstrate how the critique of the change climate linking started climate on campaigning groups time, same at the but agenda behind a spokesperson who communicates directly with other spokes, checking back with his/her group if necessary necessary if group his/her with back checking spokes, other with directly communicates who a spokesperson behind or action reason (not exclusively, though), a possible action aga this For crisis. financial current the to linked was target the that important was it felt activists many senti Resonance with a current situation, as or some activists put it “tapping into strong a public following. scientific discourse se per in the fossil fuels in the very first paragraph, re the targets. Through various exercises, suc exercises, various Through targets.

A variation of a spokes council exercise used t used exercise council a spokes A of variation An exercise and a prioritization tool aimed at revealing the spectrum of opinions in the group for a particular question question particular a for group the in opinions of spectrum the at revealing aimed tool and a prioritization An exercise ment” was one of the criteria for the choice of target (CfCA 2010b).In the times of recession

- et al et making process involved brainstorming and group discussion to identify severalkey

made a decision tomade target Royal Bank of Scotland (RBS) in its headquarters in . 2012) since the document entitled “Why RBS” mentioned the bank’s investment . In fact, the most important aspects that affected the decision were the

h ash ‘temperature check’ o arrive at a consensus in large groups whereby the each group sits sits group each the whereby large groups in at a consensus arriveo

108

inst BP was strongly doubted.Additionally, the asons for this choice have little to do with 5 , fish bowl 6 , and debates, the list of - 18, 2010. 2010. 18,

to theto l and and l

CEU eTD Collection (May 28 (May by the potential target. On the subsequent gatherings in London (May 16, 2010) and Manchester economic, and the disposition of the public rather than on the amount of CO2 emissions produced pragmatic in the sense that they were bas As these examples demonstrate, the factors considered activists by in choosing the target were (Ibid.). targets its to Edinbu considered. For instance, in the case of RBS, its headquarters located in woodland area up in NGOs”2010b). physical targets (CfCAFinally,of availability the organize to was direct action therefore, they were not worth ventu that certain actions, such the as against one and BP tar sands,already were covered NGOs, by space” were important factors in choosing the target. There were a few concerns among the activists good things: health, education” (CfCA 2010b).Furthermore, novelty and “opening up a new political over the misuse of public money because “RBS is funding bad things, taking away your money from interrelat their bring togetherto several issues such as climate justice, fuels, fossil capitalism and demonstrate to Next, the possibility of linking several issues target to the played a role.It stemmed from the desire endorsed. It was decided that “RBS invests in fossil fuels” would the be overarching message that noted to be important for activists because it could “channe with the public, specifically with their indignation with certain issues such as bailing out banks, was there would aviation as opposed to the earlier actions, was highlighted. The absence of such decisions meant that political context, i.e. such as absence of any major pending governmental decisions oncoal or rgh could be a physical target given that CfCA had history a of settingup an actual camp next - 2 9) concrete messages of the upcoming climateagainst camp RBS were discussed and

be no potential victories should the carbon emitters be targeted again. Finally, resonance edness. RBS was such a targetthatwould tie in “workers’ issues”, and allow criticism

ring into:“what can we bring to this that isn't covered by ed on the assessment of the current context – 109

l that discontent” (CfCA 2010b). (CfCA discontent” that l

political, CEU eTD Collection to have an explicit expression of our anti versions was justified by the diverging points of departure: while version 1 “ activists pa working in writing process started in 2010 during the national gathering in Bristol and involved two groups of CfCA’s website that was written in the first year of network’s existence. The political statement issue of climate politics. The goal of the statement was to repla way the network triedto develop a political statement that would lay out their key positions onthe The import economic crisis, austerity and public anger. up various critiques of the current financial and political system while also resonating with the th as activists, for important least the fact in were measures against the background of bank bailouts). Thus, as stated above, the scientific arguments tar sands in Canadathat affect these peoples), misuse of public money and workers’ rights(austerity coal (RBS finances Drax, coal resistance in Scotland), indigenous peoples’ rights (links to financing dismantle capitalism”), radical economics (proposing alternatives to the current financial system), Climate Action 2010c; field notes). These inclu Moreover,a list of related issues, or “subheadings” of the main message, was agreed upon (Camp for (CfCA 2010c) and could be used as “a hook talk to about loads of other stuff” (CfCA2010q). would “encompass everything: RBS covers financial, fossil fuels covers envir adopting one of the versions at subsequent national gatherings proved to be challenging as at regidiscussion Once written and presented at the national gathering in Bristol, both versions were forwarded for readable” building onthe previous statement that had been through the consensus process (Ibid.). 5.1.4

“We just need to break a post a to break need just “We ance ofance non- onal gatherings and posted on the email list and the online forum. The process of rallel on two versions of the statement (CfCA 2010d). The need for two carbon related arguments in the grassroots discoursealso is reflected in the - capitalist politics

ded capitalism (“using the banks as a leverage point to political consensus” -political 110

eir main goal was to have a target that would link link would that atarget have to was goal main eir

”, version 2 sought to be “accessible and ce the ‘What Unites Us’ section section Us’ on Unites ‘What ce the

was founded ona desire onmental” aspect CEU eTD Collection disagreement through consensual process, onthe marking the absence of a unified position on the one hand, and difficulties in overcoming in Bristol (Ibid.).result, As a neither of the versions was adopted as a political statement of CfCA, consensus could not be reached, even though both statements got positive feedbacka break the post regarding the desired content of the statement: “ and ways of working it out. One of the participants active onthe forum made an interesting point On the online forum of the CfCA demonstrating a range of discursive positions articulated within the network. document, the process and discussions surrounding the political statement is meaningful for other posts that breaking the As to the message that the activist who made this comment was getting across, it is evident from his network explicit and “expressing antagonism with capitalism to remain effective” (Ibid.). activists,by signing up to the external statements is a way of ma statement, it is focused on challenging capitalism as the root cause of societal crises. As pointed out state political condition in practice through developing this political statement and signing up to other the ‘carbon consensus’, but even more so of their actual conscious attempt to resist the post medium this in activists’ is indicative of awar people who haven’t articulated that antagonism” (CfCA 2010e). The use of the term “post drafts of the CfCA political statement lies in the fact that they are “ are they in fact the that lies statement political CfCA the of drafts justice agenda” (CfCA 2010e). According to the activist, the difficulty in choosing be climate “a radical express help would that capital” and state with antagonism an “articulating to ments, such as for instance PGA (CfCA2010f). Regarding the content of this external - political consensus and express an antagonism, as well as being accessible enough for post -

political consensus and expressing antagonism refers specifically a few threads were dedicated to the discussion of the statement eness about the discussions in the literature regarding 111 We don’t need to write a manifesto, we just

other. However, despite the failure to finalize this

trying to articulate an intersection intersection an articulate to trying king the political stance of the

t the gathering gathering t the tween the two two the tween

- political”

need to - CEU eTD Collection reproduced in the second version stating that “ “the root cause of the current climatic, social and economic crises”, and the dominant discourse in the f debates over the two statements embody the clash of two discourses: the counter movements fighting the same targets while not specifically concerned with climate (Ibid.).In fact, the f any against a stance indicates state and capital behavior as long as it does not cause climate change (CfCA 2010e). In contrast, the broader focus on signifies adherence to the environmental movement, which in theory might ignore repressive distinction between the two centrisms, as pointed out by some activists, is that the foc The 2010g). (CfCA capitalism?” against or change climate against amovement we “Are gathering: than the other noted that RT activists also took active part in most of those actions, especially the annual week The previous sections of this chapter focused on the actions taken by CfCA counter causes of climate change as havingtwo dimensions, or layers thatrepresent the dominant and one of the discourses thus points to the need to consider grassroots’understanding of the root the activists and were actively negotiated and contested in the network. The that both discourses, i.e. focused on centrality of climate change versus capitalism, were pertinent for ma not did CfCA that fact The species” and calling for emissions reduction to avert the catastrophe (CfCA 2010d). happening, threatening the lives and livelihoods of billions of people and the existence of millions of two of 5.2

C centrisms (climate or capital) without creating a dualism where is one - irst statement that starts with declaring capitalism as “a catastrophe for life on Earth” and Earth” on life for “a as catastrophe capitalism declaring starts with that statement irst discourses at the same time. limate change as a reason to argue forradical a political reform ” ( Ibid.) .

This te This nage to adopt either of the versions of the political statement indicates nsion was also articulated in the question askedat the Bristol national

[g]lobal climate c climate [g]lobal 112

orm of oppression and allows alliances with hange, caused human by activities, is

lack of clear ‘victory’ of of ‘victory’ clear of lack seen as more important , although it should be

- discourse reflected

us on climate us climate on - long long CEU eTD Collection what we like to achieve, that smth we would like to see in the world - “ (pers.comm.): example. for Shell, BP and as with other networks, including major CfCAs.thus RT always hadvery tangible physical targets, such solutions, confronting fossil fuel industries, and participating in the day Their actions have had the following aims: exposing ‘greenwashing’ of companies and false actions (pers.comm. Rebecca, Sidney). then not surprising thatthe two networks have h internal communication). RT was also instrumental in kick emphasizing in the press climate justice adopted the by network was unique. The current RT network takes pride i UK activist scene since the early 2000s. At that time an exclusive focus on climate change and longer history, in this chapt camps. Although I consider the two networks as sharing the discourse on climate change, given RT’s justification for action against the ‘fossil fuel Empire’ was never based solely on the argument that companies assisted by the government that are in the firing line of RT actions (Ibid.). However, RT’s a enemy generic that is at the heart of climate crisis. it is Specifically, the corporations fossiland fuel Throughout its history, RT has been consistent in confronting the fossil fuel industry (RT 2010d) as stop altogether ” we should stop expansion, industry (pers.comm.) “ practice in means empire clarifies dismantling what fuel fossil ’s ’s

social license to operate if if .

had t had o put words to our mission, it's to dismantle the fossil fuel empire - releases that it was the first climate justice group in the UK (RT 2008d; 2008d; (RT UK the in group justice climate first the was it that releases

er their actions are addressed in turn. The RT network has existed onthe all th ’s a life time goal and it's not s not it's and goal time alife The main mission of the network is well ese companies and all these extraction ” and that “ that ” and

dismantling fossil the fuel em we think the oil industry should end, we don ’ 113 ad similar targetsand have supported each other’s

o m - starting CfCA (Woodsworth 2008), it is is it 2008), (Woodsworth CfCA starting e th ing we will do on our own but that - articulated activist by Sydney s s of action jointly organized in the entire world should pire ” taking away the oil the away taking .

Activist Rebecca

n this fact [ …] t that t hink hink ’ ’ s s CEU eTD Collection passive voice construction and nominalizations are used in the reference to economic globalization nort specific actors because these actors are clearly indicated and named elsewhere in the statement: the ( directed by concrete agents. Such nominalization, common to the discourse of ‘new capitalism’ climate change” (RT 2002a).Globalization is thus articulatedas an entity rather than a process “economic globalization”“economic that disregards equity of issues justice and the “is and triggering ever The other actors present in the statement are “corporate and other elite interests” that pursued and change climate for climate change for individuals and the society. At the same time, it also implies that the responsibility effect achieved switching by between the two types of ‘we’ is the emphasis on the relevance of also a reference to the society as a whole which includes all its membe statement to refer to the position of RT’s members and as it is the case in the quoted paragraph, it is this kind can hope to climate stabilisethe coming years. We acknowledge the magnitude of these changes, but are convinced that only cuts of Change (IPCC). In fact, we need to go beyond the IPCCrecommendations to achieve cuts of 90% in 60% reductions in carbon emissions now, as proposed by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate prescribed urgent cuts in emissions, as revealed in the quote below: “ The articulation of technical aspects of climate change was based theon scientific rhetoric that result of unequal economic relations between and within countri suggesting technical emission reduction aspects of the problem, and social injustice produced as a statement (RT 2002a), the rationale behind action had two components: effects on climate, fossil fuels contribute to climate change which is threatening life onearth. In the first politic Fairclough 2003 Fairclough hern countries, ‘the biggest polluters’, the WTO and the World Bank (Ibid.). The fact that ) , does not however aim at obfuscating the human agency and the responsibility of for the emissions in particular is shared between everyone. ” (Ibid.) ” 114 .

Third person pronoun ‘we’ is used throughout the

es. es.

We need to make a minimum of of aminimum make to need We rs in a collective identity. Thecollective rs a in - faster faster al al CEU eTD Collection climate change se per example, according to Sidney, dismantling the fossil fuel empire is needed not necessarily because of th from data The justice is significantly expanded in the statement.new attempt to avoid the ‘science bandwagon’ (Rebecca pers.comm.). Instead,the section on climate emphasis in this quote help avoid mentioning the agent who prescribes ‘dramatic reduction’. This way the and quickly as possible”. Note that the passive voice construction together with a modal verb ‘must’ acknowledgement that the “atmospheric levels of the discussion of Kyoto protocol targets.only implicit The reference to the science is a brief in mentioning of the IPCC reduction targetremoved is from the current version (RT 2011b), as well as amongst all peoples recently updated statement (2011). A distinct change between the two statements is The social justice perspective articulated in the first RT statement became even more salient in its using an apocalyptic imagery at that point. which is justifiedonly which briefly by scientific knowledge. Additionally, clim first statement political displays a clear social emphasis justice on implications climate changeof central role of those emphasis onthe need to ensure “[e It is notable that apocalyptic scenario of climate transplanted it from the texts onglobalization. might indicate Instead, the importance of the social justice perspective that RT

on the authority science is avoided, which can be explained by the network’s conscious

in fact the incorporation of this globaldirectly have might discourse RT i.e. is’, ‘as e interviews testifies to the marginality of scientific rhetoric in the RT discourse. For ”, the recognition of the rights of refuges whether climate but a as move towards a simpler and more rewarding lifestyle. simpler A lifestyle

“most severely affected” by crisis in defining solutions (RT 2002a). Thus, the ] qual access to, and responsibility for, common global resources

115 -

related events was totally absent in the statement.

greenhouse gases must be reduced as dramatically

advocated was amplified through amplified was advocated ate change was - related or not, and the not

portrayed portrayed that anythat CEU eTD Collection debates, RT managed to stay away from th from away stay to managed RT debates, science to legitimize their position and use it as a way of getting climate change to the center of the theOn other hand, Rebecca emphasized in her interview that unlike other climate groups that used the mouthpiece what people are shou it’s not us saying it… it’sus not saying, it’s the scientists. They are the credible authorities; we are just way that previously environmental issues maybe hadn’t, so we, a lot of environmental groups, said noted in her interview, for the first time “it [climate movement] had the science to back particularlyby stressing the scientific evidence to legitimate their claims. As Rebecca (pers.comm.) and emissions change from fossil fuels a get the system changed, activists choose a currentresonant frame in the society (catastrophic climate and the current systems (political, economic, financial, energy systems, etc.). Therefore, in order to climate change, figuratively speaking,vehiclea is for bringing deeper structural changes to th want” (CfCA2007a) and has important implications as to how the discourse is actually framed: CfCA’s statem echoes idea This life of your part were that things you where lifestyle rewarding more a of terms in but of things terms in being well material lea would it … ourselves on reliant more lot a be would we … would then mean “ necessarily the climate cha climate the necessarily changes that will lead to the simplification of life and a radical overhaul of the society: “ that actually feeds the consumption and the unsustainable lifestyle is a way of bringing political political reform political for radical argue to useful very was that reason other some find would I happening, wasn’t change climate yeah, if ” (Ibid.). (Ibid.). ” localization of how we live and our society, how we produce our food, how we produce our things produce our things we produce our andlive food, our how we we how localizationhow society, of

nge, climate change is a useful argument argument useful a is change climate nge, ” (Sidney pers.comm.). For Sidney, fighting against the fossil fuel industry ent that climate change is a “referendum on what kind of world we ting about”. s the main factor of it) and use it extensively in their actions in their it and it) use extensively of factor main the s e “science bandwagon” because they 116

d to a world of greater well being, potentially not not potentially being, well of greater world a to d to try and create a political change political a create and try to

were involved in creating

“ always had the had always

it up in a so it's not not it's so e society . And . And CEU eTD Collection the impacts of the oil industry for taking direct action in the first place. jus the are that injustices the is it that statement) political first the in (expressed idea original benefits of using scientific consensus onclimate change as a tool, hasalso remained true to its to go on either. that th by theby minaret th unequivocal: drops of oil that turn into bombs falling on the civilian buildings. The message of the picture is supported visually (fig.4 below). The picture used in the action shows a gasoline pump releasing “knee deep inbeing war, this just like Exxon Shell, demonstrations against the US invasion of Iraq 2003. in RT accused BP of ‘triggering conflict’, of to war took central place in the discursive framing of the action resonating with the anti action was the involvement of BP in “oil wars” and contribution to “climate chaos”. The reference was holding its Annual General Meeting. As the title of the action suggests, the rationale behind the Carn a staged 2003 RT in instance, RT’s early actions. British Petroleum (BP) hasbeen one of the long exploitation of resources and people, human rights and links between oil and wars were salient in the network, the actions taken are noless indicative of the discour While political statements are important documents that clearly articulate the discursive position of sense that you that sense to the presumable “author”the of attack. As mentioned in the backgr is other

“ 5.2.1 no matte no

world world Coalescence of discourses discourses of Coalescence

- r don like shape of the building onthe picture). BP’s colorful logo in the background points e oil is equated with arms, war, destruction and of peaceful communities (as implied

if it if ” (Rebecca” pers.comm.) and ’ t need a quantifiable reason to make these changes, … ’ s the scientists or people at Niger D

the sense of deep, deep injustice that we feel is very good reason enough , their claims are just as important as scientists claims and we a we and claims scientists as important as just are claims their ival against Oil Wars and Climate Chaos outside the hall where BP Wars outside where hall Chaos against the ival Climate and Oil . This actually shows that RT, although fully aware of the

117

, Total” (RT 2011c). The war theme was also was theme war The 2011c). (RT , Total” elta are who telling us thatthey are suffering se of the group. The themes of ound document, BP is the - term targets for RT. For For RT. for targets term the testimony of people in tification r e happy ” and and ” - war war CEU eTD Collection Fig. Fig. prominent in grassroots discourse onrenewables (see Chapter 7). (Ibid.). The notion of community autonomy addressed in the quote is important because it is oil’, ‘communities owning and running their renewable energy supplies’, and ‘resistance and diversity’ action to highlight ‘the vis worth noting that apart from portraying the world that BP represents,took RT the chance in this personification of a “ Colombia, W focus but an extra issue in the list of BP’s ‘crimes’. By mentioning in the text ‘BP’s record’ in climate off its axis” (RT 2011c). This suggests that climate change was not (yet) the main discursive “it’stime to join the dots between oil, war, capital mentioned twice in the text: once in the title (“Climate Chaos”) and once in the following sentence: It is notable that climate change is absent from visual the representation in this action and is only (2011c) RT Source: 4 . Action. against BP. RT's B est Papua, Alaska and Azerbaijan, another theme, that of environmental destruction,

shallow, brutal, racist, unnatural, destructive profit destructive unnatural, racist, brutal, shallow, ions of the world’ they wanted to live in. Such visions included ‘an end to

anner

118

ism and the way they’reknocking the world’s

- It is is It RT. for world” driven CEU eTD Collection the action was to symbolically ‘charge the climate criminals and bringthem to justice’ as necessary a construction projects, and misuse of public funds, among others yearly CO2 emissions from oil exploration, environmental and human rights abuses at the pipeline countries. Their ‘climate crimes’, pointed out in a leaflet, encompassed denial of climate change, As suggested the by title of the action, the target was ‘climate criminals’ embodied in the G8 (2004 UK Indymedia Source: 5 Fig. discussion of context above). through the apocalyptic imagery that had been circulating in the wider public discourse (see mermaid costumes suggested to the participants (RT 2004a). Climate change w rising sea levels (see fig. 5 below), hence the dress code consisting of rubbers rings, snorkels, fish and London. The futuristic and KriticalMass Tour of the G8’s Top Climate Criminals) duringthe European Social Forum in Carnival action: the ride title (full of mass a critical bike organized RT giveactions. To example, an Just a year later, in 2004,the issue of ‘climate chaos’ started to t fact the articulations of social and environmental justice. fuel fossil industry throughout its history, relative RT although discursive are varies. weight in They populations is brought to the forefront. These themes accompany most of the loss of land and damage to the livelihoods of farmersand the social relationships of indigenous . 2004 Critical Mass Flyer, RT Flyer, Mass Critical 2004 .

theme of the action portrayed London in 2050as city a submerged by the

)

119

( ake central discursive place in the in place central discursive ake Indymedia UK 2004 UK Indymedia

actions against the against actions as thus articulated articulated thus as ) . The goal of CEU eTD Collection ‘signature’ type of action of the global anti mobilizations. The genre of the action- anticipate the upcoming G8 meeting in Scotland in 2005, i.e. the common target of anti a platform bringing together various anti up all around the European Social Forum” (RT 2004a) which is a branch of the Worl anti cer G8 and the against globally The action clearly drew discursively the on anti discussed. change discourse has covered been above, in what follows, the resistance to capitalism discourse is resistance to capitalism and that of climate change, can be observed in this action. Giv discourse was gradually constructed. Specifically, the merging of two distinct discourses, that of What was important in this into the climate justice discourse later on stages (discussed in detail in Chapter 6). (Ibid.). It was in fact one of the first uses ofcriminal the justice frame that would be incorporated build up su and Oil, Big “to and to step dismantle capitalism

reclaim the public spaces to demonst the carnivalesque are used activists by to emancipate themselves from the dominant discourse and shared, if fleeting, space to live side side”by (Ibid.). In this specific action, the subversive powers of status quo as means a to mediate between opposite ends of the social spectrum a ( Tancons 2011 Tancons - capitalist movement:the action was positioned as“part the of many grassroots events sprouting

) . In fact, carnival was not “merely a cultural practice” but a tool for reversing“the

action was the coalescence of discourses upon which climate justice tain financial institutions. theto financial is direct evident from This the links tain rate the counter -

capitalist movements. At the same time, the action aimed to to aimed action the time, same At the movements. capitalist carnival - capitalist movement used at major mobilizations mobilizations at major used movement capitalist 120 -

was not accidental because it was considered a -

capitalist that taking mobilizations were place - discourse, that of resistance and rebellion. stainable, socially just alternatives” just stainable, socially

d Social Forum,d Social nd toa create en that climate en - capitalist

CEU eTD Collection ( unchanged contributing to climate change (i.e. banks and financial institutions), RT’s targetsremained virtually Over the years, unlike CfCA whose targets shifted from major polluters to actors on since it combines the environmental movement’s ‘enemy’ and that of the anti well” and “Today, we’re unmasking some of the worst climate criminals at large in this oil capital” oil this worst in climate large criminals at the of unmasking “Today, and well” some we’re carnival style our vision of a world where we’ve phased here to protest against the government and corporate creators of climate chaos – complementary to the fight against climate change, as the following quotes demonstrate: “We are point in time positioned as the main driving force behind the action and resistance to capitali What was different from the anti of tar sands that are being developed Shell,by such as others. Namely, half of the press release is focused on the physical impacts on the local populations 2012a). However, these arguments occupy very limited space in the current discourse, compared to partly draws the on ‘six degree temperature rise’, extreme weather, and melting of glaciers (R from the press release, the destructive effects of fossil fuels climate on is a common justification that other networks from activists targeted with Shell together AGM RT 2012 in London. As evident are experiencing disturbingly high rates of rare forms of cancer and auto and futures being destroyed, but communities on land where tar sands extraction has been imposed release, which puts heavy emphasis onthe issues of health, culture and pollution affecting people as a The testimonies of four community representatives are given through direct quotation in The use of the communities’ rights for being involved in the decision- Indymedia UK 2004 UK Indymedia -

their focus on the ‘fossil fuel empire’ can be traced in almost any action taken. In June

passive voice construction “has been imposed” emphasizes the violation of ) . The. phrase “oil capital” is indicative of coalescence of discourses at work - capitalist discourse though, was that climate change was at that at that was change climate that was though, discourse capitalist 121

making process regarding their lands. lands. their regarding process making

these: “Not only are indigenous livelihoods

out just not fossil fuels, but capitalism as - immune diseases” (Ibid.). (Ibid.). diseases” immune - capitalist one.

and celebrate in ly indirectlyly the press

sm was was sm T

CEU eTD Collection based onreal allegations around Shell’s involvement in the death of local activists in Nigeria. giant Shell.In fact, the accusationalso of death is symbolic particular this as but in only action not is hoods making an unmistakable association with death that was presumably inflicted by the fossil fuel In addition to wearing masks with the subvert logo, activists were dressed in long black gowns with UK/ RT Source: 6 Fig. skull (fig.6 below). ahuman of image anthropocentric perspective is supported visually through the subversion of Shell’s logo with the media discourse that usedthe flag species to demonstrate the effects of climate change. This danger to human beings rather polar bears or any other climate. suggests This that propelled climate the change by extraction fossilof fuels is articulated as a Th endocrine disruption from the pollution. This is the first step towards extinction” (Ibid.). “Aamjiwnaang is the first community in the world to experience birth ratios of 2 girls to 1 boy due to beings rather than to animals or plant result of the extractions. For instance, in the following quote, the term “extinction” refers to human e use of the term ‘extinction’ signals the prominence of human perspective in the discourse on . Shell AGM A Rikkiindymedia (2012) Rikkiindymedia ction 2012 ction

s, as is anusually in environmental discourse: case the 122

species, in contrast to the environmental and

CEU eTD Collection diachronically and through the theoretical post lens of chapterThe examined the dialectic relations between the dominant and counter 5.3 Saro by military in the execution Specifically, claims Ken isthe complicit government that RT of Shell central place in the discursive framing of the actions and was linked to the anti prevailed in the framing of the action. Next, in 2004, climate changetheme a as started to occupy the fossil justice fuels environmental as and arguments war, and social action, links between as well th in evolved Thus, analysis of RT’s actions reveals the following. First, the discursive position onclimate change companies,oil especially Shell” (RT 2012b). fuel empire was marked these by early developments, i.e. merging of anti discourse media and Additionally, climate change rhetoric took the apocalyptic turn, resonating with the growing public action of RT from a diachronic perspective. struggle between two discourses, the dominant and counter discourse of environmental and social justice thus prevails over the scientific rhetoric. Thus, the back to the effects of oil extraction onthe communities, their health, culture and livelihoods. The part of the justifications of targeting a specific fossil fuel company, the main emphasis has shifted current actions of RT (2012) demonstrate thatwhile emissions contributing to climate change are areas exploited fossil by fuel projects) into one discourse under the title of climate justice. The explorations), and environmental justice discourses (soil, water pollution, loss of biodiversity in the (climate change as apocalypse), social (poverty, loss of land and inequality broug - Wiwa and 8 other Nigerian activists in 1995 for opposing the “devastation of their homeland by Conc lusions e following way: in 2003 while climate change was used as one of the justifications for s onclimate change. The discourse of the subsequent actions against the fossil

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- politics. Through the the goals analysis of - discourse, is also discernible in thediscourse, in is discernible also - capitalist, dominant dominant capitalist, - capitalist discourse. ht by oil and gas - discourses CEU eTD Collection grassroots networks differentiate between ‘good’ and ‘bad’ science and show a certain mistrust of voicing their ow general public or simply because these ‘scientific’ sources were handy for grassroots in terms of for various purposes: to attract new participants into the movement, to grab the the attention of scientists), I made an argument in this chapter that scientifi origin (i.e. policy document referred to as ‘science’ or some commentators granted the role of Furthermore, having foundthat activists’ scientific references do not always have scientific true example. for targets, through the choof ice dominant discourse. As time passed, the links were consciously exposed even more in the actions climate change and their social and political roots which has been intended to counter run to the climate changenature problems. of Thus, grassroots have always foregrounded the links between networks, there wereaccompanied by other arguments that sought to expose the social and political time, even when the scientific arguments and demands were conspicuous grassroots in the actions of 2008) climate when science was in the spotlight; however, it steadily declined afterwards. At scientific rhetoric in the actionsuse of peaked at a particular moment in time (in the years 2006 dominant discourse. reproducti The have shown that the analysis reveals the oscillation between and resistance the reproduction to the of change politics and to the the entrenchment post of 2012) who argued that the issue suchhas contributed framing of to the de contrast some to the scholars claims of (Schlembach al et the networks articulated the climate change problem. the so- The signs of the actions,and messagingI have of demonstrated that scie for stopping climate change condition and carbon consensus – n demands or concerns. In relation to the scientific rhetoric, it has been arguedthat -

are the activists. certainly traceable in the discourse of However, in h s fscientific rhetoric and the apocalypticthe use of to imagery argue on of the dominant discourseon of can be linked to the fact that the

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- political framework by grassroots networks, I networks, grassroots by framework political c rhetoricc was used by as a grassroots tool . 2012; Pusey and Russell 2010; Russell 2010; Russell Russell and Pusey . 2012; ntific rhetoric was conspicuous in how - polit called post czto fclimate icization of

the same same the - political - CEU eTD Collection follow further examine the identified tensions from different angles. important patterns that point to the cruc characterizing it as being locked in the carbon consensus and post conscious attempts to do so. Given resistance these patterns revealed of through the analysis, counter the dominant discourse in various dimensions while at the sam Overall, this chapter has demonstrated that grassroots’ discourse onclimate change struggles to activism various reflected in the coalescence discourses. of thisargued climate that justice the contours agenda of already appeared i justice agenda’ and the existing political and economic systems would foregrounded. be It wasalso to develop efforts made political statements in which the antagonism between a ‘radical climate argumentsplaying deresults scientific in Next, it was shown in this chapter that grassroots activists have the fact been aware that over of reasons. researchparticular climate institutions researchers and due links to w - politicization of climatepoliticization change. To of remedy that, they have ial role of justiceial in grassroots role of networks. Chapters that 125

- ith the industry and for other politics means ignoring these h al er fclimate then early years of e time shows clear and - CEU eTD Collection level, although it can also be fou neoliberal globalization that surfaces at the activist gatherings, meetings, i.e. mostly onthe internal such as COP meetings; second it is the current economic system referred to as capitalism or is the responsibility of the global North mostly evident in discussions around that are engaged separately or sometimes simultaneously depending theon specific contexts: first, it broa a around structured is with regard to causes of climate change on the global level, grassroots networks’ counter climate change impacts for the countries ofglobal the South. What emerged from the datathat is historical responsibility of the global North for carbon emissions a The dominant politics of climate change, as discussed in Chapter 3, are tied to the concept of 6.1 counter This chapter examines how the international dimension of climate change 6 that the counter the that solutions to the problem. Focusing specifically on the first two matters, it is argued in this chapter matters of historical responsibil an issue of dichotomous relations between the global North and global South encompassing the prevails. prevails. distributional justice claims are in discourse, present the on the emphasis an political of scale justice justice by emphasizing the inequalities beyond the nation - the debates but at the same time attempts to shift it towards a more complex understanding of

International dimension climate of change politics The root causes and responsibility - discourse climate on justice. As noted in chapter 3, climate change is commonly regarded as

- discourse constructed grassroots by networks reproduces the bi der notion of ‘root causes’ of climate change. This notion has three layers nd in the statements; and third is the fossil fuel industry layer that ity for carbon emissions, distribution of climate impacts and 126

state framework. In addition, while while addition, In framework. state nd the recognition of unequal politics is addressed the politics in

policy issues or events - polar struc polar

discourse discourse ture of of ture CEU eTD Collection justice in the European context proclaiming that rep CfCA lines, same the Along n.d.). (RT structural inequalities and recognise the historical responsibility of the rich nations for the problem interests and transnational corporations. We call for 'climate justice' through solutions that address ‘About Us’ statement: “Climate change is a direct result of the economic domination of N on the disparities produced through unequal historical economic relations, as illustrated by the RT’s it draws not only on the responsi emission targets, global North/South dichotomy) mirrors the dominant discourse on climate change, it is articulated(historical which responsibility, in Starting although language layer, the first the with chapter in the example of the clash between the dominant and counter gets engaged in the context of direct actions. The latter two have partially been discussed in previous responsibility for creating and sustaining the inequalitiesrather than the historical confirms that the concept of historical responsibility in the counter No the break to attempts South’ unite their struggles with those of the developing world. Such nuance in meaning of the ‘global climate justice and responsibility to the marginalized populations in developed countries in order to by “the relationships of capital and domination” (Ibid.). The idea is th en to extend the notion of in the statement as transcending the geographical boundaries to include any group of people affected North is consuming expansion/colonialism is a root cause of the current geopolitical inequalities, in which the global poor and marginalized, regardless of the geo graphical location. transcended by the counter will be argued further in this dissertation (section 7.1), the North/South dichotomy is also

the global South” (CfCA 2009r).It is notable that the global South is positioned - discourse through foregrounding the notion of ‘elites’ in relation to the rth/South dichotomy characteristic of the dominant discourse and bility of the global North for carbon emissions but even more so, roduced their on website the CJA statement on climate 127

‘the historical legacy of European

- discourse relates primarily the to - discourses ( section 5.1.4). 5.1.4). section

emissions. As it emissions. orthern orthern

CEU eTD Collection and CfCA statements: statements: CfCA and quotes above is tied to the global capital climate change, partly touched upon in chapter 5. The economic domination mentioned in the historicalis responsibility linkedthe to cause root Closely layerthe that of capitalism reveals as dominant discourse, the impacts of fossil fuel industry are never discussed in isolation from the While such framing reduces climate change to the emissions of carbon and thus reproduces the injustices associated with it, in an However, despite unanimous agreement that capitalism is the root cause of climate change and the by RT have involved confrontation with a fossil fuel company or were fossil fuels and the cutting down of huge swathes of rain forest”. In fact, most of the actions taken As noted Sydn by Finally, the third layer of the root causes concept is salient in discussions of the fossil fuel industry. of climate change. doors”. “ anti term capitalism because they were not sure what it really meant, others thought that taking an explicit market logic and over and logic market networks. Or rather, it is limited to the issueseconomic of growth, profit motive, pervasiveness of Dysophia 2010 Dysophia mediated it by is what generated tensions within Climate Camp over the years ( these labels [capitalism or neoliberalism] sometimes prove to create more boundari - capitalist position could inhibit the movement’s growth, as expressed by Anna (pers.comm.): system and its endless pursuit of economic growth at all costs (RT 2011b). that roots of climat the believes Tide the Rising 2010d). (CFCA solution their be Capitalism is the root cause of the current climatic, social and economic crises and cannot As a result, a As the system,a more neutral synonym, is commonly used to denote the root causes ) . Also, it emerged in the interviews that while some activists were reluctant to use the ey (pers.comm.), “Scientifically the root causes of climate change are the burning of

consumption. Lack of deeper analysis of capitalism, class and social rela - depth analysis of capitalism is conspicuously absent in both

ism and its predication on growth as exemplified in the RT 128

e current the crisis in economic lie global

closely related fuels. fossil to closely

Shift Magazine and and Magazine Shift es than open tions tions CEU eTD Collection climate justice movement”. and learn their concepts and interact in European pe forth, if you want to be involved in climate justice, you have to learn the language of the Europeans are determining the languages, they are designing the terms, and the paradigms and so onand so and not to the South. In the words of Kofi (pers.comm.), “ This means that the discourse is constructed using the notions and paradigms inherent to the North European countries largely shape climate justice discourse giving it a distinct Eurocentric perspective. one of the problems he experiences within the movements of the North is that the activists from the justice. As of the one southern activists engaged with Climate Camp explained to me in an interview, the North/South dichotomy. Rather, it seeksto expose the complexity of climate change issues and networks’ counter Overall, the layered character of the notion of climate change causes suggests that grassroots incowould allow necessary to establish a dialogue between the activists from the global North and global South that framing obscuresvariety a of possible locally - of the unitary framing of the North and the South that the dominant discourse favors. Such unitary absence of such analysis an deeper analysis of the North/South categories themselves and specific distinctions within them. The What is absent in the networks’ discourse onthe North/South relations and climate change is the the carbon emissions. interconnectedness and a complex understanding of climate change, as opposed to being tied to only in the example of CfCA’s political statement in Chapter 5) which demonstrates their entails.injustices that The it rporating the discourses of climate change and justice constructed by both actors. - discourse does not fully reproduce the dominant discourse f d discussions within the networks points to the acceptance by the activists layers are often articulated all together (often pitted against each other as

To overcome thisEurocentric perspect 129

grounded understandings of clima

rspective it is the Europeans at the forefron who t -

that is eurocentrism within the ive that Kofi identified, it is ocused exclusively on te change and

CEU eTD Collection is currently in the statements of CJN! for example ( What is evident from the definition is that the notion of de the ecological and through unequal economic relations. Likewise, in the rece wider notion that encompasses any environmental destruction caused by developed countries north to the south” (RT 2002a). The ecological debt is further defined in the statement as follows: equitable solutions to climate change that would ensure “repayment of the ecological debt of the first statement was already political RT activism, calling for In the underalbeit wording. different notion has also been present in the discourse of grassroots networks from the early days of clim responsibility of the global North is at the heart of the counter In Chapter it 3 wasargued that the 6.2 anti and contest the dominant discourse from multiple perspectives. RT’s statement linking climate justice further. approach. The concept of ecological debt discussed in the next section support this argument of global inequality between and within countries that can only be fully addressed through a justice theby rich and powerful, are all the same” (RT 2010a). What ties these layers together is the thread root causes of corporate greed, mindless obsession with economic growth, oppression of the poor Ecological debt

to help repair and reverse the damage caused to the biosphere (RT 2002a). to pay back third world debt. Northern industrialised countries have an obligation resources are usually exported to the north under unequal terms of trade, typically resources such as fossil fuels, minerals, forests,marine & genetic resources. These Ecological debt is caused by the extraction,use and destruction of southern - cuts campaigning serves as a as serves campaigning cuts

social debts of wealthy industrialized countries to the people of the global South

good example of how the layers are brought together: “the concept of climate debt closely related to the historical 130

CJN! 2009? CJN! ntly updated statement RT acknowledges bt is not linked to carbon emissions as it ) - . Instead, the ecological debt is a discourse on climate justice. This

ate ate

CEU eTD Collection 2011b, emphasis added) emphasis 2011b, ex redressing the debt is not financial: “Repair to the biosphere, and to the communities where such of way most important the that emphasizes RT (2011b) statement recent most its in contrast, statement RT UK declared th argument, consider two quotes from the RT statements made at different times.the In 2002 mission not explicit, they could deduced be based the on languageused in the statements. To illustratethis evolved over the last decade. In the early stages of climate activism, whil However the findings suggestthat grassroots networks’ position regarding financial reparations has door to increased rather than structural changes in the relations between North and South, which opens “a dangerous Further, the notion of climate debt is often criticized for being explicitly about financial reparations proposes. that developed countries are facing in contrast to the narrow emissions debt continues to have a wider and more radical meaning because it exposes a range of inequalities thus and discourse has preceded the notion of climate debt; and second, the notion of ecological of debates, the findings suggest that first, the notion of debt has originally been part of their networks especially after the Copenhagen and Cochabamba mobilizations where it was at the center (Ibid.).emotionally” term the climate While debt s damage whereby local communities are exploited physically, politically, economically, culturally and (RT 2011b). The social debt is thus result a of the ecological destruction as it “generates huge social need to be returned to the control of communities in the global wresting of wealth and resources traction simply has taken place, delivered be cannot

green capitalist investment Global the in South” (Simons and Tonak 2010: n.p.). .

atthe ecological debt must repaid be to reversethe damage. In

from elites in popular control 131

tarted penetrating the discourse of grassroots by payments of money

south and indigenous peoples” (RT . Particularly, land and resources resources and land . Particularly, - ba e financial reparations were sed meaning climate debt . It require will the CEU eTD Collection developed countries, as below illustrated quote the in developed the seen as a way of redressing ecological and social debt. Such revisions imply greater self Furthermore, revisions to the current economic relationships within the developed countries are also within the UNFCCC process to finance alternative energy and energy efficiency projects (RT 2001d). exposing the World Bank’s huge investments in fossil fuel projects that run counter to its mission tools of neoliberal agenda (CJN 2009).give To another example, back in 2001 RT was alrea should not come through institutions like the World Bank or IMF since they are considered to be financial reparations should be subject to the “democratic control’ of the affected communities and any that emphasize networks grassroots However, 2009). CJN 2010b; (RT cancellation” debt mitigation should be paid for by redirecting military budgets, progressive and innovative taxes, and repayment of climate debts and subject to democratic control. The costs of adaptation and Now! statement, according to which “huge financial transfers from North to South, based onthe South. Asthe 2009 post is,This howe discourse ontransferring the power, determination and cont the idea of the North’s intervention to rebuild the damage done in the South to that of self quote demonstrates a call for the empowerment of communities and signals a discursive shift from control, enabling communities to rebuild themselves and restore their environments” (Ibid.). This the “[r]edress of the ecological and social debts of the North to the South and from elites to popular communities ratherthan any specific financial compensation. Additionally, RT considers necessary financial reparations as it now calls for the transfer of power to the affected countries and to the This shows that activists’ discourse around ecological debt goes way beyond the narrow focus of ver, not to say that grassroots that say to not ver, rol of the developing world which fits well with the grassroots networks’ - Copenhagen statement suggests, RT and CfCA endorse the Climate Justice as it as will discussed be further in subsequent chapters.

networks totally reject any financial repara 132

- sufficiency of tions to the

dy dy -

CEU eTD Collection grassroots networks’ discourse also includes an issue of migration. Back in 20 Apart from the root causes and ecological debt, the international dimension of climate politics in 6.3 Ethiopia” sen in parts of Africa during the 80s where the NGOs and charities and stuff were collecting money to being less inclined to import stuff at the expense of others. A classic example would be the famines “ the communities to ensure their autonomy and self de the that reveals two dimensions of justice, participation and reparations, that are interwoven: activists insist and environmental justice. Further, the notion of ecological debt in grassroots networks' discourse ecological one, the social debt is pointed out, which helps dire that has affected the global South. The term has also acquired new dimension, a i.e. in addition to the inequality in climate debt and has deeper implications for the counter Thus, it has been argued in this section that the notion of ecological debt has preceded that of the South. developed countries should produce their own food and not outsou necessary and contr fuel fossil industry. the of Lastly, self the financial institutions that operate according to the neoliberal logic and are implicated in the support transfers for climate change mitigation and adaptation should be d I guess the best way we can address that de d food to Ethiopia while we were still importing food for animal feed throughout Europe from "No borders, no nations, stop deportations!" stop nations, no borders, "No

pers.comm.). (Ben bt should be repaid in non-

the emissions or climate change impacts, ecological debt exposes a range of injustices ibuting to redressing the debt. This idea has echoed been repeatedly the by activists believe who that financial terms through the transfer of power and resources to - sufficiency of developed countries is positioned as bt is by becoming more self 133

sufficiency, while at the same time any financial - discourse. Instead of a narrow focus onthe ct thect counter

one by bypassing the international rce other types of production to - - sufficient, and countries discourse towards social 02 in its first in 02 political CEU eTD Collection climate i the institutionalizes category there isgrowing a understanding among the networks that including climate refugee as another reports from the Cochabamba conference in 2010 made by RT and activists from other networks, problems and injusti that such people are merely victims of nonhuman nature which obfuscates the interrelatedness of the problem. Moreover, the label ‘climate refugees’ masks the underlying cause of this status, implying environmental, economic, war refugees and so on), and thu that it singles out climate a particular group of people into a separate category (as opposed to crossing international borders" (RT 2011b). and for those attemptwho to create a better and safer life for themselves and their families b movement and an end to migration controls. Current and future support for all displaced people, RT brings them together in one group and calls for abolishing migration controls: of "Freedom as 'displaced people' and instead of naming various categories (climate, economic or war refugees), of climate justice, even though the wording has slightly changed. Namely, 'refugees' are now termed reco still is migration of freedom the (2011) statement current most the In economic failures. migration that the activists are concerned about but also about migration as result a of wars or networks call for the extension of rights to move for everyone: “ 7 2002a). (RT core" their at exploitation the effects of climate change, economic collapse or wars, which always have inequality and " that declared RT statement Groups section. Groups Consu Materials Activist the in found be can record The detailed 2010. in Cochabamba in Rights Earth and Mother Change Climate on Conference World at the migration on panel the in participation report their on to

Ayya is the name of the blog created by activists from RT, No Borders, T No Borders, RT, from byactivists created blog the of Ayya name the is - related injustices(Ayya 2010

ces ( Building Bridges Collective 2010 We need to recognise the plight and the rights of refugees fleeing from

njustice and removes the political antagonism from the notion of

7 ).Instead of extending restricting categories, grassroots It is notable in this quote that it not is only climate The problematic aspect of the term ‘climate refugees’ is 134

) . At rapese Popular Education Collective and CJA CJA and Collective Education Popular rapese s it narrows down the scope of the

the same time, as evidenced in the Rather than campaigning for a gnized as an integral part integral part an as gnized lted, under Other Other under lted, - caused caused y

CEU eTD Collection Fig. 7 Fig. "No borders, nonations, stop deportations!". category. Hu 2009 that aimed to denounce the existing migration controls in Europe regardless of the migrant migration controls. For example, the picture below (fig.7) depictsmass a action in Copenhagen in a number of actions taken by grassroots climate act the climate change problem ( for the curbing of air travel, restriction of freedom and strengthening migration controls in light of Furthermore, in light of recent anti (2009 Maunoury Source: o). 2010 (CfCA system." the of understood that borders, nation- 2010: Climate campers who took part in the discussion of migration Freedom to Stay and Freedom of Movement for All” (Ayya 2010). A similar idea was pointed out by further category of people which can then be arbitrarily applied by those in power, we must demand " . Action. against Migration C ...the most important thing come to out for us was sense a that people in the room really ndreds of activists, including those from CfCA and RT, marched in the streets chanting )

O'Neill 2007 O'Neill

statesand the categorisations of human beings are another construct - aviation campaigns, climate groups have been accused of calling accused been have groups climate campaigns, aviation ontrols. Copenhagen 2009 ; Shift Magazine 2008b Magazine Shift 135

ivists that demonstrated the importance stopping

)

. However,this accusation neglects at the Cochabamba conference in

CEU eTD Collection This action was pulled together several by networks, including CJA, No cross Hea after right place took camp network’s Borders No 2007, displacement of peoples from the Global South” (CfCA 2009o).Moreover, two years earlier, in others with the aim of highlighting “the increasing links between climate change, militarism and migration participation of the same people (Shift Magazine 2008a) butalso in the fact that Climate Campa held injustices generated by the structuralinjustices the generated by but migration: also “ inequalities concept of historical responsibility discussed in previous sections covers not only emissions and o CJA statement To illustrate other aspects of grassroots networks’ position on migration, it is useful to consider the our concern about aid and debt relief" (CfCA 2007c). threat emissions pointed outthatthe wealthy countries' poorest have nothing to help them except us taking responsibility" (CfCA 2007c). It was also welfare: “We in the wealthy countries have welfare to p rich countries were positioned as having the responsibility to protect the poor due to their superior oth In the CfCA's press release of the action it was explained that ‘environmental refugees outnumber all airport. at Gatwick refugees. As a result of the action, the airline shortly pulled out from providing deportation services were leafleting the company's employees about the links between climate ch to the Democratic Republic of Congo. Several activists occupied the airline's offices while the others er kinds combined, and climate change will make that geta lot worse'. It is interesting that the - over between the two networks was visible not only in sharing the infrastructure and the - related actio en to take the essentials of life from the poor of the world; it makesa mockery of n climate justice and the section onmigration, in particular. In this statement the

n against a budget airline XL that was engaged in the deportations of migrants current

emissions were potentially threatening: "Our carbon 136

rotect us from climate chaos, but the world’s throw Climate Camp was over and the and over Camp was Climate throw The historical development of - Borders, CfCA Borders, ange, flights livesand of

UK and and UK CEU eTD Collection injustices: “In the same way that the straight lines that divide so much of the world were drawn by statement the is this uselessness the stateof suggested, “Nation States Cannot Solve the Problem of Climate Change”. The idea underpinning gr solving the climate problem and injustices associated with and beyond it is questioned theby nation- the benefit of few" controls also challenges the huge injustice which exploits people and resources around the world for and controlled in the national interest, and for economic benefit. To speak migration out against human rights issue, as it goes beyond the suffering of the displaced: "Flows of people are managed activist an As that will be discussed further in the coming chapters. aspect of climate justice” (CfCA 2009r). This idea echoes with the calls for community autonomy and their home lands: "As well as fighting for the conditions for people to be able to stay in their homes for all and a 'borderless world' (CfCA 2009o), also they call for the possibility for people to stay in notable in the discourse of migration for grassroots is globalization concerning the free movement limited to capital and goods. At the same time, what is around the world” (Ibid.).It is thusa direct contestation of the key principle of neoliberal only those with certain papers such as an EU passport and capital and commodities are free t people, activists again once emphasize the systemic roots of the injustice: “In our free market system the contradiction of the free movemen responsibility to act in solidarity with those who are displaced" (CfCA 2009r). Also, by highlighting capital accumulation, colonialism and carbon emissions, means that Europe has a unique assroots networks. As a subheading used in the position paper on migration by Ayya ( 2010)

communities, we must also defend the principle of freedom of movement for all as one key states’ dimension in the politics of climate change. Specifically, the role of the nation-

from No Borders network pointed out, challenging migration is much more thana ( Shift Magazine 2008a: n.p. 2008a: Magazine Shift t of capital and the actual restrictions on the movement of - territorial approach in t in approach territorial ) . This . argument bringsthe in spotlight the natureof 137

the fact that along with the freedom to move ackling and global borderless o move state instate CEU eTD Collection ‘refugees’ to encompass all migration –affected groups of the dominant discourse. Reframing is evident in the use of such terms as ‘displaced’ instead of This section has argued that the opposition to migration is another way of challenging and reframing injustice as inflict nationals of the countries where they move. It also challenges the attempts to depoliticize climate refugees which effectively normalizes movement of people and equalizes their rights with the 2010). “means a rejection of nationalism and the false division between citizens and non - nation tooutdated the related is justice t networks, grassroots For claims. justice the the “who” of justice, i.e. a boundary argument that supports this call forrethinking traditional approaches to justice. It is concerned with countriesaffecting communities and regardless the of territorial principle is then a power consequently, relations and international its delivering system of justice. Climate injustice that is the borderless character of injust Fraser (2005) called a transformative approach to justice. Such approach, based on the realization of This idea of the nation- divide working people from their natural allies of other exploited people from ac ‘imagined communities,’… [t]his imagined community was created as a meansto control the poor, to by developed and designed European statesmen to divide colonial possessions; the infrastructure that makes up a state has been discourse calls for the opposite: highlighting yet another victim of the unfair systemic economic, policies that uses climate change as a pretext forenhanced border controls and relations. Unlike the discourse onmigration perpetuated by national governments and international

ed by climate by ed

state being seen as source a of injustices that needs to be abandoned is what

the rich and powerful for the benefit of their own class. All countries are - related events rather than the system of economic and political ices, seeks to supersede the outdated state - setting process that determines who is excluded and included to - based approach. Therefore, for them ensuring justice he exclusion of certain groups of people from attaining 138

people as opposed to singling out climate -

centered system of security, grassroots ross the globe”. citizens” (Ayya ful ful CEU eTD Collection One of the metaphors thatOne of has gained traction in the counter 6.4 discursively extended in the counter other reasons. By doing so, the social and political relations represented by all those people who are displaced for climate to be able to rebuild to able be to their lives. returning the lands to the communities, and giving them the decision- decent life in their native lands. This demand evokes the calls discussed earlier in this chapter dealing with the causes of migration in the first place so that such people are capable of living a grassdelivered. do Finally, only not this constitutes a transformative approach that seeks to challenge the status quo in the way justice is justice. the On contrary, it is positioned as the source injustice of in itself. In line Fraser with (2005), discourse challenges the idea that the nation various contexts but mostly applied to the fossil crime’ tangible here is thatthe it is latter consideration that seeks to eventually transform the metaphor intoa not only environmental and emissions globally.projects xml fa ‘climate crime’example for of its detrimental environmental consequences (Fig.8. below). Mobile and others. In particular,the tar sands project in Canada has consistently been used a metaphorThe has been used in actions against fossil fuel companies, such as BP, Shell, Exxon Climate crimes = ecocide? or its equivalents, ‘environmental 'climate is employed crime’ metaphor criminal'. and in This demand to be operationalized through criminal justice procedures.

As it will be discussedAs it be belo will

- notion of historical responsibility of developed countries is discourse to migrationto discourse roots standfor freedom of movement but they also call for -

related but also connected to human rights. argument The w, the crimes grounds for are accusing these actors of - state is an appropriate framework for dealing 139

fuel industry or banks that finance fossil fuel -

related injustices. Further, the counter - discourse on climate justice is making power and autonomy

- related or or related

Why the the Why ‘climate

with with s an an s

for for - CEU eTD Collection the company's alleged link to the killing of environmental activists in Nigeria: " The hanging of For in instance, their actions against Shell and its ‘climate crimes’, often reminds RT the public about BP or as such giants Shell oil had against a reference action major every to human rights violations. activities to human rights abuses of which they were accused recently or in the past. In fact, almost As noted above, the metaphor 'climate crime' used is by activists to connect the oil companies' visible from space, leaking poisons into the local water supply" (RT 2010c). development in Alberta covers an area the size of England, withtoxic tailing ponds so hugethey are "The effects t a safe and clean environment are undermined by the extraction, as pointed out in the quote below: The concept of ‘climate crime’ also encompasses impacts on humans whose livelihoods and rights to (2010 Jones Source: 8 Fig. against the oil companies: RT’s from quote the is in summarized well criminals’ ‘climate action as designated are companies . RT P RT . name of their profit (RT 2010e). (RT profit their of name disasters, overriding indigenous rights and more human rightsviolations. All in the massive mortal deforestation, field scale local oil diseases in areas, ecological Apart from massive CO2 emi CO2 massive from Apart rotest against BP against rotest ar sands are having onlocal FirstNations communities are devastating. The tar sands )

ssions, the oil industry has been responsible for

140

Ken Ken CEU eTD Collection Saro 2010 through the lenses of criminal justice, consider the action taken by CfCA in 2010."Bloody Oil crime the that illustrate To domain criminal the transforming justice. claims of into bringing for climate into justice change. There is r to inclimate relation made been have claims that justice and social the environmental amplify and Chong 2011). The human rights framing is thus strategically engaged in the counter requiring preservation of dignity as postulated by the univ that fossil fuel projects cause human suffering and thus make it humanistic a problem, i.e. a problem These examples demonstrate that grassroots networks engage a human rights perspective to claim environment of the Niger Delta and the lives of the people who live there" (RT 2011g). fragile devastate to flaring the militants gas and continue spills armed exacerbate oil and conflict, human rights abuses perpetrated by Shell continue to this day. Shell’s routine payments to armed justicesocial – ‘ecocide’, defined as “ waging wars, embezzlement, and triggering migration and fraud, among others. The last charge was committed the by o and their companies with the ordinary people. People's Court drewan up extensive list of crimes hearing was given the name of People's Court which helped discursively oppose the top oil officials London and involved staging mock a court hearing of t 'Em Out"action took place at the doorstep of The World National Oil Companies Congress in - ) Wiwa and his OgoniWiwa his and colleagues – .

caused shock and outrage around world.the But whatever we might like to think,the eason to argue that this coalescence of claims is going to the next stage, i.e. il executive in the name of profit, starting from environmental destruction to damage, destruction and loss of whole ecosystems extra by - related rhetoric does aim at considering damage to the environment whose only crime was to speak out for environmental and 141

ersal human rights’ declaration (Nicholson he allegedhe crimes of oil executives. The cting oil”

discourse to discourse to

( Campbell Campbell - Drum Drum CEU eTD Collection are employing. Specifically, what they seem to be doing is calling for the process in relation to climate change might signal a new discursive strategy that grassroots networks e an such Overall, 2010). and people that by commission or omission contaminate and provoke climate change” (WPCCC Justice Tribunal that would have “the legal capacity to prevent, judge and penalize States, industries Cochabamba conference that called for the creation of an International Climate and Environmental It should also be noted that the action took place just a few months after the end of the front of the ‘jury’ recreated the atmosphere of a tribunal onthe analogy with a human rights court. offences. The wigs worn by activists and the wording of the indictment read out by the ‘judge symbolic step in the direction of legalizing the persecution of corporations for committing similar crime staging the People's Court trial (CfCA 2010p). This action demonstrated how activists brought the Higgins' model ecocide indictment and actually consulted with her on the questions of wording and implications. To organize the Bloody Oil – who introduced a demand to the UN Council to recognize ecocide as the 5 The concept of ecocide is currently being pushed forward by environmental lawyer Polly Higgins reparations According to Higgins, sentenci severelybeen diminished" ( the that extent such an to causes, other destruction, damage to or loss of ecosystem(s) of a given territory, whether by human agency or by par with genocide. The definition of ecocide she proposes is the following: "The extensive - related metaphors to the c ( Eradicating Ecocide n.d. Ecocide Eradicating xtensive use of the crime lexis and the actual attributes of court and judicial Higgins ng in case of an ecocide will result in punishment, deterrence or onceptual level through staging a mock trial and thus makinga et al. et ) . Thus, the concept of ecocide has explicit restorative justice 2013

peaceful enjoyment by the inhabitants of that territory has ) Drum 'Em Out action, C Drum 'Em action, Out .

142

fCA activists adopted Polly Polly adopted activists fCA

th criminalization of climatecriminalizationof crime against peace on a on peace against crime ’ in in ’

CEU eTD Collection needed. It is thus a potential direction for future research. engagement with the anarchist theories and practice and its manifestation in networks’ discourse is to which extent this discursive move contradicts grassroots ideological position, a deeper implemented, the involvement of state through the judiciary system is unavoidable. But determine to grassroots networks claim to follow. For if their demands for criminal justice procedures are to be the anarchist principles reparations for the affected parties. The problematic aspect of this framing that is it is at odds with enforce accountability for the climate and technical solutions. On the one hand, this discursive to move attempt an as can regarded be change involves coalescing various justice claims as opposed to only contesting the emission targets the scope ofthe counter Overall, engaging a human rights perspective that calls for the creation of a separate tribunal widens being and not as a resource pool for the economy. environ compensations. The call for criminalizing environmental degradation is then an attempt to position event of large scale damages; therefore punishment for such damages rarely goes beyond monetary economic view of the environment, most judi damage through the loss of land productivity or destructions of ecosystems, for example. Due to this degradation resulting from specific human activities has mostly viewed been as causing economic by counter The use of criminal justice rhetoric in the grassroots’ actions thus indica contributingimplicated in climate to change. justice discourse and of certain actors (fossil fuel industries and banks) that are directly or indirectly ment and climate change specifically, as an essential condition for human security and well - discourse climate on justice discourse. As noted (2010 by Mares

- of autonomy and rejections of state intervention and authority that discourse, showing that resistance to the dominant discourse onclimate - damagingactivities of corporations or industries and obtain

cial systems lack criminal justice procedures in the 143

tes a new path being taken ) , environmental - CEU eTD Collection communities. communities. counter dominant framing. An even more important form of redressing the debt foregrounded in the counter while the financial reparations to the affected countries and communities are welcomed in the climate change politics and steer it in the direction of reparative and procedural justice. However, Second, the concepts of ecological and social debts articulated the by networks seek to refocus grounded understandings of climate justice as produced by the activists from the global South. for inequalities. A currently missing element in the discourse of the activists is the incorporation of climate change issue and shift the emphasis from the responsibility for emissions to the responsibility networks’ conceptualization engaging various justice claims seeks to expose the complexity of the regards to the historical responsibility over emissions in the dominant discourse, grassroots through the thread of global inequality.In contrast to the focus onthe North- dichotomy with a focus on communities, economic system, and fossil fuel industry) connected climate change are conceptualized in the counter international dimension of climate change politics. First, it has been argued that the root causes of This chapter has examined how the counter 6.5 ( international community in light of stalled negotiations and the lack of a binding legal framework discursivethis framing is more likely to li be link provingbetween the of of certain activitiespractical impossibility goal the climate and impacts, Looking at the criminal justice demand from another perspective, it can be argued that given a Lin 2012 Lin Conclusions - - discourse is through non- course,dis their transfer is envisaged through by ; Nicholson and Chong 2011

financial channels, i.e. returningthe land a ) .

nked to exerting political pressure on the states and the 144 - - discourse as comp

discourse climate on justice engages with the

- passing the institutions connected to the rising three layers (North/South nd resources in the South relations with South relations with CEU eTD Collection going beyond the distribution of financial resources. understanding of climate change as inseparable from a variety of injustices that require measures challenge the narrow dimensions of climate change politics. Instead, it offers complex a historical responsibility, debt, North/South etc.), it imbuesthem with opposing meanings that concluded that while counter resources subject to economic rationality. Basedon the findings pr attempts to reframe climate change as humanistic a issue rather than a problem of environmental exerting pol the with criminal justice discourse. discursive This move is regarded additional an means be to of counter Fourth, it has been argued that in addition to the envi with the issue. the management of the climate refugee flows and the nation calls The forsituation). freedom of migration runcounter to the dominant discourse concerned with to cover the displacement of people affected climaticby Third, the notion of historical responsibility of the global North is extended in the counter - discourse has started to incorporate a human rights perspective which links climate change itical pressure onstatesand the international community. At the sametime, it also signals -

discourse draws the same on concepts as the dominant one (e.g. 145

ronmental and social justice frameworks, the the frameworks, justice social and ronmental and

- non- state framework that is engaged to deal to engaged is that framework state climatic causes (e.g. war, economic esented in this chapter, it can be - discourse CEU eTD Collection counter false solutions is presented. The findings suggest that this concept plays an i processes and energy democracy as the ‘true’ solutions. In the first part of the chapter the concept of solutions” and foregrounding decentralized community approach is actively contested by grassroots networks through rejecting what they call “false emissions and thus promotes technical and managerial solutions. This section demonstrates how this politicized approach to the problem ( As noted in earlier chapters, the dominant discourse climate on change is characterized a by de 7 counter of negative impacts of some technological projects (e.g. CDM and nuclear), the injustices associated character Finally, it is argued here that the concepts of false and true solutions reveal the multi chapter point to areas where the counter environmental justice implications of the dominant framing. Yet the tensions identified in this approaches to climate crisis within the dominant discourse and foreground the social and grassroots networks contribute to the construction of the counter Overall, it is argued in this chapter that the concepts of false and true s the dealing with necessary transfer of power from these actors to the communities. The second part of this chapter between the elite (government and corporations or the rich) and people, and foreground the solutions. The concept of false solutions is thus dominant solutions and the close ties between government and corporations in promoting such

Confronting false and endorsing true - - discourse climate on justice as it serves to emphasize the market discourse: renewable energy plays a key role in a just transition towards energy democracy.

of climate justice in the counter

notion of true solutions reveals how this transfer of power is envisaged in the Swyngedouw 2009 - discourse that unequal claims distribution includes discourse about - discourse struggles to contest the dominant discourse. 146

used by the networks to articulate the antagonism

- run renewable energy projects, just transition )

that focuses exclusively carbon on solutions - discourse that challenges the olutions articulatedolutions by

- based nature of the mportant role in the - dimensional dimensional - CEU eTD Collection false solutions that the network opposes: “nuclear energy, large dams and other large Back in 2002, before climate change was onthe agenda of most grassroots groups, RT highlighted fuel cells) Car technology (electric, hydrogen, Agro fertilization) Ocean (Carbon capture and storage, Geo Techno fixes The concept of false solutions that is central to the counter 7.1 (indigenous people and renewable energy). with cultural misrecognition (the case of indigenous knowledge resources between developed and developing countries are replicated in the dominant solutions to “colonialism with a modern face” (Ibid.) in the statement, suggesting that the inequalitie statement demonstrates, it is not the sole reason for rejection. First, carbon trading is called being considered a false s reductions” (RT 2002a). Failureto reduce emissions is positioned here as the ultimate reason for Implementation' and other false solutions being used as ato way escape responsibility for emissions projects” and “Emissions trading, carbon sinks,the 'Clean Development Mechanism', 'Joint Nuclear power hydro Large modificationGenetic Table 4 kinds various in Table 4 below. As the table illustrates,major two categories are the so activists’ texts, the false solutions thatgrassroots oppose can be grouped in the categories presented present in grassroots’ discourse since the early years of clim - - engineering fuels False solutions . Examples of False S ofFalse Examples .

of financial instruments financial detail the that of be in in will sectionsexamined that follow.

olution. However, example asthe of carbon trading given in the same

olutions

CDM REDD Carbon trading: Financial fixes Carbon rationing Carbon offsetting schemes Carbon sinks Joint Implementation projects

147

- ate activism. Based on the analysis of analysis the on Based activism. ate discourse climate on justice has been ) and political misrepresentation) political and

- called techno - scale, hi s in access to - fixes and and fixes - tech tech CEU eTD Collection since the time of the first statement in 2002. Th 2002. in statement first the of time the since they rank first among the issues discussed, which suggests that this idea has gained in importance In the recently updated political statement of RT (2011b), false solutions became more prominent as articulations around the concept of false solutions at the early stages of climate act victims. Thus, RT’s first political statement shows that the notion of justice was already salient in the responsibility and the unequal distri dominant discourse on climate change reflected in the UNFCCC discussions about the historical global North are implicated as responsible. This juxtaposition of North against South echoes the ‘southern countries’ versus‘rich’, ‘rich countries and companies’ it fol verbs “profiting” and “cheated”. From the opposition of ‘poor’, ‘marginalized communities’, through the use of such phrases as “an illusion of benefiting” and “masking the fact”, coupled with Once again, the intentionality of the injustice produced asresult a of carbon trading is emphasized are being cheated in the name of sustainable development” (RT 2002a). which are profiting fro m access to emissions permits and control of new southern markets. People that southern countries are benefiting, while masking the fact that it is rich countries and companies companies” apparently refers to the actors from the North: “They [false solutions] create the illusion suggests that carbon trading is intentionally profit climate change. Second, by using the words “strategy” and “designed” and “appropriate”, RT marginalized and poor communities to the countries of the South, gap between rich and poor” (Ibid.). The next sentence of the same quote extends the notion of “These are false solutions which are being dumped on marginalised communities, thus widening the verb ‘dump’ indicates, is this solution false as it is on certainimposed communities against their will: carbon sink, which is a strategy designed to appropriate indigenous lands” (Ibid..). Further, as the bution of climate impacts, but RT clearly takes the side of the e wordinge of the concept has also evolved.Alongside 148 -

oriented: “A key element of carbon trading is the

lows that the actors of the of actors the that lows while “rich countries and ivism. ivism.

CEU eTD Collection the originalthe term (false solutions), RT is now using “market led solutions”, “corporate shows that RT links the unacceptability of certain solutions to their market (R because they’re in the pockets of big business, because politicians want to get re ca “We Hallmarks: business. These arguments are well expressed by RT in the statement onthe adoption of PGA current with the tight system the and of political links limitations mistrust the government in lie in within the dominant discourse are not fit to address the This antagonism between Elites and People is used by grassroots to argue thatthe solutions offered resources away from elites into popular control” (RT 2011b). 2004c). (RT wealth” from the by world's elites, with its effects felt most powerfully by those with the least power and issu an how RT related climate justice to the inequality between rich and poor: “[ and the poor and marginalized these who suffer elites. from the actions Consider of for example applied not only in reference to government butals ordinary peoplecommunities everywhere” (RT of 2011b). At the same time, the ‘elite’ term is “ (another synonym for ‘state’ is ‘government’) are contrasted with ‘ordinary people’ and Regarding the close ties between the state and corporations, also referred to ‘elites’, as these actors solutions forward. hand, and onthe other to the close alliance between corp orations and state as the agents who put the Corporations working in collusion with government elites the exploitation are at the heart of of T 2011b), all of which refer to the same concept of unacceptable solutions. The change of wording e of social justice as of the environment. That means it is a problem caused by and profited

n’t trust governments to bring in needed changes -

Likewise, in the recent political statement - friendly and state and friendly - sponsored solutions”, or “green capitalist approaches” 149

o to designate to ao “global elite”, or “world’s elite”

climate change problem. The reasons for the - based solutions” (RT 2007b), “business

Tclsfr“rsigo wealth and RT calls “wresting for of

C]limate change is as much much as is change C]limate mostly because they can’t, - based nature on the one - elected and don’t

communities: communities: - CEU eTD Collection and to foreground the transfer of power as a necessary step and part of the solution to the problem. ‘elites’ but also to articulate the antagonism between these actors and th market character of the proposed solutions and close ties between government and corporations and Thus, as clima 2007b). (RT order” current the pave the way for the different kind of world we want to bring about, rather than ones that reinforce changes that we believe need to happen for and by ourselves. And we try to do it using methods that not to give up our power or transfer our responsibility to someone else - discourse on climate justice. RT provided a good explanation of how it works for them: “we choose In fact, taking control of de 2010d). themselves, in order not just to preserve the world we know, but to create a better one” (CfCA a charade, and cannot respond to the scale of this challenge. Solutions must come from people technological problem” (Sinha pers.comm.), and “Our current system of representative democracy is which has caused the problem. And the business approach to the problem is simply seeing it asa is giving corporations. So corporate solutions don’t really work. Business asusual doesn’t work. What works the Climate Camp statements: “We need to empower people and communities rather than transfer of power and the role of com That is why the current discussions about falsesolutions are linked in grassroots discourseto the believe is the root cause of the problem - want to lose votes with huge new taxes caps or flights on for example, and mostly because wewhat … transferring… power to people and communities. Because it’s the business

te activism matured,the notion of false solutions served not only to emphasize the cision

- making processes and of one’s life is a leitmotif in grassroots’ munities, suggested as activist by John and reflected in of one economic growth - 150

they see as a key goal” (RT 2007b). e people and communities,

we try to ma - led development ke those

CEU eTD Collection synonym for techno in encouraging” solutions that do not bring constructive changes. The metaphor “elixir”used asa the status quo is intentional because ‘corporations are seek significant changes, i.e. will keep the statusquo in the current economic system. Moreover, keeping The use of the idiom ‘business as usual’ emphasizes that the technical solutions will bring no In the new RT statement, techno and collocations that accompany the term in grassroots’ texts. its meaning for the networks can be gatheredthrough the analysis of the context in which it is used constructed by the grassroots networks.While there is nostraightforward definition of this category, Building on the previous section, this part examines how the notion of “techno- actions against specific types of The sections that follow support this argument with the empirical evidence from the grassroots’ the texts these actors (together with government) are designated as t as designated are government) with (together actors these texts the because it suggests that these specific actors are pushing false solutions the on agenda. Elsewhere in succeeded. Furt "business as usual""business 2001a). (RT “These projects are mostly funded by oil companies which have a strong interest in encouraging corporations are seeking the elusive elixir which allows us to continue business as usual” (Ibid.) and fixes” is commonly collocated with “business as usual”, as for instance in these Additionally, various car technologies are mentioned in other texts (RT 2008a). The word “techno- industrial ag 7.1.1

Techno rofuels, genetic modification and nuclear power (Table 4 in previous section). hermore, the agency, expressed in corporations and oil companies, is important here -fixes - fixes alludes to the alchemy that sought to create the elixir of life but never

false solutions. solutions. false

- fixes are explicitly identified as large scale geo

151

ingthe elixir” and“have strong a interest

he culprits he the for climate crisis.

quotes: “Everywhere fixes” is discursively - engineering, CEU eTD Collection 2008b). problems of over consumption or deal with coal’s other social and environmental impacts” (RT needs to be burnt; increasing the overall pollution caused. It also neglects to address the wider requires up to 40% more coal per unit of electricity than coal generation without CCS. So more coal increased input of coal and consequently, exacerbates negative environmental consequences: “CCS and storage and (e.g. 2008 report of the House of Commons Environmental Audit Committee oncarbon capture networks from the discussions circulating inmedia the (Monbiot 2008) and in UK pol earliest” (RT 2008c) and is an “unproven pipedream technology that won’t be available for 20 years at the in other texts, where the technology is termed as having onl technology. The argument of the current unavailability of carbon capture and storage (CCS) is salient comp carbon capture technology it is suggested that the system is not currently operational, yet the against the company sought to highlight E.ON’s manipulation: by using the adjective “future” with action fired taking power for station reason the of at Kingsnorth” formulation (RT Such 2008b). “exploiting the idea of a future Carbon Capture and Storage system to justify building a new coal solutions” were carried out by RT groups all over the UK. London RT targeted E.ON offices for targeted fossil fuel companies. In 2008 a number of actions against “clima as carbon capture and storageand nuclear power for example was incorporated into actions that While some types grassroots discursively challenge and undermine the potential of solutions proposed by these actors. Thus, by identifying the same actors as a cause of a problem and an agent generating solutions to it, any uses it to legitimize the construction of a new power station that will be run on the old

( Jones 2008 Jones ). ). The argument against CCS is also based onthe claim that the technology leads to the

of techno- ) . Such doubts in the availability of CCS technology are borrowed by grassroots fixes were criticized in the written texts, resistance to techno 152

y “a remote prospect” to implemented be te criminals” and “false “false and criminals” te itical circles - fixes suchfixes - CEU eTD Collection distribution as the main argument against this “techno- below), the protestors chose to focus on the impacts of agrofuels on food production and CfCA and Action Against Agrofuels. As the banner fro actionm the against Cargill suggests (fig.9 and the agribusiness company Cargill in Surrey (fig. 9 below) became targets of the activists from

Agrofuels 2008). Although the link to climate change was explicit in the press release, the overall against (Action office Kingsnorth” at two Camp days Climate the of beforestart official the soils, is of the one quickest ways of heating the planet. This is we why are blockading the Cargill destroying ecosystems. Destroying rainforests and other bio agrofuels to expand soya, palm oil and sugar plantations, displacing communities, food crops and change was established as an extra reason for targeting the company: “Cargill using is the boom in However, in the accompanying press release and leaflet, the link between agrofuels and climate 2008 Agrofuels against Action Source: 9 Fig. renewable solutions grassroots networks, whereas in the dominant discourse industrial biofuels are part of sustainable known under the name of biofuels. It is notable that a Another example of a techno- . Climate. Activists Blockad ( ) 2009 Giddens fix but criticized for different reasons is the rejection of agrofuels, also e Europe O Cargill . During. 2008 CfCA atKingsnorth the agrofuels depot in Essex

153

fix”. fix”. ffice grofuels are regarded as a false solution by

- diverse ecosystems, including healthy

CEU eTD Collection Thus, the example of agrofuels as techno “small ensure to demand since it will require a major transformation in the systems of production and consumption for food sovereignty defined by activists as ‘people’s right to food f that campaigns onagrofuels by producingreports and organizing actions. On the other hand, the call and wording analysis of other agrofuels together with other groups which could influence the wording of the key messages. In fact, the this particular case it should be taken into account tha lobbying, such demand can be interpreted as reformativeand not challenging the statusquo. Yet, in because onthe one hand, given grassroots’ adherence to the anarchist principles and rejection of support food sovereignty’ (Ibid.) makes the contestation of the overarching framework controversia policies that promote agrofuels’,‘end free free trade agreement that allows this injustice to jurisdiction a nation of justice (Fraser2005) in order to highlight the injustice caused by the multinational that escapes the all the evoke implicitly activists Guinea, New Papua and Brazil, Paraguay in emissions. By citing the voices of the people affected the by spread of agrofuels as a new commodity thus positioned as a cause of social and environmental injustice rather than an issue of carbon deforestation and rising food prices that exacerbate hunger in particular regions (Ibid.). Agrofuels are grabbing”, meaning communities’ dispossession of lands for the sake of growing monoculture crops, emphasis in the action was onthe social and environmental impacts of the technology, “land as such discourse that activists seek to construct: their counter

used could be traced back to the group called BiofuelWatch, a major group in the UK - scale, biodiverse, organic farming, instead of energy of instead farming, organic biodiverse, scale, - state. They are thus contesting the institutional framework reflected in the - relatedtexts connected to either RT or CfCA revealed that the arguments - trade and food agricultural policies’ and enact ‘policies that - fixes demonstrates the tensions within the counter

154 happen. However, the call ongovernment to ‘halt

t the actions against agrofuels were carried out - arguments aimed at challenging the dominant irst’ can be regarded as a radical aradical as regarded be irst’ can - intensive agriculture”intensive (Ibid.). - affected principle of - l

CEU eTD Collection Another tension in the counter - fixated onthe emissions and specific policies. discourse onsolutions to climate change fail to completely disengage from this dom 2006 a “small a 2006 the dominant discourse onclimate change solutions. The fact that duringthe first CfCA in Drax in solutions’ for grassroots that incorporates the possibility of control and autonomy totally absent in above corresponds to the notion of ‘local’ and ‘community’ and it is in fact a‘true key poin of t the dominant discourse as a potential solution to climate change. Nuclear discourse is one of the The final example of arguments against techno- ground. outlook and perhaps a lack of real experience of dealing or working with the communities on the motive and so on. These two assumptions regardi communities might be susceptible to the same problems of domination, exploitation, the profit community control as insurance for better management and/or sustainability. In reality though, done (Ibid.). Secondly, a similar assumption is made by grassroots whe is then the goal or the agenda of those who operate the project, rather than the scale on which it is which many activists and researchers tend to fall: a is inherently better than a large based on particular assumptions regarding scale and community. small that assumed is it First, be recognized that grassroots’ discourse onlocal, small that scale is an important aspect in the definition of a true versus false solution. However, it should external extent, function or quality” scale projects while in reality scale is socially constructed and therefore, “[no] scale can have an

- scale biodiesel” was used as p - scale. According to Born and Purcell, this is the “local trap” into

discourse is related the to issue scale. of ‘Small- ( Born and Purcell 2006: 196 2006: Purcell and Born art of sustainableart energy sources (RT 2006a) suggests fixes is the case of nuclear power, which is debated 155 ng true solutions demonstrate grassroots’ idealistic

ssigning an inherent quality to the local or small

- scale and community and scale )

. What makes a project sustainable a project makes . What - n theyn advocate for controlled systems is scale’ in the quote inant discourse - scale in in -

CEU eTD Collection long arguments of high costs, safety, especially in light of energy security ( Such refr viable,reframing as low a it aU made government resistance, rejection and revival since its emergenc [nuclear power] is certainly not carbon neutral, it’s an extremely intensive industrial process to get its meet governments’ framing of nuclear power as a low However, a more pronounced argument that grassroots networks put forward sought to refute 2005b). on the face of the earth” and is “a by argument thatrecognizes that nuclear power is “inextricably linked to the most destructive weapons also present in the grassroots’ arguments, although it does not take a central place but is a supporting accident, are used to rearticulate the discourse. link The to the nuclear arms proliferation di movements (e.g. CND, Greenpeace and FoE) shows that contextual factors, such as a recent completely” (RT 201 countries at least put a moratorium on new nuclear, or even make plans to phase out nuclear energy present the UK’s government decision to renew the nuclear build as ridiculous “[w]hile other argum 2010, safety in Fukushima at accident nuclear the Let us consider the current arguments that grassroots used against this type of “techno- Chernobyl, and the danger of nuclear arms proliferation. - lasting discourses onthe UK public and political agendas that passed through stages of support, carbon emissions reduction targets. During a discussion onCfCA radio it was argued that “it

aming was in line with the neoliberal agenda that dictated solutions to climate crisis and and crisis agenda climate to solutions that dictated neoliberal the with line was in aming ) 2011 Doyle 1d).Drawing this on safety discourse used previous by cycles of social - turn onits previous decision of rejecting nuclear as an energy source by - cost solution to climate change ( . Historically, civilsociety’s resistance to nuclear was based the on - p roduct of nuclear arms, not the other way around” (RT 156 - carbon energy source that would allow the UK to

- 2006 years the In 1950s. the in e

ents regained ground and made it possible to

grave accidents at ThreeMile Island and Bickerstaff

al. et 2008 ; 2008 the UK UK the 2008 Doyle 2011 Doyle fix”. Due to to Due fix”. scourse is ) . CEU eTD Collection decision of justice comes to the fore when activists highlight the exclusion of local communities from the unjustly distribu be will impacted). only Further,not grassroots networks, specifically distributional justice (i.e. some communities located next to the site be Similarly to the arguments against agrofuels,the evocation of “local communities” whose lives could impacts as mining “destroys huge landscapes and local communities living there” (RT 2011d). arg RT site nuclear anew against issues as opposed to being fixated only on the climate impacts. To give an example, in the action grassroots networks present a range of arguments that address social and environmental justice of the dominant discourse that focuses oncarbon emissions. Yet, similar emissions resulting from the extraction of uranium can be considered as being in line with the logic uranium ore out of the ground” ( be shownbe later in this chapter, communities’ access to decision infrastructure projects thus dumping a crucial cornerstone of local democracy” (RT 2011d). As it will fro communities Overall, the representation of nuclear power as a techno production is crucial for grassroots’understanding of climate justice. government’s discourse reframing nuclear power as a cost effective and low discourse articulated in the UK the by civil society. At the same time, in or dangers of nuclear arms are an equally important part of their argumentation against nuclear power. that grassroots employ: socialand environmental impacts as well as civic participation, costs and Although activists’arguments address do carbo n emissions, it only is one in a range of arguments climate change, grassroots networks present data that effectively challenges government’s claims.

affected is important here because it confirms the centrality of concerns for social justice to - making process that has taken place: “the government has effectively deprived local m having a say in the planning process for new nuclear and other major ues thaturanium mining has adverse environmental and social Dissident Island Radio 2009a Radio Island Dissident 157

tional injustice but also the political dimension injustice buttional political the also - fix draws onthe previous anti ) - . This argument about carbon making and control to the example of agrofuels, - carbon solution to der to refute the refute to der of energy - nuclear CEU eTD Collection a fixation oncarbon. challenged by grassroots networks through the assemblage of counter Apart from techno- From following quote regarding the inclusion of sinks in the Kyoto Protocol: to the relationship between North and South based on exploitation and inequality, as implied in the justice is revealed through a number of claims. It notable is that for grassroots financial fixes are tied absorbing carbon emissions is a discursive terrain where grassroots counter Tree plantation projects located in the global South and adopted within the CDM as a means of exclusively the on emissions reduction argument. grassroots put emphasis on a combination of negative social and environmental impac “(CfCA n.d.). However, the analysis of textsdealing with the financial solutions reveals that see it making and change” but are “organized around keeping the wheels on the fossil fuel industry as long as possible networks, given their claims that carbon trading and similar mechanisms do not “address climate reasons. Among these reasons, failure to reduce emi most evident. The financial solutions to climate change are rejected by grassroots for a number of others; therefore this is an area where the clash between the dominant and counter framework such as carbon trading, offsetting, carbon rationing, and carbon sinks project here as financial fixes. Such financial fixes include instruments adopted within the UNFCCC 7.1.2

this perspective, the framing of nuclear power as a solution is effectively resisted and be implemented in the South, where trees grow much faster than in the North,thus Unless local opposition prevents them from doing so, most of these plantations will

Financial fixes Financial m politically excusable to go ahead with new carbon fixes, gr fixes, assroots actively oppose financial solutions to climate change, referred to

158

ssions may seem of key importance for the - arguments that go well beyond

- intensive infrastructure” infrastructure” intensive - discourse on climatediscourse on - ts rather than rather ts discourses is s, among CEU eTD Collection resources: resources: carbon sinks are not acceptable for grassroots because they dispossess local populations of lands and with social unrest (‘repression of local opposition). Furthermore, monoculture plantat as not only will it not be properly compensated (‘however little money’) butalso will have to deal such projects. Such a structure cheap labor and land costs and a lack of strong civil society that would be able to effectively oppose discourse seeks to expose the true meaningefficiency of for the northern governments as being simultaneously incorporating the counter there. The structure of the second sentence continues to reproduce the dominant discourse, while create which will detrimental be for the l garbage dumps” implying that developed countries exploit these areas to outsource pollution they plantations sequestering carbon emissions, are transformed in the counter Kyoto Protocol for the CDM projects is subverted: the carbon sinks, the of name the official The contestation of the dominant discourse is also visible in the way the terminology used in the as the efficiency In the first sentence of this excerpt the dominant discourse oncarbon climate change is reproduced,

appropriation to make way to plantations (RT 2004b). their subsistence. Those people's lands are ther In the South, those lands are already occupied by people, who depend on them for however little --however some leave may including repr expensive much cheaper than in industrialized countries --where labour and land are more being more "efficient" for carbon sequestration. At the same time, they will be biodiversity, much of which could be wiped out large by The areas to be occupied by these carbon garbage dumps hostmuch of the world's dramatic changes in the soils where they are implemented (Ibid.). plantations. At the same time, these would deplete water resources and result in

of tree growing in the South is quoted to be the reason for locating tree plantations -- and will receive all the necessary support from Southern governments -- ession of local opposition-- helps convey the idea that the South is being exploited by the North, -- money in the country (RT 2004b). ocal environment: - discourse, separating the two b 159 desperate to accept any investment which

efore now under the threat of

- scale monoculture

y the dashes. The counter

- discourse into “carbon ions used asions - CEU eTD Collection Similarly RT, to CfCA demonstrates how a self of cultural recognition. This argument equally revealsa dimension of justice that counter undermined CDM by projects concerned only with the “carbon sequestration capacity” (RT 2004b process but because also their ways of life, traditional cultural spiritual practices and values are communities suffer not only because It thus is the political dimension of justice that is foregrounded.Atthe same time, these theme of the counter statement made duringthe COP meeting in Bonn in 2001 ontheir websit communities are the indigenous populations. partially By reproducingthe Indigenous People’s “marginalized communities” who are being exploited by the North. Among such marginalized the developed countries but also consumers in these countries. The global South is represente through financial means of neoliberalism. The personal pronoun “we” stands for the global North, agreement trade unfair against fought reference to colonialism here brings in the global justice discourse of anti to makemore emissions reductions so that we can keep onpolluting here” (CfCA2009f). The communities...This is essentially carbon colonialism, it’s co abusing those those carbon offsets in the global South are having horrific impacts onmarginalized 2 hydroelectric project threatens the local population through divertingriver water.result, As a the carbon trading with the exa approaches “carbon colonialism”, “modern- Using the countries of the South as “carbon garbage dumps” is what makes activists call such 011b; RT 2006b; RT 2002a).In the words of Kevin, “a lot of those projects that they are doing, - discourse, that of exclusion of indigenous people from the negotiation process. mple of Bhilangana dam in India where the CDM - s that continued colonial practices of exploitation but this time of appropriation of lands and exclusion in the decision- day colonialism” or “neo - sufficient local economy suffers from the impacts of 160

- discourse is concerned about: that - colonialism” (CfCA 2009f; RT RT 2009f; (CfCA colonialism” mmunities, expecting them e, RT highlighted another - capitalist networks that that networks capitalist

approved large large approved making making d by by d ). ). CEU eTD Collection for grassroots networks: community community in the first place. This also gives an idea of what a sustainable technology would be like emphasize that the real solutions to climate change should be local in scale and benefit the time, by presenting the Bhilangana dam as a typical example of carbon trading project (Swyngedouw 2009; Russell 2012) that positions climate activists as fixated oncarbon. At the same low agriculture. irrigation local activists is interesting “ingenious, referIt that that to system extremely as local population does not get enough water forthe traditional irrigation channels to suppor argument clearly takes pre as carbon emissions rights “to polluting companies in Europe” (Ibid.). Thus, the social justice community and supports their traditional irrigation methods because the emissions saved will be sold fact that a hydro power station could potentially reduce emissions, CfCAtakes the side of the local carbon emissions than would have been the case if it had not been built” (CfCA n.d.). Despite the hydr It is notable that in this example CfCA represents two voices, that of local communities and of the a solution put forward by the dominant discourse. traditional knowledge and a call for itsvaluation. This reframing helps challenge the CDM project as technology still in place due to the underdevelopment of the region. It is thus recognition of the growing food using irrigation channels is considered a modern climate change solution rather than a climate to solution cha the of villagers’ piece market mechanisms: “Important decisions, discussions and demands about climate change are being are change climate about demands and discussions decisions, “Important market mechanisms: Furthermore, financial fixes are also criticizedgrassroots by onthe grounds of being based onflawed centuries. the through transmitted and gathered - carbon system of agriculture”, “a uniquely sustainable modern technology” and even “the opower company which “ has hired consultants to argue that their dam will result in fewer cedence over emissions reduction, contrary to the post - run, and with low environmental impact, based onknowledge nge”(CfCA n.d.). In other words, the traditional way of

161

- political thesispolitical

grassroots t their t their CEU eTD Collection democracy is juxtaposed with markets shows that for grassroots the self innovation and emissions sequestered in sinks are not the sa reductions in the atmosphere, let alone the fact that emissions saved as a result of technical (Ibid.). On the other hand, there is a lack of trustworthy methodology for measuring emissions and institutions. This will lead to uncontrolled cheating, especially in countries with high corruption level the transactions due to the complexity of the global market itself and absence of accounting The other flaw of carbon trading, as grassroots emphasize, is the lack of control and monitoring over social and environmental impacts and technical flaws: As Table below 5 demonstrates, grassroots consider carbon tradinga financial fix because of its (CfCA 2009f). (CfCA ourselves, we want democratic institutions that enable us, communities, to make our own solutions” (RT 2002b). Hence the statement of one of the activists that “we want to make those changes essentially undemocratic because it does not allow any discussion or “leaves norole for civil soc common logic that they share relation to carbon trading seeks to draw parallels between the two types of markets and suggests the the few rather than creating any benefits for large numbers of people. Evoking this discourse in discourse where market mechanisms are criticized for being artificial me “Structured investment vehicles” and “credit derivative swaps” are markers of the financial crisis hav same financiers responsible for the ‘structured investment vehicles’ and ‘credit derivative swaps’ that and rules have largely been determined some by of the biggest polluters around,teaming up with the desp market,’ the to it ‘leaving of favour in aside swept e brought economies crashing down. They say markets, we say democracy” (CfCA n.d.).

will inevitablywill lead trading. failure to carbon in fact that The 162

ite the fact that it’s a market whose parameters parameters whose market a it’s that fact the ite me (RT 2002b). (RT me ansgenerating of profit for

- regulated market is market regulated iety” s CEU eTD Collection sources), and justtransition to a low encompassing renewable energy, energy democracy (access to and community control of energy solut is a key priority of the counter While opposition to the false solutions put forward within the dominant discourse on climate change 7.2 counter fixes” are what is central to the counter in grassroots’ discourse, other arguments based onsocial and environmental “financial impacts of It has been argued in this section that while the argument concerning emissions reductions is present - knowledge - (colonialism) - Enviro and Social Table 5 discussed in the sections that most severely affected” and must “foster local autonomy and self solutions. The central thread that connects these solutions is that they must be “defined by those true solutionspresent the notion that underpins of the counter these actorsreflected from decision in the the exclusion of with cu unequal negative distribution impacts of from carbon sequestration projects, the injustices associated - - - Undermines local culture, economy and Foster unequal relations between countries Excludes people from decision Adversely affects soil, water, biodiversity Privatizes common resources Does not eliminate fossil eliminate not fuelDoes use ions is an integral part of their discourse. In fact, the broad concept of climate justice True solutions - ltural misrecognition of the traditional the knowledge, indigenous the and injusticepolitical of ltural misrecognition . ArgumentsS . Financial against discourse revolves around a multi

nmental Impacts

follow, emphasis on the direct involvement of the people affected by - discourse that grassroots networks construct, foregrounding the true - making

- carbon and community

- discourse that

- olutions iesoa oino justice that claims includes about notion of dimensional 163 reduction correctly - unaccountability - North - Technical flaws Lack of methodology to measure emissions Polluters’ involvement is prone to fraud and Emissions reductions areavoided in the

they construct. findings The suggest that the - controlled eco - making process. Sections that follow - di scourse of grassroots networks. networks. grassroots of scourse

sufficiency” (2011b). As it be will

nomy, stands for the true

CEU eTD Collection necessary technological advances. In contrast, the counter rational economic logic seeking to continue economic growth and generate profit through making fits perfectly with the ecological modernization and neoliberal discourses that are driven by the without costs associated the current economic system towards a cleaner and healthier environment and decrease the discourse, renewable energy is preferred because it can potentially change the technological base of the sustainable technological solutions to climate change. The diverging point is that in the dominant intersect and divergeat the same time. In both discourses, renewable energy is considered as of one Renewable energy is a terrain which the on dominant and counter assuch low findings also suggestthat although the dominant discourse onclimate change draws onconcepts the political scale of justice (Fraser 2005) that operates on the basis of the all climate change or any by projects dealing with climate revealsthe salience in the counter preferable to mega developed are either the ones doing the developing or are heavily involved. Decentralisation is summarized notes, “Renewables are only as goo This idea was first articulated in 2007 at the CfCA workshop on renewable energy. According to the foundations of the current economic and political system. offer to the communities (in addition to being environmentally clean) which can potentially shake the implications of renewable energy related to the power and control that this source of energy might for action. networks imbue these concepts with differ 7.2.1

Renewables - carbon economy, justtransition, decentralization and renewable energy, grassroots - projects and open access to good technologies in an open -

radically transforming underlying the social or economic base. Therefore, it ent meanings and thus they result in different trajectories 164

d as they seem if the people where they are - discourse departs from the social -

discourse climate on change - affected principle. The source manner is is manner a source - discourse of CEU eTD Collection energy provision” (Ibid.). corporate involvement in energy systems [that] causes a reduction in political power associated decentralization in the quote above denotes a type of ownership that will allow “lessening of renewable energy the networks put emphasis not so much on the environmental aspect (emissions the counter Overall, what is important in the counter inevitably in the production and consumption patterns as well. needs which implies a transformation in how the energy is managed and distributed and thus fixes because they allow, at least in theory, the loc Thus, renewables, although a technical solution, are not rejected by grassroots or qualified as techno - quote implies that the actors who are to use this technology are not experts. governance underpinning the dominant discourse. The word ‘people’ used in e need for transparency and accessibility in the use of technology, as opposed to the restrictive expert above) as an important very significant fact ( should do it, the by people who live in the areas where renewable energies actually exist” transition to renewable energy not only happens but happens in the that sure making for available still is that time this use we that important very it’s why that’s be all the South where the renewable energy potential is high: “there’s gonna be a gold rush to take control of energy will eventually get hold of this technology by appropriating lands, particularly in the global involvement. Activists’ concern is that corporations that Childoflewin 2007 Childoflewin st wind sites of the world andis the true same for all overrenewable energy technologies, - discourse decentralization means the reduction of both government and corporate ) . Also, the words ‘open access’ and ‘open- or in getting power to people” the ( factor in getting power to people are salient here because they imply the

While decentralization is equally favored the by neoliberal governance, in - discourse re discourse 165

al communities to inbe charge of their energy garding renewables is that in the calls renewables for is that the in garding

are currently controlling the fossil fuel Jones 2007) Jones source manner’ (see the first quote

right way and theby people who

. Note that the word word the that . Note very sentence of this with with CEU eTD Collection counter the renewable energy, just transition is thus another discursive terrain contested by the dominant and increasingly framed around the transition to low th At 2010n). (CfCA transition" other and our planet to realise climate justice; description a for this process has been called just their discussion forum: “ positioned as of the one central aspects of climate articu justice. activists CfCA In the RT Coalition for Climate Justice Political Statement the concept of 'just transition' is transition and democracy energy that a similar concepts. This radical transformation is partially operationalized just in the concepts of this is what distinguishes the counter socio the social justice. implies vision of a radical This transformation of lens 4 that grassroots networks see climate change not through the environmental lens but through the i.e. aspect the managed, reduction), let alone the economic aspect, buton how these systems should be controlled and ( Oil, Chemical and Atomic Workers Union (OCAW) the light of environmental change ( employment is not possible; production sustainable workers in the event of factory closure; provision Labor Congress defined the concept of just transition through the notions of lost their jobs due to industry closures ( Lewis 7.2.2

al. et

- discourses. The term‘just transition’ was coined in the 1990s by Tony Mazzocchi from the Just transition transition Just ) 2004 , the concept of just transition articulated by the labor movement was reformist in

of power and justice.of Such emphasis supports the argument made in chapter We knowWe we need to radically challenge and alter relationships towards each

e same time, dominant the discourse climate on change is also Canadian Labor Congress 2000 - discourse on climate justice from the dominant one drawing on re discussed in turn this in the final chapter. sections of Trade Union Congress 2008 Congress Union Trade - 166 carbon and sustainable economy ( provision of programs of provision and

of of

in alternative employment alternative

relation to the fund for energy workers who ) . Overall, as critics have noted noted have critics as . Overall, ) . The. report by the Canadian , or plans, for transition in ; compensation compensation fairness fairness - lated the same idea on on idea same the lated ec onomic system and system onomic Audet 2012 Audet of treatment of treatment of when thewhen re

) . Like Like . - CEU eTD Collection low consumption economy sources' sourcesenergy because in the 2011 political statement for. However, it would be wrong to argue thatjust transition for grassroots is the vested corporationsenough but because industries it is something of of that they actively call governments should prepa the environmentalresult of change, i.e. something that communitiesworkers, of industries and that the labor movement considered the fossil the future fuelclosure industry as an of imminent networks is the same as for the labor movementthat came with up this concept. difference The is negatively affected along the way. In this sense, just transition the meaning of for grassroots the need for switching to the renewable energy sources and making sure that nocommunities are fuels in the ground" new and rejection explorations of and extractions (Ibid.). This addition implies for "a just, rapid transition fossil away fuels”, from hence the the burning call of for "leaving fossil (2011 statement political recent most its In income employees of industries reliant onfossil fuels i.e.transition a which doesn't fall hardest onlow income communities, communities of colour or low “ verbatim: almost statement political first their into and just transition for the first time, the RT network incorporated just the transition definition of Presumably ins Presumably of production and consumption. political structure in order to secure benefits for workers instead of radically transforming the system nature because its main objective was to pass a national legislation, i.e. put pressure onthe existing reframing evokes the dominant discourse onthe transition to the low (see above the quote from the 2002 political statement) was substituted with 'low carbon, with substituted was statement) political 2002 the from quote above the (see pired by pired

the Greenhouse Criminals vs Climate Justice Climate vs Criminals Greenhouse the re for.In contrast, forclimate activists this change is not happening soon

that is focused

b), b), RT theexpanded concept the by definition arguing of 167

on on

2002a). " (RT A Jus A well 'a just transition to renewable energy t Transition to renewable energy sources, - being, not profit

publication that linkedpublication justice climate

- carbon economy reflected in a " (RT 2011b) (RT "

only about clean . This . This CEU eTD Collection people organizing without leaders and not having any binding institution- Grassroots activists, in contrast, informed by anarchism, position themselves as loose network movement is their institutionalized character involves that leadership, hierarchy. and structure 2010r). very good people in the unions but as institutions they're onthe other side let's face it" (CfCA grassroots climate networks. the activists put As one of it ona London CfCA meeting, " hierarchicalThe organization is in divergence fact a point betweof policy documentsnumber and statements, of forexample ( order to survive and thrive and survive to order and organising without leaders, we demonstrate that we don’t need governments or corporations in hierarchical systems that the society is comprised of: " By 'dismantling oppression' activists the systems of mean fighting domination inherent to the and ourselves" and importantly,the just solutions must be necessarily "community build truly just solutions, we mustalso dismantle systems the of oppression that permeate our culture the conceptthe lies meaning in the attitude of power. to Namely, grassroots emphasize that " Regarding the interaction with the labor problems rather it. than an isolated part of political statement (2011) signifies a holistic approach aiming to cover the the whole spectrum of growth imperative. exp The what they call the “System”, from profit justthe transition key focus in the of counter positive driver for economic growth green jobs. and creation Yet, of while RT uses the same terms, the dominant discourse exhibits a technocratic the term seeking framing to present transition of as a The quote suggests that th that suggests quote The " (RT 2011b). 2011b). (RT " ansion of the focusansion from ‘energy of sources’ to the ‘economy’ in the RT’s e main problem with trade unions as representatives the labor of

movement discourse just on transition, the real difference in

- oriented to needs - discourse the economy, is onthe transformation of or 168

...when we create change through direct action OECD 2010 OECD - oriented and thus the the rejection of en the labor movement and ) . As noted by Audet (2012), (2012), Audet by noted . As like structures to inform inform to like structures - led" (RT 2011b). (RT led" there are s of s of [t]o [t]o

CEU eTD Collection use use then definitely” ( consumption. Supporting the workers support workers in a car factory continue to make more car parts that continues the cycles of done on condition that the workers radically cha consider the following a CfCA activist quote of who believes that supporting workers must only be corporationscontests or centralized the role of industries. To illustrate this idea with an example, production and consumption in their communities. This 'taking back the power' scenar should decisions be in control regarding of their energy sources, management and distribution, contrast, the counter and industries is the problematic point in the labor movement's just transition. interpretation of In themselves. ( As O'Driscroll required engagement both with governments and industrie their actions, beliefs or strategies. Moreover, just transition in the labor movement discourse collecting devices, bio progressive for the 1970s as it included small wind turbines, kidney machines for hospitals, solar implemented given the the current workers skills of and the available technology was quite and useful Aerospace developed converting elaborate mostly plans of defense demonstrated. Back in 1975, redundancyresponse in to Lucas the the threat workers of of sustainable production is not From view, the historical point workersof the idea of taking initiative and transferring their skills to engineers the and company workers as opposed to of being put forward by the management or any this caseimportantthat is the aspect so- of through

environmentally setting of up co CfCA 2010n; emphasis added). added). emphasis 2010n; CfCA - discourse of grassroots networksdiscourse emphasizes of that the communities themselves - gas and micro and gas - 2011 conscious one. The short -

operatives and community businesses which empowerthem ) new or impossible Lucas as Aerospace the casefactory of

notes, confrontation the with lack government, of corporations to take control take to - hydro among other ideas ( calledLucas Planwas put together the onthe initiative of

169 nge theirnge own workplace: “…

of the factor[y] and and factor[y] the of - list of possible projectslist of that could be s, as well as being driven by the workers - related production to a socially Räthzel put their skills

et al. et I would struggle to to struggle would I

2010 ) . Another

to betterto io thus , CEU eTD Collection drawn aroundthe same other companies time by such the employees as Vickers,of Rolls other third party. Simi communities in the (CfCA struggle 2010n). To illustrate with an example,2010 in the proposal the the workers fossil fuel industry of (CfCA 2008b) to more inclusive encompassing any strategy of discussionThe about the need for just transition evolved in CfCA from being narrowly applied to 2009l). (CfCA sustainable” workplaces their make industries take control of their workplaces to develop plans to convert their productive ca the idea of a worker them just transition meant workers To support. secure for do to so,their that station the activists clarified the workers with of touch into their practice. For example, priorto the action against Ratcliffe power station, CfCAgot in After this incident with miners, CfCA made efforts to better incorporate the jus miners just in which transition the idea was of pointed out (Ibid.). establish dialogue and clarify the reasons behind the action, CfCA had to write an open letter to the irgre h ed fmining communitiesdisregarded climate change the needs at of the ( expense of considered CfCA’s action as a direct attackagainst the miners because the calls for abandoning coal power station in 2008. Withoutgoing into de UK have generally been tense. For example, tensions arose when CfCA targeted Kingsnorth coal It is worthwhile to note that the relationships between grassroots networks and trade unions in the always favora prod relationship between trade unions that represent the workers and environmental activists do not transition has historical grounds in the UK. However, the problematic aspect to this idea is that the and Trafford GEC ( Chrysler uctive engagement. - led just transition: this means that we want to see workers in high- lar workers’ plans demanding the environmental consideration factors of were Randall and Hampton 2011 ’ taking’ power and control over their industries: “We believe in

tails, unions say trade to it suffices that industry coal 170

) Tu,teie fworkers of idea the . Thus,

t transition concept ) 2008 Douglas pacity and pacity polluting - led justled - Royce, Royce, . To To .

CEU eTD Collection Vestas,a Denmark renewabletechnology energy productionactionandthat workers’ bridged of issuesthe of rights. A more how specific climate example activists of take ‘just the on transition’ issue of was the Vestas turbine blades. In 2009 the factory management announced closure or workers the let Better It's our power too future families our is This you for news gotwe've Vestas network level just like the workers solidarityand would be crucial" ( for establish a national working group to provideresources for activists andrapid a response network (CfCA2010n). proposal The sought to add community a for just struggle transition as a fifth aim, to descendingprevious onthe communities strategy of with direct action and leaving shortly after carbon or not, in order to assist those communities with just transition struggles as opposed to the proposalThe advocated engaging with communities whether they are entitled "Community for Struggle JustTransition" was put forward onCfCA’s discussion forum. regardless of the geographicalregardless location) and of refugees discussed in the previous chapter. categories such as the globalof South (to include any comm systemic the issues.against all The ind just transitionconcept of has been broadened by activists to include not just fossil workers fuel of engagement with local community struggles. Atthe same time, this proposal highlighted that the engagement strategies from direct act 7.2.3 ustries (as it is advocated by the labor movement) but also any community that is struggling supporting "specific local sites of struggle at key moments in which a temporary

Vestas action Vestas - nationalise it nationalise - based multinational company, was the only factory in the UK to produce wind ganise it! ganise

'Boys on the Balcony' song by Seize the Day 2009 ( 2009 Day the bySeize song Balcony' 'Boys onthe - CfCA 2010n CfCA

led transition idea in 2008, itsignaled an intention to shift CfCA's - affected isprinciple thus evident similarlyhere to the extension ion in a swooped area to a more long ). 171 Although this proposal was not adopted on the

unities that have been exploited

of the enterprise thatof would lead

linked theto production of - term and profound

influx of energy energy of influx Visiontv) 2009 -

CEU eTD Collection

Source: ( Source: Fig to unite workers, the forces of trade unions and environmentalists and later moved savinggreen jobs. It should be noted that WCA started as a working group within CfCA witha remit decided to occupy their where the was factory located and convinced the workers to resist the closure, factory the workers of overto the 600 loss of jobs.After Workers Climate Action (WCA) Wight descended onthe Isle of 2009m; 2009n). 2009n). 2009m; national level as ‘green it was jobs’ and the source a contribution of to the ‘sustainable future” (CfCA that the factory played a huge role in the local economy but also in fighting climate change onthe supporting the Vestas factory campaign in August 2009 (fig.10. below Not only did WCA instigate the protest, but main the network, CfCA, took an active part in the factory couldthe closure not be stopped. of second Vestas in factory East Cowes by climate ca activists from all over the UK coming to support the struggle, including the the occupation of network. The occupation was followed by pickets involving local community members and climate . 10 . CfCA's. Solidarity with Vestas W Jones 2009 Jones

)

workplace calling on the UK government for nationalization in the name of orkers

172

mpers (CfCA 2009m). However, despite protests protests despite However, 2009m). (CfCA mpers

). CfCA's main argument was was argument main ). CfCA's

to be a separate aseparate be to CEU eTD Collection demand contradicted CfCA’s government position ondistrust of thesong at secti the beginning of demandscalling onthe government to nationalizеthefactory (as also reflected in the quote from the this the campaign, climate some activists of found it problematic to support the Vestas workers’ theworkers factory into activism. of While there was general support in CfC activists bridge the climate change issue with economic crisis and job the cuts and draw some of asoli had also workers blockading the factory by breaking through the police lines and bringing food supplies. RT CfCA activists a working formed group thatwent to occupy the second Vestas factory and assisted sake of preserving jobs. jobs. preserving of sake keep it in operation", which suggests that workers' ultimategoal is maintain to the status quo forthe from everybody is continued pressure on both the government and Vestas to retool this factory and these facts,Regardless elsewh of lobbying techniques. Vestas The action thus highlights a tension in the counter describes Vestasdescribes an open in letter: based on hierarchy and maltreats the workers,the other on the hand. workers Consider how one of and the fact that the company that produces it is a multinational business concerned about profits, is producingthe renewable necessity of energy technology and k

multinationals (Worker’s Climate Action 2009). 2009). Action Climate (Worker’s multinationals labour, andthis has not even been confirmed in writing. This is classic of these given an offer of a pitifulredundancy payout for all their years of conscientious other conditions have given it a very high staff turnover. them dry. Long hours in a highly stressful environment and fear of RSI amongst ...it [the company] triedto squeeze the last dropof work out of everyone, sapping darity action held by the Bristolbranch. Overall, this campaign helped grassroots ere in the letter the worker notes that "What we desperately need on). As the critics pointed out ( 173

eeping green jobs, onthe one hand,

... The workers h workers The - ) 2010 Federation Anarchist led solutions and avoidance of A for participating in - discourse between ave been , t his his CEU eTD Collection and Russell 2010: n.p.; Russell 2012). While the authors rightly spottension the in the counter green jobs and green economycreation based of onthe sam neoliberalism capitalism''green with as the restructuring because of they essentially call for the Critics claimed that the demands grassroots for just are "fully transition of compatible on behalf labor. own their over control the current workers’ lack of obligation and determination for taking action but also that the reasons for the action has to do with attributed ‘belong’ and control’ under ‘want ‘assert’, as such reason for activiststo oppose Vestas closure. modality The expressed in the verbs and expressions can it As be seen from the quote, the threat to the production of ‘green energy’ is not the ultimate the company’s interests: it: making put activists CfCA one aAs pro fit. renewable energy technology was important for activists, the the nature they were of conscious of sustainable and community activists for transition' phrase “under workers management” is extremely important here because it suggests that'just tension pointed out above, activists supported the workers in their call for nationalization but the factories into public ownership, under workers management" (CfCA 2009m) Similarly, CfCA issued a statement in which the thefirst occupation demand of was to "

energy but we want that workers’ under control this is about asserting environment into consideration, and they treat people wi people still operate for their profit margins. You can’t really expect them to take One thing that Vestas shows is that you can produce wind turbines but these same emphasis added). added). emphasis workers and the communities that have fought for them” (DissidentIsland 2009c; production here don’t belong to Vestas management anymore, they belong to the [manage Southampton, Newport to end up where they belong. And stopping them ment from selling turbines] is about asserting that these blades and the is about reclaiming control over the workplace - controlled production site. While the fact that the factory was producing

that yes, we want green energy and the growth of green 174

and we want these blades from e principle of growth and profit”e principle (Pusey of

to workers reveals a high degree of th such contempt. And so

in order to order in . Thus, returning to the

transform it intoa Take Vestas - CEU eTD Collection (2012f) CJC Source: A Bash Energy Six CJC Big 11. Fig. Vestas’ case) to the demands for decentralization and communit in the activists' discourse from the calls for keeping a renewable energy production facility alive (the discusse be will that Democracy Energy on campaign Namely, UK. recent most the the in matures activism climate concept for activist has broad emancipating implications that are becoming increasingly prominent as collectively consumption decide on the issues a of is growth networks challenge creating green jobs the idea merelycontinuing of for the the sake economic of Specifically, the being neoliberal aware strategy of to restart accumulation through a crisis,grassroots grassroots’ discoursegoes beyond the the just dominant narrow transition discourse. definition of of how thegood example term is used of in the dominant discourse), the findings suggest that an jobs’ ‘green terms discourse expressed in the thepartial dominant reproduction discourse of the through the use of 7.2.4 a process of transferring the power from government and/or corporations to the communities who wouldcommunities then to the corporations and/or government from power the transferring of process a

or quick fixing the climate change problem. Just transition for them, as shown in this section, Energy democracy now! democracy Energy d in the next section how is just a reflection the meaning transition of of has evolved

d ‘sustainable future’ (Gordon Brown's '100,000 Green New Deal Jobs' is a Jobs' Deal New Green '100,000 Brown's (Gordon future’ ‘sustainable d

ction

175

nd production. Therefore, the the meaning of y control over energy and beyond.

CEU eTD Collection Th government officials at the UK Summit. Energy London other confrontingand networks a number major with of aim the energy companies of and action entitled The Big Six Bash Energy was organized by CJC and supported by RT, Occupy democracy (Fig. 11 above) was voiced during C the first mass action of grassroots discourse when a novel (for grassroots networks in the UK) demand for energy community themeThe control of over energy discussed in the previous sections took a new turn in Future Blocs Blocs Future (2012b) CJC Source: 12 Fig. and democracy, especially the Robin Hood Bloc. 'taking back power' transferring or 'control' to people the and communities fairness as an issue of the blocs (Fig.description of 12 below) is that all but one bloc hadreference a to the notions of e action was organized around four blocks . Big Six Energy Bash Blocs Bash Energy Six Big . - destined to vary in tactics people and taking profile action. of What is apparent in the

- Dirty Energy, Housing, Robin Hood and Fossil

176

JC in May 2012. The mass mass The May 2012. in JC - Free Free CEU eTD Collection pitted by the activists against community against activists the by pitted p their retain which the government is now just one, colluding to make money, impose austerity,keep control and the people who should but also the government was positioned as part the of corporate elite: “This conference is all about priced” (Fuel Poverty Action 2012). Not only control by corporations was challenged in this action UK companies energy to decidechallenged “how is the sourced, energy monopoly of produced and Summit, activists Energy the (CJC targeting 2012a). By acommodity" and not "aright, as need Further, the demand for democracy energy essentially positioned access to energy as a basic human 2012c). (CJC capitalism" to keep the status quo of high energy prices, soaring profits, growing climate disaster and instability "This conference is a classic 1% stitch up. It is corporate elites, including the government, conspiring struggle between rich elites and ‘people’ – that evokes a fight against nobility and the rich, activists also usedthe reference to the contemporar 'People before profit'' (CJC 2012b). It is notable that apart from the powerful Robin Hood imagery energy in the UK. Using Robin Hood iconography a "focusas on the energy monopoly of the Big Six energy providers which control 99% of domestic In the press release prior to the action, it was announced that the Robin Hood bloc would be set up and the profit generated by the co for the energy is provisioned the and community managed by members who own shares of in these not Bristol and Brixton ( controlled renewable system energy already works energy coops in in theplace UK in in the of form democracy concept. Moreover,a community how activists provided a concrete of example - profit enterprises. energy shares Each owned, member the has number one vote of regardless of rivilege” (CJC 2012a). The government and corporate control over energy was thus thus was energy over control corporate and government The 2012a). (CJC rivilege” Potts 2012; CJC 2012a CJC Potts 2012; NOT

be making decisions about our energy.It about is corporate elites, of - op is reinvested community. in - control which is in fact the core meaning of the energy ) the 99% and 1% metaphor of the Occupy movement: . In the examples of Bristol. In examples the and Brixton of energy co- 177

it will call for 'Takingthe power back' and putting

ops, ops, y - - CEU eTD Collection Two crucial implications can be drawn for the counter it, but a localizable and contestable problem for the CJC: UK. In the words of concerns distant communities in the developing countries and the nation- What grassroots networks achieve is foregrounding that climate justice is nolongervague a issue that starting to be grounded in the UK context through energy prices and the issues corporate of control. South, the action take andenergy community control were discussed as related primarily to communities in the global commodification and a total control over the energy system. Second, while back in 2007 renewable right,and onthe this right other, through onthegovernment denial of and corporations’ fore. Instead, the primary emphasis was placed on the one hand on the access to energy being a basic intensifyingthe extreme action in terms weather of events was at the background rather than at the the The Big Six Energy Bash action.of First, climate change although featured in the justificat grassroots networks issue as an of grassroots quote This thus demonstrates that democracy energy the UK in the is regarded context by of rights strengthening the overall counter energy provisionenvironmental as inherently issue of democracy, linked to the issue of justice and changes in the way energy is perceived. Importantly, this action thusreframes a technical and

resistance (CJC 2012e). (CJC resistance pushing against state and corporate power raises new, empowering, possibilities for understandings of energy. What’smore, the act of coming together and physically Actions like the Bash have the potential to shift the debate towards more radical on threatening their power and on reminding them, and ourselves, of our own. This type of collective action is not based on dialogue with Big Energy but, rather, n byn CJC demonstratesthese that concerns over unequal access and control are

power and resistance as well as a potential catalyst for deeper - discourse on climate justice.on discourse 178

- discourse climate on justice from the analysis state framework for solving solving for framework state

ion for CEU eTD Collection grassroots networks. Instead, small Instead, networks. grassroots technical and financial approaches advocated by the dominant discourse are firmly rejected theby with corporate actors and a lack of capability for communities to decide on their energy so large ousting of communities from landand adverse effects biodiversity, on water and soil as result a of and South as well as between the elites and the poor, undermining of local culture and traditions, false solutions. Namely, the unequal economic relations between the countries of the global North emissions argument outweighed is by the socialand environmental justice concerns related to the carbon emissions is one which can be interpreted as reiteration a of the dominant discourse,the tradin carbon (e.g. embodied in techno- opposition to “false solutions” and by foregrounding the ‘true’ ones. It was found that false solutions characteristics of the dominant discourse is contested gras by This chapter has discussed how the technical and managerial approach to climate change 7.3 the concepts of ‘just transition ’and ‘energy democracy’ constitute the core of the counter transition’ processes and ‘energy democracy’ are viewed solutions reveal the multi pertinent for the UK context. Finally, this chapter has argued that the concepts of false and true dimeinternational on climate justice and demonstrate how this discourse is evolving to include not only the misrepresentation. The central thread of the discourse is that addressing these injustices requires claims aboutunequal the distribution of environmental harms, cultural misrecognition and political - scale technological projects are noted. Combined with the mistrust in government for its ties

Conclusions of the chapter nsion (i.e. relations between the global North and the global South) but also issues g) are rejected for number a reasons of the by activists. While the failure to reduce fixes (e.g. agrofuels, carbon sequestration, nuclear power) and financial fixes - dimensional character of climate justice a as - scale and community and scale 179

as true findings suggest The solutions. that - run renewable projects as well as ‘just sroots’ counter

counter - discourse comprising - discourse through - discourse urces, urces, CEU eTD Collection by theby injustices. challenging the existing power structures and shifting the power directly to the communities affected

180

CEU eTD Collection change is articulated by grassroots networks as a matter of a multi a of matter as networks grassroots by articulated is change international dimension of the problem, have been discu change: the scientific framing of the issue, the particular solutions proposed to deal with it, andthe The previous chapters have examined grassroots discourse closely as tied to the theme of climate 8 tech recognition and representation) in contrast to the dominant discourse that delineates the problem in upon the wider issues of economic exchange as an important in the networks’ discourse where discussions spill over the problematic of climate change and touch historical roots of climate activism in the alter climate the historicalactivism rootsin of dignity and respect was necessary for achieving this goal, as noted De by Angelis. Given the 2003 Angelis without replicating its alienating market mechanisms and commodified economic exchange ( arti alter the discourse, political new a construct to attempt an In most apparent. where the link with the alter commodified economic relations, what the tensions involved are and how the non- investi the construction of the counter practices into the politics of climate change, the contestation of these practices is equally crucial for discourse climate on change (see Chapter 3) is p

culate multitude a of alternatives to the dominant neoliberal order available in various struggles nical and managerial terms related to the nation the to related terms managerial and nical Navigating a commodified world commodified a Navigating gate how grassroots’ discourse onclimate change navigates through the pervasive ) . Emphasizing the power of cooperative social relations based on m - globalization discourse that preceded climate justice discourse becomes - discourse onclimate justice.The goal of this chapter is thus to 181

- globalization struggles, andthat the dominant

- remised upon the incorporation of neoliberal state framework. This chapter identifies an area

ssed. It has been argued so far that climate climate that far so argued been It has ssed.

node that needs to change. This is - - globalization discourse sought to scalar justice (that of distribution, distribution, of (that justice scalar utual enrichment, commodified commodified De De CEU eTD Collection discourse. discourse. capitalism capitalism practices such as privatization, commodification and financialization, ascribed to neoliberal acceptable way of designating the en used in relation to the economic arrangement that they try to resist, the word ‘System’ is a more As noted in Chapter 6, although the terms ‘capitalism’ and ‘neoliberal globalization’ are sometimes 8.1 furtherbe of goods or services for the sake of generating profit. In contrast, non- As Williams ( the dominant discourse. practice that grassroots networks engage in or foreground, contributes to challenging resisting and yet it is argued that can it also viewed be as an attempt to re a reproduction of the dominant discourse that seeks to reconcile environment with profit making, exchange is linked to generally rejected within the grassroots networks,it is still acceptable provided that the commodified or community service). argued It is the sections in that follow that while commodified exchange is the exchange of goods or services takes place without any monetary compensation (e.g.volunteering the profit motive is absent but monetary transactions do take place, and non- do not prioritize profit (co - 2006 Graham foregrounding the commons. Commodified exchange

( divided into monetized not Harvey 2005 Harvey

2005 ) . Re ) -

socialization is further identified in the promotion of alternative enterprises that has argued, commodified exchange is understood here as a monetized exchange

environmental or ethical considerations. Such acceptance can be considered as ) . This section explores the role of commodified exchange in the counter ops and credit unions), in the practice of non-

- for emy. - profit exchanges characteristic of the public sector where The context in which ‘System’ is employed invokes 182

- socialize econom commodified exchanges can paid paid collective labor inand monetized ones where ic relations ( ic Gibson- - CEU eTD Collection commodified exchange is unacceptable only within the network or if it applies to any commodified social relations for the society that they seek to build. This raises the question of whether commodified exchange is thus a matter of embodying the critique of the System and prefiguri have money, you couldn’t pay for the t challenge these principles in the first place: “It wasn’t freely given if there was need, …if you didn’t according to Emily, was the penetration of market principles into an organization that seeks to the commodification of the network and the movement as a whole. The problem with this initiative, supposed to be used for network purpinitiative CfCA in regarding debates stirred heated oses. This T- attempt to produce and sell the network’s merchandise. One of the activists designed and produced own circles. A good illustration of that is the incident that happened i In general, commodified exchange is something that grassroots networks seek to eradicate in their of social belonging can be done through buying stuff” assumption made in the process that “expressing your affinity with other peopl merchandise Climate Campalso commodified the relations between people because of the implicit articleIn his appears to be in conflict with the principles adopted in CfCA. the climate campers. The emulation of buyer commodified exch Emily highlighted the reason for which the T and consumption had entered the camp and people were very, very angry” (Emily pers.comm.). shirt by the t shirts with the CfCA logo on them for sale on the outreach events, and the money raised was - shirt making company who printed it production have small of suddenly, part like it’s a

criticizing merchandise the incident activist Neil Page that by noted the selling ange involving a profit motive and monetary transactions that wasunacceptable to - shirt, t shirt, - shirt had a set price, and the profit made from the t 183 - - seller relationships characteristic of the ‘System’ shirt designer was under fire. Namely, it is the

( ) 2009 Page n CfCA in 2009 involving an an 2009 involving in CfCA n . Rejection of any kind of e and gaining a sense

ng ng -

CEU eTD Collection are associated with locally produced food and merchandise sold the by producers themselves as artificialan linked creation specifically capitalism to ideology. or another Second, farmer’s markets 13 Fig. locally produced vegetables and home the messages with which this symbolic action was imbued. At the stall the activists were giving away metaphoric antithesis to the carbon markets that were at the heart of the action, it analyzing is worth a was market farmer’s the markets. While the carbon to alternative asymbolic as Exchange Climate CfCA 2009 In markets Farmer’s outside the network provided that it is justifiable onsocial and/or environmental grounds. exchange. As the examples that follow demonstrate, commodified have a long history ( markets, carbon unlike provision, retail of form a as markets farmer’s First, Camp. Climate by used unacceptable. A numbe not all markets arerejected and consequently not all monetized and for that amessage conveyed markets, activists carbon to alternative market an afarmer’s as offering By Photo credits: Kristian Buuus . CFCA Market S Market CFCA .

setup a mini farmer’s market during the Great Climate Swoop on the European

McEachern r of assumptions around the farmer’s market can be discerned in the example April 2009 tall. April

et al. et

2010 - made cakes (see fig. 13 below).

)

and can be regarded as a natural evolution of trade rather of trade evolution anatural as regarded be can and 184

exchange can acceptable be - profit exchange is

CEU eTD Collection jar of honey or jam next to the bread basket has a white cloth cover on top resembling trading is meaningful for the analysis. The fresh carrots, lettuce and bread are displayed in baskets; a representat visual the Further, production from the perspectives of health, ethics and environment (Ibid.). the ‘natural’ farmer’s market but also tap into growing the discourse onthe sustainability of food contr the stress only not activists the markets, farmer’s and a critique of, the industrial agricultureunder capitalism. Thus, by juxtaposing carbon and (2 the local farmers as opposed to the industrial overseas production (Ibid.). According to concept of ‘local’ is associated with the discourse of authenticity and quality of goods produced by transportation costs are minimal andthus the carbon footprint is low producer and helps support his livelihood. Next, locally produced goods are preferable because the ( opposed to chain supermarkets that are part of big corporations which often act as middleman home challenge the corporate retail chain and help recreate an authentic farmer’s stall, where products are preserves; cakes are also presented trays on without any packaging top. on All these details aim to ( make claims about local and environmentally and local about claims make pack environmental friendliness of the products sold. Even the big retailers themselves have started using grown ona small Holloway a Zukin 2008 Zukin ) 010 aging that either visually or textually recreates the image of a farm in a marketing attempt to attempt of in afarm amarketing the image recreates textually or visually either that aging - , farmer’s markets are simultaneously “the face” of sustainable agriculture and a challenge to achallenge and agriculture sustainable of face” “the simultaneously are markets , farmer’s made or home grown, natural, i.e. wit i.e. natural, grown, home or made ) nd Kneafsey 2000) Kneafsey nd .

- scale and are not packaged.There is thus an implicit assumption about the . It is thus assumed that the profit generated goes directly to the to directly goes generated profit the that assumed thus It is . ion of a farmer’s market (fig.13) amid the action against carbon against action the amid market afarmer’s (fig.13) of ion houtpreservatives, and presumably ecological as they are - friendly nature and authenticity of their products 185

ast between the artificial financial market and market and financial artificial the between ast er. At the same time, the the time, same the At er.

home Pilgeram Pilgeram - made CEU eTD Collection Finally, face the threatened the by current system of multinational community asense of and identity acertain of affirmative is it time, same at the but nationalism Such nostalgic representation is reactionary (Ibid.) because it evokes parochialism or even table cloth, woven baskets and waistcoats that evoke the rustic imagery of the count life here are the costumes of the activists décor and details: old an (Holloway market a farmer’s Also, this ‘alternative’representation is indivisible from the nostalgic or reactionary representation of of the farmer’s marketthus points to the acceptance of this type of commodified exchange on the o logic overseas to support the producer, even if the product is more expensive) and thus is contrary to the economic relations based on ethical considerations (buying local instead of something shipped from environment are recognized and valued. This re economic relations in the way that the interdependence of economic subjects, local produce and Gibson as - Overall, ‘System’ the by spread of fixed retailers. monetized exchange that has always existed but has been to some extent undermined in the current ( benefits of eating seasonal produce, while farmers are encouraged to grow a greatervariety of f systems. It also has an environmental education perspective because consumers learn about the Such interaction between the b establishing personal relations, as opposed to the alienating experience of shopping in a supermarket. Pilgeram 2010 Pilgeram f profit inscribed in the ordinary commodified forms of relations. Grassroots’ representation ) - . In other words, by promoting farmer’s markets grassroots foreground a form of to - face contact between the buyer and the farmer allows for creating social ties and Graham (2006 Graham d Kneafsey 2000). The symbols of nostalgia for the rural, authentic uyer and the farmer is instrumental for rebuildingthe local food )

suggests, accepting farmer’s markets is a sign of re of sign a is markets farmer’s accepting suggests,

186 corporations.

- socialization is important because it fosters - fashioned hats, checkered shirts and ryside England. England. ryside - socializing oods CEU eTD Collection 2011 (RT 2011a; RT 2011f). As activist Sydney explained, RT resisted applying for LUSH funding funding LUSH for applying resisted RT explained, Sydney activist As 2011f). RT 2011a; (RT 2011 ( 2009 founder summer in of CfCA Lush during had sent “Happy campers the Hippy to ShoGel” wer discussed as viable financing option for the network (CfCA 2008a).It was even reported that the co- At the national gathering in London in December 2008 grants from “rich people like Lush” were exchange in order to re it indicate a call for incorporating environmental and ethical considerations into commodified green consumerism case, is the engagement with LUSH a sign of failing to resist the dominant discourse that welcomes consumption of its products, and thus can be qualified as promoting ‘green consumerism’. In this values actions, and it is still a profit companies on the market, and as basedgenuine ona care for the environment. Yet, despite these is supports community and grassroots activism through funding. Such close attention to environmental ethical and environmental issues in their stores across the world and has a “charity pot” that addition, the company has carried out a number of awareness suppliers of key ingred considerations: no packaging is used for the products; noanimal testing is involved including the minimum amount of preservatives. Other core values of LUSH have clear environmental around the world.“Fresh” and “handmade” me LUSH is a retail company that sells fresh handmade beauty products in more than 40 countries Funding fromLUSH relations with a retail company LUSH and banking discussed below. assumptions of its environmental and social benefits. The same l Bryant and Kirby 2009 Kirby and Bryant sues can be regardedas both part of the brandimage that differentiates LUSH from other similar

and green growth? Or rather, as in the example of farmer’s markets above, does does above, markets farmer’s of example the in as rather, Or growth? green and

- ) ients; only vegetarian ingredients with clearly stated origin ( socialize them? Let us see how grassroots us Let justif them? see networks how socialize . Lik ewise, London branch of RT received funding from the Charity Pot in - oriented company that is inherently interested in increasing the an thatan the products are made by hand and contain 187

- raising campaigns on human rights, ogic is traceable in the example of

y this relationship. LUSH n.d. ) . In In .

CEU eTD Collection grassroots’ counter and ethical values reflected in a concrete practice (funding of external groups) resonate with Therefore, even though the company engages in commodified for i.e. its actions are based on environmental and ethical values rather being a marketing strategy. community action projects is a sufficient proof for RT that LUSH goes beyond the green rhetoric, the last sentence of the quote indicates that company’s history of funding of the grassroots and it further dueto the insufficient amount of dataon this particulartopic. As for the second reason, as genuine. Regarding the first reason, while it is an important issue for discussion, I cannot analyze consideration of funding options and to the recognition of company’s environmental consideration evi is It banking sector: networks took were against specific banks but the idea behind it was the critique of the whole responsible for climate change and the tensions associated with it. The actions that grassroots system is channeled. This section analyzes the attempts of grassroots to target banks as partially Banks are the institution through which a significant part of commodified exchange in the current Banking years: the over evolved for a long time because of the green consumerismimplications but the networks’ position has this section examines issue this a from differen section this where its mouth was and fund groups taking direct action (Sydney pers.comm.). as far as we could see it was the best out there, and it was prepared to put its money t LUSH was actually trying, it didn’t feel like greenwash as they were trying to reduce come by and LUSH had funded such actions in the past. Lastly the group felt like computer screen and get involved? Additionally funding for direct action is hard to for it viaa donate button,rather than asking individuals to move away from problematic As time passed think I the group startedto see most funding sources as dent from the quote that the decision to apply for funding was related both to the re heir environmental impact [...]Yes LUSH is a company trying to make a profit but

“The Camp for Climate Action isn’t focusing RBS on this summer because we want - discoursetheir and desire to re – is it better to take money from a group of rich individuals? Or ask t sector. 188

- socialize economic relations. last in economic The socialize example

- profit exchange, its envi

the the ronmental - CEU eTD Collection investments into dirty energy sources that exacerbate the problem. previous chapter, it helps localize climate change through linking the issues of public money to the fuels.fossil Similar implications for people in the UK are discursively linked by grassroots to the banks and financing of issues of climate change, environmental destruction for distant communities and social spending home”, i.e. people in the UK who are going to be affected by t quote above mentioning indigenous communities) but thistime these arethe communities “at to the (compare well as “communities” the to refer activists quote last in the that noting worth It is E.ON result of bailing out the irresponsible bankers. And now they are using our money to prop up the Communities in the UK are now facing years of cuts to health, education and social services as a pounds of public money to keep it afloat, highlight the stakes of the public in banks: Furthermore, alongside with the goal of delegitimizing banks’ sponsorship of fossil fuels, activists The environmental argument is thus bridged with the social jus that is important for grassroots but also how indigenous communities are affected by the extraction. Indige oil companies that are extracting tar sandsand in doing so trashing the climateand destroying extraction possible: “ th is banks against argument main The bring high finance down to earth” (CfCA 2010k). with “mainstream” economics. Our actions against them should be just one part of a wider effort to everyone to bank with Barclay s and the Shells of this world” nous Communities”(CfCA 2010l).Asfrom seen the quote, it not is only the effect onclimate ly to the demands for community control over energy in the UK discussed in the RBS is the UK bankthe most heavily involved in providingthe most loans to s instead. RBS is just an excellent example of everything that’s wrong ( CfCA 2010l CfCA to the to point where it is now 84% owned by the UK public. eir investment in fossil fuel industries that makes the

“Since the financial crisis, RBS has received billions of crisis, received has financial billions RBS the “Since 189 )

tice one. he cuts in public spending. Thus the

CEU eTD Collection questioned. questioned. solution to the climate change problem. The underlying economic and political structure is thus not should be directed into renewable energy sources since renewables are regarded as part of the investment in fossil fuel projects such as tar sands or coal should stop,and onthe other, that it major paradigmatic shifts. Likewise, activists’suggestion transform to that implies the RBS energy sources as the ultimate solution f reference to sustainability reproduces the dominant discourse that sees the development of green agenda” and “[w]e need to transform RBS into the ‘Royal Bank of Sustainability” (Ibid.). The especially RBS, need to be fundamentally reconstructed to put sustainabil of spokespersons Bryony Taylor and Oli Sumerling who said that “[w]e’re here to say that the banks, which directs the investment decisions and affects the accountability. Consider the following quotes grassroots are hinting at, it is clearly an articulation of a discontent with the current private type would welcome. While “Under new ownership” does not specify the type of ownership that because they both highlight the problem and suggest a shame RBS for investing in carbon intensive projects. The messages on the banners are significant blocked the entrance to the RBS bank in Central London (CfCA 2009g). The objective was to new ownership” and “Ethical renovation in progress”and dressed as construction they workers, Blackheath, activists held an action against the RBS bank. Equipped with banners that read“Under Royal Bank of Scotla institutions to better serve the needs of people and communities. The example of an action against the case of fossil fuel companies, but argue that it is necessary to reconstruct these financial investment that banks engage in.In fact, activistsdo not sugg banking as such or the commodified exchange that it contributes to, but against a certain type of However,

despite this attack onbanks, there is an indication that grassroots networks are not against

nd (RBS) illustrates this point. On September 1,2009, as part of the CfCA at or the environmental problems without the need for any 190

particular direction for change that activists est dismantlingthe banks asthey do in ity at the top of their CEU eTD Collection e can also be viewed as challenging the dominant paradigm through foregrounding the sociality of the dominant discourse that reconciles economic growth and profit with environmental protection, it take precedence over the profit motive. W rejected their investment. This implies that commodified exchange embodied in the banking sector is not suggestthat these financial institutions should be reconstructed to become ethical a To sum it up, this section has shown that instead of arguing for ‘dismantling’ banks, grassroots sociality. the and ethical ‘renovation’, grassroots networks highlight the absence of an ethical praxis in the economy (as in the example of indigenous communities used in this section). By articulating the need for that are affected by these decisions, be it communities at home, or the distantglobal or communities decisions not with priorities of profit making but with ethical discussions within the c Gibson- consid ethical call for se per Progress”) indicates that grassroots networks do not regard the concept of banking as problematic Furthermore,use the of the term ‘renovation’ onthe othe (Gibson- contestation, within the concerned communities regarding the direction and content of economy as an outcome of discussions based on ethical and social considerations, and thus inevitably economy is not viewed as a sum of calculable, disembodied, rational, and incontestable indicators but economy. Such re conomic relations and ethics in economic decisions which constitutes a call for re , but how this process is managed and what it is based ondoes cause anger and opposition. The term (2006) Graham per se per Graham 2006). 2006). Graham ; it is acceptable provided that ethical considerations regarding investment decisions

- socializing allows for constructing an alternative political discourse since the constructing discourse for socializing allows alternative political since an erations to be incorporated into the banking sector connects well with wh at

‘resocializing’ of economic relations, i.e. aligningany economic hile such a position can be regarded asreproduction the of 191

r banner (“Ethical Renovation in nd sustainable in - socializing the socializing the ommunities ommunities CEU eTD Collection actions acceptable, its legitimacy outside the network disputed.is not Instead, what they foreground in their The previous sections argued that while commodified exchange within the grassroots networks is not 8.2 multiplication of these alternatives these multiplication of that s would eventually profiled housing, student and farmer’s coops) and credit unions, grassroots essentially call for the c was shown above, are radically different in their logic of operation and they exist alongside the function on a membership basis rather than on ownership of shares. Creditunions and co - prioritized, in contrast to the ‘unethical’ ba act out of their needs or community needs first. Profit then is not excluded but rather not is then based on the assumption that the shareholders will not havethe same profitmotive but would provided that the people who have a stake in them can decide on their terms and c rejected on the grounds of being present in the ‘System’. Instead, they are acceptable to grassroots, What these ‘positive alterna needs of people involved as opposed to the profit motive of banks: t participants permit that corporate banks are highlighted (CfCA2010k). are They various forms of co- event in Edinburgh such alternatives types of enterprise that could potentially replace “unethical” profit and havedifferent a organizing principle. In the newspaper prepared for the climate camp concerns into them. Such incorporation is possible in alternative enterprises that do not prioritize onventional financial institutions. By encouraging joining co-

Alt

making a corporate bank, these financial co- size of interest rates, fees an Credit Unions: democratically run bodies say where equal an has everyone added). is the need to re ernative and not

for shareholders above all other considerations o decide collectively how to spend or invest the surplus money based onthe - socialize economic relations by incorporating ethical and environmental tives’ to banks suggest is that loans and interest rates are not totally totally not are rates interest and loans that is suggest banks to tives’ -for d services. Just like with the workers’ co workers’ the with like Just services. d profit monetized exchange monetized -profit nks.Besides, unlike the ‘unethical’ banks, creditunions ops are not to legally obliged place profit 192

hake the conventional structures. Thus, ops (Climate Camp newspaper also newspaper Camp (Climate ops

(CfCA 2010k; emphasis emphasis 2010k; (CfCA

- ops, and unlike ops and credit unions onthe onditions. It is - ops, as itops, CEU eTD Collection with their with Additionally, not only does the way banking system is organized not help “working people to get on based on profit and endless growth rather than people’s real needs and desires - themselves. Thus profit and growth are opposed to the needs of people: “…the entire system holder, “the people”, as opposed to being guided by the shareholders who are seeking profit for we make” (CfCA 2010k). The implication here is that banks should be controlled by the account account holders: “ grassrootsthe is lack of ‘democratic control’ over the investment process of the ordinary bank evidentalso f It is such enterprises, i.e. based the on all considerations rather than profit and that are agreed up on by the people affected by the existence of operating according to a logic differentmarket the to one, enterprises that are based ethical on such as credit unions and co- similar to the previous example with the idea of renovating banks, promoting alternative banking on with their day directly to the workers who theown enterprise; it is divided equally andused is to help people “get into a co- newspaper Bankers the is Mind useful.Never The factory was taken over the by workers and converted What is emphasized herethe is fact that workers ha illustrateTo this idea, the example Another example of an alternative enterprise in which profit is acceptable is worker’s cooperatives. climate change” (Ibid.). collectively own the enterprise, i.e. it is the workplace democracy that governs the relationship

op under workers’ management. The profit generated from the work of the co - day - to - - day lives”, but it also causes “ecological damage, over to a big problem here is that banks areundemocratic an way of inve romthe discussion of the banking system that the main problem with banks for - day lives” instead of being invested “in a faceless company” (CfCA 2010k: 15).

ops demonstrates that grassroots networks foreground enterprises

of the Brukman textile factory in Argentina given by CfCA in the - affected principle. 193

ve an equal status and rights in aco in rights and status equal an ve

- use of natural resources and

is at fault” (Ibid.). sting the money - op since they op go es – CEU eTD Collection Dyer between the participants of the co- long as it is appropriated directly by the workers who produced it. Overall, by hig work and exercise a direct control over the decision purchasing the film on the third had to email RT, Climate Camp or the production company (fig.14 above). The direct link for Although there was noindication of the DVD price on the RT website, in order to get a copy, one (2007e) RT Source: 14 Fig. DVD about Climate Camp in Drax. The film was produced together with other groups. their website. own However, shortly after 2006 Climate Camp in Drax, RT publicized the sale of a resists stuff selling publicizing via or even org website other (Williams 2005) tends to be acceptable to the networks. For example, RT, just like CfCA, normally Fu dominant paradigm but are not valued or widespread. alternative ways of organization and distribution of surplus (i.e. profit) that exists within the operatives as a possible and acceptable way of organizing an enterprise, CfCA foregrounds rther, in addition to the alternative forms enterprise, of a not - Witherford 2010 Witherford . Re . claim Powerclaim DVD

) . Such a way of governing allows everyone to influence the content of the

- party website was also given. The op andop the commitment for redistributive justice ( 194

- making process. Thus, profitacceptable is as anizations’ or networks merchandise on film was produced by an external - for - profit monetized exchange

de Peuter and hlighting co hlighting - CEU eTD Collection is 250% is quite which substantial). itsOn website the collective clearly stated that it is a non Cinerebelde is a media collective that produces and distributes films about and for social movements. is mitigated collective through paying extra. As a result, the element of compelling a buyer through a fixed price who have some financial constraints and a ‘solidarity price’ for those who felt like supporting the acknowledges the difference in the financial situation of potential buyers: reduced price for those options and that it was up to the buyer to decide. Such pricing is socially sensitive because it Unlike a normal marketplace where a product is offered for a fixed price, this DVD had four pricing Source: Cinerebelde n.d. 15 Fig. movements). Figure 15 below demonstrates the how DVD was priced. to CfCA and RT in its principles of working (non- struggles (Cinerebelde n.d.). Based on that information it can be concluded that Cinerebelde is close o sale third a agency, the with Starting thehow price was negotiated. in what case this is possible, it is necessary to consider the agency (who was in charge of the sale) and contributing to commodification, and therefore is acceptable to grassroots networks. To understand networks. This example indicates that there are cases when a monetized exchange is not seen as media collective with the cooperation of RT and CfCA,and thus was it implicitly related to both f products channeled is into production, distribution and translation of films about social . Reclaim. Power DVD P

by creatingby a range of options (in this case the difference between the lowest and highest

ricing -

party group,Cine

195

rebelde, was in charge of selling the DVD. - profit group, therefore the money from the for - profit and for the benefit of social

CEU eTD Collection as it follows a different logic to that of the commodified ex The implication of this example is that the monetized exchange is acceptable for grassroots, as long " of wellbeing of the camp"). Therefore, instead of alien (‘solidarity price’) and support a cause (consider Page’s appeal for contributing to the "life and therefore is also telling). Furthermore, the price range provides an opportunity to show care his/her needs are taken into consideration (the price carries information, and range the price donation product or service delivered on the premises of the camp during an event is totally non A related example is embodied in one of the main principles of CfCA according to which any food exchange. practices is then bringing those forms f considered outside the economic sphere. What grassroots achieve through engaging in these have always existed alongside the commodified forms of exchange but have been suppressed and c (2005), Williams notes as alternatives, Such networks. their within profit monetized exchange is in fact an alternative that grassroots implicitly support by enacting it m the not) established according to informal principles, i.e. the disposition of a buyer to financially support (or of supply and demand, whereas in the case of former, the the commensurability of the product is the other, i.e. the buyer is not a de commonly criticized the by activis This variation of monetized exchange defies another characteristic of commodified exchange, the person can use the services or products without paying anything, while with the former he or she affinity and community and affinity –

edia collective by buying the DVDdownloading or the film. This example of a not based. The donations can be of two types – " discussed above. ts ts – - personified subject assessed by only its ability to pay. Rather the alienation of individuals. The price range is sympathetic to orward and recognizing them as legitimate forms of economic 196

ating buyers, the exchange evokes relationships

suggested and non and suggested change. T he latterhe is regulated the by logic an regarded be as practices that - specified. In both types - p rofit and and rofit - for - CEU eTD Collection benefit. This makes it possible to see labor relations not within the network is an activity that prioritizes the common rather than individual effort and The multiple use of the word ‘collective’ in Jordan’s quote emphasizes that labor for the activists the following way: participants of CfCA and Worker’s Climate Action, summarized CfCAs’ position concerning labor in grassroots activists wit labor labor as only one among the variety of labor forms that exist and contribute to the economy. For work is an integral part of non- (2005), WilliamsAccording to non 8.3 marketplace is that pricing within the networkconsidered is restrictive and th providing information as to the actual estimated production cost. The difference from the conditions). ready to sell for (supposedly taking into consideration the other sellers’ reservation price and other service/product).In a regular marketplace, carries price information as to much how the seller is is given an orientation as to what the donation would cover (in terms of the cost of the limiting access to goods or services. the horizontal structure they try to create; therefore grassroots choose a donation option to avoid

Non ( dai Our “working”. sell these products. We are not given money in exchange for the time we spend of that work is held in common. We do not operate a money economy or buy and p not grow the veg or weave the tent fabric (for this we rely on the capitalist market sanitation, food etc.) are to a large extent products of our collective labour. We do labour and commodity markets. The things we consume at camp (the tent space, The Camp gives you a chance to experience an alternative to the world o Jordan 2010: n.p. 2010: Jordan lace) but for the duration of Camp the work is collectively shared and the product -monetized exchange With the suggested donation, a part of the function of the price is maintained through

) . ly needs are satisfied the by collective work of the community

hin their networks has a special meaning. Stuart Jordan, one of the commodified economic activities. It recognition explicit is wage an of - monetized exchange such as non-

197

through the prism of market relations, but pa id community or voluntary us anti us f wage - social, breaking social, CEU eTD Collection rather as human relations. Labor exchange of labor to push for a change”. Participating in the Camps was then not only practicing the labor individual, not you in your work alone, it’s up to us, the community, as a movement to change this, (pers.comm.), doing allthese things was important because: “ from supermarkets that would be thrown away due to close expiry dates. In the words of Anna like vegetables and fruits, some of the food came from a practice called skipping – gave markets that wholesale from and entertainment were also shared between the participants. Fruits and vegetables were sourced tasks of cooking food, caring for the kids and engaging with visitors, taking care of the tranquility they could achieve by working together voluntarily on a non- required the participation of all who came to take part. The ultimate goal was to demonstrate what toilets, greywater even though the focus was very often on taking direct action. Installing tents, marquees and compost At the annual climate camps collective labor was an inseparable part of the discourse and practice, s and mutual aid of Such a statement implies that "labor that implies astatement Such community but also a practice that prefigures future economic relations. human relations are formed andthrive. contrary, On the "labor inconceivable that you could havegenuine a connection with another human being without paying society we have become so fragmented and alienated from one another, that for many people it is their sheer ability to pay and their capacity to work. Consider the words of Neil Page: “ human force, which commodifies relationships, compels and alienates people by reducing them to

systems, sometimes wind turbines, delineating common areas, - - for olidarity rather than market than rather olidarity - wage. Thus "labor" (incommunity) the is understood as based onrelationship - in

the produce free for due to its“unmarketable” appearance. Just - the - in - - the community is humanized and opposed to the commodified - community" is seen as form a of social platform where - based. based. 198

paid basis. O basis. paid we tell people it'sup to us, not as an - for - wage"understood is as anti nce nce the camp was set, the

all these activitiesall these collecting food …in our - in - the the -

CEU eTD Collection mustreached be via consensus because rejection it a is of leadership” divided tasks Whilst be process. can meaningful for them because it “allows participants equal ownership over and responsibility for a decisions are made in cooperation and through consensus. structure horizontal The politically is or take decisions, so social interaction occurs in a level playing field whe future societies work under non its way of operating the wider society. In the words of Sidney (pers.comm.), “The very existence of the group itselfand networks that facilitates working in common but also prefigures a desirable mode of organizing in important part of this collective labor is the horizontal or evidence of the attempt to resocialize economic relations thatgrassroots networksundertake. An hu the market place, the cash in our pockets and the sale of our capacity to work. We relate directly as and wellbeing of the camp. We longerno relate to each other via the commodities we buy and sell in quite easily and we have a appreciation new of ea commodified exchange. In the words of Jordan, “As we worktogether, human relations are formed overcome the alienation and rebuild the social relations damaged by the pervasiveness of a for the privilege” (Page 2009). That is why collective and nonpaid labor to a way is as regarded economy. By putting these free labor activities at the center of CfCA’s ph important manifestation of the grassroots’ preference for alternative labor forms in their vision of Collectiveand non an alternative their by example. own challenge the current hierarchical system of political representation and simultaneously demonstrate practicing and promoting a horizontal structure based on consensus decision- man beings, reliant on each other for our sustenance” (Jordan 2010). This is yet another piece of paid labor at CfCA based on the horizontal organizing structure is thus the most

and keeping that going is keeping the way of operating I’d like to see in the - hierarchical decisionhierarchical

, they are not delegated down to others and significant decisions 199 ch other as striving towards a common end: the life

making” ganizing structure adopted within the within adopted structure ganizing . There are no leaders to assign tasks leaders to are. no There ilosophy of doing things, re everyone is equal and ( Charsley 2010: 21 2010: Charsley making, grassroots thus thus grassroots making, ) . By By . CEU eTD Collection The order came to cut them down cutthem to came order The peace in come We one people All common in things All eve For treasury common a made was earth The 8.4 economic relations in a democratic way. the dominant system but also demonstrate an existing practice that enables transformation of the foregrounding nonpaid labor is seen as a politi model of future alternatives” (Anna pers.comm.). What is evident from Anna’s quote is that innovative, it’s not only been a protest, it’s not only been a political big P in terms of issues but alsoa more sustainably and more democratically. And that's amazing, that’s been how CfCA has social and environmental differences, it shows how temporarily and only in a partial way we can live Consider for instance how Agi speaks about CfCAs and its role: “CfCA has been good at modeling participants see it as ‘modeling the future society’ (interview with Rebecca, Anna, Michele, Sydney). activists mark them practices as that they wantsee as to part of their community lives.Indeed, many counter To conclude the discussion of commodified and non- inseparable from the communities and the ethical decision making that guides their management: organized onthe basis of mutual aid and solidarity. According to Gibson- competitive marketrelations but created and mana For De Angelis(2003) commons are forms of direct access to social wealth not mediated by Back to commons ryone to share to ryone substance” of the community while at the same defines and constitutes a community. It creates and reproduces the “common decision making. Such an ethical practice of commons management is part of what Whether to deplete, ma - discourse, this section explores the notion of commons articulated by grassroots networks. Excerpt from the Digger’s song used CfCA by Blackheath; at written Leon by Rosselson

intain, or grow the commons is a major focus of ethical

cal statement in itself that seeks not only to challenge 200

ged by the communities, local or distant but

time making a space for raising and and raising for time aspace making commodified forms o forms commodified Graham, commons are are commons Graham, f exchange in the

been sobeen

CEU eTD Collection a practice that has been around for a very long time and it needs to be re significant to this understanding of commons. AsOllie pointed out, managing andusing commons is sustainability” ownership of the land, people have a real right to use it for their self place of public access that was communally owned, although there might have a been technical is what grassroots networks oppose: “The point for us that is important is that it [commons] is a Privatization of commons means the exclusion of certain groups of people from using them and this held in common. schemes of voluntary participation of private and public actors for example) of resources that are the neol Dyer of the human mind, public services and the genomes of plants, animals and humans (de Peuter and ecological resources, such as land, water, minera part of what Marx called the process of primitive accumulation, today commons encompass not only destruction of collective land through enclosures by landlords in the 16 regardedas the process of commoning as well.While the original notion of commons refers to common Thus commons can also designate social relations within a community involving doing things in

- Witherford Witherford of decision (2006: 97) (2006: decision of answering the perennial question of who belongs and is therefore entitled to rights its present form will survive. And it’s hopefully a form that we can go back to and worked for hundreds and hundreds of years, much longer in fact than capitalis communally used as long as it’sused responsibly and that was the system that and nobody had a right to destroy it because it’s there for everyone, it’s there to be We want to go back to the times when land and atmosphere were heldin common iberal capitalism that is wired privatization for whether full or partial (through different ( Linebaugh 2009 ( Dissident Island Radio 2009b Radio Island Dissident 2010; Gibson Gibson 2010; ) . Fromthis perspective, the labor during the Climate Camp can be

Graham 2006). Today the struggle for commons is directed against directed is commons struggle for the Today 2006). Graham ) ls, air and so on, butalso digital software, creations 201 . The. long

- term history of this concept i th - - 18 cultivated: - sufficiency their and self th

centuries as an inherent

m in in m s also also s the the - CEU eTD Collection Digger’smovement that fought against land enclosures in act of land occupation to set up the camp, this was also highlighted through the song tribute to the reclaiming the commons from the enclosure as it was done hundreds of years ago. Apart from the essential part of the access to global commons, therefore it was an act of discursive contestati an as to the land access a about message at Blackheath conveyed of the camp location the time, same are that systems political and economic between the current financial crisis and climate change as it is located “at the doorstep of the Common, “steeped in history and overlooking city” the (CfCA2009h), was meant to make links It was also the site of the protest against unfair taxation in 1450 ( popular site was in itself a historical reference to the Peasants’ Revolt of 1381, one of the most prominent Blackheath is a suburb of London that lies in Greenwich and Lewisham parishes. The choice of this p was cam Climate the symbolic one most held the atcommons, Blackheath Common in 2009. though the land did not belong to them officially (Linebaugh 2009).From the perspective of laborers and cottagers worked the land on the basis of mutual aid cooperation and protection, even Came to show the people’ s will people’ the to show Came Diggers the called band they ragged A Hill George’s St To 1649 In resistance to the elites, challenging the System based profit on motives and property rights Kingsnorth CfCA. The lyric at Caravan Climate by earlier ayear and at Blackheath Campers by was performed section original title is World Turned Upside Down, according to Black 2009) cited at the beginning of this What Ollie refers to in this quote is the practice of commoning in 16

Island Radi Island obviously it depends onpeople getting together to make it happen ( uprisings against the ruling classes in British history that took place on the heath of this area.

o 2009b o

) .

s of the song resonated with CfCA’s aims of building a grassroots

fuelling catastrophic climate change” (CfCA 2009i). At the the At 2009i). (CfCA change” climate catastrophic fuelling 202

the 17 the th

Abbott century. The Digger’s song (the th

century England day when

2009 ) Dissident Dissident . Thus, Blackheath Blackheath . Thus, : on, on, CEU eTD Collection events that lasted up to a week, the camp atHeathrow in laid a foundation for a long emerged out of the Heathrow climate camp in 2007.Wh An important example of how working in common is realized within the networksa is project that all. for treasury common A canSo be it whole make will We This earth divided And common in land the work to come We benefit: The lyrics also echo the network’s commitment to self theirs was what Reclaiming dispossessed the were They laws the defied They landlords the defied They how grassroots foreground the issue of common resources and challenge the privatization of these Thus, squatting land to set up camps or sustainable communities is an important manifestation of space through the coll model sustainable living project involving both activists and local people, i.e. creating a common example of CfCA’s direct participation in reclaiming the land and helping participants turn it into a working weekends, workshops and by holding national gatherings at the plot. It has become an grassroots networks. CfCA activists kept supporting the initiative by engaging in Grow Heathrow camp in Heathrow, the plot turned into a thriving community garden and a convergence space for place for locals to grow food, meetup, hold workshops and social activities. Within two years of abandoned plot in order to set up a Transition Town or at least a community center that would be a Climate Rush spotted abandoned greenhouses in Sipson village. They decided to squat the community project entitled Grow Heathrow. In 2010 CfCA activists together with Plane Stupid and to make the waste land grow land waste the to make

ective effort.

203

- organization, mutual aid and common common and aid mutual organization, ile most of Climate camps were temporary temporary were camps Climate of most ile - term term

the the CEU eTD Collection viewed not as based on calculable, ratio economic relations (Gibson- while still being profit and growth- reproduction of the dominant discourse that seeks to incorporate con argued that while such conditional acceptance of commodified exchange can be interpreted as the establish environmental and/or ethical concerns (such as prioritizing sustainability in bank investments or commodified forms of exchange outside the networks are not rejected provided that the relations and resisting the comm commodified forms of exchange in their own circles as a way of prefiguring desired economic non- dominant discourse as concerns the commodified exchange and resisting it through foregrounding This chapter has examined how grassroots’ counter 8.5 for particular and broader issues, specifically the control over resources by certain actors (government or corporations) doing things in common is not done because of climate change per se but as a way of contesting this section is that they transcend the issue of climate change time constructing alternativesto it. What is evident from the examples of commons foregrounded in chall through collective labor as opposed to wage labor, activist networks make a political statement that and demonstrating how the commons are used sustainably and for the benefit of the communities, resources. By drawing a on historically signi enges the dominant discourse fixated on accumulation and private ownership while at the same commodified economic practices. The findings suggest that the networks confront Conclusions of the chapter ing relations between buyer and seller based onethics) are taken into account. It has been ms of social relations that such control entails (individualized and non- Graham 2006). Re 2006). Graham odification of relations within the network. At the same time, oriented, it can also be viewed as an attempt to re nal and disembodied indicators, but on informal relationships

ficant and symbolic discourse of struggles for commons 204 -

socialization means that economic relations are

- discourse balances between reproducing the , i.e. reclaiming the physical space or cerns for the environment communal). communal). - socialize

CEU eTD Collection well principles of equitable redistribution of profit; non- fo further found in the non- - prioritizing well the despite the ident legitimate and desirable forms of non- the existence of, practicing and/or promoting such alternatives, grassroots position them as visible, rather than reproduction of the dominant discourse. common wealth rather than private gain” (CfCA 2010k) which points to the ove economic relations “on the needs of people rather than profit and growth” and “on shared access to reground: democratically reground: - being; and commons defended and sustained by the eff ified tensions, grassroots’ counter being of the actors involved rather than profit. The signs of re - run co run commodified forms of economic exchange that grassroots networks

- operatives that collectively decide onthe conditions of work and commodified economic exchange. Ittherefore is argued that 205

- waged labor seeking to increase the collective discourse displays an attempt to refocusthe orts of the communities. By recognizing rall contestation contestation rall - socializing are CEU eTD Collection post COP Inspired by large 9 with a broad picture of this dissertation sketched out in section 9.5. climate politics (section 9.3) and future research (section 9.4) are discussed. The chapter concludes empirical findings in section 9.2. Based on the summary of the findings, contributions of this dissertation is presented in the next section, followed by a synthesis of the key rest of The understanding from the climate politics of perspective climate activists. of actors of only two networks is that it ensures the necessary depth and detail enhancing the not permit generalizability to the overall climate movement, the advantage of such engaging the analytical framework informed by critical discourse analysis. While the focus on two networks does discourse of two major grassroots climate activist networks in the UK drawing ona coherent empirical shortfall and b sought methodological this fill to grassroots actors and none of them engages with analysis of discourse as such. This dissertation several works touch upon the emerging climate justice movement, few of them focus specifically on Moreover, while the body of literature climate on activism has been growing in recent years and combined with my personal interest in language that influenced the choice of the study focus. social movement perspective, it is NGO’s activities on climate change. As for the focus on the discourse, as opposed to for example a relatively limited scholarly coverage, as compared to the analysis of the international negotiations or dealing with it. Froman empirical point of view, the focus ongrassroots actors a by is justified by grassroots networks offering an alternative reading of the intensifying climate crisis and ways for

Climate justice: towards an alternative climate politics - 15 meeting in 2009, in meeting 15

this concluding chapter is structured as follows. A short overview of the key - scale mobilizations on the climate change in the UK and beyond and the pre this dissertation sought to capture the emerging discourse constructed the recognized power of discourse to structure and reshape reality 206

y providing an in-

directions for an alternative

depth examination of the

and and

CEU eTD Collection a fresh theoretical perspective in contrast to the wide UNFCCC mobilizations. The theoretical framework combining post provided a comprehensive account of grassroots networks discourse and practice beyond major diachronic research focus on specific networks campaigning on climate justice, this dissertation of discourse does so in a fragmentary rather than comprehensive way. By adopting a synchronic and dominating the analyses. Moreover, the limited corpus the dimension to address of wo claims rks that justice discourse per se; instead, activism and social movement theory perspectives seem to be is athere considerable shortfall in the literature terms studies in of that would engage in climate of their discourses. With regardsto discourse, despite a discursive nature of climate change politics, heterogeneous actors (grassroots networks versus NGOs for example) and capture the specificities networks are often part of transnational organiz UNFCCC process and the broad array of actors involved in such mobilizations. While grassroots towards almostan exclusive focus on transnational mobilizations onclimate justice around the dissertation sought to fill. As pointed out in Chapter 3,the current body of research is skewed literature the empirical gaps and justice in and theoretical, climate methodological that politics this on Contributions to knowledg 9.1 the dominant discourse and the development of an alternative climate politics. The practical tasks of networks themselves as a point of reflection an As for practical contributions, it is my hope that this dissertation will be useful for grassroots key empirical contributions of this dissertation. discourse on climate change. The major findings outlined in the sections that follow constitute the allowed producing a fine aadopting linguistically Contributions to knowledge to Contributions - oriented form of criticaldiscourse analysisa as methodological framework - grained analysis that offers rich and deep understanding of grassroots’ e made in this research should be examined against the backdrop of the

ing, this broad approach fails to differentiate between d regarding discussion their actual relationship with 207

- spread social movement theory focus. Finally, - political justice and lens offered

CEU eTD Collection such a conceptualization of climate change fosters a post that argued have 2012) 2010; Russell Russell and 2009; Pusey (Swyngedouw Scholars terms. technical articulates climate change in scientific, dichoto question, albeit from different angles. Asdemonstrated in chapter 3, the dominant discourse politics of climate change? The empirical chapters of this thesis sought to provide an answer to this research question: does how grassroots’discourse climate on justice conceptualize the alternative The goal of this section is to revisit the empiricalfindings of this research in light of the overarching 9.2 and as a form of activism in itself that contributes to bringing new realities into being. following Gibson- themselves, in or contributions to light not only for stimulating debates within academia but also within the networks climate politics can be easily overlooked. The intention of this thesis is then to bring their challenging contributions, discursive or tangible, to the construction of an alternative vision of realities that grassroots networks deal with onan everyday basis. Asresult, a their own positive and ac planning and taking direct action, growing the movement, communicating with external and internal directly implicated in entrenching this post and even exacerbate it. Moreover,these same critics assert further that social movements are also Thus, these solutions do not affect the fundamental systemic fl the current neoliberal economic and political system through technical and managerial solutions. de tors, andresisting police repression and/or surveillance can be overwhelming and time - politiciz Dominant and counter es the issue. the es De der to valorize their discourse and emphasize its performative power. Moreover, Moreover, power. performative its emphasize and discourse their valorize to der Graham and Roelvnik (2010), I view academic research as a performative practice practice performative a as research academic view I (2010), Roelvnik and Graham - politicization, according to these critics, helps to sustain the status quo of -discourses: key findings - political consensus since their campaigns and actions 208

mous (North/South relations), economic and

- political carbon consensus that effectively aws responsible for the climate crisis,

- consuming CEU eTD Collection has amulti has views climate change primarily an as issue of unequal social and econ conceptualization of climate change transcending the dominant discourse number in a of ways.It t while In contrast, the findings presented across the empirical chapters of this dissertation suggest that problem rather than the political issues underlying it (Ibid.). reiterate the domi section that follows (reflected in the points highlighted in blue in fig. 16). further the be in implications will alternative discussed the climate an for politics interaction, while discourses. In this section I will briefly highlight some of the key aspects of the discourses and their he post - scalar and multi and scalar - political influence is discernible, overall grassroots’ discourse a offers complex nant discourse with its narrow focus onscientific and technological aspects of the - sided character. Figure 16 presents a schematic representation of both 209

omic relations and justice relations and omic that

CEU eTD Collection

Fig. Fig. 16 Dominant Dominant Discourse Key Aspects of the Discourses the of Aspects Key • • • • • Economic aspects • • • • International aspects • • Vulnerability of the South: Problem • • • GREEN C Solution • North to South to North

Financial/techn. transfer from Financial/techn.transfer North/South Climate refugees F Market Technological Just transition: green jobs jobs green transition: Just REATING Focus on markets on Focus Privatization Profit exchange Commodified R Hist. responsibility of the North the of responsibility Hist. emissions CO2 Excessive finance/impacts of Distribution

URTHERING ATIONALIZING

GROWTH

based OPPORTUNITIES

ONE

- ECON SIDED

JUSTICE RELATIONS

FOR

210

Discourse Counter R Economic aspects • • • Solution • E • • • • Global inequality: Problem scale; renewablescale; control • International aspects • • • • Technology: community Technology: Just transition: workers'/community workers'/community transition: Just MPOWERING E Focus on people; labor,Focus on people; commons prioritized - distributed/non equally Profit: informal ethical, sust., exchange: Com. F Human rights perspective rights Human war or econ. climate, to due Displaced Ecological and social debt communities affected + North/South - The "System" The relations North/South/elites Unequal CO2 industry: fuel Fossil SOCIALIZING OREGROUNDING

COMMUNITIES

ECON

MULTI - .

RELATIONS

- SIDED - owned; small owned; :

JUSTICE :

CEU eTD Collection As figure 16 demonstrates, the dominant and counter counter Aspects; and International Aspects. In general,the overlapping points across four main components of the discourses: Problem Definition; Solution(s); Economic viewed in the counter id the with Starting transcending it. signify the extension or reframing of the dominant discourse as a means of contesting and years 2006 years Specifically, the abundant use of scientific arguments around greenhouse gas emissions peaked in the was shown usage their to be tied networks, to a particular grassroots of timeframe and context. scientific rhetoric and apocalyptic imagery were indeed employed in various actions and statements apocalyptic imagery and is an indicator of the reproduction of the dominant discourse. Whilst discussed in Chapter 5, the focus on carbon emissions is closely linked wi rhetoric by grassroots net aviation expansion were pending during that time. Therefore, the use of scientific and apocalyptic imminent disaster. In addition, a number of governmental decisions over the future of coal and statements top by officials, and the by emergence of some infl and changing climate, a number of high- These years were marked the by IPCC’s alarming findings regarding the link between CO2 emissions neoliberal trade agreements) between the North and the South, as well as the elites and the poor, that to relations (from social and colonialism economic unequal historically is tied the to climate change the scientific findings. In addition to the emissions argument,grassroots’ conceptua legitimize actions against the ‘enemy’ and create an emotional response in the public by appealing to - discourse fully or partially reproduces dominant the one, whereas the diverging points - 2008, at the time when climate science was at the top of political and public agenda entification of the problem, similarly to the dominant discourse, climate change is - discourse as a matter of carbon emissions primarily in the global North. As workswas context profile international conferences and summits (UNFCC), -

211 and time and

- discourse overlap and diverge on a number of -

sensitive and had a particular goal: to and goal: had aparticular sensitive

uential cultural representations of points mark the areas where the th scientific rhetoric and lization of s. s. CEU eTD Collection the System, i.e. neoliberal capitalism. Thus, the problem of climate change in the counter are at the heart of the climate problem one. A total rejection of ma owned and controlled. This is one point where the counter emphasizes that technological solutions are renewable, small resolving the problem. However, as discussed in Chapter 7, grass In terms of solutions to the problem (fig.16), both discourses regard technology as contributing to face of vulnerability of the South. it is througha more equaldistribution of ca The historical responsibility of the North for past emissions is acknowledged and the way to redress limited to the excessive carbon emissions generated in the process of production and consumption. comprises several interrelated layers. In contrast, the dominant discourse identifies the fashion. environmental impact but should primarily be managed locally in a decentra this context is framed as an issue for which the solutions should not only be ‘clean’ in their autonomy for technological aspect of the alternatives that they advocate, but the fact that true solutions provide growth. Overall, what is important in grassroots framing of solutions to climate change is not the and elite control. The dominant discourse is thus directe addressing climate change and providinggreen jobs without any transformational changes in power whereas the dominant one is mostly concerned with greening polluting industries as a means of workers’ or community control in the process of switching from the fossil point is related to the concept of just transition: grassroots discourse foregroundsthe need for

communities in controlling energy production and distribution. Thus climate change in rket - based solution any in form is the second one. The final diverging . These unequal relations are the result of what they refer to as rbon emissions allowances and adaptation means in the 212

d towards creating opportunities for green - scale and more importantly community importantly more and scale - discourse diverges from the dominant roots’ discourse onclimate change lized and autonomous - fueled techno

problem as - discourse logies, - CEU eTD Collection commodified exchanges. Further, labor relations and commons are where the counter oriented, i.e. it is the well- discourse prioritizes marketsand associated rationalized relations, the counter equally distributed and benefits the people directly involved in its generation. Whi buyer/seller relations. Similarly, profit is acceptable for the networks onthe condition that it is climate p discourse politics, on economic exchange (understood as a monetary exchange for profit) is not rejected in the grassroots’ Progressing to the economic aspects (fig. 16),it was revealed in Chapter 8 that commodified climate politics are thus where the two discourses intersect and diverge at the sa the networks and assert asmodel a for future socio eschewing any monetary reward benefit. or This is the form of the exchange that they practice within forms of exchange that are centered on collective work for the common purpose and well diverges from the dominant framing. Specifically, these two aspects foreground non- process,the counter means of bridging the unequal conditions between the North and the South in the UNFCCC negotiations in the dominant process. While financial and technology transfers are envisaged as makes communities actors on the international stage, thus challengi poor discussed earlier) which is usually ignored in the dominant discourse onclimate change. Also, it draws attenThis of (in)justice which asserts that the climate problem is not only about the North/South dichotomy. includegeographical to definition marginalized developed countries communities as within subjects neoliberal discourse is evident in the way the n key concepts onwhich the dominant discourse draws (fig.16). The extension of the dominant Finally, in the international aspects of climate politics the counter tion to the inequalities between and within the countries (in terms of elites and the - discourse stresses the need for non- being of people that comes to the fore in commodified or non rovided that it prioritizes sustainability and/or ethical and informal 213

otion of the global South goes beyond the - economic relations. The economic aspects of financial ways of redressing ecological and - discourse reframes and extends the ng the nation- me time. time. me - discourse is people state framework of framework state le the dominant commodified commodified

- discourse - being, - - CEU eTD Collection Graham and Roelvnik “to read the potentially positive futures, barely visible in the present order of concrete steps for asserting and realizi the dominant discourse through direct action or otherwise; this leaves very little time for developing construction of an alternative climate politics. A lot of grassroots’ energy is centered on confronting Building onthe findings discussed above, this section focuses onconcrete direction the in s 9.3 Thus, the key findings revisited in this section demonstrate that the counter an underl to climate reframe climate change as humanistic a problem rather than an environmental issue with cause. Lastly, the application of the human rights perspective and the call for criminalizing damages in the counter ecological and social debt is the displacement of people which is not limited to the climatic reasons social consequences of the historical domination and exploitation of the South. Related to the North from narrow emissions social debts. The latter terms are the examples of the discursive reframing of the responsibility of the not be dismissedas post be not here that the conceptualization of climate change in the grassroots’ discourse is complex and should fu as it categorize to difficult justice oscillates between the reproduction and contestation of the dominant discourse makingit change. The next section develops this further. sufficient grounds for discer this counter oppositional discourse. While geared for a conscious contestation of the dominant framing, however, Directions for an alternative climate politics ying economic rationality. economic ying - discourse is thus still fraught with tensions and contradictions. Yet there are still - discourse but encompasses the right of all migrantsto move freeregardless of the - an alternative, counter, or or counter, political, rather justifiably alternative, categorized be it can as an ning the contours of and directions for an alternative politics of climate lly influenced the by so - related obligations to the obligation to deal with the ecologi ng desiredng goals. Yet, am I responding to the call of Gibson 214

- called carbon consensus. Instead, it suggested is

- discourse on climatediscourse on cal andcal - CEU eTD Collection Such recognition based onthe all regardless of whether it is a state or small a community, and thus making them the subject of justice. grassroo political misrepresentation (lack of access to decision and cultural traditions), economic maldistribution (between/within countries and communities) and theof fossil fuel industry activities), cultural misrecog meaning emerged from the contestation of injustices linked to environmental degradation (as a result While climate justice is the overarching term and the focal point of the counter The first direction of alternative climate politics that emerged from this research is related to justice. counter 2010: 342 Roelvink and Graham things” as a necessary step for imagining “how to strengthen and move them along” rearticulates the interrelationship between environment and society. reasons but for its value to humanity radically Suchframing as climate change of a whole. open to criminal justice procedures implies that the environment is valued not for just economic to this point is another implication: making climate, which is an integral part of the environment, potentially assign responsibility for any actions or policies that contribute to climate The calls to criminalize damage to the climate, discussed in Chapter 6, are a concrete step that can the other, the li between, on the one hand, a borderless or globalized character of injustices and their causes and on adiscrepancy highlights it because 2005) (Fraser justice climate to approach a transformative is state, 9.3.1

- ts networks revealed these injustices emphasizing the claims of the affected groups, discourse and discussed below. Foregrounding multi Foregrounding mits of the current nation- ) . Certain directions for climate politics are thus garnered from the - affected principle as opposed to the jurisdiction a particular of justice -sided

state framework for pursuing justice. justice. pursuing for framework state 215

nition (trampling of indigenous people’s rights - making). Through a variety of direct actions, actions, direct of variety a Through making).

change. Related - discourse, its its discourse, ( Gibson -

CEU eTD Collection autonomy and non- some grassroots notions of justice are corrective and prevail over the anarchist principles of measures,applied not only to corporations but also to individuals.In this respect, it is evident that politics that emerged from the analysis of the count communities through a transfer of power. This is a central direction for the alternative climate Closely linked to the issue of injustices discussed in the previous section is the empowerment of Climate justice in the counter 2010 through coercion of the state that emphasizes state power. As some critics have argued ( contradicts the anarchist principles that grassroots tend to follow. Namely, it suggests enforcement It should be noted, however, that criminalizing damage to the climate through legislative procedures networks process, according to the grassroots networks. This direction can be regarded as originating from needs to be approached comprehensively as noted above, italso needs to involve communities in the ‘multi term the use but also human rights and criminal justice perspective is evident. To incorporate the latter, I chose to (such as distribution, recognition various spheres of human life. Not only scales of justices can be identified in grassroots discourse justice includes empowering communities affected injustices. by it will be demonstrated in the next section, that the way to achieve such comprehensive approach to pollution,carbon emissions or unequal distribution. And importantly, grassroots discourse asserts, as change means tackling these injustices together rather than in isolation, i.e. not only as an issue of message that can be gathered fromgrassroots’ conceptualization of justice is thataddressing climate 9.3.2 ) , criminalizing damage to the climate can potentially climate lead the to can the to , damage criminalizing

’ own organizing principles based oninformal relations, non- Empowering com Empowering - sided’ as an extension of Fraser’ssided’ extension as an multi engagement - discourse thus has a multidiscourse thus a has with the state. state. the with munities and participation as Fraser’s (2005) theoretical framework suggests) suggests) framework theoretical (2005) Fraser’s as participation and

216

- discourse. While addressing multiple injusticesdiscourse. multiple addressing While - sided character that simultaneously concerns - scalar notion of jus

enforcementauthoritarian of hierarchy, consensus and tice. Overall, the wider Watson Watson CEU eTD Collection doing things in common. Such forms of organizing without leaders decision or - consensual rather than coercive m monopolized by the government and/or corporations to being managed in common using networks are discursively transforming the whole basis of the decision- right of communities to determine themselves how energ movement, go far beyond mere environmental claims in their discourse. because it demonstrates that climate activists, despite being often located in the environmental tter ama as of community decision this idea of community empowerment: production and distribution of renewable energy is regarded and issues. Namely, asrevealed was it in Chapter 7,the concept of energy democracy incorporates determination that foster community control not only to themselves but also to wider communities decide onhow to address it. Grassroots networksapply these principles of self governmental decision which other groups are subjugated defies the logic of corporate managemen t boards or production, as well fossil as transformation of transition in this case means collectively deciding within consumption the community and issues of of Likewise, it was demonstrated in Chapter 7 that just transition for grassroots networks is prefiguration of this mode of taking decisions that they would like to see applied widely. notion of a transformative approach to justice authorita the determine that discourses arewho often excluded from participation in determining what Fraser (2005: 16) calls “meta transferring the power currently held by government and corporations directly to the communities transferring power from government and/or corporations directly to the communities. - making bodies; it allows people affected by a certain problem to collectively - making and control for the networks. This aspect is important echanisms. Practicing consensual decision tive of division political space”. with In keeping Fraser’s ( Fraser 1995 Fraser 217

fuel based industries, as opposed to seeking y is produced, controlled and managed, the ) , this means that by seeking to assert the making process from being

Such an approach calls for - organization and self -

making is thus a thus is making making centers to

a process

Just - -

CEU eTD Collection employed by the networks articulates the need for transferring decision also applied to the international level. In Chapter6 it was show Furthermore, community control as an inherent part of climate politics in the counter collective decision compensation through legal process or merely accepting ‘green’ new employment. we can observe the extension of the anarchist principles of self self back to the indigenous peoples and communities of the global South to ensure their autonomy and being is participation as an access to decision- views (2007) Schlosberg whilst Yet 2005). Fraser 2007; (Schlosberg justice of theories the by here. In essence, community control reflects a call for the participation in al with communities, it is the overall message that grassroots networks try to convey that is important more sustainable than others. While these assumptions are due to the lack of practical experience way an idealistic view of community also based on the assumption that a small scale is inherently benign and non - domination within the local sy However, the problematic aspect of this direction is that it does not address the issue of possible criticized.been indicator of outgrowing the environment as a means of empowering the wider community and international levels, as w - sufficiency, as wel the decision

oppressive, which is not necessarily the case - making implies the autonomy and control of workers and communities. - makers the makers l as a means for rebuilding their communities and environment. In this respect, stem, i.e. it is assumed that community self community that assumed is it i.e. stem, mselves. mselves. making on various levels, for grassroots networks participation - bound grievances for which previous movements have 218

( ) 2004 Mander and Cavanagh n how the concept of ecological debt - organization and self - making powerresources and - management is necessarily necessarily is management l aspects of life as noted ell asell thebeing of Such a of vision - determination determination - discourse is . It. a is in CEU eTD Collection society: grassroots networks advocate for returnin for advocate networks grassroots society: internalized strategy in the networks. This strategy also applies to resources how are managed in the it possible to establish a connection between individuals. Sharing burdens and fruits of labor is an of labor. These relations are motivated by communal goals and by the intention of sharing that mak payment for work done within and for the networks,activists emphasize the human relations aspect Chapter 8) isunpaid the labor that is integral grassroots to networks in this study. By rejecting concrete example of such forms of exchange (this and other examples are discussed in detail in (Gibson sharing and mutual aid, of solidarity, aspects inscribed in the neoliberal economy. Instead, non- Non networks. grassroots particularly foregrounding evident in certain forms of non- and discussions within the concerned communities (Gibson- outcome of discussions based on ethical and social considerations, and thus subject to contestation relations calculab not asum as of exchange, whether it is commodified or non As argued in Chapter 8,grassroots networks exhibit implicit attempts to re phenomenon. from social and economic phenomena that affect the life of people. Economic exchange is such an issue that goes beyond the environmental problematic and likewise, climate politics is inseparable exchange (Chapter 8). discourse relates to the discussion of commodified and non- The last direction for alternative politics of climate change that can be discerned in the counter 9.3.3

Re socializing economic relations economic -socializing

As such, this direction is a reassertion of the argument that climate change is - commodified forms of exchange are those that defy the logic of profit le, disembodied, rational, and incontestable indicators but as the - commodified. Re commodified. 219 g shared access to common resources such as land,

commodified forms o forms commodified

- Graham 2006; White and Williams 2012). A A 2012). Williams and White 2006; Graham commodified economic exchange by - socializing means viewingsocializing means economic commodified forms of economic Graham 2006). Re 2006). Graham f exchange are focused on - socialize economic - socializing is e - CEU eTD Collection system and at the same time, shows a desire to transform the economy from being profit exchange is a statement in itself which points to the diversity of economi recognizing them as legitimate and desirable forms of economic exchange. Adopting such forms of net employment and organization and are deeply rooted in contemporary society. What grassroots such as those put forward by grassroots networks, are grounded in the anarchist visions of organizations etc. Combining the perspectives of various non- similar analysis conducted for other actors such as NGOs, govern based actors, the methodological and theoretical frameworks developed here can be applied to to come. While this study has provided a perspective of grassroots networks onthe basis of two UK climate change, makethe analysis of climate justice discourse an important area of study for the years crisis,economic as as the well growing articulations of climate justice relation in the to politics of the recent grassroots mobilizations worldwide theon issues of environment, social justice and findings, what remains to be discussed is how this research could be builtupon and extended. First, Having outlined the key contributions of this dissertation, as well as the implications of major 9.4 relations. being oriented towards common well 2006 Graham the economy without being recognized as significant in the current economic system ( enclosur not revolutionary or novel practices. They can be considered as re water, energy and so on, as it was in the past. In this respect, shared access or are unpaid labor are works achieve through engaging in thesepractices is bringing those forms forward and Directions for future for Directions es movements that defied privatization of public lands. Unpaid labor has always existed in ; Williams 2004 ) . Accor

research ding to Williams and White (2012 - being, i.e. foregrounding the sociality inherent to economic

220

state actors globally is another possible ) , non- - ment bodies, international articulations of the anti c relations in the current commodified practices, - oriented to - Gibson - -

CEU eTD Collection the counter Another possible direction for research is by e example). communities connected not geographically but rather thematically (resistance of oil development for in this study might lead to a research program that is concerned with a shared discourse of climate climate general? How can the strategies and practices used by grassroots movements to resist the dominant On the other hand, adopting a non- movement strategies and tactics spill over to everyday life. scheme inform and direct their discourse, tactics and activist strategies, and vice volunteering for community a project, participating local in a exchange system or housing in a co- another potential research focus that could reveal how activities such as for example composting, practices that the grassroots movement participants engage in justice affect civil society and foster the visions of an alternative societal organization? Tapping into discourses in the global South and what aretheir points of divergence and convergence? Given the diversity of climate justice actors from the global Southresonate with those of the Northern - campaigning onclimate justice and their Southern counterparts. How engaged by analyzing the discourse of Northern- p accounts of activism and movement issues) from the emerging transnational movement is a these actors. Specifically, studying the discourse of climate justice (as opposed to the current discoursesand climate jus of direction for future studies that would make it possible to examine the competing understandings romising direction for further research. Along the same lines, a comparative perspective could be discourse be applied to other spheres? In what way does the counter - discourse impact climate impact discourse tice and exploring paths for resolving climate crises as suggested by ( ) 2011 Kartha dichotomous perspective that grassroots’ networksadvocate - related policy and practice, and the dominant discourse in , there is a strong need for future research in this area. area. this in research future for need strong a is , there xamining the following questions: To what extent does 221

based networks, movements and organizations

outside based movements and networks

do the articulations of the their movement praxisis - discourse on climate - versa, how the how versa, for for op op CEU eTD Collection alternative forms of being, concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere and technical ways of dealing with it, offering (Chatterton of profit. Not only does such conceptualization encourage a re and logic, approach, encompassing multiple scales and sides of justice rather than following a distributional climate politics can show alternative directions prioritizing the community rather the nation - discourse. And doing so is helpful for discerning the ways in which grassroots’ conceptualization of to provide a broader picturethat accounts bot of climate change and thus undermine the significance of the discursive struggles, my intention was might be tempting from a critical point of view to focus on the aspects that depoliticize the politics which contestation and reproduction of the dominant discourse occur at the same time. Wh itile address the problem. The findings suggest that climate change is an area of discursive struggle in particular approaches and solutions to climate change that, according to grassroots networks, fail to that it has been constructed in opposition and resistance to the dominant discourse drawing on grassroots climate activist networks in the UK.have I used the term counter justice emerging dissertation the discou This climate examined has 9.5 attempt to move towards a post who advocate for engaging with the anarchist theory to “unleash our economic imaginations” in an currents and theoretical perspectives. Such a study could follow the call of Whi become a focus of a separate study. This would require a deeper engagement with various anarchist mode regarding ideas Finally, the anarchist thread, partiallyunraveled this in dissertation concerning the anarchist Concluding remarks - socializing economic relations rather than rationalizing them through the considerations et al et . 2012),. but also suggests that climate change politics goes far beyond the s of organization, rejection of domination, decentralization and so on, could

living and acting in common. And for them to become more tangible, -

neoliberal future. future. neoliberal h for the strengths and weaknesses of the counter 222

ntagonistic climate change politics rse from the perspective of - te Williams and (2012) discourse to highlight - inspired state state - CEU eTD Collection they occur is hopefully a step forward in this direction. widespread and acceptable, we need to notice and recognize them; analyzing the discourse in which 223

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- CEU eTD Collection Wendy Watson Rowar James Juliet Ben Smith Margaret Florette Mary Jane Sidney Lewis Jonathan Stevenson Anna Chris Jones Dalinian Tim Michelle Ruth Omond Tamsin Tony Blake Lee Harwood Brown Paul Josh Rosie Balmer Howard Phil Thornhill Liam Wiz Name Appendix 1: Interviewee list Kofi Freetoplay Rob Charlie Fe John Stewart John Sinha

Kronick

238 CfCA Rush CfCA, Climate RT CfCA HACAN Former Greenpeace director CfCA, CaCC The Guardian correspondent for environment Plane Stupid Plane Stupid Plane Stupid (CaCC) Change Climate Against Campaign CfCA Plane Stupid Affiliation CfCA CfCA CfCA RT CfCA CfCA RT RT Change for CfCA, Seeds CfCA RT RT CfCA CfCA, RT CfCA CfCA CfCA CfCA, RT, Election Meltdown CfCA Greenpeace

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CEU eTD Collection ______.2007b. Response. British Change: the [on Climate Scientific State's 2013]. 16 May [consulted http://web.archiv ______.2007a. Ourview onthe symptoms, science and solutions to climate change. [on- 2013]. 20 October [consulted http://web.archive.org/web/20061009212633/http://www.climatecamp.org.uk/flyers.htm ______. 2006d Flier. and posters. [on- 2013]. 27 May [consulted nderstanding http://web.archive.org/web/20060715042916/http://www.climatecamp.org.uk/programme.htm#u [on 2006. Programme Workshop 2006c. ______. 2013]. 16 May [consulted http://web.archive.org/web/20060813140119/www.clim [on camp. climate at the action Direct 2006b. ______. 2013 May 5 [consulted http://web.archive.org/web/20060927153357/http://www.climatecamp.org.uk/ Action. Climate for Camp Camp for Climate (CfCA) Action Appendix 3: Activists’ materials consulted 2008 [on 2008 November 9th and 8th Bradford, in Gathering National Camp Climate Minutes 2008b. ______. 2013]. 24 May [consulted 14Dec08mins.pdf http://www.climatecamp.org.uk/get 13 2008a. Minutes. ______. 2013]. Expansion. [on- ______. 2013]. 29 May [consulted http://www.indymedia.org.uk/en/2007/08/378626.html?c=on [on AIRLINE BUDGET OCCUPY PROTESTERS CAMP 2007c. CLIMATE ______. 2013] 13 June [consulted nce_response.pdf http://www.networkforclimateaction.org.uk/toolkit/facts_and_sc 1a. gatherings ______. 2009a. Where next Minutes. [on Minutes. next Where 2009a. ______.

- line] http://www.climatecamp.org.uk/get /BradfordMinutes8 2007d. Climate Activists Climate Blockade2007d. Department For Transport To Stop Airport line] http://www.indymedia.org.uk/en/2007/08/378551.html [consulted 7 June June 7 [consulted http://www.indymedia.org.uk/en/2007/08/378551.html line] e.org/web/20070612035706/http://www.climatecamp.org.uk/views.php e.org/web/20070612035706/http://www.climatecamp.org.uk/views.php

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- line] line] line] line] CEU eTD Collection ______. 2009c. [on 2009b. Us. About ______. http://climatecamp.org.uk/blog/2009/08/29/climate ______. 2009d. Workshops Programme. [on Programme. Workshops 2009d. ______. 2013]. http://www.climatecamp.org.uk/actions/london- ______. 2009e. What's wrong with nuclear power? [on power? nuclear with wrong What's 2009e. ______. involved/get http://www.climatecamp.org.uk/press/2009/09/01/climate ______. 2009g. Climate Activists Blockade RBS Headquarters. [on RBS Activists Blockade 2009g. Climate ______. h ______.2009f. Carbon Trading Speech at Climate Camp Bankswoop. http://climatecamp.org.uk/blog/2009/08/27/letter Blog. Action Climate for Camp residents. Blackheath to Letter 2009h. ______. 2013]. 25 May [consulted ______. 2009i. Climate Camp Location Revealed to be Blackhea be to Revealed Location Camp Climate 2009i.______. 2013] 10 june [consulted http://www.climatecamp.org.uk/press/2009/08/26/climate http://www.climatecamp.org.uk/actions/cop [on Leaflet. Jusitce. Climate for Pushing Power. Reclaim 2009k. ______. 2013]. 26 may [consulted blackheath http://www.climatecamp.org.uk/actions/climate [on Workers. Rattcliffe to Letter 2009l. ______. ______. 2009m. Climate Activists occupy roof of 2nd of roof occupy Activists Climate 2009m. ______. 2013]. http://www.climatecamp.org.uk/press/2009/08/04/climate http://www.climatec ______.2009n. Daring Action Gets Supplies To Vestas Workers Occupation. [on- 2013]. 27 May [consulted factory http://climatecamp.org.uk/press/2009/12/14/thousands refugees. [on climate demand for to justice police defy 2009o. Thousands ______. occupation [consulted 27 May 2013]. climate ttp://london.indymedia.org/videos/2026 [consulted 24 May 2013] 24 May [consulted ttp://london.indymedia.org/videos/2026

- refugees [consulted 12 June 2013]. June 12 [consulted refugees - educated/whats Climate camp goes to Barclays. [on Barclays. to goes camp Climate amp.org.uk/press/2009/07/30/daring

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- - CEU eTD Collection Manchester [on 2009, 7th_8th,November, Gathering Action Climate for Camp National 2009p. ______. ______. 2009q. Taking action. [on action. 2009q. Taking ______. 2013]. June 14 [consulted gatherings/minutes/CCManchesterMinutesNov09.pdf 2009/taking ______. 2010b. Camp for Climate Action UK Gathering 17th - 17th Gathering UK Action Climate for Camp 2010b. ______. minutes/CC_Manches http://www.climatecamp.org.uk/get UK Minutes 4 Action Climate for 2010a. Camp ______. http://www.climatecamp.org.uk/actions/copenhagen ______.2009r. What does climate justice meanin Europe?A discussion paper. [on- europe http://www.climatecamp.org.uk/get line] Minutes. http://www.climatecamp.org.uk/get 19th Gathering, UK Action Climate for Camp 2010g. ______. 2011] January 19 [consulted pid=425 http://web.archive.org/web/20110708155641/http:/discussion.climatecamp.org.uk/viewtopic.php? PGA Politics. Our Proposals: 2010f. ______. 2011] January 19 [consulted pid=439 http://web.archive.org/web/20110708153132/http:/discussion.climatecamp.org.uk/viewtopic.php? ______. 2 2011] 19 January [consulted http://discussion.climatecamp.org.uk/viewtopic.php?id=68 [on politics. are our What 2010d. ______. Unpublished ______. 20 ______. 2010h. Take actions to reduce UK CO2 emissions by 10%. [on 10%. by emissions CO2 UK reduce to actions Take 2010h. ______. gatherings/minutes/Bristol_2 http://discussion.climatecamp.org.uk/vi 2013]. http://climate [on newspaper. Bankers the Mind Never 2010k. ______. 2011]. 19 January [consulted http://discussion.climatecamp.org.uk/viewtopic.php?id=3 2010i.______. Long

[consulted 1 May 2013] 1 May [consulted - 010e. Proposals: Our Politics. Don't write an essay. [on essay. an write Don't Politics. Our Proposals: 010e.

action [consulted 14 June 2013]. 10c.Minutes of the RBS ‘Getting Things Going’ London. Meeting 2010, May –16 camp.org.uk/actions/edinburgh- - line] http://www.climatecamp.org.uk/get line] ter_minutes_Nov_2010.pdf [consulted 17 May 2013]. 17 May [consulted ter_minutes_Nov_2010.pdf - term Strategy. [on Strategy. term - 10_Minutes.pdf [consulted 12 June 2013] June 12 [consulted 10_Minutes.pdf

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CEU eTD Collection http://climatecamp.org.uk/blog/2010/04/23/workshops Action Climate for Camp Declaration. Final the and 2010o. Workshops ______. 2011]. 16 November [consulted http://discussion.climatecamp.org.uk/viewtopic.php?pid=35 ______.2010n. Community struggle for just transition. Discussion forum. [on- http://climatecamp.org.uk/actions/edinburgh- fossil industry? [on fuel the and banks, RBS, Why 2010l.______. ______.2010m. ______. 2011. Metamarphosis: A statement from the Camp for Climate Action. [on Action. Climate for Camp the from statement A Metamarphosis: 2011. ______. ______.2010r. Climate Camp London minutes 26 October 2010. Unpublished 29 Manchester Minutes, Gathering National Camp Climate ______.2010q. 01/06/2010 Minutes London, Camp Climate ______.2010p. 2011] August involved/get What ______. n.d. 2013] June 12 [consulted Statement. http://risingtide.org.uk/resources/factsheets/climatechange [consulted 20 M [on change. climate of basics 2001b. The ______. 2013]. 20 May [consulted http://risingtide.org.uk/resources/factsheets/template A 2001a. Tide. Rising Rising Tide (RT) ______. 2001d. Solutions. [on Solutions. 2001d. ______. 2013]. 21 May [consulted http://risingtide.org.uk/resources/factsheets/counter [on arguments. counter 2001c. with ______. Dealing ______. 2001d. World Bank Projects Fund Climate Change. [on Change. Fund Climate Projects Bank World 2001d. ______. [co http://risingtide.org.uk/content/world 2013]. 24 May [consulted http://risingtide.org.uk/resources/factsheets/carbontrading [on trading against carbon case 2002b. The ______. for______.2002a. Coalition Tide Rising Climate The Political Justice Statement nsulted 25 May 2013]. 25 May nsulted -

educated/carbon Cuts Climate and email Statement, discussion

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CEU eTD Collection ______. 2004a. Carnival and Kritical Mass Tour of the G8's Top Climate Criminals [on Criminals Climate Top G8's the of Tour Mass Kritical and Carnival 2004a. ______. http://risingtide.org.uk/content/carnival http://risingtide.org.uk/content/inclusion- Su has Sinks of Inclusion 2004b. The ______. 2013]. 20 May future [on future ______.2004c. Call forEuropean days of action against the oil industry and for a fossil fuel fossil ______. 2005a. Degrees of Capture: Universities, the Oil Industry and Climate Change. [on Change. Climate and Industry Oil the Universities, Capture: of Degrees 2005a. ______. http://risingtide.org.uk/content/campaign- trading. [on carbon against Campaign 2004d. ______. G8 Summit 8th July 2005 [on 2005 July 8th Summit G8 ______. 2005b. I 2013] 25 May [consulted http://risingtide.org.uk/sites/risingtide.org.uk/files/degrees_of_capture_pdf.pdf Leaflet. ht ______.2005c. An Account of London Rising Tide's Treesit at BP HQ. [on- ______. 2006a. Building on what we achieved at the Climate Camp. Climate [on at the achieved we what 2006a. Building on ______. http://risingtide.org.uk/content/building http://risingtide.org.uk/content/global carve climate G8+5 vs. Action of Days Global 2006b. ______. http://risingtide.org.uk/content/santas ______.2006d. Santas Against Excessive Consumption drop in on London, 16.12.06 [on- 2013]. 24 May [consulted [ Way the in 2006c.______. Getting 2013] June http://risingtide.org.uk/content/shells ______. [on2007c. Aberystwyth in Corners WildShell Shell's Lie http://risingtide.org.uk/about/pga 2013]. May 26 [consulted [on Hallmarks PGA the UK adopts Tide 2007b. Rising ______. 2013]. 24 May [consulted [on pipeline? the 2007a. What's in ______. 2013]. 24 May [consulted

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line] http:/

- future [consulted 24 May 2013]. May 24 [consulted future nternational Call to Action on Root Causes of Climate Change On Final Day of /risingtide.org.uk/content/call

- line] http://risingtide.org.uk/g8callout [consulted 23 April 2013]. April 23 [consulted http://risingtide.org.uk/g8callout line] on- - - - wild days against - - - and london- what line] http://risingtide.org.uk/content/getting sinks against - - lie - action - line] http://risingtide.org.uk/bristol/pipeline kritical

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line] line] - - - line] line] free and

CEU eTD Collection ______.2007d. Scots bloggidge: a London Rising a Tider a London bloggidge: ______.2007d. Scots http://risingtide.org.uk/content/scots ______.2007e. Reclaim power ______.2007e. Reclaim 2013]. June http://risingtide.org.uk/content/may - June 2008a. May and ______. [consultedp December 3 2012]. http://web.archive.org http://risingtide.org.uk/content/cleaners ______.2008b. Cleaners blockade Eon's offices in London. [on - http://risingtide.org.uk/c - at Ffos Cycle Carbon 2008c.______. The http://risingtide.org.uk/content/fossil Films Day - Fools Fossil 2008d. ______. http://risingtide.org.uk/content/fantastic ______.2008d. Fanta 2013]. change cuts Cuts. [on for a Climate 2010a. Not ______. movement. [on movement. ______.2010b. Copenhagen 2009: Call for “system change not climate change” unites global ______. 2010c. BP Fortnight of Shame [on Shame of Fortnight 2010c.______. BP ______. 2010e. BP Fortnight of Shame [on Shame of Fortnight 2010e.______. BP Unpublished statement Justice. Climate for Action Direct of Years Ten Tide: Rising Ten! Are We 2010d. ______. 2013]. 29 May [consulted shame farce http://risingtide.org.uk/content/carnival [on Chaos. Climate and Wars Oil against Carnival 2011c. ______. 2013]. 20 May [consulted http://risingtide.org.uk/about/political ______. 2011b. The Rising Tide Coalition for for Coalition Tide Rising 2011b. The ______. ______.2011a. Lush Charity PotApplication. Unpublished 2013]. - 0 [c - here [consulted 29 May 2013] 29 May [consulted here

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CEU eTD Collection ______. 2011d. Help Stop New Nuclear [on New Stop Help 2011d. ______. ______. 2011e. Rising Tide UK Statement of Solidarity with RT7 [on RT7 with Solidarity of UK Statement Tide 2011e.______. Rising 2013]. May http://risingtide.org.uk/content/rising ______. 2011f. A THANK YOU TO OUR DONORS! . [on DONORS! OUR TO YOU A THANK 2011f.______. ______. 2011g. Shell Live Wire / Death Rope - Rope /Death Wire Live 2011g. Shell ______. 2013]. May 24 [consulted http://risingtide.org.uk/node/82 ______. 2012a. Spectre of Shell Reapers hangs over AGM [on AGM over hangs Reapers Shell of Spectre 2012a. ______. ]. 29 May 2013 [consulted http://risingtide.org.uk/node/87 http://risingtide.org.uk/content/spectre ______. 2012b. Shell ______. http://risingtide.org.uk/content/shell ______. 2012c. Take the Flour Back! Mass action against GM wheat [on wheat GM against action Mass Back! Flour the Take 2012c. ______. http://risingtide.org.uk/content/take http://climatejusticecollective.org/#/big [on Bash. Energy Six Big Reasons. The 2012b. ______. Climate Collective. Justice 2012a. BigACTION:MASS Energy Six The Bash. Email (CJC) Collective Justice Climate 2013]. 24 May [consulted [on Solutions. Positive ______. n.d. ______. n.d. About Rising Tide. [on- 2012e. [on Solar ______. DIY 2013]. 24 May [consulted Out. [on Shel the Get 2012d. ______. 2013]. http://www.ukuncut.org.uk/blog/guest Ac Climate! Guest Cuts! 2012d. post: ______. 2013] June http://climatejusticecollective.org/#/blog/4561604140/PRESS Summit. Climate Collective. Jusitice 2012c.______. Hun

dreds of Climate Activists and Anti and Activists Climate of dreds - out Sponsorship = buying us off. [on-

- line] http://risingtide.org.uk/node/54 [consulted 24 May 2013]. May 24 [consulted http://risingtide.org.uk/node/54 line]

- - - flour campaign - line] http://risingtide.org.uk/resources/positivesolutions line] http://risingtide.org.uk/about [consulted 6 May 2013]. May 6 [consulted http://risingtide.org.uk/about line] ti - - - blog de - line] http://risingtide.org.uk/content/get shell six - - back uk - - energy - cuts - reapers - statement line] http://risingtide.org.uk/node/93 [consulted 5 [consulted http://risingtide.org.uk/node/93 line] - tion! UK Uncut. - 247 0 [consulted 20 May 2013]. 20 May 0 [consulted mass In Memory of Ken Saro- -

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in - an dymedia.org.uk/en/2008/07/405044.html [consulted 2 June 2013] 2 June [consulted dymedia.org.uk/en/2008/07/405044.html /Actors - age . Reclaim the Power. Voices from the Camp of Climate Action 2006. Film. Film. 2006. Action Climate of Camp the from Voices Power. the . Reclaim [on - final - justice

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- chaos/ [consulted June 2013] org.uk/en/2008/08/405121.html [consulted 10 June 2013]. June 10 [consulted org.uk/en/2008/08/405121.html

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