BINDURA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE EDUCATION

FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES AND HUMANITIES

DEPARTMENT OF PEACE AND GOVERNANCE

An analysis of the different cultural and religion setups on the participation of women in leadership. A case study of Seke District of Zimbabwe

Zifa Dzinamarira. Privilege

Student Number B1232163

A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE HONOURS IN BACHELOR OF SCIENCE DEGREE IN PEACE AND GOVERNANCE

JUNE 2016

BINDURA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE EDUCATION (BUSE)

SUPERVISOR: Ms E Ngwerume

APPROVAL FORM

The undersigned certify that they have read and recommend to Bindura University of Science Education for acceptance of this dissertation entitled, “An analysis of the different cultural and religion setups on the participation of women in leadership. A case study of Seke District of Zimbabwe”, submitted to the Department of Peace and Governance in partial fulfilment of Bachelor of Science Honours Degree in Peace and Governance.

------

Signature of Student Date

------

Signature of Supervisor Date

------

Signature of Chair of Department Date

i

DECLARATION

I Privilege Dzinamarira Zifa do hereby declare that “An analysis of different cultural and religious factors affecting the participation of women in leadership” dissertation is a result of my own investigation and research, except to the extent indicated in the Acknowledgements, References and comments included in the body of the report, and that it has not been submitted in part or in full for any other degree/diploma to any other university.

Signed...... (Student)

ii

DEDICATION

This work is dedicated to my father Mr T Zifa and my mother Ms M Munda nee Madzonga and to my beloved sisters Panashe, Paida, Nokutenda, Tinomutenda and my little brother Panenyasha and the Almighty God for guidance and wisdom.

iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Firstly I would like to thank God for seeing me through my Honours Degree in Peace and Governance at Bindura University of Science Education. I am thankful for the support from family and friends who were supportive and assisted me as I undertook the program.

I would like to extend my further gratitude to Mrs E Ngwerume who has been helpful and very encouraging throughout this dissertation. I am grateful for the knowledge she impacted to me and the study material she offered.

I would like to thank Seke District Council for giving me an opportunity to carry out the research in the district. I would like to extend my further gratitude to Chitungwiza Magistrates and members of the Seke district. I would also like to further express my gratitude to Peace and Governance studies lecturers for profound knowledge that I have gained over the past four years.

I would like to acknowledge the following people as well who were instrumental in the success of this paper. I would like to start with my parents Mr T Zifa and Ms M Madzonga for their financial and continuous moral support. I would like to add my siblings Panashe, Paida, Panenyasha, Nokutenda and Tinomutenda.

In addition I would like to include the Nyongo, Zifa and Madzonga family for their love and support. Last but not least I dedicate this research paper to my beloved friends. They have been with me from day one Tinotenda, Patrick, Nigel, Denzel and Bertha without you guys I would not have made this far, the grace of God be with you always.

iv

ABSTRACT

Religious and cultural beliefs have been practiced since this state came into existence and they are still being practiced in many parts of the country. The study was exploring the extent and influence which religion and cultural setups has had on women participation in

Zimbabwean leadership. The study used a case study design and qualitative methods using questionnaires and interviews to collect data in the Seke District. Data collected was presented and analysed using narrative reports. They revealed that religious and cultural beliefs surely affect women participation in leadership due to factors such as forced marriages, appeasements of spirits. It also indicated that women lack knowledge of policies and laws that protect them from harmful practices. Conclusions made from the primary data include the need for increased sensitization meetings on the established Gender policy and legal frameworks through awareness campaigns and dialogues.

v

LIST OF ACRONYMS

CEDAW………….Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination against Women

MDGs………………Millennium Developmental Goals

NGOs………………Non-Governmental Organisations

SADC………………Southern African Development Committee

WDF…………………Women Development Fund

vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS

APPROVAL FORM ...... i

DECLARATION ...... ii

DEDICATION ...... iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... iv

ABSTRACT ...... v

LIST OF ACRONYMS ...... vi

LIST OF TABLES ...... x

LIST OF FIGURES ...... xi

CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION ...... 1

Background of the study ...... 1

Aim of the study...... 2

Statement of the problem ...... 2

Assumptions ...... 3

Significance of the study ...... 3

Limitations of the study ...... 4

Delimitations of the study ...... 4

Summary ...... 6

CHAPTER 2 – LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 7

Introduction ...... 7

Conceptual or Theoretical framework ...... 7

Women in leadership ...... 8

Impact of culture on women’s participation in leadership ...... 15

Impact of religion on women participation in leadership ...... 18

Summary ...... 19

CHAPTER 3 – RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ...... 20

Introduction ...... 20

vii

Research design ...... 20

Research instruments ...... 21

Population, sample and sampling technique ...... 21

Data collection procedures ...... 22

Data presentation and analysis procedures ...... 24

Summary ...... 24

CHAPTER 4 - DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION ...... 25

Introduction ...... 25

Demographic Information of Participants ...... 25

Findings...... 25

Effects of culture on women in leadership ...... 28

Impact of religion to women participation in leadership ...... 31

Challenges being faced by women ...... 32

Summary ...... 37

CHAPTER 5 - SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 38

Introduction ...... 38

Summary of the Study ...... 38

Constraints ...... 39

Conclusions ...... 39

Recommendations ...... 40

REFFERENCES ...... 42

CONSENT FORM ...... 44

APPENDIX 1 ...... 45

QUESTIONNAIRE: - Community members...... 45

APPENDIX 2 ...... 48

INTERVIEW GUIDE - District Administrator’s Office - Head ...... 48

APPENDIX 3 ...... 49

viii

INTERVIEW GUIDE - Women Leaders ...... 49

APPENDIX 4 ...... 50

INTERVIEW GUIDE - Ministry of Women affairs, Gender and Community development . 50

ix

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Response rate ………………………………………………………………………25

Table 2: Age of respondents………………………………………………………………….27

x

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Demographic data on Seke participants……………………………………………26

Figure 2: Level of education of the respondents……………………………………………..27

xi

CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION

Background of the study

Over the past three and a half decades 1980 - 2015, the international community has made numerous commitments to promoting gender equality and eliminating discrimination against women, including through the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action (1995), and the Millennium Summit (2000). In the 2005 World Summit, Member States reaffirmed the Platform for Action and the outcome of the twenty- third special session of the General Assembly as an essential contribution to achieving the internationally agreed development goals, including those contained in the Millennium Declaration.

At a time when the SADC was defining the contours of the post-2015 development agenda, there was a rising recognition of the role of culture in promoting inclusive social development, in eradicating poverty and in advancing environmental sustainability. As a driver and enabler of sustainable development, culture determines the way in which individuals and communities understand the world today and envisage as well as to shape their future. Gender equality was an essential part of the equation for more inclusive and sustainable development.

According to the United Nations (2005), gender equality refers to the roles and responsibilities of men and women along with gender dynamics created and embedded in families, societies and culture. SADC’s approach to promoting gender equality is based on a commitment to cultural rights and cultural diversity underpinned by the international human rights framework. From this angle cultural diversity and human rights must be seen to be mutually beneficial, with gender equality as a precondition for genuinely people centred development.

This was an argument brought to the 2014 commission on the status of women where the UN leaders were highlighting the need to tackle all forms of discrimination against women and girls including discriminating laws social norms, practices and stereotypes. In all development efforts it must ensure that culture is never invoked to justify the infringement or limitation of human rights. The mandate has been straight up, societies need to recognize women and girls as agents of change within their communities and value their achievements. This must include post conflict situations where organizations can draw on the leadership of

1 women in rebuilding peace and in forging equitable public policies. Building a better future for all requires the full and equal participation of all women and men in the cultural sphere.

However this project will deepen understanding of the importance of gender equality in achieving both human rights and development goals and provide useful insight for creating new strategies for a gender equal future beyond 2015.

Aim of the study

The study aims to determine if different cultures and religions deter the participation of women in leadership.

Statement of the problem

In most developing countries such as Zimbabwe there is a tendency to view culture as largely an impediment to women’s rights. This has created all sorts of problems as it has diverted attention from specific actors, institutions laws and regulations that keep women subordinated within the patriarchal systems and structures in most Zimbabwean societies such as Seke district. There is a patriarchal setup whereby men are the main actors in all levels of the state such as the societal positions, businesses, and political leadership yet women play a vital role in peace and conflict transformation. Taking into cognisance the above problem the researcher was, therefore exploring the perceptions of different cultures and religion as a moderating factor on women participation in leadership

Objectives

 To explore the impact of culture on women in leadership.

 To evaluate the impact of religion to women participating in leadership.

 To explore the challenges being faced by women in leadership.

Research questions/ sub problems

1) What are the effects of culture on the roles of women in leadership?

2) What is the impact of religion on women participating in leadership?

3) What are the challenges being faced by women in leadership?

2

Assumptions

The researcher will make the following assumptions in carrying out the research:

 The responsible authority will grant him the authority to carry out the study

 Sample used is representative of entire populace

 Respondents most specifically women will be willing to take part in the research

Significance of the study

The significance of the study lies in the envisaged idea to assist women development and to polish up their leadership development skills through participation. The study will be used as a reference document by all the interested stakeholders in the area of study and these include women, the government, the student as well as the institution.

 To the women

The research will act as a platform for women to air out their views as well as challenges they may be facing.

 To the government

The research findings will help the government to plan how best they can integrate women into leadership circles as well as to achieve gender mainstreaming.

 To the student

It will help the student to get practical application of theoretical knowledge attained as well as gain experience in the field of peace and governance. The research project is also significant to the student as it is a mandatory task for the fulfillment of the Honors in Bachelor of Science in Peace and Governance (HBScPG) since dissertations are statutory.

 To the institution (Bindura University of Science Education)

The research will help the institution to evaluate the level of competency, the student has achieved whilst on industrial attachment. It also adds knowledge to the already existing knowledge that has been gathered from various existing literature and determine the gap analysis. It will help the institution to assess the image the student has impacted to the outside world as well as the potential he or she may have after completion of the studies. Most

3 importantly it will be used as reference point by other stakeholders doing their research as literature review.

Limitations of the study

Challenges for this research included the availability and accessibility of data from the responsible authorities within the district, members of the community because of fear that this was a politically affiliated research. A culture of fear to speak out among Zimbabweans was another challenge the researcher had to face. Conflicting perceptions from different people from different social groups. This was because the society is stratified on the basis of class, race, tribe, geographical location, education level and gender. Views of the different groups differ on gender issues and education management.

Delimitations of the study

The study was focusing on Seke District for the analysis of the perceptions of different cultural and religion setups on the participation of women in leadership. In addition the target population were mainly women since they are the ones affected by the perceptions of different religious and cultural setups therefore they were likely to be most willingly to participate in the study since it stands to benefit them more.

Definitions

 According to Cater (2009) leadership is the use of influence over the behavior of others to encourage them to achieve certain objectives.

 Gender equality means an equal visibility, empowerment and participation of both sexes in all spheres of public and private life, UNIFEM (1995)

 Religion is the belief in and reverence for a supernatural power or powers regarding as governing the universe.

 Culture is a system of interrelated values active enough to influence and condition perception, judgment, communication, and behavior in a given society, Mazrui (1986).

 Gender mainstreaming is the process of assessing the implications for women and men of any planned action including legislations, policies or programs, in any area and at any level, Chinken (2001)

4

 Empowerment is the progressive ability by individuals or groups through external assistance to advance in skills development and the quality of services provided across economic indicators of development

 Feminism is the belief in sexual equality combined with a commitment to transform society, Humm (1992)

 Patriarchy a social practice in which men appropriate all social roles and keep women in subordinate positions on the basis of being born male.

 Development is a multi-dimensional process involving changes in social structures, popular attitudes and national institution, as well as acceleration of economic growth, the reduction of inequality and the reduction of poverty Todaro (2000)

 Participation, in the development context, is a process through which all members of a community or organization are involved in and have influence on decisions related to development activities that will affect them Tsanga (2000).

 According to Waring and Kirkby (2003) “patriarchy is a social system in which structural differences in privilege, power and authority are invested in masculinity and the cultural, economic or social positions of men.

 Giddens (2001) defines democracy as a political system for the participation of citizens in political decision-making, often by the election of representatives to governing bodies.

 Participation - It is process with varying degree of involvement from being consulted on a predetermined issues, make decisions and implementation

 Sustainable development - It is a positive change that meets the needs of the current generation without compromising the future generation to meet their own needs.

 Governance - It is a process of decision making by which decisions, policies, a set of values are implemented by which a society manages its social, political and economic processes through interactions among local government, civil society and private sector.

5

Summary

To sum up, this chapter serves as the introduction of the research. The chapter covered issues such as the background of the study which entails why the researcher has chosen this particular research topic as well as the objectives and the purpose behind the research. It also shows the importance of the research as well as to who the research is pivotal to. Moreso, it includes the challenges that maybe faced by the researcher and how he seeks to counter such expected challenges and lastly the writer defines some of the key and vital literature of this research.

6

CHAPTER 2 – LITERATURE REVIEW

Introduction

The researcher reviewed the literature surrounding the challenges being faced by women in leadership as a result of religious and cultural factors. The researcher also took a look at other studies that have already been conducted paying more particular attention on how local structures such as religion and culture have impacted the participation of women. The research also identified research gaps from the works that have been done by other scholars.

Conceptual or Theoretical framework

Trait theory – assumes that the leader is different from the average person in terms of personality traits such as intelligence, perseverance and ambition and some traits are particularly suited to leadership, Stodgill (1974). The trait theory of leadership, generally considered the first modern theory of leadership, became popular during the second half of the twentieth century and, despite scholarly criticism, has continued to be popular, Shriberg (2011).

The Trait theory assumes that the following is true; People are born with inherited traits and some traits are particularly suited for leadership. People who make good leaders have the right sufficient combination of traits. Leadership trait theory focuses on the leader’s values, beliefs, personality, need for achievement or acceptance, orientation to power, gender, confidence, and mental, physical, and emotional attributes. Early leadership trait theory assumed that people were born with specific traits and that other traits are aligned with strong leadership. People with the right traits would become the best leaders. But how do you identify the common traits of good leaders? That was one of the many questions surrounding the study of leadership questions that led to further research. From about 1930 until 1950, research methods for studying social and psychological issues were not as sophisticated as they are today. When psychologists tried to replicate the studies, for example, they were not always successful. Researchers knew their inquiries were important because they seemed to point to the correlations between traits and leaders.

The trait theory of leadership focuses on identifying different personality traits and characteristics that are linked to successful leadership across a variety of situations. This line of research emerged as one of the earliest types of investigations into the nature of effective leadership and is tied to the great man theory of leadership first proposed by Thomas Carlyle

7 in the mid-1800s. Carlyle's ideas inspired early research on leadership, which almost entirely focused on inheritable traits. Early research on leadership was based on the psychological focus of the day which was of people having inherited characteristics or traits. Attention was given to discovering these traits and often by studying successful leaders. The underlying assumption is that if other people could be found with the same traits as these leaders then they could also become great leaders.

Trait theories of leadership identify the specific personality traits that distinguish leaders from non-leaders. They are based on the premise that leaders are born, not made that leadership is largely innate, rather than being developed through learning. One of the major criticisms of trait theory is its simplistic approach that it fails to take account of other factors that will influence the development of a successful leader such as situational and environmental factors. Nevertheless, many organisations use personality assessment as part of their selection procedures for managerial or leadership roles.

Women in leadership

African cultures are filled with aspects that are both liberating and harmful to the lives of women, as it is stated by at least two prominent African women theologians, Kanyoro and Kanyoro (2002), who argues that cultural practices, such as female circumcision, polygamy, and the stigmatisation of barren women are acts of injustices which can be changed without abandoning culture altogether. Governments and organisations, both local and international, are getting more concerned by this issue. In Zimbabwe, for example, a Ministry of Women’s Affairs was put in place in 2005 to look into the plight of women. Local non-governmental organisations (NGOs) such as the Campaign for Female Education (CAMFED), the Girl Child Network, and the Women’s Trust are working hard to make a change. Internationally, development partners such as the UNDP, the United Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM) they are all working hard to see the development of women in terms of socio- political and economic leadership roles.

The factors that affect the participation of women in leadership roles are different across the world and changing with the dynamic nature of the environment in which they live, Erez and (Gati 2004). Javidan and Carl (2005) point out that leadership research emanating from the U.S and Europe is important but questions its universality across other cultures and contextual scope and very little empherical based multi-level theory development. There are other factors why women should participate in political decision making. These being,

8 women are mostly involved in child socialisation that has a significant bearing future of their children. If women are largely involved in political participation this means that even girls will be groomed that way. Addressing women participation starts at primary so it calls for involvement of women in local governance structures.

Women are perceived to be very influential in assuring peaceful political environment since they are less aggressive and violent than men. As such it means that involving them in leadership will literally contribute towards peace and security amongst communities Goetz and Hassim (2003) assert that an increase of women in political decision making positions will reduce the extremely high level of political corruption we find in many countries. Women are simply believed to be more honest than men.

There is a growing recognition of the impact that women have on political institutions and agendas. Transformative leadership style is non-hierarchical and participatory and it gives priority to disadvantaged sectors of the society. Their style of leadership is said to be more inclusive, collaborative and consultative, more people oriented and is based on leadership by example, focusing on the issues rather than personalities, Morna and Tolmay (2010) therefore complementing the trait thesis.

Culture is a multi-layer construct that comprises of external global layer penetrating a society to indigenous layers ultimately becoming a set of shared values at group and individual level. Understanding cultural systems is crucial for the advancement of research in leadership in varying contexts, Gibson (2006). The concept of leadership involves a relationship deeply rooted in social settings requiring leadership theory and research to integrate leader attributes and behaviours within a contextual aspects of leader emergence and effectiveness. Women within a particular society are affected by (a) business environment, taxes procedures, corruption, labour, (b) fundamental social and developmental considerations like education, health and physical environment, (c) economic factors and the level of development of a country, (d) technological and infrastructure, (e) the political rights and civil liberties within a country, (f) the beliefs, norms and expectations of the individuals within a particular culture World Bank (2007). To date insufficient attention has been given to the relationship between leadership and the structural elements related to culture, Farid (2007).

According to Burns and Verba (2001), effective participation involves the creation of political, social and cultural environment in which women acquire the awareness, information base and confidence to articulate their concerns and an institutional environment that is

9 receptive and responsive to such articulations. Much of the research on gender similarities and differences in leadership roles was initially driven by the paucity of females holding significant roles within corporations, politics, and government. While women have made great strides achieving positional success within business organizations, Fortune, (2007) and government, they are still underrepresented at the higher levels of these organizations. Despite the controversy about gender and leadership, research on how women lead is more growing. Work on women leadership style tends to conclude that women are better educational than men, (Coleman 2003).

In Zimbabwe and on a national level, the leadership of women is visible, both in women rising to the rank of vice president as well as in the constitution acknowledging women as equals. The fact that many women occupy top positions of power in government and the private sector shows that Zimbabwe as a nation recognises women’s potential in leadership. However, despite such transformation on national level a vast majority of women are still marginalised and living under harmful cultural practices that keep them from gaining from the liberty awarded them by the constitution. Meanwhile, the Christian religion locally struggles with the interpretation of biblical passages that deny women leadership in the church. The exclusion of women from the leadership of the church splits and confuses members of the church. This exclusion is based on interpretations of the scriptural texts such as 1 Timothy 2: 8-15 and the creation stories in Genesis 1 and 2, Mudimeli (2011).

Several obstacles have also been identified that generally prevent women from advancing to political spheres. Adhiambo-Oduol (2003) identifies socio-cultural beliefs, attitudes, biases and stereotypes as major barriers. These emphasize the superiority of men and the inferiority of women. They form the integral part of socialisation process in form of gender education and training that men and women are exposed to from childhood. Another formidable barrier is the institutional framework guiding gender division of labour, recruitment, and vertical mobility. Current estimates show that women are particularly disadvantaged with their labour often under-valued and under-utilized. Women are more likely to be employed than men, yet their average income is lower. Yet another obstacle confronting women is lack of enough participation and empowerment in decisions that affect their lives in political and social processes.

In Africa, the issue of women’s leadership in the church has been, and still is, debated by African women theologians Oduyoye (2001), Masenya (2004). African women studies reveal

10 that there is an increase in the awareness amongst Africans regarding the issues of women in the church. These studies address many aspects focusing on women experiences, women’s ordination and biblical interpretation. Ironically, perceptions against women’s ordination are giving women a very strong voice, and open up possibilities for a new meaning in their lives.

UN Women’s programmes on leadership and participation are guided by a history of international commitments to women’s representation. The convention on the elimination of all forms of discrimination against women upholds women’s right to participate in public life, while the Beijing Platform for Action calls for removing barriers to equal participation. The United Nations has been working hard to try and bring women into the leadership spheres especially in the political arena. They have been doing so through the provision of training for women political candidates to help build their capacities, and offer voter and civic education and sensitization campaigns on gender equality. They also advocate for gender equality by calling on political parties, governments and others to do their part in empowering women. Other initiatives include encouraging young men and women to engage in advocacy around making gender equality measures central to public policymaking.

The purpose of this research is to discover the issues that women believe are affecting their rise and recognition in terms of leadership not only on national level but as well as other levels such as organisational and social structures in Zimbabwe specifically in the Seke District. Other researchers may have unravelled the reasons behind but this research is coming from an afro perspective as well as women from Seke. There hasn’t been much research done on this area of study especially from an acrocentric perspective. Most of the literature available is based western point of view because that is where the research has been highly conducted. Therefore, the need to conduct this research as it will cover the gaps or void that has been left by other researchers from their studies.

There has been a series of debates on leadership since the idea of an organised society came into existence. Plato, Aristotle, Rousseau, Locke and other great scholars have written on the importance of leadership in nation building and development projects. Although these scholars advocate for various methods in their approach for instance Plato and Aristotle adopt the idealist method in their analysis on leadership meanwhile Locke and Rousseau rely heavily on the prescriptive method for generalising on the nature of man, society and authority they are just basically concerned with who leads and what should constitute political authority.

11

According to Graff (2003), the approach to Women in Development (WID) came in early 1970s as a strategy to include women in development initiatives. The UN Decade for Women (1975-85) pointed out the existence of poverty and disadvantage of women as they are excluded from development policies and this include local governance systems. According to the Beijing Platform of Action (1995) without the active participation of women and the incorporation of women’s perspectives at all levels of decision making, the goals of equality, development and peace cannot be achieved. This suggests that it is a right that women should participate in public office. According to international and regional human rights instruments it is a woman’s right to participate in political decision making processes.

The Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) is considered as one of the bible for women empowerment. According to CEDAW (8 art 7), women are entitled quite a number of things such as to vote in all elections and public referenda and to be eligible for election to all publicly elected bodies, to participate in the formulation of government policy and the implementation thereof and to hold public office and to perform all public functions at all levels government, to participate in non – governmental organizations and associations concerned with the public and political life of the country. This is also reiterated in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) art 25. One of the first commitments that the UN’s Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) stresses is that member countries must take measures which ensure that women can enjoy the same basic human rights and fundamental freedom as men CEDAW (2003). This requirement is meant to protect women in the most basic way. Many countries in the world are members of CEDAW. They are signatories to this agreement hence are committed to giving constant feedback on the milestones they are covering in trying to improve the lives of women in their countries.

The study comes in to spine the research as it helps to keep on track of the core business or purpose of the research and that is to analyse different cultural and religious setups and their impact on the participation of women in leadership. At a time when international organisations, especially the United Nations are calling for the uplifting of the lives of women, one wonders what the general feeling towards women is. The first Millennium Development Goal (MDG 1) focuses on eradicating extreme poverty and hunger. MDG 3 aims at promoting gender equality and the empowerment of women. MDG 5 aims at reducing maternal mortality. All three of these MDGs are in line with the 2008 The UN’s theme of

12 international women’s day which stressed, “Investing in women”. In societies where the lives of women had been neglected, more effort should now be put towards that end.

The Millennium Declaration, as a statement of values, principles and objectives for the international agenda of the 21st Century, set time-bound and measurable goals and targets for combating poverty, hunger, disease, illiteracy, discrimination against women and environmental degradation. These goals are shaping the agenda for national as well as global policy development. However, it has been argued that although the MDGs reflect many parts of human rights agenda, most of the strategies to achieve them currently operate in a predominantly economic framework with narrowly defined concepts, Robinson (2003). By the same token, Antrobus (2003) pointed out that a major problem of the MDGs is their abstraction from the social, political and economic context in which they are to be implemented.

Among the MDGs there is the issue of “promoting gender equality and empowering women.” The goal has a main target and that is to “eliminate gender disparity in primary and secondary education, preferably by 2005 and to all levels of education no later than 2015.” The existence of a separate goal on gender equality demonstrates that the global community has accepted the centrality of gender equality and women’s empowerment to the development paradigm. But although access to education is a necessary step towards women’s equality, it is hardly sufficient to ensure the full participation of women in the political and economic lives of their countries. Gender equality should be considered as an essential crosscutting element for the achievement of all MDGs. Women’s subordination and exploitation represents a major barrier to the achievement of most of the goals and targets, not just those related to MDG 3. Women are quite influential in attaining other MDGs such as eradication of poverty, health, education and environment issues. Lately the CAMPFIRE in Zimbabwe has been a strategy to conserve resources and ensure sustainable development and women participation is obviously critical.

Tsanga (2002) explains that few women are standing for political office in Zimbabwe, and even when they do, in a societal context where men are regarded as decision makers, persuading the electorate to vote for female candidates has yielded little results. In support of this truth, there has been a call for quotas in recent years in a bid to boost the number of women participating in political arena. Political parties in Zimbabwe, ZANU- PF and MDC have now passed a resolution on the implementation of the quota system within their party

13 structures. The resolution, however, is not being enforced or implemented in full especially with regards to women participation rather not representing. According to Tsanga (2000) quotas when enforced, would most likely play an important role in accelerating the entry of women into politics especially in governance systems.

McEwen (2004) postulated that in some countries, such as Lesotho and Namibia, women have succeeded in changing the political agenda by putting women’s issues such as social services, child care, reproductive rights and violence against them on it. Women have responsibility to represent the needs of women and other socio-economic groups because they seem to understand better. Local government systems in Africa have failed to promote women participation. Morna and Tolmay (2010) argues that women’s participation in decision-making, especially at the local government level, is crucial in order to ensure that the needs, interests and priorities of both women and men will be taken into account in the development and implementation of policies and programmes at the local level.

The failure by most governments to implement the international and regional obligations in order to increase the representation and participation of women in politics was summarised by a statement made by Liberian President Ellen Johnson Sirleaf in 2008 in Unifem’s Progress for World’s Women, when she indicated that “The Universal Declaration of Human Rights states that the will of the people shall be the basis of the authority of government Article 21 (3). Half, even more than half of the world population, are women. Yet for far too long, women’s will, voices, interests, priorities and needs have not been addressed.

UNDP (2000) explains that women’s limited access to economic and financial resources at the household level influences their marginality in decision-making at the household level and obstructs them from participating in public domains. The informality of structures used by women in participating has made women invisible in formal politics. The limited participation of women in politics is explained as a result of their role in the private sphere along with the structures of formal politics such as the timing of meetings, the harsh competition, and more widespread discrimination against women, for example in selection procedures. Therefore, there is neglect of how realities of women’s heavy burden in the household impede their participation in government structures.

14

Impact of culture on women’s participation in leadership

According to Waring and Kirkby (2003) patriarchy is a social system in which structural differences in privilege, power and authority are invested in masculinity and the cultural, economic or social positions of men. Patriarchy as a system of male domination shapes women’s relationship in politics. It transforms male and females into men and women and constructs the hierarchy of gender relations where men are privileged and the challenge goes beyond ensuring the election of larger numbers of women into the legislatures.

Patriarchy, as a subordination of women do have a deep-rooted perception that the public domain is reserved for men and that the social contract is about the relationship between men and government who come together to exclude women- not withstanding rights guaranteed in law and political rhetoric of good governance and participatory democracy. The challenge for women is how to challenge or negotiate with patriarchy until they enter the spaces that patriarchy tends to dominate.

The field of politics is historically one that is dominated by men. Many scholars have argued that politics has historically been the most explicitly masculine human activity of all. This has been despite the fact that laws give the same opportunities and rights for men and women to participate in political office. Traditionally women’s primary occupation has been to look after their families, cooking, attending to family needs, caring for the sick and generally being there for the family and public domain has been reserved for men. Society has always been socialised to perceive women as incapable of holding public office.

Women partially participate in political office but they are faced by new obstacles that constrain their capacity to function. Women have faced challenges such as the culture, values and style found within the institutions that perpetuate inequality and protect the privileges enjoyed by men Goetz and Hassim (2003). The other factor that also works against women is that they were left behind for far too long and they have to work harder and put in more time to cover the gap. In the rural district councils women’s lives are still fashioned under traditional norms although it is assumed that women will find it easier to enter political office at this level, this has not been so due to the general lack of resources which also impedes women from carrying out their duties effectively.

Women constitute slightly more than half of the world population. Their contribution to the social and economic development of societies is also more than half as compared to that of

15 men by virtue of their dual roles in the productive and reproductive spheres. Yet their participation in formal political structures and processes, where decisions regarding the use of societal resources generated by both men and women are made, remains insignificant.

Despite the pronounced commitment of the international community to gender equality, bridging of the gender gap in the formal political arena, reinforced by the Convention on Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) and the Beijing Platform of Action, there are only twelve countries where women hold 33% or more seats in parliament. The structural and functional constraints faced by women are shaped by social and political relations in a society.

A system in which men by force, direct pressure or through ritual, tradition, law, and language, customs etiquette, education, and the division of labour, determine what part women shall or shall not play in which the female is everywhere subsumed under the male. The gender role ideology is used as an ideological tool by patriarchy to place women within the private arena of home as mothers and wives and men in the public sphere. This is one of the vital factors that shape the level of women’s political participation globally. However, this ideological divide is not reflective of the reality as the boundaries between public and private are often blurred in the daily lives of women.

Nonetheless, domestic domain continues to be perceived in the North as well as in the South as the legitimate space for women while public space is associated with men. Women have to negotiate their entry into and claim on public space according to the discursive and material opportunities available in a given culture and society. Although the gender role ideology is not static rather remained in a flux while intersecting with economic, social and political systems of a particular society, women continue to be defined as private across countries which resulted in their exclusion from politics.

The nature of politics is an important factor for the inclusion or exclusion of women in politics. Politics is defined as an articulation, or working out of relationships within an already given power structure, which is in contrast with the traditional view of politics that defines it as an activity, a conscious, deliberate participation in the process by which resources are allocated among citizens. This conception of politics restricts political activity only in public arena and the private sphere of family life is rendered as apolitical. This public-private dichotomy in traditional definition of politics is used to exclude women from

16 public political sphere and even when women are brought into politics they are entered as mothers and wives.

Male domination of politics and political parties is another factor that affects women’s political participation. Often male dominated political parties have a male perspective on issues of national importance that disillusions women as their perspective is often ignored and not reflected in the politics of their parties. Also women are usually not elected at the position of power within party structures because of gender biases of male leadership. Meetings of councils or parliamentary sessions are held in odd timings conflicting with women’s domestic responsibilities Goetz and Hassim (2003).

The larger democratic framework and level of democratization also impact women’s political participation. Secular democracies in Europe and also in some of the developing countries have created relatively more space for women’s participation in politics as compared to countries where religious orthodoxy has been shaping politics and democracy such as the Arab nations. The subordinate status of women vis-à-vis men is a universal phenomenon, though with a difference in the nature and extent of subordination across countries. Gender role ideology does not only create duality of femininity and masculinity, it also places them in hierarchal fashion in which female sex is generally valued less than male sex because of their socially ascribed roles in reproductive sphere. The gender status quo is maintained through low resource allocation to women’s human development by the state, society and the family.

This is reflected in the social indicators which reflect varying degrees of gender disparities in education, health, employment, ownership of productive resources and politics in all countries Gaidzanwa (1985). Additionally gender is mediated through class, caste and ethnicity that structure access to resources and opportunities. The socio-cultural dependence of women is one of the key detrimental factors to their political participation in public political domain.

Women also find it hard to participate in politics due to limited time available to them because of their dual roles in the productive and reproductive spheres. With their primary roles as mothers and wives and competing domestic responsibilities and care work, they are left with no time at all to participate in politics. Women also often lack social capital because they are often not head of communities, tribes or kinship groups, resulting in the absence of constituency base for them and means of political participation such as political skills,

17 economic resources, education, training and access to information and more so politics is increasingly becoming commercialized. More and more money is needed to participate in politics. Women lack access to and ownership of productive resource, limiting the scope of their political work. This means that their participation is derailed due to lack of resources.

Impact of religion on women participation in leadership

Religion is part of culture in its wider sense, it is an integral part of culture. Burkert (1998), comments that there has never been a society without religion. In most patriarchal societies, females are regarded as the inferior of the species and because of this, women are denied access to both honoured and utilitarian role open only to males. Such roles as administration and disposal of property, leader ship roles in societal affairs including religion and governance exclusively belong to males.

Nevertheless due to the dynamic nature of our society there has been a great stride especially in some religious circles especially in the Pentecostal sect where many women have been given positions of influence. In this case we are going to focus a bit on the contribution that has been done by women in the religious circles. This includes activities such as counselling which has been the most significant activity by women in the religious sector. For instance their counselling skills have been witnessed in the relationships of young couples as well as the youths. These elements have paved way for women recognition on the gender platform. People such as Joyce Meyer have taken advantage of this exercise and through their work have managed to touch the lives of so many women in return. In addition young couples tend to find comfort in the presence of women church leaders such as the female reverends or the wives of the reverends because of their motherly resemblance.

Sustainable development of a society cannot be brought about without the full and unreserved participation of both men and women and such a balanced development should also call for the elimination of all forms of discrimination and the protection against all forms of violence against women. According to Burkert (1998), although women constitutes two third of the world’s working hours, produce half of the world’s food and above all, bear and rear children, women continue to suffer from all forms of discrimination and from the absence of adequate protection against violence.

Hence, the main aim of this study is to dig out major factors that have been affecting women to participate in leadership and decision making roles so as to contribute more their part in

18 nation’s affaires. Accordingly, this research has been conducted to investigate and answer the following research questions, what is the status of women in leadership and decision making in public and private institutions and what are the major barriers that hinder women to have access in leadership and decision making roles, what policies and programs should be implemented to increase the involvement of women in leadership of public institutions?

Women are negatively affected by the religious values, norms, and laws that are imposed on them, legitimizing male dominance and leading to the marginalization of women, Para- Mallam (2006). There are deeply engrained hierarchies that exist in both Christian and Muslim laws that make it more difficult for women to seek gender equality. Nevertheless both Christian and Muslim women have also found parts of their life that are influenced by their faith as both liberation and an empowerment. An example of this is a Christian women’s organization in Nigeria, the Women’s Fellowship Unit (WFU) of the Church of Christ in Nigeria (COCIN) is using its faith-based religious platform to promote gender equality within the Christian framework.

Summary

Women have been influential in development processes and decision making. The legal instruments for women participation include the CEDAW, SADC Protocol on gender and development; MDGs which are now SDGs have been influential in gender equality and foster women participation. The chapter also looked at the role and effectiveness of local governance systems to promote women participation as means to enhance their needs, interests and priorities for the rural communities. Structural and institutional problems which inhibit women participation include patriarchy, culture, ideology factors political factors and among others. The local governance mandate is to promote expected roles in enhancing women participation.

19

CHAPTER 3 – RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Introduction

This chapter covered research designs, population, sampling, research instruments, data collection procedures and presentation analysis. The research was largely qualitative in nature and seeked to reveal and unearth cultural practices, beliefs and opinions towards women participation in governance structures in the Seke District. Without a systematic way of producing knowledge the findings of any research could be dismissed as guesswork.

Research design

For this research a case study design was adopted. A case study approach was used as it helps understand processes such as describing the context and discovering explanations on women participation. The case study design seemed to apply into the world of alternative perceptions and different views about common, shared tasks and workplace contexts. Case studies are mainly qualitative in nature. It can be an individual, a group such as a family or an institution such as a school or community. The case study design was conducted in the Seke District, Mashonaland East Province, Zimbabwe. According to the Zimbabwe Population Census conducted in 2012 there are more females in the Seke District than their male counterparts. The research explored multiple data collection techniques, such as the ones applied in this research (in depth interviews and questionnaires).

Qualitative research is described as an unfolding model that occurs in a natural setting and enables the researcher to develop a level of detail from high involvement in the actual experiences. Therefore, in order to gain insight into community’s experiences about migration, the use of qualitative research methods was the best option. According to Marshal and Roseman (2006) the key to qualitative research is to ensure that it is flexible, concise, systematic and fully integrated into a coherent research.

Qualitative research can also be described as an effective model that occurs in a natural setting that enables the researcher to develop a level of detail from being highly involved in the actual experiences, Creswell (2003). Leedy and Ormrod (2001) alleged that qualitative research is less structured in description because it formulates and builds new theories. This

20 is supported by Williams (2007) who asserts that qualitative research involves purposeful use for describing, explaining, and interpreting collected data.

The subjects were to be observed or studied in a completely natural and unchanged natural environment, thus the community gets to be interviewed within their physical, social and economic natural environment. Moreover descriptive research presented an opportunity to fuse both quantitative and qualitative data as a means to reconstruct the “what is” of a topic.

Research instruments

Tuckman (2007) defines research instruments as tools used by researcher to collect data from participants. Research instruments are ways that where used by the researcher to gather information from respondents and for the sake of finding possible solutions to the research questions. The researcher used interview guides and questionnaires forms.

Population, sample and sampling technique

This study’s population involved women from Seke District from all sectors of the district. In this research, the targeted population referred to women from the ages of eighteen (18) to sixty (60). This included civil servants, those in private organisations and those in the public sector as well as the indigenous individuals. Babbie and Mouton, (2012) describe a population of a study as a group of people about whom conclusions are to be drawn. A population may consist of individuals, organisations or conditions that groups are exposed to. The target population in this research includes the District Administrator, staff from organisations in the Seke District which deals with women, traditional leaders, the Ministry of Women Affairs, Gender and Community Development also few community members both men and women. Again, the research population sets boundaries on the study units and it refers to individuals who possess specific characteristics under study.

A sample is a subset of subjects that is representative of the entire population. The sample must have sufficient size to warrant statistical analysis. Sampling is done usually because it is impossible to test every single individual in the population; it is also done to save time, money and effort while conducting the research Castillo, (2009). Purposive or judgemental sampling technique will be used for this study. This is one that is selected based on the knowledge of a population and the purpose of the study. It will be used so that individuals are selected because of some defining characteristics that make them the holders of specific data needed for the study, Maree (2007). At a later stage snowball sampling technique will be

21 used in the research, whereby the researcher is going to collect data on the few members of the target population he can locate, and then asks those individuals to provide information needed to locate other members of that population whom they know, Creswell (2003). Sampling is the process of selecting units (organizations/people) from a population of interest so that by studying the sample we may fairly generalize our results back to the population from which they were chosen.

Data collection procedures

The data collection method used depends on the type of data to be collected. In this research qualitative data collection methods wereused. The researcher proposed to use primary data sources so as to obtain current information pertaining to the problem. The researcher secured a letter from the Department of Peace and Governance informing the consent parties that the researcher was on a study for different cultural and religious setups affecting the participation of women in leadership, a case of Seke District in Mashonaland East Province. Secondly, the researcher also secured a letter from the Seke District Administrator granting permission to do research on the topic in the study area. The researcher went on to visit villages as well as the peri-urban areas of Seke district to carry out the research. The researcher then distributed and administered the questionnaires to the selected respondents. At each visit the researcher would first explain the purpose of the visit and obtain the informed consent of the participants. The prospective respondents were informed that the data they provide would be treated with strict confidentiality and their participation was voluntary. They were also told to feel free to ask any questions which they felt were necessary.

In-depth interview is a data collection method that can be used to gather information through face to face interaction, which is done through conversation ILO (2011). The researcher went on to use data collection method because it helps to understand opinions and experiences from its natural context. Frey and Oishi (1995) defines an interview as a purposeful conversation in which one person asks prepared questions (interviewer) and another answers them (respondent). This was done to gain information on a particular topic or area of research. Interviews were the researcher’s main data collection instrument. Face to face interaction allowed effective communication as both sides (interviewer and interviewee) requested for clarification in areas where there were some misunderstanding. Interviews would be conducted to obtain data through direct contact between the researcher and

22 respondents presumed to have certain experiences that enhance in-depth understanding of the problem under investigation. In this way it is hoped that researcher’s bias towards certain subjects will be avoided and respondents will be able to talk about what they feel is relevant. This offered more quality responses from the respondents as it gave light to what exactly was being asked by the interviewer. In this respect the researcher would use open ended questions which were vital in illuminating views and feelings of the targeted population. Bell (2005) argues that in interviews the way in which response is made, tone of the voice, facial expression and hesitation can provide information that a written response would not be able to show.

The researcher made use of unstructured or open interviews, which were informed by the research aims and objectives. Nichols (1991) defines an unstructured interview as an informal interview that is not structured by a standard list of tentative questions.The interview has its own challenges and difficulties. A degree of expertise was essential. Interviewing is time consuming and exhausting. There is work that must be done prior to and after each interview.

For these reasons commitment was essential. Interviews needed strong interpersonal skills. There was need to help interviewers feel at ease, to encourage people to open up, to have good rapport and able to direct or guide the interview as necessary, while allowing the interviewee as much flexibility as possible. Also during the interview the respondent would get carried away and end up bringing issues that were irrelevant.

A questionnaire is a research instrument which consists of a series of questions and other prompts for the purpose of gathering information. In this regard open questions were designed to attain qualitative data. The researcher used questionnaires so that respondents would have enough time to give out their views and also this would allow them (respondents) to be able to reduce bias of the interviewer, answers would be of the respondent. As far as possible the researcher would try to avoid questions that were complicated, subjective words and complex questions in order to maintain the objectivity of study highlighted. Open questions were used so as to give the respondents a platform to express their reasons for particular responses. More so questionnaires had a degree of anonymity and this allowed the respondents to express their own knowledge openly without fear of victimisation. On the whole the questionnaire’s validity in this research lay in the fact that it offered the researcher a platform to integrate quite a number of questions which aided in fulfilling the objectives of the research. The types of respondents to participate in this study using questionnaires would

23 only include women and men of the local community members. The researcher went on to use questionnaires because they eliminate bias associated with interviews, they are permanent records and can be revisited when they are needed so as to give the researcher ample time to do data analysis or observations as compared to personal or telephone interviews.

Observation was another data collection method which the researcher applied whereby the researcher gathered information through investigating respondents without asking them any question. The researcher chose this method because subjective bias would be eliminated but that is if the observation is done accurately and also this instrument describes and explains what is currently on the ground, hence this helped the researcher to capture information that respondents might not have wanted to share.

Data presentation and analysis procedures

Qualitative data was presented and analysed manually since the sample may have been too small for a computer based analysis. Qualitative techniques such as graphs and charts were used to analyse the data that was collected. The researcher would go through the notes taken during interviews and questionnaires for editing. After reading the transcripts, the research came up with themes and patterns of categorising the information according to schedule. Data collected through questionnaires was presented using pie charts, tables and graphs were necessary. The researcher identified the research findings and associated implications and then the data collected through interviews was used to cross validate data collected in the questionnaire.

Summary

The chapter has explored research methods and techniques used to carry out the study. Population, sample, sampling procedures, data collection methods and data collection procedures and data analysis plan and have been explored. Interviews and questionnaires were identified and justified as the research instruments for the study. The merits and demerits of these instruments have been focused.The next chapter looks at data presentation, analysis and interpretation.

24

CHAPTER 4 - DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION

Introduction

This chapter focused on the presentation of data and analysis of the research findings. It also discussed the findings, on the basis of relevant literature review. The study under review is the analysis of different cultural and religious setups on the participation of women in leadership with the Seke District as the case study. The findings from the previously mentioned respondents and informants address the research objectives thus answering the research questions. The chapter concludes by summarizing the findings.

Demographic Information of Participants

Information was collected from a sample from key informants from Seke District Office,Chitungwiza magistrate’s courts, educationists and general respondents that stay in the area. Questionnaires and in-depth interviews were used to each of the officials whom the researcher was able to meet, however, depending on clarity, the time frame were not the same.

Findings

Table 1: Response rate

Number of Questionnaire forms Number of respondents Total percentage of questionnaires returned who answered respondents (%) distributed

15 13 11 73

Number of interviews Interviews conducted Response rate (%) requested

5 4 80

(Source: Primary Data)

A total number of fifteen questionnaire forms were distributed and thirteen of those were returned with only eleven of them answered giving us a response rate of 73% of the randomly selected population. The researcher also requested five interviews however only four

25 interviews were conducted the other one failed to go through. This prompted the researcher to give an overview of the findings pertaining to different cultural and religious setups affecting the participation of women in leadership. Of the questionnaires and interviews conducted twelve of them were females and three of them were men and this will be shown in figure 4.2 below in a pie chart.

profile of respondents

men 30%

women 70%

Figure 1: demographic data on Seke participants

(Source: Primary Data)

26

Table 2: Age of respondents

N = 15

AGE (years) FREQUENCY PERCENTAGE

%

18-21 2 13.4

21-30 3 20.0

31-39 4 26.6

40 and above 6 40.0

TOTAL 15 100

(Source: Primary Data)

The above table shows the ages of respondents for both females and males. The most frequent age range is from 40 years and above where there are 2 male participants and 4 females.

Figure 2: Level of education of the respondents

10

9

8

7

6

5 women men 4

3

2

1

0 O Level A Level Tertiary

(Source: Primary Data)

27

The above data shows that the majority of women have only reached as far as ordinary level as compared to that of men whereby most of them have had tertiary education but most women only being limited to ordinary education. The chat shows that of our fifteen participants of whom twelve were women and three were men, nine of the female participants had attained their ordinary level of education, one had advanced and only two had managed to attain a professional degree or diploma level of education whereas all the three of the men who we conducted in the research had managed to attain their professional level of education and that is the tertiary level.

Effects of culture on women in leadership

One of the research questions was on what are the effects of culture in participation of women in leadership. From the research that was carried through the use of questionnaires the respondents noted that different cultural beliefs that existed in their communities impacted negatively on their need to enter into leadership roles. 35% of the respondents indicated that they were hesitant to enter leadership initiatives because of how their mentalities had been socialised and led to believe. One of the respondents noted that

Makudzirwe edu atakaita akatidzidzisa kuti munhu wechikadzi haafanirwe kunge achitambira zvigaro zvekuda kutungamira nekutii basa revarume uye basa redu isusu ndereku garakumba tichiriritira mhuri zvinhu zvinozivikanwa kubvira nguva yechinyakare kuti ndivo vanotungamira kungavakupi nekupizvako. (it is common knowledge in our culture and how we were socialised that women are not allowed to take leadership positions but that role is restricted to men and that our duties is to stay at home and look after the children and our homes something that have been in existence ever since time immemorial).

This clearly indicate that women in Seke District feel that they are not obliged to take leadership roles because of their cultures and their duties were to look after the family, hesitation to leave husband for fear of losing him to other women, obligation to rear children as well as lack of permission from their husbands to apply for leadership posts andfear of role conflict between work and home as they cited that leadership was too demanding and it tends to take one away from home frequently. This is in line with what was noted by De Witt and Boysen (1995) assertion that women’s roles are seen against the background of theirdomestic duties and her feminine abilities are measured in terms of fulfilment ofa supportive and constructive role in supporting her husband.

28

From the respondents that were given during the research 32% of the targeted population noted that the belief that it is only males that are obliged to further their education at the expense of girls was also one cultural belief that was impacting negatively on women participation in leadership. One of the respondents noted that despite lack of funds or any other constraining activities the majority of men have been able to further their education at the expense of girls. This is evidenced by the response that was given by one of the respondents who mentioned that

“I wanted to pursue further with my education after doing so well in my ordinary level however my parents discouraged me and said that no men would want to marry a very educated woman because of her status and because of that I had to seat at home and wait for the day someone had to come and propose marriage to me”.

The above statement shows that it is not only lack of funds but even social beliefs have a negative impact on women that are fatal to the sustainable development. Also from the information that was gathered from this research it was highlighted that in some families girls were not even allowed to further their education after they had finished basic education. One of the respondents noted that

Isu mumhuri medu isu vasikana hatina kupihwamukana wekuzoenderera mberi nechikoro , patakangopedza gwaro rechinomwe hatina kuzopihwa mukana wekuti tienderemberi nechikoro nekuti baba namai vakabvuirana kuti hazvibatsire kutambisa mari tichibhadharira mwanasikana anozoenda kunoroorwa zvobatsira mhuri yekwaacharoorwa saka izvizvionita kuti tizotadzakutorawo zvigaro zvekutungamirira nekutitinenge tisinamapepa akakwana.(in our family we as girls we were not allowed to further our education after we had finished Grade 7 because our parents had the belief that culturally it is not necessary to educate a girl child because she will get married and her husband’s family will benefit from the education that we given her and besides when she gets married she will not be allowed to work so educating her is a waste of money)

This clearly shows that cultural belief that it is not necessary to educate a girl child because they will not be able to work after they get married can be seen as a negative impact of culture on women participation in leadership. This is so because lack of education qualifications can resist women to participate in leadership roles in sectors like the economic sectors were people get posts amd jobs on the basis of their education qualifications.

29

18% of the respondents noted that they had never attempted to take part in any leadership activity be it on the social, political or even civil society circles because of the belief that it was culturally omen of women to participate in politics because it was only men who were allowed to sit at the dare (traditional court) and contribute in the proceedings. One of the respondents noted that

Traditionally it is men who are obliged to take leadership roles and sit in dare court and women were not allowed to take part in the proceedings and give suggestions on issues concerning community or during trials but were only allowed to talk during trials if and only they were witnesses or were being tried in the courts.

What the researcher discovered was somehow a step back and an issue of great concern to what the researcher had anticipated prior to the research, these are some of the responses that were gathered from the participant’s interviews and questionnaires from those who had never attempted to participate in any leadership activity and why they had not tried. This evidence is shown by one of the respondents who further stated that

I did not even attempt to participate because I take it as I am not able due to our culture and fear rejection and condemnation because its only men who are allowed to take part and contribute in our community courts.

This shows that even though women want to participate into political spheres culture can be seen as a barrier preventing women the participation of women in leadership.However 25% of the young population were of the view that culture was not a barrier for them to take part in leadership circles.

“Culture may affect a bit but most of the barriers that culture posed have been addressed in the 21st century, we are now more independent therefore I can pursue any goal or target that I may find attainable”

With this in mind it became clear that the young generation had received light and that is through education which they have been receiving in their different institutions. This is evidenced by the way they held their heads up high defending what they believed in. This also showed us that the new curriculum that has been put in place by the government to help reduce the influence of culture on gender related activities has brought about liberty to the

30 current young generation. Some of the cultural practises which are prevalent in the Seke District which the researcher was able to uncover during the study includedwife inheritance (kugarwanhaka), forced marriages (chigadzamapfihwa) and child marriages (kuroorwakwevanavadoko).

Impact of religion to women participation in leadership

The objectives of this research study included to unravel the impact of not only culture but religion as well so as to help assist different stakeholders within the nation state improve the participation of women in leadership. There was need to find out whether religion affected women negatively or positively when it came to issues of public participation. The researcher also wanted to understand the roles of women in the religious circle which may be instrumental in helping the masses understand the significance of women leaders. In addition the researcher also wanted to find out if religion was a barrier to women participation in leadership and in what ways.

It came to light that leadership is mainly associated with politics according to the views of the majority “Church does not allow politics”, In addition there is still a stigma within the religious sect especially between the Pentecostal, epistles and the apostolic sect. they all view women from different perspectives which in turn affect the roles and responsibilities as well as the abilities of women. It came to light that in the Pentecostal sect women have over the past couple of years been making significant strides in promoting their own liberty within the religious field. They have gained more ground than in any other sect in terms of how they are regarded. However in the apostolic sect there is still that stigma which views women as mere male subordinates who are tools or properties of their husbands. This is evidenced by issues such as forced marriages where by a female counterpart is forced to marry a man who claims that he has had a vision in which the two were a couple (kuroteswa). In addition there have been cases cited in which children in their early stages of puberty have been married away in such a manner. In other sects there have been segregation cases of female counterparts for instance those whom are yet to wed have been segregated for notable participation be it in leadership or just participation as they are regarded misfits within the society.

Pane zvimwezvinhuzvatinodawokuitaasitinozvitadziswanekutimudzimaiasinamuchatohaabvumi

31

dzwekupihwachinzvimbomuchurch( there are other things I want to do for the church and the community as a whole but because of my marital status I am limited to shallow roles)

Some of the reasons lying underneath them may as well not be within their controls considering that they have already pointed out that men are the sole decision makers within their households and they only act as secondary subordinates. From the research studies carried out there were quite a lot of issues that the researcher was able to gather which were deeply affecting the women in the Seke District. Women are not well aware of their rights especially the elderly and those in the marginalized areas of the community which protect them from harmful cultural and religious beliefs or practices as the majority of respondents indicated that they are not aware of their rights and because of this lack of knowledge it becomes difficult to exercise things you do not know.

Challenges being faced by women

Women are being abused in their leadership positions especially those without clear understanding of their rights and obligations as some are meant to believe that the positions they may have acquired were not based on favoritism or nepotism one of the participants who is a member of the School Development Committee (name of the school withheld for security reasons) mentioned that she has had threats from other members especially those who have served the board for years saying that:

ndinindakakuwanisachinzvimboichochosakaitasezvandinoda or unopabva” (I got you that job and if you fail to comply with my demands you stand to lose the position as well).

As a result of such misconceptions women find themselves working to please those they believe are responsible of their success when in actual fact their hard work and consistence is the sole key to their success. In addition women are denied their fundamental right to education and health facilities. Cultural and religious beliefs like forced marriages expose women to sexually transmitted diseases and HIV/AIDs. These marriages usually result in women being involved in abusive, non-progressive relationships. Most of these survivors end up suffering from psychosis. Some of the challenges that the researcher was able to identify as expressed by the participants and key informants include these noted.

 Churches do not allow politics

32

 Not being accepted within the societies  Being looked down upon  Male dominance, discrimination  Lack of education and gender imbalances  Stigmatization, segregation  Patriarchal society system

More so leadership is affecting domestic affairs whereby when they attempt to bring about other possible avenues or implement something in their families they are regarded as immoral and unacceptable be it from their spouses or family members

“hanzi wave kudakuunza hukuru hwako hweku basa muno mumba” (you are trying to bring your position hear at my house). “Culture sometimes curtails women participation as women are regarded as subordinates and are expected to be submissive to their husbands” and this has affected women in their mindsets be it at work or in the society.

The research findings concurs with the views of Vincent (2005) that the culture of paying lobola is synonymous with gender based violence as they reduce women to sub human assets belonging to men. Kambarame (2006) supports the view as he say the payment of lobola gives men all the rights whilst women are stripped of all their freedom and rights, reduced to the level of acquired property.

Community elders are the perpetrators of such cultural beliefs which are horrendous and destructive to the society and this also makes it quite difficult for the ministry policies and awareness to be adopted as well as incorporated into the structures while the community elders continue to disregard these changes brought about by civilization.

During one of the interviews carried out by the researcher one of the key informants who is also a head at an education institution within the district pointed out that at some point the staff was divided on what to do as some took a route that was against the female head’s position while others took a position that seemed to support the female head’s position. For those who took the position against the female head, it seemed like an insult to manhood for those who supported her. She reckons other workmates saying “vamwe varume vakarohwa ne petticoat yaMai X,”(some men have been beaten with Ms X’s petticoat) since they were

33 following the views of Ms X. This attitude shows a complete disregard of female leadership. It is this form of attitude that repels most females from leadership participation. For fear of their emotional security they shun leadership every chance they get which result in gender sensitive policy implementation facing some insurmountable challenges.

The background data showed that there are moral considerations and communitarian considerations one has to make before going into leadership positions. It also showed that leadership is marred with gendered illusions on which sex is most suitable for leadership. Language and discourse were also seen to reflect gendered perceptions on leadership ability. It has been shown that morality deprive women more than men the freedom to choose their professional directions hence the prevalence of male leadership at the expense of female leaders. This is in line with what Gillian (1992) noted when she asserts that: Women's difference is rooted not only in their social subordination but also in thesubstance of their moral concern. Sensitivity to the needs of others and theassumption of responsibility for taking care lead women to attend to voices other thantheir own and to include in their judgment other points of view.In their attempt to balance their personal and professional lives, some women hesitate to seek promotion into management posts during their careers because they anticipate difficulties in maintaining the balance between the two.

The views noted above were seen to rise from the social system which ispatriarchal in nature. Patriarchy is defined by Phiri (2000) as, “a father ruledstructure where all power and authority rests in the male head of the family.” The resultsof the patriarchal system in the society are seen in hierarchical institutionsthat are male dominated. All the other processes that take place within the societywere seen to be an enhancement of the patriarchal system.

A leader is different from the average person in terms of personality traits such as intelligence, perseverance and ambition and some traits are particularly suited to leadership, Stodgill(1974).People who make good leaders have the right sufficient combination of traits.Leadership trait theory focuses on the leader’s values, beliefs, personality, need for achievement or acceptance, orientation to power, gender, confidence, and mental, physical, and emotional attributes. Nel (2008) asserts that morality refers to the moral principles pertaining to a distinction between right and wrong and that which constitutes an absolute reference for character and behaviour. It is an authoritative mode of conduct in matters of right and wrong. These modes of conduct are instilled within a person through the

34 socialization process, gender based stereotyping and language and discourse. Morality in our culture was seen as a key principle that ensures the survival of the family.

In line with this one participant said, As Africans we cannot run away from the issue of morality. It is the basis of who we are and ignoring the morality issue can be destroying the very identity we should be proud of.

This assertion shows the importance that our culture put on morality. The majority of the participants agreed with this assertion especially from the elderly participants. However it was noted that morality in our culture is gender specific. In line with this Kanyoro in Chitando and Hadebe (2009) says, "Women in Africa are custodians of cultural practices and many aspects that diminish women continue to be practiced, often making women objects of cultural preservation." It is because of this discrepancy in gender differentiated moral expectations that the researcher has found out that the concept of morality can act as a barrier to gender equity in education management.

The younger participants showed some reservations on some moral issues which they think have to be revised. This was shown by one participant who said, “Despite the importance we put on our culture we shouldknow that we have to adapt culture to suit the current global trends.”It was noted that morality mainly affects females in term of the ethic of care. In line with this, Eitzer (1998) argues that, “the responsibility of women for domestic maintenance and child care frees men of such duties but limits the capacity of women.” This was shown to be a result of the position of care ascribed to women during the period of socialization and in later life. Care combined with service serves to compromise the ability of females to meet their own needs and to fulfil their own ambitions (Engster, 2007).

The ethic of hospitality which is also linked to the ethic of care has a profound effect on the advancement of women. It was noted during the research that social challenges faced due to the issue of morality always translates to professional challenges. It is therefore important that before professional challenges faced by women in advancing in their career are discussed, social challenges be discussed first. This is because the social challenges affect very much the professional growth of a woman. It was seen that without most of these social challenges the road to women leadership would be very smooth. It was noted that the challenges are gender specific, hindering more the development of female teachers than the development of male teachers.

35

It is difficult for most women to embrace leadership readily due to the length of the physical, psychological and emotional distance society and culture has put between them and power bases. On the other hand men grew up immersed in the authority and decision making sphere, therefore to be a leader for them is just a matter of taking up what they were socialized to do. This was mainly due to the socialisation process which confines women to the domestic sphere while men are allowed to be explorative. Rodgers (1983) shows that men are socialised to tackle jobs, override obstacles, attack problems, overcome difficulties and always take the offensive. However women are socialised to de silent, passive, submissive and receptive of pain.

Thus, the nearer one is to bases of power the greater the possibility of an earlier entry into leadership as there are fewer hindrances that person faces to authority. On the contrary the further away a person is from power bases the more the hindrances the person faces in entering leadership initiatives. One key female informant said “I was born too far away from anysource of power that it was difficult for me to accept that I can make it in the world. In my community men occupy the central position in the community and women occupy the periphery”. Decision making forum which is the bases of authority for any society are occupied by males in the family and the society. The family and village courts were and are still ruled by males. In line with this view Njoroge and Dube (2001) say that it is easier for a woman to pursue academic study but however the question is whether she can bring change into her own life and in her community. This poses a great challenge for women who aspire for leadership positions. The following trend was realized during the research which forms part of the theory advanced in this research on the impact of socio-cultural factors on the effectiveness of gender sensitive policies in management.

36

Summary

Basing on the above data presented, it can be noted that cultural and religious beliefs hinder women participation as reflected in the research findings. It is worthy to note there is need to support women so that there will be no tentative blocks towards the achievement of women’s empowerment. In addition besides cultural and religious beliefs, poverty, politics and also ideologies have a bearing on women which in most cases has been portrayed to be negative. Though politics is expected to give people equal opportunities to both men and women, it has been seen increasing the challenges that women face. However despite the challenges observed, women’s empowerment is gradually gaining thrust. It is essential to note that the government has done a good job in formulating policies which are pro women, what only needed is unify both parties (men and women) and fight against religious and cultural beliefs as one.

37

CHAPTER 5 - SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Introduction

The study sought to analyze the cultural and religious factors affecting the participation of women in leadership. As such this chapter is a summary of the whole study, constraints and conclusions drawn from the study as well as recommendations on improving the participation of women in leadership activities. This chapter also marks the end of the whole research project and as such it gives an overview of the research objectives and questions.

Summary of the Study

The study sought to analyze the cultural and religious factors affecting the participation of women in leadership. The researcher adopted a case study mode of research and used Seke District as the area of study. Chapter one focused on the background of the study which was basing on past researches, statement of the problem which prompted the researcher to carry out the research was explored, aim of the study which attempted which attempted to achieve the research objectives, research questions and assumptions of the study. Also the significance of the study, limitations and delimitations were considered in chapter one.

Chapter two of the research focused on literature review that was the literature which was used in the past studies in relation to effects of social cultural beliefs on women’s empowerment and the theoretical framework. In this case the researcher use liberal feminism which emphasize equal individual rights and liberties for women and men and downplaying sexual differences. The study looked at how culture affects women’s empowerment and other factors that affect women empowerment such as poverty and religion, the policies that protects women from social cultural beliefs hence fostering empowerment.

Chapter 3 highlights the methodology in which the study is premised, target population, sampling and sampling methods, data collection methods and the ethical considerations used in the study. The research design was established as qualitative technique, the target population was explored and also identified sample size and the research instruments used consisted of questionnaire forms and interview guides. In chapter 4 of the research it concentrated on data presentation, analysis and interpretation basing on the research findings. The researcher collected primary data from communal members so as to link with data gathered from our key informants whom were mainly people in leadership roles especially

38 women. And from the responses that were obtained the researcher managed to interpret the findings and analyzed the data and then presented the information in chapter 4. Lastly chapter 5 highlights the summary, conclusion and also gives recommendations of the study. The final chapter gives an overview of all the chapters by summarizing the whole research, conclusions as well as recommendations.

Constraints

The researcher faced a lot of bottle necks whilst carrying out this research study such as inadequate time, finances as well as pressures that came with school demands such as assignments nevertheless the researcher had to make do with all these programs and had to work under pressure in order to manage. Another major problem that the researcher aced was that despite having received both letters from the school authorities as well as district office the communal members mostly feared to participate in the research as they associated leadership with political atmosphere thereby limiting their response. In addition Seke district is a peri-urban area therefore the majority of the members are either self employed or employed somewhere therefore making it difficult to have conversations with as somewhere not available due to different commitments beyond the researcher’s control.

In spite of the constraints highlighted above interesting findings and observations were made and the researcher learnt some valuable lessons in the process. And it is from those findings that the following conclusions were made:

Conclusions

The study revealed clearly that religious and cultural belief affects women’s empowerment as these beliefs emanate deeply from an entrenched discriminatory views about the role of women in the society and the patriarchal nature which views women as second class citizens and they see it as there is no need to be empowered. As a result of such beliefs the girl child is forced to leave school so that she will be married and a belief that male children are more important than female children as she will be trained in the home with her mother for marriage. Also gender roles in the family act as a prevention towards the women’s empowerment because female children are regarded to perform more duties than male children.

39

Regardless of these challenges the government of Zimbabwe put policies that try to curb patriarchal dominance in societies which affects the promotion of women in societies. Also in the assistance of government ministries and nongovernmental organizations women are seen to continue to be innovative and initiative regardless of educational levels as they have embarked on projects to raise funds to finance for the education of their children and sustain with their families.

It is not the responsibility of the government to ensure that women are relieved from the bondage of religious and cultural beliefs which affects women’s empowerment but rather it’s a duty of every member in the society. However religious and cultural beliefs have no equal opportunities between males and females as women are regarded as second class citizens. Therefore this leaves women full time at home and performing sexual duties.

Recommendations

From the above conclusions, the following recommendations were made:

Ministry of Women affairs, Gender and Community development

 To increase sensitization meetings on the already established policies through awareness campaigns and dialogues. This will increase the number of women well aware of their rights and the effort being put in place to incorporate women into leadership positions.  Educate women on the dynamics of our culture and how it has incorporated women independence from the chuckles of our ancestor’s views of women.  Promote women empowerment projects as well as support those in the leadership circles already.

Government

 It is recommended to the Government of the Republic of Zimbabwe that as social

protection policies continue to develop, it is essential to introduce monitoring and

evaluation systems for social protection programmes that can generate evidence

about the adequacy of their design and their impact and effectiveness. To

40

complement evaluations, benefit-incidence analysis of programmes should be

used as a tool to understand what and how population groups are being reached.

 Traditional courts should be strengthened and should punish perpetrators of women abuse on the basis.  Adult education should be encouraged so that parents will see the important of educating their children both girls and boys.  Cultural practices that affect women’s empowerment should be abolished through by making use of traditional leaders.  The government should give respective ministries adequate resources so that they will be able to carry out sensitization meeting in all areas.

 It is recommended that stakeholders who intend to implement women empowerment

programmes consider interventions for relief on cultural barriers.

 It is further recommended to all social protection programmers including local,

national and international organisations that there is need to create a win-win situation

where both national socio-economic development and women’s rights are realised.

Women

 Embrace the African version view of feminine and that is the womanism concept which encourages women independence without compromising the cultural aspect of womanhood.  Be supportive of one another instead of undermining each other’s ability and authority because this brings about a stigma which men will always manipulate for their own benefit.

41

REFFERENCES

Abdela L, (2010) Shevolution speech ‘Women´s participation and leadership in conflict: from theory to practice’

Akunyili, D. N., (2006) Women leadership in emerging democracy: My NAFDAC experience. JENDA: A Journal of Culture and African Women Studies, Issue 9.

Bullough A (2008), Global factors affecting women’s participation in leadership, Florida International University

Cherry K, (2015), What is the Trait theory of Leadership? Psychology expert, New York, Free Press

Cresswell J W, (2003). Research design, Qualitative, Quantitative and mixed methods approaches (2nd Edition), thousand oaks, CA, Sage

Cresswell J W, (2009), Research design, Qualitative, quantitative and mixed approaches, Sage Los angeles

Creswell, J.W., (2013). Research Design. Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE

Dauda, R. O. (2007). Female education and Nigeria’s development strategies: Lots of talk, little action? Indian Journal of Gender Studies, 14(3)

EndaleAlemuHora, (2014), Factors that affect Women Participation in Leadership and Decision Making Position, Vol 1 Jimma University Collage of Social Sciences, Ethiopia

Goetz (2009). Equal participation of women and men in decision-making processes at all levels. New York, NY: United Nations Commission on the Status of Women Fifty-Third Session.

Government of Zimbabwe and UNICEF (2002) Knowledge, Attitudes, Beliefs and Practices: Abaseline Survey for the Government of Zimbabwe, UNICEF.HARARE. http://www.unwomen.org/en/what-we-do/leadership-and-political-participation

42

Humm M (1992), Feminisms a Reader, New York, Harvest Wheatsheaf

Kasono D (2012), International Journal of Psychology and Behavioural studies, Factors affecting women participation in electoral politics in Africa, Maseno University, Kenya

Kobia M (ND), Effects of social cultural beliefs on women career progression in Kenya’s civil Service: International Journal of Advances in Management and Economics

Kouzes J, Barry Z (2007), Guidance Note on Gender Mainstreaming in development programming, UN Women, the leadership challenge, 4th Edition

Kouzes, Barry, Posner 2007), The Leadership Challenge, 4th Edition http://psychology.about.com/library/quiz/bl‐leadershipquiz.htm

Krook, M(2010). Women’s representation in parliament: A qualitative comparative analysis. Political Studies, 58(5)

Maxwell, J. A. (2012). Qualitative research design: An interactive approach (3rd Ed.).Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Molars (2004), The Land Reform Programme, Zimbabwe Government Printers

Mudimeli M 2011, The Impact of religious and cultural discourses on the leadership development of women in the ministry, University of South Africa

Oduyoye, M. A. (ed.). 2007. Culture and religion as factors in promoting justice for women. In: Oduyoye M. A. Women in religion and culture: Essays in honour of Constance Buchanan. Ibadan, Nigeria: Oluseyi Press

Okpara, (2006). Gender and the relationship between perceived fairness in pay, promotion, and job satisfaction in a sub-Saharan African economy. Women in Management, 21(3)

Rusika, Sibanda, Gumbo, Moyana (2003) History for junior secondary school, African Heritage Zimbabwe Education Books

Samantha C.(2014), Journal of Applied Psychology, Gender and Perceptions of Leadership Effectiveness

The Holy Bible: English Standard Version. 2001. Wheaton: Standard Bible Society,

43

Trochim W, (2006), A Journal on Research Methods Knowledge Base, Web Center for Social Research Methods

CONSENT FORM

My name is Zifa Privilege and I am an undergraduate student at Bindura University of Science Education studying Peace and Governance and I am conducting a research on the analysis of different cultural and religion setups on the participation of women in leadership. I am seeking your permission to interview you in my study. If you consent to this interview, I therefore appeal to you to give your honest answers to the questions that I will be asking.

Participant

I have read and the interviewer has explained what is written in the consent form and I have understood the process. I therefore voluntarily and willingly consent to take part in this study.

Date: ……………/………………/……………………..

Participant signature: ………………………………………………………………………….

Researcher

I have fully explained the purpose of this study to the participant and have sought his or her understanding for informed consent.

Date: …………/…………………/…………………….

Researcher’s name: ……………………………………………………………………………

Researcher’s signature: ………………………………………………………………………..

Supervisor’s name: Ms E.T Ngwerume

Cell number: +263774 800 232

44

APPENDIX 1

QUESTIONNAIRE: - Community members.

My name is Zifa Privilege and I am an undergraduate student at Bindura University of Science Education studying Peace and Governance and I am conducting a research on the analysis of different cultural and religion setups on the participation of women in leadership. The aim of the research is to come out with different religious and cultural factors affecting the participation of women in leadership. This questionnaire has been designed to collect information from representatives in the study area. The data which will be collected through this study will be used to advice stakeholders to assist in any way possible to improve the participation of women in leadership. Confidentiality would strictly be maintained in the use of the information provided during the interview.

(Community In-depth Interviews)

Questionnaire No. …………….

Please tick or fill the response that represents your best choice

Section A: Demographic Data

1. Sex

Female [ ] Male [ ]

2. Which age group do you belong to?

18-21 [ ], 21-30 [ ], 31-39 [ ], 40 and above [ ]

3. Highest Level of Education Attained.

O Level [ ], A Level [ ], Tertiary [ ]

Section B: Impact of culture on women in leadership

2. Have you ever tried to participate in any leadership activity?

Yes [ ] No [ ]

45

ii.) If your answer is no, please explain why?

………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… iii.) If your answer is yes, did culture affect your participation in leadership?

Yes [ ] No [ ] iv.) If your answer is yes please explain how culture affected your participation

………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………

2. In your own view how does culture affect participation of women in leadership?

………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ii.) If you answered question 2 what can be done to make sure that culture does not affect women in leadership?

………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………

Section C:Challenges being faced by women in leadership

1. In your own view what are the challenges being faced by women in leadership?

………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………

2. Have you ever faced a challenge as a woman participating in leadership?

46

Yes [ ] No [ ] ii.) If your answer to question 2 is yes, what challenges did you face?

………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………..

3. Do you know of any people in your area that have faced challenges as women in leadership?

Yes [ ] No [ ] ii.) If your answer is yes, please specify the challenges they have faced?

………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………

Section D: Impact of religion to women participating in leadership

1. What is the impact of women participating in religious leadership roles?

………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………

2. In your own view what can be done to improve the participation of women in religious leadership?

………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………

Thank you for participating in this study.

47

APPENDIX 2

INTERVIEW GUIDE - District Administrator’s Office - Head

My name is Zifa Privilege and I am an undergraduate student at Bindura University of Science Education studying Peace and Governance and I am conducting a research on the analysis of different cultural and religion setups on the participation of women in leadership. The aim of the research is to come out with different religious and cultural factors affecting the participation of women in leadership. The data which will be collected through this study will be used to advice stakeholders to assist in any way possible to improve the participation of women in leadership. Confidentiality would strictly be maintained in the use of the information provided during the interview.

1. For how long have you been working with this administration?

2. How many wards are in your district?

3. Are there any female councillors in your district, if yes how many are there?

4. What are the major barriers that hinder women to have access in leadership and decision making roles?

5. Which cultural beliefs are common in your area and how are they affecting women?

6. What are the challenges being faced by women as a result of these cultural beliefs?

7. Which religious beliefs are common in your area and how are they affecting women?

8. What are the challenges being faced by women as a result of these religious beliefs?

9. What strategies are in place to deal with such cases?

10. Are there any women in your district who are in positions of influence? If yes which positions of influence or power are these?

Thank you for participating in this interview.

48

APPENDIX 3

INTERVIEW GUIDE - Women Leaders

My name is Zifa Privilege and I am an undergraduate student at Bindura University of Science Education studying Peace and Governance and I am conducting a research on the analysis of different cultural and religion setups on the participation of women in leadership. The aim of the research is to come out with different religious and cultural factors affecting the participation of women in leadership. The data which will be collected through this study will be used to advice stakeholders to assist in any way possible to improve the participation of women in leadership. Confidentiality would strictly be maintained in the use of the information provided during the interview.

1. Can you begin by telling me something about yourself, such as your present job, your educational background, and marital status?

2. How do you describe your present position? Was it an elected position, educational merit or political appointment?

3. What challenges, if any, did you face in obtaining this position?

4. How would you describe your role or responsibilities in this position?

5. To what extent do religion and culture (if any) affect women ability to participate in the political leadership of our nation?

6. How do you think a woman’s marital status affect her ability to participate in political leadership in the contemporary Africa?

7. Can you please identify the gender policies that you think could increase the number of women in leadership positions in Zimbabwe and explain how they can be effective?

8. Can you describe the current political, social and religious climate with regard to women holding leadership positions in Zimbabwe?

9. What are your future career aspirations? And under what circumstances do you think it might be feasible in Zimbabwe?

Thank you for participating in this interview. 49

APPENDIX 4

INTERVIEW GUIDE - Ministry of Women affairs, Gender and Community development

My name is Zifa Privilege and I am an undergraduate student at Bindura University of Science Education studying Peace and Governance and I am conducting a research on the analysis of different cultural and religion setups on the participation of women in leadership. The aim of the research is to come out with different religious and cultural factors affecting the participation of women in leadership. The data which will be collected through this study will be used to advice stakeholders to assist in any way possible to improve the participation of women in leadership. Confidentiality would strictly be maintained in the use of the information provided during the interview

1. In your own understanding what are the different cultural and religious beliefs that are affecting participation of women in leadership?

2. What are the main challenges which are being faced by women due to religious and cultural beliefs?

3. What strategies have been put in place by the government to empower women in terms of leadership?

4. What activities have you introduced in your office that promotes participation of women in leadership activities?

5. To what extent has the women empowerment program benefited the women of Seke district in participating in leadership activities?

6. Which challenges are faced by the ministry in dealing with the religious and cultural beliefs?

7. Are there any other challenges being faced by women apart from those brought about by religion and culture?

8. In your own view what can be done to avert the challenges that you have mentioned above?

Thank you for participating in this interview.

50