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Published by Maney Publishing (c) The Society for the Study of Labour History © 2007SocietyfortheStudyof LabourHistory Brayford Pool,LincolnLN67TS, [email protected] Address correspondencetoHeather Hughes, aspect ofindentureandafter:analysespassengerlists, labourconditions,therecreation experiences inSouthAfrica.Importantworkhasbeen conductedonvirtuallyevery from above;thosedownbelowalsohadahandinits creation. the separationbetweenthemwasnotonlyresult of familiar‘divideandrule’tactics frequently opposed)racialcategories,‘Africans’and‘Indians’. Further,itisarguedthat that reducedhighlycomplexsocialgroupstotwo apparentlyhomogenous(and argument offeredisthatracialisedaccesstojobsandespecially landresultedinadiscourse the consequencesforlaterpoliticalorganisationamong oppressedgroups.Thecentral of theseIndianworkersbytheindigenousAfrican majorityofNatal,andsome andwhiteemployersoflabourinNatal.This articleexaminesthereception under asystemofindenture,jointlyorganisedbytheBritishrulersbothIndiaand From 1860to1911,IndianworkersenteredtheColonyofNatalinsoutheastAfrica Introduction between AfricansandIndians,suchsentimentsforseparationwerefeltfrombelowaswell. K. GandhiandJohnDube.Itsuggeststhatwhilethesettlerstatehadaninterestindrivingawedge between theleadingpoliticalleadersofIndiansandAfricansinearlytwentieth-centuryNatal,M. alists andthenewmiddleclassareexamined.Thearticleendsbyexaminingrelationship agricultural producersaftertheircontractsofindenturehadended.TheattitudesAfricantradition- briefly attheconditionsofindenture,anddwellsgreaterlengthonIndians’experiencesassmall relationship, namelythewaysinwhichAfricansreactedtoIndianindenturedworkers.Itlooks almost noneofitfocusesontherelationshipsbetweenthem.Thisarticleexploresoneelementthis There isanextensiveliteratureontheexperiencesofIndiansandAfricansincolonialNatal,but Labour HistoryReview It mustbenotedthattherealreadyexistsasubstantial literature onIndianimmigrants’ ‘THE COOLIESWILLELBOWUSOUTOF THE COUNTRY’:AFRICANREACTIONS COLONY OFNATAL,SOUTHAFRICA TO INDIANIMMIGRATIONINTHE , Vol.72,No.2,August2007 Heather Hughes University ofLincoln Faculty ofBusinessandLaw, University ofLincoln, Metadata, citationandsimilarpapersatcore.ac.uk doi : 10.1179/174581807X224588 2 1 Published by Maney Publishing (c) The Society for the Study of Labour History pressing. Theapproximately 350000AfricansresidingintheColonymid-19 their owntake-off,however, ofwhichthepaucityindigenouslabourwas most would becomeNatal’s‘green gold’.Theplantersfacedmajordifficultiesinachieving to thesubtropicalcoastalbelt onthesoutheasterncoastofAfrica,thisnaturalsweetener coffee, cottonandsesameseed,sugarseemedtohold the greatestprospect.Ideallysuited them andthecolonyrich.Afterseveralfailedexperiments, includingarrowroot,tea, white settlerseverywhere—hadbeenanxioustodiscover somecropthatwouldmake Ever sincethe1840swhenBritainextendeditscontrol overNatal,whitesettlers—like Indian indenturedlabourandtheNatalsugareconomy central themes. based firstpresidentoftheAfricanNationalCongress (ANC),isusedtoexemplifythe organised politicalactivity,ispresented.Here,thekey figureofJohnDube,theNatal- sis ofthesourcesanti-IndianthinkingamongAfricans,andhowthistranslatedinto in theurbanmilieu,whichremainedverysmallforcolonialperiod.Finally,ananaly- it washerethatthemainchallengetoAfricans’securityperceivedlie,ratherthan is followedbyanaccountofIndians’experiencesasagriculturalproducersinNatal,since that historicalphase. shed lightonthenatureandresultsofinteractionbetweenAfricansIndiansduring Africans andIndiansincolonialNatal’ to addressthisneglectedarea;indeed,theirfirstchapterispointedlyentitled‘, relations betweenAfricansandIndians.BhanaVahed’srecentstudyhasbegun tension, suchaseruptedin1949and1985 differentiated groups.Thekeypointhereisthatapartfrommomentsofextremeracial to militateagainstafullappreciationofthevarietyconnectionsbetweenthesetwo hidden handofwhitesettlerdomination.Thatkindracialseparationhastended between AfricansandIndians,sometimesshapedbythem,thenot-so- perspective, itcouldbefurtherargued,hasbeenformedoutofthemultiple African societythatisdifferentfromofeitherwhitesorAfricans’. Freund wrotethat‘Indians,asIhavecometorealise,aperspectiveonSouth classes inDurbanthemid-1990s:onewasonIndians,Africans. for example.)Thus,twomajorworkswerepublishedonthesocialhistoryofpopular characterisation ofethnicdifferencewouldnotsurprisescholarsethnicityintheUSA, partition theirsubjectmatteralongraciallines.(Suchamosaicapproachtothe Again, otherwritingsonSouthAfricanhistory,includingrevisionistones,tendedto any researchbyscholarsfrommainlandIndia,amatterthatisnowbeingredressed. scholarship. Forinstance,E.S.Reddypointedoutthatapartheidmoreorlessprecluded . South Africafrom1893to1914)andthe(re-)emergenceofasense‘Indianness’in attention hasbeenpaidtothemostfamousofthesebyfar,M.K.Gandhi,wholivedin wealthier ‘passengers’whotravelledvoluntarilytoSouthAfrica(andagreatdealof of familyandsociallife,thegrowthpoliticallabourorganisation,role 156 First, anoutlineofIndianimmigrationandconditionsindentureispresented.This However, gapsremain.Foralongtime,thepoliticalcontextweighedheavilyon 3 Heather Hughes 8 . Thisstudyfollowstheirworkasanattemptto 7 , therehasbeenlittlepublishedoneveryday 5 6 Inhisstudy, Yetsucha interactions th 4 Published by Maney Publishing (c) The Society for the Study of Labour History critical reportstakenhome byreturningmigrants,andonlyresumedthescheme after desertion’. included ‘malingering,absenteeism, pettylarceny,destructionofemployers’property and protest amongthemwasimpossible, sothatresistancewaslargelyexpressedinforms that regimes byoverseerswasharshandworkers’movement severelyproscribed.Organised conditions formedthepatternofdailylife’formost workers.Supervisionofwork in theextreme.Onplantations,‘overwork,malnourishment andsqualidliving people too,foundsuchadesignationconvenient,though forratherdifferentreasons. planter class.Thedesignationimpliedbothservility andisolation.ButmanyAfrican after thegrantingofResponsibleGovernmentin1893 strengthenedthehandoflocal colonial authoritiesandwhitesettlersfoundthisconvenient totheirinterests,especially that lumpsalldescendantsofimmigrantsfromIndia into one“racial”category.’ “Indian” groupisalmostentirelytheproductofdiscriminatory treatmentandlegislation by subsequentdiscriminatorylegislation.Asonewriter putit,‘theconceptofan continued tobeverycloselytiedtheiroriginalreasonforarrivalandwasalsoconfined subordinated category:‘’. all theseworkersofIndianorigincametobetreatedinNatalasahomogenous, remainder beingallocatedtomunicipal,railway,miningandcommercialemployers. and overtheentireperiod,aboutsixtypercentwereemployedinthissector,with and demandingoverlords. leaving Indiawasoftenalastresortinthebattleagainstharshenvironmentalconditions Many were,asSwanputit,distressed,despairing,diseasedandevendisabled;then, lower castesassociatedwithagriculturalpursuits.Two-thirdsofthemigrantsweremale. A widevarietyofcasteswasrepresentedintheirnumber,butmostworkerswerefrom immigrants wereMuslim,twopercentChristianandtheremainderHindu. -speaking districtsintheGangesvalley.Twelvepercentoftotalnumbers Tamil- andTelugu-speakingareasofsouthernIndia,withtheremainingthirdfrom employer. per year)andworkinglivingconditionswereentirelyatthediscretionof shillings permonthformenandfivewomen,withanincreaseofoneshilling meant thatworkerswerecontractedtoasingleemployer,wagesfixed(usuallyten labouring compatriots. largely Muslim,whocametoNatalontheirownaccountsupplytheneedsof ger’ Indians,better-offtradersandprofessionalsmostlyfrompresent-dayGujarat some 152000wouldhavedisembarkedinNatal.Theywerejoinedbyso-called‘passen- first Indianworkersarrivedin1860;bythetimeschemeendedhalfacenturylater, organise theimportationofbondedlabourfromanotherBritishpossession,.The a labourdrought,butthosewhodidmanagedtopersuadethecolonialgovernment been abandonedtospeculatorsafterthevariouscollapsedschemes. these wereneveradequateforallAfricans’needs,therestlivedonprivatefarmsthathad poor qualitylandthathadbeensetasideforexclusivelyAfricanhabitationin1847.Since in sugar.Roughlyhalfofthemlivedtheso-calledlocations,largetractsgenerally century stillhadenoughaccesstolandnotbetemptedbythewagesortypeofwork Living andworkingconditionsforthemajorityof indentured workerswerepoor Despite thediversityinlanguage,religion,experiencesofmigrationandemployment, Indian workerswereindenturedforaninitialperiodoffiveyears.Indentureessentially 10 14 Overtheperiodofscheme,two-thirdsimmigrantscamefrom Intheearly1870s,Indian governmenthaltedemigrationbecauseofthe African ReactionstoIndianImmigration 11 Initially,allworkerswereassignedtosugarproduction, 12 Indians’place,inbothgeographicalandsocialsenses, 9 Notallplantersfaced 13 The 157 Published by Maney Publishing (c) The Society for the Study of Labour History Conditions intheareawere unsuitableforthecanevarietiesthenavailableand were in interior intheso-calledmist belt,closetothelargeAfricanlocationofsame name. Even inInanda,therewas a certainamountavailableforthispurpose,especially tothe instead theyhadtocompeteontheopenmarketfor accesstoland. economic activity,therefore,Indianagriculturalistslacked asafetynetsuchaslocation; 13 000applicationswereevergranted.Fromtheir earliest entryintonon-indentured could beexchangedforasmallplotoflandwassoon abandoned;onlyfiftyoutofover Indians. selves backintoindentureasarelieffromtheonerous taxesthatcametobeimposedon depression whensignificantnumbers,havingbeen‘free’ forsometime,contractedthem- prohibited fromentryintotheOrangeFreeState.There wereperiodsofdeepeconomic locally asmarketgardening.MoststayedinNatal,some driftedtothegoldfields,allwere sought employmentintownsortooktosmall-scalecommercial farming,betterknown did), re-indenture,orfindworkontheirownaccount. Mostinthislastcategoryeither After fiveyearsofindenture,workerscouldopttoreturnIndia(whichaboutaquarter Indians asmarketgardeners were ‘free’. 1880s, therewereanestimated14000,ofwhom6000underindentureand8 meant thattheIndianpopulationwashigherherethaninotherdivisions:bylate recovered andexpandedinthe1880sresultinglargenumberofestatesInanda Natal CentralSugarCompanyatMountEdgecombe,andTongaat. comparatively early.ThetwolargestmillsinthecolonywerealsolocatedInanda, Kimberley diamondfieldsastheindustrialprocessesofsugarproductionwerecentralised though, andmanysmallerplanters-cum-millersdriftedawaytoAustraliaorthe whole colony’. Matthews, todeclareInandabe‘[t]hemostenterprisingandrisingportionofthe rose fromnearly5000toover12000,promptingthelocaldistrictsurgeon,Josiah Division occurredbetween1864and1874,asthenumberofacresundercultivation was thecentreofsugarindustry.Thefastestrateincreaseinproduction miles ineachdirectionuntilthe1880s).TheDivisionofInanda,tonorthDurban, to theextentofrailwaylinesouthandnorthDurban(amattersomethirty representative, orotherwise,thispicturewas. instances ofAfricanmaltreatmentIndianworkers,butitisimpossibletoknowhow cases ofAfricansemployedas friction wasmorelikelytocharacteriserelationsthanco-operation.Theyfoundafew that thereisstillalackofresearchonhowtheyinteracted,thoughspeculate improvements. Immigrants, therewaslittlethattheauthoritiescouldorwoulddotoinsistuponsuch improved. DespitetheinstitutionofanewadministrativepostProtectorIndian renewed assurancesbytheNatalgovernmentthatworkers’treatmentwouldbe 158 At first,Indiansrentedland asclosetheycouldtothemarketsfortheirproduce. Sugar productionwasconfinedtoarelativelynarrowcoastalstripofNatalaswell Both AfricansandIndianswereemployedonsomeplantations.BhanaVahednote 19 TheNatalgovernment’sinitialpromisethatthecost ofthereturnpassage 18 16 Sugarwasbynomeansimmunefromdepressionandinternalcrisis, sirdars Heather Hughes (overseers)incontrolofIndianworkers,andcite 15 17 20 Sugarproduction Published by Maney Publishing (c) The Society for the Study of Labour History Moreover, onmuchspeculatively heldland,Indians,likewhitetenants,leased acreage the landowner:more hands ontheland,morehutswererequiredfor them. in production,whereasthis factormateriallyaffectedtheamountAfricanshadto payto been themorefavourablearrangement, sinceitdidnotmatterhowmanypeople assisted shillings to£1peracreforafixednumberofyears. annually increasingamountperhut;Indiansonthe otherhandwerechargedfifteen acre, whereasAfricanswerechargedperhut.Itwas customarytochargeAfricansan charged. who hadnowhereelsetobuywhenfoodwasscarce. this waswhyIndiansalwayshadfood,eveninleanperiods, andcould‘plunder’Africans land usewasveryharshonthesoilforthisreason. SomeAfricanchiefsbelievedthat the landtheyrentedforcultivation. do not’,observedJacobusMatiwaneofVerulam.This meanttheycouldusevirtuallyall ‘Three CooliescouldliveinspacethatoneKafirwould want.Nativeslikecattle;Coolies factor thatmarkedIndiansasimpossibletoassimilate,farAfricanswereconcerned. the ‘strangers’fromabroadpossessednocattle.Morethananyother,itwasthissingle ments ofIndiansmall-scalefarmers. One oftheseAfricansthemselveswellrecognised: to advancetheirfortunes’. be overestimated—most‘remainedextremelypoorandfoundlessopportunity as hawkingortrading,tothesameend.ThesuccessofIndiansmallgrowersshouldnot of themworkingtheirgardensbymoonlight. which extendedfamiliesseemedpreparedtosubmitthemselves:therewereevenstories familial lifeofaparticular‘creolisedvariety’,suitedtotheintenseself-exploitation efforts theymadeintheyearsimmediatelyafterindenturetorecreatesocial,culturaland the struggletomaintaintheirfootholdonprivateland. rent arrearsfromAfricantenants,anindicationoftheextenttowhichtheywerelosing per centofcivilcasesintheInandamagistrate’scourtwereactionsforrecovery Verulam, theadministrativecentreofInandaDivision,estimatedthatafullninety great difficultyingettingitfromaNative.’ 1880s hadbecomeacommonrefrain,‘IcangetmyrentfromCoolie,whereasIfind tenants moredesirablethanAfricanones.OneInanda-basedlandlordvoicedwhatbythe strangers toourtable.’ Butforthem,maizewouldbeatfamineprice,andvegetables Division ... sugar.’ Natal, particularlyInanda,wherethey‘werethemainproducersofallcropsotherthan Indian growers. some farmsinInanda,suchasRietRivierandGroeneberg,wereleasedtosmall-scale come toanendthantheybeganfacecompetition.Asearlyas1866,largepartsof to traditionalist/communalpractices.Nosoonerhadtheinitialperiodofindenture between 4000and5upuntilthe1890s,werefarmingsuchland,largelyaccording owners, corporateandindividual,absenteelocal.NumbersofAfricantenants, any casepoorlyservedbyroads.Allthismarginalfarmlandwasinthehandsofwhite The otherfactorgivingIndiangrowersapossibleadvantage wasthenatureofrent Freund hasarguedthatthevigourofIndianagriculturalists’enterprisewasdueto They rapidlyemergedasthemostreliablefoodproducersinmanycoastaldivisionsof 22 Themagistratereportedin1876thatIndianswere‘therealagriculturalistsofthis 30 InInanda,andprobablyelsewhereonthecoast,Indians werechargedper 21 African ReactionstoIndianImmigration 23 ItwasnotlongbeforemostwhitelandownersconsideredIndian 27 Yettherearetwootherpossiblereasonsfortheachieve- 28 Indeed,somelandownerscomplainedthatIndian 24 Bythe1890s,G.H.Hulett,asolicitorin 26 Manyengagedinrelatedactivities,such 31 29 25 Theacrerentcouldwellhave 159 Published by Maney Publishing (c) The Society for the Study of Labour History beaten bytheCoolies’.He persuaded themtoplanttheirowntobacco,‘andthereby save planting methods,tellingthem that‘theGovernmentdidnotseewhytheyshould be Location Supervisor,Thomas Fayle,frequentlyadmonishedAfricansovertheir crop- who workedcloselywithAfricans toprotect‘their’charges.Onhispatrols,the Inanda above theNative.’ much oftheEuropeans,andyetlatterevenwent to thelengthofputtingCoolie As oneMkontshwanaputit,‘Europeansloathedthe Natives, whereasNativesthought also keenlyawareofthedifferentlawsandtaxesthat applied toIndiansandthemselves. officials. Therentalpracticesoflandownershavealready beendescribed;Africanswere pounded bydiscriminatorypracticesandattitudeson thepartofwhitelandownersand may becalledtheirdifferent‘culturesofproduction’.However, thisdifferencewascom- Indian’. it verymuchwhentoldtoquitandleavetheirfathers’ bonestobeploughedupbyan aboriginals ofthecountry,hadbeenturnedoff?’Yetanothercomplainedthat‘theyfelt new arrivals,hadbeenwellprovidedwithland,andthenatives,whowere in thedistrict.’Aheadmanasked,‘howwasitthatIndians,whowerecomparatively lands hadbeentakenpossessionofbyIndians,andNativesgiventheworstland thebetter of scarcityowingtothelandhavingbeentakenupsomuchbyIndians... One applied toremoveZululandonthegroundsthat‘thisplaceisoverrunbycoolies’. Indian populationslikeInanda.Examplesabound:alocalhomesteadhead,Matyonovana, perceived adirectconnectionbetweenthesetwotrends,especiallyinareaswithhigh produce, whileAfricanlandhungerseemedtobeworsening.cultivatorswidely agricultural productionontheirownaccount,supplyingthecolony’stownswithfresh By thelaterpartofcentury,Indianproducersseemedwellentrenchedinsmall-scale African responsestoIndianfarmers is from£4to£5anacre’,accordingG.H.Hulett. Indians begantobuy,landwasaslow£130sanacre,andnowtheaverageprice century tohaveamarkedeffectonlandprices:inthenorthofInandadivision,‘before rental topettyproducers.Indianpurchasesweresignificantenoughbytheturnof did whatspeculatorsbeforethemhaddone,dividingtheirholdingsintosmallparcelsfor began toturnfarmlandforinvestment.Whilewaitingpropertyvaluesrise,they merchants, who,sufferingfromrestrictivelegislationonlandownershipinurbanareas, of adifferentsort—notbytime-expiredIndianworkers,buttown-based‘passenger’ African andIndianlabour. scale commercialfarmersproducedcashcropslikesugarandtobaccoemployedboth borrowing relationshipswithurban-based‘passengers’.Thefewwhoemergedaslarge- that theirAfricancounterpartslacked,althoughthisfrequentlyinvolvedtheminusurious tenure’. for specifiedperiods,whereasAfricans‘continuedtopayperhutwithoutanysecurityof 160 Also contributinginlargemeasurewasapredisposition onthepartofmanywhites To adegree,anti-Indianfeelingsamongtraditionalist Africansaroseoutofwhat Some Indiangrowerswereabletopurchasesmallplots,thusgivingthemasecurity 36 32 (chieflyfunctionary)saidAfricansweretroubledbybeing‘alwaysinastate 37 33 Fromthelate1890s,therewereextensivepurchasesofland Heather Hughes 34 35 Published by Maney Publishing (c) The Society for the Study of Labour History to Cooliesinmanyplaces’. aged allandsundrybytellingthem‘thatgoodNativeswereemployedinpreference them toDurbanthemselves,ratherthansellingIndianswhocamearound.Heencour- what theypaytoCoolies’;heurgedthewomenearnmorefortheirfowlsbytaking early 1900s,voicedstrongobjections tolandalienationonmissionholdings,for fear that 1881 andwhobecamechairman ofalltheABCFM’soperationsinsouthernAfrica inthe sentiment. Rev.HerbertGoodenough, themissionaryinchargeofAmanzimtoti from of thelocation.Inboth theseplaces,itisnothardtofindexamplesofanti-Indian intense sugarproduction:Amanzimtotionthesouthcoast, andinInanda,ontheborders two mostsuccessfulstationsoftheAZMhappened to besitedverycloseareasof gence ofaneducatedAfricanmiddleclasswasalmost entirelyduetoitsefforts. its headquartersinBoston.Ithadbeenactivethe region sincethe1840s;emer- ‘branch’ oftheAmericanBoardCommissionersfor ForeignMissions,(ABCFM),with The foremostmissionsocietyinNatalwastheAmerican ZuluMission(AZM),thelocal to beinvestigated,sinceastrongstrandofanti-Indian prejudicecanbetracedtothem. purchases by‘passenger’Indians. rapidly, duetotheexpansionofsugarandothersettler cropsand,asnotedearlier,to in thecolony. legislative baronwhocouldbuy.Bythelate1870s,Africansownedsome83000acres purchase landhadtodosoincompetitionwitheveryoneelse;therewasasyetno was thensubdividedintoindividualplots.Generallyspeaking,Africanswishingto where AfricanspooledtheirresourceswithaWesleyanmissionarytobuyfarm,which establishment ofanAfricanfreeholdcommunitywasEdendale,nearPietermaritzburg, of thiskind,butmostwereonaverysmallscale.Thenotableexamplethe already tohavepopulationsoftraditionalistsonthem.Therehadbeenafewexperiments to missionstationsthatwereunderjurisdictionofthesociety,butwhichtended years tobeablepurchaselotsonthemissionreserves—thosetractsoflandattached success inagriculturewerelandownersonthemissionstations. they havegreatlyincreasedit.’ causing ournationtodie.Theyarealsogreatthieves.didnotintroducetheft,but culpable: ‘TheCoolies…havebecomethefeetofNativesingettinggrog,andthatis for Africans),runbybothwhitesandIndians.YetAfricansthoughtIndiansparticularly with Africansinitemssuchastreacleandrumthroughthe‘canteens’(eatinghouses ‘Native’ aretobefoundincolonialliquorlegislation. prohibition forAfricans:someofthemostcarefullyexactdefinitionsterm While whitesandIndianshadfreeaccesstosuchtypesofliquor,therewascomplete cating brews.Treaclewasthebasicingredientofpotent (again) inthesugardistricts,sinceby-productswereusedtomakevariousintoxi- ills. AcommonexamplewastheproblemofdrunkennessamongAfricans,especially avoided’. term “labourer”becamesynonymouswith“”,andstoodforaconditiontobe workers’ entryintoNatalleftitsresidueofprejudice:‘toAfricansandwhitesalike,the people ashepassedfromgardentogarden.Inaddition,theoriginalpurposeforIndian In ordertounderstandtheattitudesofconverts,mission societiesthemselvesneed Another groupofAfricanswhofeltthreatenedbywhattheyperceivedasIndian Africans andwhitesalikefounditconvenienttoblameIndiansforallmannerofsocial 39 43 Thereafter,itbecameincreasinglydifficultasland pricesincreased African ReactionstoIndianImmigration 38 Thesewerecommonthemesinhisconversationswith 41 40 Therewasathrivingillicittrade isitshimiyana 42 Theyhadagitatedfor , forexample. 44 The 161 Published by Maney Publishing (c) The Society for the Study of Labour History middle class. newspaper industrial schooltoteach self-sufficiency, atInandain1901.In1903,hefounded the whom hewascloselyrelated, hewasabletorealisehisdreamofestablishingOhlange, an before him.Withagenerousdonationoflandfromthe localAfricanchief,Mqhawe,to Seminary in1899.HebecamepastoroftheInanda church,ashisfatherhadbeen ing post.HesoonreturnedtotheUnitedStatesandwas ordainedatUnionTheological His healthfailed,however,andhetravelledhome,where theAZMfoundhimapreach- first AfricansfromNataltoattendcollegeabroad,at Oberlin inOhiofrom1887–1891. locally andatAmanzimtoti,wheretheboys’seminary waslocated.Heamongthe John LangalibaleleDube John Dube’sattitudetoIndians hand, whilesometimesnoted,hasbeenpassedoverasoflittlesignificance. workers. Champion’svociferousanti-Indianismiswellknown; competition ofvariouskindsfromIndians,whetherassmallgrowersorfieldurban ties: bothwereprospectivelandowners,andtheirAfricanconstituencieslikewisefaced populist approachinordertoappealworkers. Industrial andCommercialWorkersUnion(ICU),wasfarmorewillingtotakearadical campaign tacticsthatwereexplicitlyconstitutional.Champion,asNatalleaderofthe Dube wasalwaysdeeplyconsciousofstatus,theneedforeliteleadership,and nounced anti-Indianviews. of thetwentiethcentury,JohnDubeandA.W.G.Champion;bothsonsheldpro- were thefathersoftwomostprominentAfricanleadersinNatalfirstdecades that twomembersofthefoundingchurchatInanda,JamesDubeandPatayiMhlongo, very earlyconvertsleftnowrittenclues.However,itissurelymorethancoincidence of Africanconverts.Itisanassumptionthatalmostimpossibletoprove,becausethese own, itmaybefairtoassumethatsuchprejudicewaspassedontheearlygenerations workers anywhereinthevicinity. school withherownmoney,inordertoforestalltheconstructionofbarracksforIndian from thelate1860s,wenttogreatlengthsbuyalargepieceoflandadjoining the headofInandaSeminary,premierinstitutionforeducationAfricangirls cloud onoursocialhorizon.’ IlookupontheseIndiansasagrowing seem tomehopelesslylost,nowandforever... theyareindescribablywicked,and labourers willneverreturntotheirnativeland... immigration, hewaslessthanliberalandtolerant:‘thegreatmajorityoftheseimported committed totheupliftmentofhisAfrican‘parishioners’.YetonissueIndian of AmericanMidwestreligiousrevivalism,hewasananti-slaveryrepublican,deeply Lindley, inmanywaysmoreliberalandtolerantthanhismissionarypeers.Aproduct mission station.Themissionaryinchargetherefromthe1840sto1870swasDaniel Umvoti. already occurredononeofthefewstationswhereindividualtitleshadbeentried, Indians wouldendupsub-leasingplotsfromAfricanswhohadbeengiventitles:this 162 Since theyimbibedmuchelseofthemissionaries’worldviewandembraceditastheir Perhaps thestrongestanti-Indianismofall,however,wastobefoundatInanda 45 Ilanga laseNatal, 51 wasbornatInandamissionstationin1871.Heschooled both 48 46 which becameanimportant mouthpiecefortheAfrican Therewereintensepoliticaldifferencesbetweenthem. OtherInandamissionariesfeltsimilarly.MaryEdwards, 47 Heather Hughes 49 Yettherewerealsonotablesimilari- 50 Dube’s,ontheother Published by Maney Publishing (c) The Society for the Study of Labour History with theaspirationsofresisters,althoughhedecriedtheirtactics. colonial state.Hecriticisedthewayauthoritieshandledcrisis,andsympathised 1906 —anarmeduprisingbyAfricanpeasantsagainstanewtaxbeingimposedthe Insila kaShaka, organisation, Inkatha.Heauthoredwhatisconsideredthefirst‘modern’novelinZulu, regional Natalpolitics,participatinginthefoundingofZuluethnicnationalist over accusationsabouthisattitudestosegregation,hebecameincreasinglyinvolvedin when hewaschosenasthefirstpresidentofANC.Afterlostpositionin1917 tions campaigningforgreaterrightsthem.Herosetotheheightofhispowerin1912 became theleadingrepresentativeofAfricanconvertsinNatalandwasactiveassocia- what oncewasourheritageisenjoyedbyIndians.’ ment wasneverfarbeneaththesurface:‘wehadland,wemortgagedsame,andnow swell thepursesofthesestrangers,withwhomweseemobligedtotrade...’ taken bytheseAsiatics:howwhateverlittleearningswederivefromEuropeans,goto that ‘weknowbysadexperiencehowbeneathourveryeyeschildren’sbreadis Indians (andallowedotherstodothesame).Anitemheaded‘TheIndianinvasion’noted 1936). Hediedin1946. an HonoraryPhDbyaSouthAfricanuniversity(bytheUniversityofAfricain wrote extensivelyoneducationandChristianity.HewasthefirstAfricantobeawarded of thecountry’. are notfondofwork.’Thatwaswhyitseemedtohimthat‘thecoolieswillelbowusout observed, ‘Asapeople,theNativesarenotindustriouslikeCoolies:aspeoplewe that Indiansweremorehard-workingthanAfricans.ItwasJacobusMatiwanewho wall’, hetoldthe1906–7Commission. numbers yearbyyear,itwasevidenttheaboriginalnativesofNatalwouldgoto policy oftheGovernmentwascontinued,bywhichtheyintroducedIndiansinlarge ifthe ans whohadusurpedthepositionswhichoughttobefilledbynatives... forums, suchastoCommissionsandinpublicspeeches.‘Natal,to-day,wasfullofIndi- disseminating theirideas(Gandhifoundedhis enrichment, learningandupliftment;bothleaderssaw theimportanceofpressin away. Bothwereestablishedatthestartoftwentieth centuryasplacesofmoral Dube’s OhlangeschoolcomplexandGandhi’sfirst ashram atPhoenix,barelyamile orator whosometimesexaggeratedforeffect,butthe underlyingmessagewasclear. belong tothecountry,weremerenonentities’. ‘people likecoolieshavecometoourlandandlorded itoverus,asthoughwe,who large gatheringofchiefsinZululandtosupporttheANC, hepointedouttothemthat ordinary people,thoughstrictly definedinracialterms. of theirmembers.Bothleaders alsoaspiredtospeakforafarbroaderconstituency of (NNC) andtheNatalIndian Congress(NIC),foundedtodefendtheachievements involved inwhatwerethen elitistpoliticalorganisations,theNatalNativeCongress 1903, andtheysharedaprintingpressuntilDubecould affordhisown);bothwere Dube cametowiderprominenceatthetimeofso-calledBambatharebellionin Almost fromthefirstissueof The threatoflosingaccesstolandwasathemethatDubeoftenvoicedinother Many writershavebeenfascinatedbytheextraordinarily closeparallelsbetween and abiographyoftheNazaritechurchleader,IsaiahShembe. 56 Itwasasentimentexpressedmanytimesin African ReactionstoIndianImmigration Ilanga 57 Later,in1912,whenattemptingtopersuadea , Dubemaderegularpronouncementsabout 58 Dubewasapowerfulandeffective 55 ManyeducatedAfricansbelieved 59 inthesameyearas Ilanga. 52 Dubethereafter 54 53 Resent- Healso Ilanga 163 , Published by Maney Publishing (c) The Society for the Study of Labour History guidance, ‘agoodfriendtotheIndiansandnatives,whocalledhimtheirfather’. one asthehandinallthingsessentialtomutualprogress’. famous words,‘inallthingsthatarepurelysocialwecanbeasseparatethefingers,yet so-called ‘AtlantaCompromise’speech,whichexpressedsupportforsegregationinthe rapidly tonationalandinternationalattentionjustafewyearsearlierasresultofhis Reddy, GandhitooadmiredWashington. endorsement forOhlange(thiswouldlaterbeforthcoming,in1911).AccordingtoE.S. America, hadvisitedWashington’sschoolatTuskegee,Alabama,andsoughthis impressed byWashington’sgradualistapproachtoblacks’acceptanceintocivilsocietyin himself cametobedubbedthe‘BookerT.WashingtonofSouthAfrica’)hadlongbeen pre-eminent blackAmericanleaderofthetime,BookerT.Washington.Dube(who 164 on theawardofhisknighthood. TheIndiansmanagedtobethefirstorganise their and Indianleaders.Meetings wereorganisedinDurban1916tocongratulateCampbell the levelsofseparation,competition (andonDube’spart,resentment)between African according toothers,hefeltitwouldhavedamagedAfricans’ cause. because, accordingtosome,hesawcommontreatment withAfricansasdegrading,and in anycase,suchdirectactionwasnotANCstyleat all). brutality, butneverthelessfeltthatsuchtacticswould bedisastrousamongAfricans(and first campaignin1906,andwasmovedbythebravery of theresistersinfacepolice respect forthetacticsofpassiveresistancethatGandhi and hisfollowersdeployedintheir African landrights,andcouldthereforeseenocommon cause.Hedevelopedadeep Dube favouredracialseparatismlargelybecausehefeared thethreatthatIndiansposedto see anypurposeinjointaction;fact,bothperceived deepdangersinsuchacourse. each otherasleaders,theydefinedtheirpoliticsinnarrowly racialterms.Neithercould on raciallines. also tomeetDubeatOhlange. secretary, andhearrangedforGokhaletoaddressamassrallyonCampbell’sestate Indian leaderGopalKrishnaGokhalevisitedSouthAfricain1912,Gandhiactedashis under hisauspicesthatGandhiandDubeareknowntohavemet.Again,whenthe of theAfricanNationalCongress.Campbelldidencouragecommunication—itwas he wouldsteerclearofpolitics,butthatwasbefore1912,whenbecamefirstpresident school toopenanewbuildingin1908.DubeassuredCampbellonseveraloccasionsthat donations. Throughhisoffices,theGovernorofNatal,SirMatthewNathan,visited supporter ofDube’seffortsatOhlange,andregularlyvisitedtheschoolmadecash a leadershipwhichwoulduseitsinfluencetomaintainorder.Hewasanenthusiastic and strategy,heencouragedgradualsocialchangefavouredcarefulcontrolfrom in the1870s.AnadvisortobothDubeandGandhionmattersofpoliticalorganisation Natal, hedidemployIndiansonhisestatesinInandawhenenteredthesugarbusiness Union Senator.AlthoughCampbellbelievedtheyshouldneverhavebeenbroughtto his politicalcareerasMemberofLegislativeAssemblyinNatalfrom1893,andlatera ling thevastNatalEstatesaswellsuccessfullypromotingsugarintereststhrough was MarshallCampbell,oneofthewealthiestandmostinfluentialsugarbarons,control- There wasanotherlocallypowerfulindividualthattheybothturnedtoforsupportand Though eachhadhisownseparatesourcesofinspiration,theysharedatleastone:the It issomehowfittingthatCampbell shouldbeatthecentreofanepisodethatreveals Both GandhiandDubewerereceptivetosuchthinking: thoughtheyclearlyrespected 63 ButCampbellalsofavouredseparationofadvancement Heather Hughes 60 Interestingly,Washingtonhadrisenvery 64 61 Gandhirejectedanyalliance 65 62 He Published by Maney Publishing (c) The Society for the Study of Labour History picture, seeW.Beinart, development, itisnomorethanabackdroptothestorytold here. Foragoodoverviewofthebigger all theseregionsunderwhitecontrol.Whileminingwascentral toSouthAfrica’smodernindustrial Africa. ‘SouthAfrica’wasoftenusedasageographicexpression before1910,however,todenote 1899–1902 SouthAfricanwar,foughtovercontrolofthegoldfields), formedtheUnionofSouth republics oftheOrangeFreeStateandTransvaal(which hadfallentotheBritishafter this journal. it wasthencalled)in2000.Manythanksgototheparticipants,aswellanonymousreadersfor Down Roots:IndianMigrantsinSouthAfrica1860–1911 South Africa’sIndians:TheEvolutionofaMinority Indian SouthAfricans1860–1946’.UnpublishedPhDthesis,University ofOxford,1974;B.Pachai,ed., tation isY.S.Meer Indentured IndianinNatal,1860–1917.( References these twogroupswere. African majorityandIndianminoritywouldcontinue,howeverinternallydifferentiated of leadership.Yet,inthelayerssocietybelowleadership,tensionsbetween with acommitmenttosolidarityintheachievementofnon-racialfutureonpart before theseparateandparallelpoliticalpathsoftheirorganisationscametobereplaced purchase onNatal’slandandlabourpoliciesblamingeachother.Itwouldtakedecades tension awayfromthecolonialstate:itwasaclassiccaseofpeoplewithequallylittle themselves. YetitisalsothecasethatpresenceofIndiansservedtodeflectmuch ans; therecordisalsorepletewithcriticismsofcolonialofficialdomandwhitesettlers Africans, whethertraditionalistoreducated,laidalltheirgrievancesatthedoorofIndi- consequences thatitwouldbringinitswake.Itbemisleadingtosuggest the storyofinternationallabourmigration,becauselong-termsocialandpolitical The themeofAfricanattitudestoIndianimmigrantsisperhapsmorethanafootnotein Conclusion yet wehavebeenrefused,whereastheIndianswerenot’. stones, andmixedthecement.Wearepeopleofland,wewerebornhere, who helpedtobuildtheTownHall,everybitofit.Youcarriedbricksand course. InhisspeechbeforeCampbell’sarrival,Dubetoldtheaudience,‘Itisyoupeople clean enough.Therefore,theAfricangatheringhadtobeheldinopennearrace- application foruseofthesamevenuewasrejectedongroundsthatAfricanswerenot event, andhadbeenabletosecuretheTownHallfortheirlavishcelebration.Dube’s African Experience. pp. 71–102.Onpoliticalorganisation, particularlyimportantstudiesincludeM.Swan, dukawallahs 1990. labour/economic issues,seeB. Freund, 2 1 3 In 1910Natal,together withtheCape(aBritishpossessionsince1815)andformerAfrikaner This articlebeganlifeasapresentationtotheAfricanStudiesSeminaratUniversityofNatal(as For generaloverviewsofIndiansinSouthAfrica,seeF.Ginwala, ‘Class,consciousnessandcontrol: (Portsmouth andLondon,1995) andV.PadayacheeR.Morrell,‘Indianmerchants in theNataleconomy,c1875–1914’, (,1985);S.Bhana, et al Twentieth-Century SouthAfrica African ReactionstoIndianImmigration ., eds., Documents ofIndenturedLabour:Natal1851–1917. New Delhi,1993).Ausefulcompendiumofprimarydocumen- Insiders andOutsiders.TheIndian WorkingClassofDurban,1910– Journal ofSouthernAfricanStudies . (Washington,1979);S.BhanaandJ.Brain, Gandhi’s Legacy:theNatalIndian Congress1984–1994. , (Johannesburg,1990)andC.G.Henning, . (Oxford,1994). 66 ,

(,1980).On vol. 17,no.1(1991) Gandhi: theSouth Setting 165 The Published by Maney Publishing (c) The Society for the Study of Labour History everyday basis. emergence ofsuchpatoisformstestifiestothelevelsinteractionbetweenAfricansandIndiansonan Language inIndenture:aSocio-LinguisticHistoryofBhojpuri-HindiSouthAfrica be notedthatinsightfulworkhasbeenundertakeninotherfields,notablylinguistics:seeR.Mesthrie, is notcoveredhere,theanti-AfricanattitudeswhichdevelopedamongIndianimmigrants.Itoughtto scholarship, seeA.Nauriya, www/anc/org/za/un/reddy/research/html [accessed12December2006].Asanexampleofrecent A. Atmore,eds., H. Slater,‘ThechangingpatternofeconomicrelationshipsinruralNatal,1838–1914’S.Marksand Accumulation andDispossessioninRuralSouthAfrica1850–1930. the nineteenthcentury’inW.Beinart,P.DeliusandSTrapido,eds., overviews ofmoregenerallandandlabourissuesinNatal:P.Richardson,‘TheNatalsugarindustry that wereproducedattheheightofrevisionist‘wave’insouthernAfricanstudiesremainvaluable (Cape TownandMaroelana,2001)pp.269–300.Althoughsomewhatelderlynow,twostudies example ofIndianMuslimsinSouthAfrica’A.Zegeye,ed., of AfricanHistory nity andidentityamongIndiansincolonialNatal,1860–1910:theroleof Africa, 1983–1914. (, 1997);andS.BhanaG.Vahed, 166 10 (London, 1993). Dead! GiveusourMoney!TheCulturalOriginsofanAfricanWorkEthic,Natal,SouthAfrica1843–1900. Studies On theconflictin1985,seeH.Hughes,‘ViolenceInanda,August1985’, class’ inP.Bonner,ed., 11 Workers inNatal Century Durban 13 situations whereindenturedIndianworkershadbeenintroduced. (London, 1992)whichshowshowthistermcametobeusedin adehumanisingwayinmanycolonial of acoolie’inH.Bernstein,E.V.DanielandT.Brass,eds., 12 1910: aNewHistory. competition, toconflict’inA.DuminyandB.Guest,eds., from G.Vahed,‘Constructionsofcommunity’,p.78andJ.Brain,‘Fromco-operation,through Morrell, ed., J. WrightandS.Meintjes,‘Colonialismtheestablishment ofwhitedomination,1840–1890’inR. 16 15 14 1996) pp.52–55. Pietermaritzburg Repository,SNA 1/1/105(188/1888). 18 pp. 203–5and249–55. 17 Twenty Years’PersonalExperience inSouthAfrica. a VictorianColony industry, 1849–1905:aninterpretiveessay’inB.GuestandP. Sellers, eds., 9 8 6 5 4 7 ForananalysisofearlyAfricanattitudestoindustrialtimeanddiscipline,seeK.Atkins, BhanaandVahed, Freund, ThetwostudiesareP.MaylamandI.Edwards,eds E.S.Reddy,‘IndianresearchandpublicationonSouthAfrica’,ANConlinearchiveathttp:// Onthe1949African–Indianconflict,seeE.Webster,‘TheDurban“riots”:astudyinraceand SeeP.vandenBerghe, Swan, vandenBerghe, SeeVahed,‘Constructionsofcommunity’,p.79.alsothe studybyE.V.Daniel,‘Themaking Figuresarederivedfromtheannual BhanaandVahed, BothquotesinthisparagrapharefromSwan, Inandamagistrate’sreport,4April 1888,SecretaryofNativeAffairsPapers,KwaZulu-NatalArchives R.Osborn, vol. 13,no.3(1987)pp.331–354. Gandhi: theSouthAfricanExperience Insiders andOutsiders Political EconomyandIdentitiesinKwaZulu-Natal:Historical Social Perspectives. Valiant Harvest:theFoundingof SouthAfricanSugarIndustry,1848–1926. . (PortsmouthandPietermaritzburg,1996)Freund, . (Durban,1986)p.16. ,

Economy andSocietyinPre-IndustrialSouthAfrica. (New Delhi,2005).Onidentityformation,seeG.Vahed,‘Constructionsofcommu- , vol.

(Pietermaritzburg, 1985)p.186.Matthews’sdescriptionisin his Caneville (Pietermaritzburg, 1989)p.251. The MakingofaPoliticalReformer

The MakingofaPoliticalReformer 43 (2002)pp.77–93andR.Ebr.-Vally,‘Diversityintheimagined Working PapersinSouthernAfricanStudiesVolume1 Caneville. , p.35.Seealsotheusefuldiscussiononidentityformationin R. Morrell, The AfricanElementinGandhi. ,

p.xi. (Middletown, 1964)p.21,andS.Marie, Blue books Heather Hughes ,

p. 20.Informationontheprofileofworkersisdrawn (Johannesburg, 1976)[originally published1887]p.12. Gandhi: theSouthAfricanExperience , 1864–1874andP.Richardson,‘TheNatalsugar , pp.26–50.BhanaandVahedsurveyanareathat The MakingofaPoliticalReformer:GandhiinSouth , pp.28–9. . ThePeople’sCity.AfricanLifeinTwentieth- Plantations, ProletariansandPeasantsinAsia. (New Delhi,2006). Natal andZululandfromEarliestTimesto (Johannesburg, 1986)pp.129–175and Social IdentitiesintheNewSouthAfrica. (London,1980)pp.148–170. Insiders andOutsiders. Putting aPloughtotheGround: Enterprise andExploitationin (Johannesburg, 1991).The Muharram Journal ofSouthernAfrican . (Johannesburg,1977). Divide andProfit:Indian ,

Incwadi Yami,or pp. 26–7. (Durban, 1964) festival’, The Moonis Umma (Durban, Journal : the Published by Maney Publishing (c) The Society for the Study of Labour History 19 20 21 24 23 22 25 p. 905. 26 27 28 33 University ofNatal,1991,p.111. 32 p. 906. evidence ofT.Rathbone, 31 30 1890, SNA1/1/123(322/1890). 29 always onthemarginsofbothsocialgroups. between IndiansandAfricansinthisperiod.Latertherewasaverysmallamountthetowns,but importance ofcattletoAfricanpeoplecouldalsoexplainwhytherewasvirtuallynointermarriage 34 45 Pondoland andZululand. Preachers, PeasantsandPoliticsinSouth-EastAfrica,1835–1880. AfricanChristianCommunitiesinNatal, independent andpoliticallyimportantsettlementatEdendale) remains N.Etherington, 44 43 2 April2007] UNISA onlineathttp://www.unisa.ac.za/default.asp?Cmd=ViewContent&ContentID=1172 [accessed 37 pp.835, 840–1. 36 Pietermaritzburg Repository,1/VLM8/2. to removefromDivisionofInanda’,VerulamMagistrate’sPapers,KwaZulu-NatalArchives 35 41 40 39 163 (1304/1892). 1/130 (968/1890);26September1891,SNA1/1/147(118/1891);and1892,1/1/ 38 p. 842. Pastor totheVoortrekkers 46 See J.Lambert,‘AfricanreasonsforpurchasinglandinNatal in thelate19 be distinguishedfromindividualpurchasesbyeducatedconverts intentoncommercialproduction. the expresspurposeofensuringabaseforcommunalhomestead productionandinthissenseoughtto levies onallhomesteads)forthosewhocouldnolongerbeaccommodated inlocations.Thiswaswith 42 401–3. 48 47 Swan, Ginwala,‘Class,consciousnessandcontrol’,p.426BhanaBrain, BhanaandBrain, EvidenceofT.Rathbone, ReportofInandamagistrate, Freund, G.H.Hulett, Freund, Freund, J.Matiwane, Swancitessomeinstancesof‘successstories’:see J.Edley,‘TheNatalLandandColonisationCompanyincolonialNatal,1860–1890’.PhD, InandamagistratetoSecretaryofNativeAffairs,24February1886,SNA1/1/87(711/1886),and ThisargumentwasfirstadvancedbyH.Hughes,‘ViolenceinInanda’,p.337. Forexample,seeletterfromChiefMqhaweoftheQaditoSecretaryforNativeAffairs,3March G.H.Hulett, G.H.Hulett, ThebestgeneralanalysisoftheAZMandothermission bodiesactiveinNatal(includingthe Lambert,‘Africanreasons’. StatementofMkontshwana, Statementsby CaseofMatyonovana,August1889,in‘ApplicationsfromNativesforpermissionSupremeChief J.Matiwane, Seeforexample‘ComparativedigestoflawsaffectingNatives’,SNA1/1/318(645/1889). Ginwala,‘Class,consciousnessandcontrol’,p.76. ExtractsfromFayle’sdiaryfor11January1890,SNA1/1/122(45/1890);10August1/ Lindley,quotedinE.Smith, Itshouldbenotedthatsomechiefdomswereengagedinbuying farmland(raisingthedepositsby Forbriefnotesonthesetwo men,seeSmith, A.Wood, Gandhi: theSouthAfricanExperience Insiders andOutsiders Insiders andOutsiders Insiders andOutsiders Shine WhereYouAre.AHistory ofInandaSeminary,1869–1969. Evidence TakenbeforetheNatalNativeCommission,1881 Evidence takenBeforetheNatalNativeCommission,1881 induna Evidence TakenbeforetheNatalNativeAffairsCommission1906–1907 Evidence TakenbeforetheLandsCommission,1900–1902 Evidence TakenbeforetheLandsCommission,1900–1902 Setting DownRoots andothers, ,

(London, 1978). Ubebe Omhlophe.(London,1949) p.378. African ReactionstoIndianImmigration Minutes ofEvidencetotheSouthAfricanNativeAffairsCommissionVolume3 Minutes ofEvidencetotheSouthAfricanNativeAffairsCommissionVolume3 , p.16. , , The LifeandTimesofDanielLindley (1801–1880):MissionarytotheZulus,

Blue book Evidence TakenbeforetheNatalNativeAffairsCommission1906–1907 p. 16. p. 18. Evidence TakenbeforetheNatalNativeAffairsCommission1906–1907 ,

p. 45. , 1876. ,

pp. 24–5. The LifeandTimesofDanielLindley Gandhi: theSouthAfricanExperience ,

p. 146.Thesocialandeconomic , , ,

p. 147. p. 226. p. 226. th Setting DownRoots andearly20 (Alice, 1970)p.56. , p.942. , ,

p. 22. th pp. 283and centuries’, ,

p. 44. 167 , , , , Published by Maney Publishing (c) The Society for the Study of Labour History H. Bradford, 49 168 of Dependence achievements, hehasbeenthesubjectofmanystudies.SeeforexampleS.Marks, 51 (Pietermaritzburg andDurban,1982). Africa. 50 pp. 260–1. 54 came tosupportsuchmeasuresinthe1930s.SeeMarks, Land Actof1913,whichenforcedthepossessorysegregationlandalongraciallines,althoughhe measures fortheprotectionofAfricanland.Infacthewasdeeplyopposedtolegislationsuchas 53 MA dissertation,HistoricalStudies,UniversityofNatal,2003. Dube’s attitudetoDinuzuluasindicatedinhisreportageonthetreasontrialofDinuzulu’.Unpublished impi yamakhanda bances inNatal. 52 None hasdweltgreatlyonthisaspectofhisthought,however. the lifeofJohnLangalibaleleDube’, ington’, 55 56 57 Atmore, eds., and thepoliticalideologicalstructureofliberalisminCape,1854–1910’S.MarksA. text ofsettlersocieties:seeforexampleS.Trapido,‘“Thefriendsthenatives”:merchants,peasants Durban, KCM32848.Manyhavepointedtotheprofoundambiguityofthatterm‘friend’incon- 62 Odyssey Project,http://www.loc.gov/ammem/aaohtml/exhibit/aopart6.html#0605. 61 ancdocs/history/people/gandhi/4.html [accessed17November2006]. 60 1848. 59 Durban, MS1093documentR156/1912/32. 58 63 65 Dube’ the memoriesofamemberPhoenixashram,R.M.Patel) inhis‘MahatmaGandhiandJohn 64 of Gandhi’sSonManilal. vol. 16,no.4(1990)pp.725–728,andBhanaVahed, Archives PietermaritzburgRepository,File247,1179/16. 66 Bradfordnotesthedeepdivisionthatcharacterisedworkeraswellpoliticalorganisation:see BecauseofDube’sprominenceinearlynationalpoliticsaswellbecausehisconsiderableother OnChampion’sattitudestowardsIndians,seeS.Marks, Dube’santi-Indianismdidnottranslateitselfintosupportforsegregationinthesenseoflegislative ForananalysisofDube’spositionatthistime,seeS.Marks,

J.Matiwane, JohnDube, EllenCampbell,biographicalsketch,inMarshallCampbellPapers,KillieAfricanaLibrary B.T.Washington,Atlantaexpositionspeech,September1895,attheLibraryofCongressAfrican E.S.Reddy,‘MahatmaGandhiandJohnDube’attheANCarchiveonline,http://www.anc.org.za/ Theyalsosharedalifespanovervirtuallythesameperiod:Dube1871to1946,andGandhi1869 SpeechinEshowe,30November1912,UnclassifiedDubepapers,KillieCampbellAfricanaLibrary Swan, J.H.StoneIII,‘M.K.Gandhi:someexperimentswithtruth’, E.S.ReddyhasreproducedthisvaluableaccountofDube’s attitude topassiveresistance(basedon Reportongathering,15August1916,ChiefNativesCommissioners’ Papers,KwaZulu-Natal Ilanga laseNatal Ilanga laseNatal . (Johannesburg, 1986)chapter3,andM.Swanson,ed., Journal ofAfricanStudies Gandhi: theSouthAfricanExperience ,

A tasteoffreedom:theICUinruralSouthAfrica,1924–1930. chapter 2;R.HuntDavis,‘JohnL.Dube,aSouthAfricanexponentofBookerT.Wash- Economy andSocietyinPre-IndustrialSouthAfrica. Evidence TakenbeforetheNatalNativeAffairsCommission1906–1907 (Oxford 1974)pp.332–5,andM.Hadebe,‘Acontextualisationexaminationofthe Evidence TakenbeforetheNatalNativeCommission,1881 (1906 uprising)asreportedbyJ.L.Dubein , , 20November1903.

11 December1903. (,2004)p.104. vol.2,no.4(1976)pp.497–528;H.Hughes,‘Doublyelite:exploring Journal ofSouthernAfricanStudies Heather Hughes , p.235;U.Mesthrie-Dhupelia, The AmbiguitiesofDependence The MakingofaPoliticalReformer The AmbiguitiesofDependenceinSouth Reluctant Rebellion:the1906–1908Distur- Ilanga laseNatal (London, 1980)pp.247–74. The ViewsofMahlathi Journal ofSouthernAfricanStudies vol. 27,no.3(2001)pp.445–458. , (Johannesburg, 1987)especially

p. 145. Gandhi’s Prisoner?TheLife , withspecialfocuson , pp.960–1. , The Ambiguities

[Champion]. chapter 2. , pp.40–1.