1 A COMPARATIVE STUDY ON INTERNATIONALISATION OF EDUCATION IN JAPAN: IDEAL JAPANESE SOCIETY, MAN AND KNCMLEDGE by MASAKO KAMIJO Thesis Submitted to the Institute of Education, University of London for the Award of the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Septerneber 1985 2 CONTENTS Acknowledgements '4 Abstract 5 CHAPTER I PROBLEMS OF INTERNATIONALISATION OF JAPAN 7 1 Introduction 7 2 Internationalisation of Japan 11 2.1 Treaties Concluded after 1868 12 2.1.1 Political Treaties 13 2.1.2 Econimic Treaties 15 2.1.3 Treaties on Education and Social Relationships 16 2.2 Treaties Concluded after 19 )45 17 2.2.1 Political Treaties 17 2.2.2 Econimic Treaties 19 2.2.3 Treaties on Education and Social Relationships 23 3 Traditionally Deeply Held Beliefs of Japanese People 2'4 14 Problems 28 5 Suninary 36 CHAPTER II IDEAL MODELS 4O 1 Introduction )40 2 Model Based on Weberian Theory of Traditional Societies '41 2.1 Authority '41 2.2 Traditional Institutions LILI 2.3 Traditional Rules 146 147 3 Modern Model Based on Weberian Theory 3.1 Authority in Modern Society 47 3.2 Modern Institutions 50 3.3 Modern Rules 51 LI Ideal International Model based on the UN 53 5)4 14.1 Authority in International Organisation '4.2 Institutions 56 14.3 Rules 57 5 Suninary 60 CHAPTER III IDEAL JAPANESE SOCIETY, MAN AND KNOWLEDGE IN ThE LIGHT OF THE TRADITIONAL AND MODERN MODELS: 62 Dual Nature of Traditional and Modern Features 1 Introduction 62 2 Historical Perspectives (1868-19 )45) Based on the Imperial Oath of Five Articles 6)4 3 Current Perspectives (since 19)45) Based on the Japanese Constitution of 1946 73 LI Surriiiary 81 CHAPTER IV RETROSPECTIVE ANALYSIS OF PRACTICE (1868-1945): 83 Identification of Traditional and Modern Features 1 Introduction 83 2 Politics 85 3 Economics 90 4 Education 96 5 Society 110 6 Suniiary 12)4 3 CHAPTER V ANALYSIS OF CONTEMPORARY PRACTICE (SINCE 19145): 127 Identification of Traditional and Modern Features 1 Introduction 127 Politics 2 130 Economics 3 136 14 Education 1145 Society 5 153 6 Summary 163 CHAPTER VI INTERNATIONALISATION OF EDUCATION 165 1 Introduction 165 Government Policy 2 167 3 Non-governmental Proposals 171 14 Assessment of the Proposed Policies 181 5 Basic Problems of Children Overseas and Returnees 1 86 6 Alternative Proposal: Bilingual Instruction for Children Returning from Overseas and Associated Reforms 1 91 7 Summary 203 CHAPTER VII CONCLUSION 205 Notes and References 216 Bibliography 266 Appendix 1 Glossary of Japanese Tems 276 Appendix 2 Arguments of the Context of the Models 279 Appendix Statistics Relating to Japanese Children Overseas 3 and Child Returnees 287 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS In accomplishing this thesis I wish to acknowledge my sincere gratitude first of all to my tutor Professor Brian Holmes, the head of the Department of comparative Education, University of London Institute of Education, for his constant guidance and valuable suggestions during my writing of the thesis. In addition, I am deeply grateful for his continued encouragement to finalise my thesis in the final year in Japan by corresponding with me. It can be said that it was his professional capability which has guided and encouraged me throughout. I am equally grateful to Dr.Robert Cowen for the first period arid to Dr.David Turner for the second period for their constant advice and encouragement. I owe a debt of thanks to Dr.Turner f or making stylistic adjustments in the draft, typing and binding of the thesis with enormous patience. I also take the opportunity to thank Mrs.Lupita Turner for assisting me with using a word processor to type the draft, and the Embassy of Japan in London for help with reference books and up to date information on Japan. Without the help of' the above people this thesis could not have been completed. 5 ABSTRACT Chapter I sets out the problems which have been raised by the rapid internationalisation of Japan. Holmes' 'problem solving approach' is used to describe problems emerging since the 1960s. The difficulties which Japan faces in international organisations and at home are observed. Changes in the international relations of Japan and the 'no-change' in the traditional 'mental states' of Japanese people create a general problem. The analysis made of the general problem in Chapter I indicates that it will be necessary to develop various models for further analysis. The extent to which Japan has been internationalised in practide is examined. A distinction is drawn between the specific ana general international features of the process. Features which are obstacles to the internationalisation of Japan are identified and related to the internationalisation of education. A number of models are then presented which can be used to analyse the problem. For example, in Chapter II, three ideal models of man, society, and knowledge are constructed. Traditional and modern models are based on Max Weber's social theory, and the concepts of the United Nations' Charter are used for the international model. In Chapter III, an ideal Japanese model of society, man, and knowledge is constructed. The traditional and modern models, constructed in Chapter II, are used to analyse the important legislation in Japan in two periods; between 1868 and 19 45 based on the Imperial Oath of Five Articles and after 1945 based on the 6 Japanese Constitution of 19L6. In Chapters III and IV the Japanese models are used to identity traditional and modern features of man, society, and knowledge, in the fields of politics, economics, education, and society. Through the study of practice the extent to which traditional features are maintained and modern features are rejected can be discovered. In Chapter VI attention is given to the internationalisation of education. An examination of the internationalisation of Japan indicates the role education might play. Government and non- government proposals to eliminate problems in an international society and to promote the internationalisation of Japan are examined and the proposed policies are assessed in practice. As a consequence, the author's recommendation is that the internationalisation of education should be achieved through the education of child returnees by giving them bilingual instruction. Chapter VII concludes the overall analysis and presents the author's recommendations. 7, CHAPTER ONE PROBLEMS OF INTERNATIONALISATION IN JAPAN 1. Introduction This chapter deals with the problems brought about by the internationalisation of Japan. From a period of almost complete isolation before 1868 Japan has moved progressively towards increased involvement in international society both economically and diplomatically. The process of internationalisation has given rise to various problems both at home and abroad, which have made it a matter of public concern in Japan.1 Various aspects of Japanese social life have been affected by increased contacts between Japanese people and foreigners. In addition, Japan's increased international involvement has indicated to the government a need to prepare personnel to work in international organisations. To this end the Japanese government has introduced some educational policies, among others, to prepare "international men" who can serve Japan in international arenas. 2 However, these policies have been largely ineffective because neither the problems of internationalisation nor the concept of "international men" have been clarified. The traditional 'mental states' of the Japanese people, based on Shintoism, are obstacles to the process of internationalisation. The conflict between traditional 'mental states' and modern and international ideas became acute when Japanese people began to meet and had contact with foreigners. These contacts increased with the increasingly international position adopted by Japan in the world, and such contacts are now unavoidable both at home and abroad. 8 The spread of modern and international views has on the one hand provoked conflict with traditional views, and on the other led to the abandonment of some traditional beliefs. This has often resulted in individual Japanese people holding inconsistent attitudes on a single issue. The case of children who have been educated overseas in foreign language medium schools is a good example of such confi.icts. 3 Child returnees are the object of the same prejudice shown to foreigners or outsiders. They come into conflict with the authority of the teacher or the text book, with the way that foreign languages are taught in Japan, and with the ambiguous and indirect expressions and attitudes of Japanese people. Yet these children are regarded as future "international mentt on account of their experience abroad, and as such are considerred important to the future development of Japan.4 There is, as illustrated by this example, some difficulty in identifying whether Japanese attitudes are positive or negative towards a particular issue. This difficulty is itself rooted in Shintoism, which is very open to new ideas, so long as they can be interpretted within a traditional framework. If new ideas cannot be so interpretted, Shintoism is extremely resistant to their incorporation. Even where Japanese people have been most open to changes in attitude, the new ideas have frequently been so altered that they have themselves served the end of maintaining traditional attitudes. The process of internationalisation has been going on for a long time in Japan. 5 In 1868, at the beginning of the Meiji period, Japan emerged from a period of isolation, and established trade links with the United States of America and a number of European countries. The 9 terms of Japan's entry into the world economic community of the time were largely dictated by the United States, but some aspects of the change were adopted willingly, even enthusiastically, by Japanese people. The initial period of reform after 1868, in which a number of' important constitutional principles were adopted from the West, was followed by a period in which Japanese people attempted to adjust to the new principles, while rejecting those aspects of modernisation which they found unacceptable.