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1971 The evelopmeD nt of the English-French, French- English Bilingual Dictionary: a Study in Comparative Lexicography. James David Anderson Louisiana State University and Agricultural & Mechanical College

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I 72-17,742

ANDERSON, James David, 1935- ; THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE ENGLISH-FRENCH, FRENCH- ENGLISH BILINGUAL DICTIONARY: A STUDY IN COMPARATIVE LEXICOGRAPHY.

The Louisiana State University and Agricultural and Mechanical College, Ph.D., 1971 'i Language and Literature, linguistics } University Microfilms, A XEROX Company, Ann Arbor, Michigan

© 1972

JAMES DAVID ANDERSON

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED The Development of the English-French, French-English Bilingual Dictionary: A Study in Comparative Lexicography

A Dissertation

Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of the Louisiana State University and Agricultural and Mechanical College in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

in

The Department of Foreign Languages

by James David Anderson B.A., Brooklyn College of the City University of New York, 1957 M.A., The Florida State University, 1959 December 1971 PLEASE NOTE: I

Some pages may have

indistinct print.

Filmed as received.

University Microfilms, A Xerox Education Company Anderson, James David, B.A. Brooklyn College, 1957 M.A.‘, Florida State University, 1959 Doctor of Philosophy, Fall Commencement, 1971 Majors Linguistics; Minors French The Development of the English-French, French-lfriglish Bilingual Dictionary s A Study in Comparative Lexicography Dissertation directed by Professor Mary S. Metz Pages in Dissertation 234-. Words in abstract, 555.

f:' i I This study traces the development of the English-French bilingual dictionary from Caxton up to the end of the eighteenth century. Part I,

the bio-bibliographical section, is divided into three chapters:

' I' Chapter 1, The Pre-dictionary period and Caxton; Chapter II, The

Renaissance; and Chapter III, the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Century.

Chapter 1 begins with an outline of French usage in England from the time of Edward the Confessor to 1480, the year of Caxton's

Vocabulary in French and English. The chapter then reviews the need which prompted the production of word lists in England rather than in

France, the early beginnings of the bilingual dictionary in such glossaries as the Leiden and Epinal, the early word lists and vocabu­ laries, and finally Caxton's role as a lexicographer.

Chapters II and III contain bio-bibliographical information on the lexicographers under consideration, namely Lucas Harryson, Claude

Hollyband (Claude de Sainliens), Randle Cotgrave, Guy Miege, Abel

Boyer, Thomas Nugent, and Louis Chambaud. A detailed investigation and evaluation of the first editions of their dictionaries is made in order to establish their contribution to the field of bilingual lexico­ graphy. A facsimile of the title page of each first edition is furnished, along with a discussion of the format of the work and the contents of the preface and preliminaries, where significant to the study./Each work is reviewed in.terms of title, author, editor, year,

place ^nd city of publication, dimensions, material, number of pages,

number^of entries per page, print type, dedication, number of editions

and years, order, pagination, alphabetization, spelling, capitalization,

accents, possible sources, guide letters, revisions, type of equiva­

lents and definitions used, range and scope of entries, phonetic » descriptions, verb forms, and consistency. I i i Part II, The Study of the Lexicon, is divided into two chapters:

Chapter IV, Nouns; and Chapter V, Verbs. Twenty randomly selected

glosses from the bilingual dictionaries under study, and other impor­

tant bilingual and monolingual dictionaries, i.e. Robert Estienne's

Dictionnaire francoislatin, Higgins' Huloet *s Dictionarie neweleye

corrected, Baret's An Alvearie or Quadruple Dictionarie, Nicot's

Thresor de la langue frangoise, Furetiere’s Dictionnaire universel,

Richelet 's Nouveau dictionnaire frangois, the Dictionnaire de l'Academie

. francaise, and Samuel Johnson’s A Dictionary of the English Language,

were compared and contrasted. Through the use of the comparative

method possible sources were observed, as well as syntactic and

semantic developments within the contexts of sentences and phrases

in both French and English.

The conclusion corroborates data and findings from both parts and

suggests areas of possible future investigation.

The dissertation is followed by five appendices: Appendix 1, an •\ annotated bibliography of important medieval glosses in manuscript

which bear on the development of the bilingual dictionary; Appendix 11,

an annotated bibliography of editions and re-editions of English- French, Freni^-English bilingual dictionaries from the sixteenth to the eighteenth century, including re-editions extending up to the twentieth century, availability of editions in several U.S. and I European libraries, and call number (where applicable); Appendix 111, a listing of other important works from the sixteenth to the / ‘ eighteenth century, including monolingual English, French, and Latin dictionaries, polyglot dictionaries, English-Latin, French-Latin,

Spaiilsh-English, Italian-English mono and bi-directional bilingual dictionaries, and other important works not fitting into the category of dictionary; and Appendix IV, a listing of English-French,

French-English bilingual dictionaries from the nineteenth and twentieth century. Other significant works published contem­ poraneously to these are included in Appendix V.

\ To my family I wish to extend my sincerest thanks to the members of my committee who so willingly and conscientiously offered their assistance in the preparation of this dissertation. TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION...... 1

PART I. A BIO-BIBLIOGRAPHICAL STUDY OF THE ENGLISH-FRENCH AND FRENCH-ENGLISH BILINGUAL DICTIONARY TO THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

Chapter

I. THE PRE-DICTIONARY PERIOD...... 7

William Caxton, 1480

II. THE RENAISSANCE...... 34

Lucas Harryson, 1571 Claude Hollyband (Holyband, Holliband, Holiband, alias Claude de Sainliens), 1593 Randle (Randal) Cotgrave, 1611

III. THE SEVENTEENTH AND EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES...... 62

Guy Miege, 1677 Abel Boyer, 1699 Thomas Nugent, 1767 Louis Chambaud, 1776

PART II . A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF SELECTED ENTRIES

IV. NOUNS...... 118

V. Verbs...... 150

CONCLUSION...... 183

APPENDICES...... 186

BIBLIOGRAPHY 229 INTRODUCTION

Until Vera Smalley’s The Sources of "A Dictionaire of the French and English Tongues'* by Randle Cot grave was published, the study of

French lexicography was sparse. Most of the material was relegated to a few books here and there, and to some articles in journals appearing in the early part of the twentieth century. Charles Beaulieux contri­ buted an article "Liste des dictionnaires anterieurs au Thresor de

Nicot (160b)11 in Melange de philologie offerts ja Ferdinand Brunot

(Paris, 1904), but this was limited in that it stopped at 1573, just prior to Nicot’s work, and did not contain much information beyond the

list. Beaulieux does show, however, that Nicot's Thresor was the first

dictionary in the fullest sense of the word, and that the reason for

its tardy arrival was because no one had really considered it important

enough to bring together all the "richesses de notre langue trop

longtemps dedaignee." Bilingual dictionaries were another matter,

however. Latin-French, French-Latin, and polyglot dictionaires were

more frequent and made their appearance before the monolingual types.

The Melanges also included an article by Oscar Bloch ’’Etude sur le

dictionnaire de J. Nocot (1606)", but this again was a limited study

dealing with the lexical omissions in Nicot’s work. There also appeared

three more complete works devoted to individual lexicographers: Edgar

E. Brandon's Robert Estienne et le dictionnaire franqais au 18e siecle

(Baltimore, 1904), and Maxime Lanusse's De Joanne Nicotio Philologo

(Grenoble, 1893) . In La Vie et les Oeuvres de Claude de Sainliens, 2

alias Claudius Holyband (Paris, 1908) Lucy Farrar discusses Holyband as a source for Cotgrave.

More numerous studies have been devoted to Cotgrave probably because of his association with Renaissance literary works, as the

Cotgrave dictionary enjoyed widespread popularity at the time. Lazare

Sainean pointed this out in Les Sources de 1*argot ancien (Paris, 1912) and in La Langue de Rabelais (Paris, 1923). In an article "Les

Interpretes de Rabelais en Angleterre et en Allemagne" appearing in

the Revue des Etudes Rabelaisiennes, VII, 1909, Sainean made Cotgrave an integral part of his study. Unfortunately his work is not of a

lexicographical nature, but interpretative. Cotgrave's influence on

lexicographers of his own time is briefly discussed by Ferdinand Brunot

in his Histoire de la langue franQaise des origines a^ 1900 (Vol III,

Part I, Paris, 1909). Brunot lists and discusses in addition to the monolingual dictionaires of Nicot and Estienne, the various French-

foreign language dictionaries which began to be seen at the end of the

15th and in the early 16th centuries’. In Vol VII, Paris 1917, he

further examined Cotgrave's aim in writing his dictionary. Kathleen

Lambley in The Teaching and Cultivation of the French Language during

Tudor and Stuart Times (Manchester University Press, 1920) discusses

Cotgrave and his predecessors, but again her development stops at the

eighteenth century. DeWitt Talmadge Starnes' article "Bilingual

Dictionaries of Shakespeare's Day" in PMLA 1937, treats of three

bilingual dictionaries: Florio's English-Italian dictionary, Perceval-

Minsheu's English-Spanish dictionary and Cotgrave's French-English

dictionary. He includes interesting insights into these works and 3

points out possible contemporary sources for these dictionaries.

Vera Smalley's study remains the most thorough in depth examination of a particular bilingual lexicographer and his work. Professor

Smalley gives a detailed biographical account, and includes actual evidences of Cotgrave's borrowings from previous lexicographers. Her study concludes the Cotgrave dictionary was the culmination of 100 years of experimentation of succinct dictionary form, and remained the unchallenged example for future bilingual dictionaries.

The Centre d'Etude du Vocabulaire Frangais, a research center for studies in lexicology and lexicography was established at the

Universite de Bensangon in 1957. The aim of the Center is to conduct lexicographical and lexicological research relying greatly on scienti­ fic data process methods, to develop new areas of study and to receive and disseminate the results of studies done both in France and elsewhere. Under the title Publications du Centre d'Etude du

Vocabulaire Frangais the Center publishes Materiaux pour l'histoire du vocabulaire in three series. The first deals with lexicographical documentation, the second a word index of prose and poetry, and the third a lexicographical inventory of special authors and periods. The

Cahiers du Centre d'Etude du Vocabulaire Frangais prints the results of lexicographical research at the laboratory, and has a detailed bibliography of work completed or in progress. The Bulletin d'Informa­ tion serves to consolidate the efforts of lexicography specialists with the assistance of the laboratory. The Center should reveal some interesting conclusions from its research, but unfortunately research in bilingual lexicons is not the primary concern of the Center. 4

In 1967 Bernard Quemada, Director of the Centre at Besangon, publi­ shed Les Dictionnaires du Frangais Moderne 1593-1863. This invaluable aid to the lexicographer deals primarily with French dictionaries, but also has some information on foreign language-French dictionaries and various specialized dictionaries. The volume contains abundant factual material, lists of glossaries, vocabularies, extensive detailed bibliographical information, and includes lexicographical research methodology. The entire work is an in-depth chronological study. To my knowledge no such comprehensive work exists for the English language.

The relatively small amount of research devoted to bilingual lexicography is reflected in this paucity of bibliographical material.

Studies of modern foreign language-English dictionaries have been even more so. An interesting dissertation on the Spanish-English dictionary,

for example, has been done by Roger J. Steiner of the University of

Pennsylvania, but no similar study has been undertaken for French and

Italian. Research in other foreign language-English dictionaries

seems to be lacking, and could yield some revealing facts, as the

sixteenth and seventeenth centuries were particularly rich in diction­

ary writing. The possibilities of such studies as research tools in

philology, bibliography, and lexicography are numerous. This present

dissertation will attempt to remove the lacunae in French-English bilin­

gual lexicographical research, and to point to other areas for future

investigation.

The first step was to list all first editions of English-French or

French-English bilingual dictionaries, starting from the generally recognized first work up to and including the-eighteenth century. A bibliography for each work was added covering number of first editions and reprints available, where, and library classification number. The second step was to inspect each of the dictionaries, to xerox title, dedication and preface pages, and at least three pages from the first three letters of the alphabet. Selected verbs and nouns were also noted and placed in a separate listing. In cases of bidirectional works specimen pages from both parts were included, and were consi­ dered as two separate dictionaries. The facilities of the following libraries were used for this purpose: The Widener and Houghton

Libraries of Harvard University, The Boston Public Library, The

American Antiquarian Society of Worcester, The Library of the British

Museum and the Bibliotheque Nationale. Editions found at Yale and

Brown University Libraries, the Dinand Library of Holy Cross College, the New York Public Library and the Library of Congress were cited, but not examined. To compare each work for organization and content a guide was set up to answer the following: Title, author, editor, year, place and city of publication, dimensions, material, number of pages, number of entries per page, print type, dedication, number of

editions and years, order, pagination, missing letters of alphabet,

capitalization, accents, guide letters, possible sources, revisions,

type of equivalents or definitions used, usage, range and scope of

entries, four letter words, spelling and spelling variants, phonetic

descriptions, verb forms used, consistency of articles used and

alphabetization. Each dictionary was thus provided with its own set

of data, specimen pages, bibliographical material, and where possible, biographical information concerning its author. The third step was to xerox specimen pages of the most popular monolingual, polylingual,

French-Latin, and English-Latin dictionaries of the period. These were: John Baret's Alvearie, Thomas Cooper's Thesaurus linguae romanae et britannicae, The Nouveau dictionaire (sic) franQois of Pierre Richelet,

the Dictionnaire universel of Antoine Furetiere, the Dictionnaire de

l'Acadgmie franQoise of 1694, Nicot's Thresor, Estienne's Dictionnaire

francoislatin, Adam Littleton's Latine Dictionary, and Samuel Johnson's

Dictionary of the English Language. Each dictionary entry was placed

on a 3 x 5 index card and collated into alphabetical-chronological

order. This amounted to over 8,000 entries. By this procedure similar

or identical entries could be more easily examined, compared or con­

trasted. This data will form the basis for Part II— the comparative

study of the lexicons. 9

PART I

A BIO-BIBLIOGRAPHICAL STUDY OF THE ENGLISH-FRENCH,FRENCH-

ENGLISH BILINGUAL DICTIONARY TO THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY CHAPTER I

THE PRE-DICTIONARY PERIOD

A most significant and curious fact in English-French bilingual lexicography is that until the seventeenth century English-French dictionaries were purely monodirectional. These dictionaries, all printed in England for Englishmen, were intended as aids for the translation of French literature and business documents. Although the increased trade between England and France was a decided incentive to the compilation of English-French dictionaries, the numerous polyglot works, which appeared earlier, seemed to satisfy the commercial need.

There apparently was no necessity in sixteenth century England for an

English-French dictionary with extensive glosses.

The first bilingual bidirectional work was published in England in 1632. It was a re-edition of Randle Cotgrave’s Dictionarie of the

French and English Tongues, to which Robert Sherwood had added an

English-French section. The first bilingual bidirectional work conceived as such under one compiler was published in 1677 by Guy Miege, a French emigre living in England.

The seemingly tardy arrival of the bilingual bidirectional

English-French dictionary was due to several factors. Since the French language, literature and culture were in an ascendant position

throughout Europe, there did not seem to be a need for an English-

French or French-English dictionary in France. Its lexicographical output, although profuse, was mainly monodirectional French and Latin, bilingual French-Latin, Latin-French, Flemish-French, French-Flemish and polyglot dictionaries. On the other hand* as England continued to look more toward France, its need not only for bilingual, but bidirec­ tional English-French dictionaries became greater. To more clearly understand this situation let us look at the position French held in

England from the time of Edward the Confessor up to 1480, the year of

the publication of the first printed English-French.word list by

William Caxton.

Chronologically speaking, 1002 rather than 1066, is a convenient

point of reference marking the alliance between England and Normandy

through the marriage of Ethelred and Emma of Burgundy, sister of

Richard II. Their heir, Edward the Confessor, was to be deprived of his rule until 1042 due to civil disturbances and the Danish invasions which constantly threatened England during the first years of the

eleventh century. When he returned from exile in normandy he brought

with him an entourage of Norman nobles.^

Having spent the majority of his life in Normandy, it was natural

that, upon his return to England he would introduce the habits, customs

and even the language of the people with whom he had so long been

living. Thus Edward had rightly been credited with being responsible

for preparing the coming of William the Conqueror, and for laying' the

groundwork for the supremacy of Norman French over Anglo-Saxon, which

2 was to culminate in the birth of a new language.

■^•"English History," Encyclopedia Britannica, 29th ed., VIII, 455. (Hereinafter referred to as Ency. Brit.)

^J.P. Thommerel, Recherches sur la fusion du franco-norman et de l'anglo-saxon (Paris: Pourchet pere, 1841), p. 13. (Hereinafter referred to as Anglo-Norman.) Yet the extent of the French influence was not limited to the language and culture which Edward brought to England, for when in 1051

William visited the island, he observed that Normans had already infiltrated Anglo-Saxon society. They commanded ships, were engaged as soldiers protecting the garrison at Canterbury, and there already was a sizeable number of Normans in the clergy.3

During the course of his visit to England in 1051 William was supposedly offered the throne of England by Edward, as he had no heirs.

But the proposal was later defeated by the Earl of Godwin who, having acquired a great deal of wealth and power, was seeking the throne for his son Harold. Thus in 1066, after the death of Edward, there began a power struggle between Harold and William of Normandy, who, claiming the throne as the next heir to Edward, arrived on September 28 into

Pevensey Bay with an army to make good his claim. On October 14

Harold was killed at the battle of Hastings, and London subsequently surrendered to William. With his coronation at Westminster Abbey on

Christmas Day the Anglo-Saxon epoch of English history ended.^

That Harold was not able to secure greater forces in opposing

William is not surprising, nor is the fact that the English showed great willingness to submit to the Normans, as "Kentish men met

3 Johan Vising, Anglo-Norman language and Literature (London: Oxford University Press, 1923), p. 5. (Hereinafter referred to as Anglo-Norman.)

4 "English History," Ency. Brit., pp. 455-56. William of their own accord and swore fealty to him. Envoys from

Canterbury brought to William the submission of that city."-* This is

an important and relevant fact in considering the rise of French in

England, as we shall soon see.

The history of Saxon England was one of relative isolationism,

shut off from the rest of the continent, in spite of its weak link

with Normandy. By the eleventh century it had no papal nuncio and no

relations with foreign countries.** Anglo-Saxons were divided against

themselves and were unable to offer resistance against the invading

waves of Danes, Scots and Welch. The clergy was inert and uncultivated,

the churches in ruins. To view the paucity of literature one need

only compare the late Anglo-Saxon with the Norman Chronicles. The

great literary tradition fostered by Alfred and Aelfric was all but

gone. The inhabitants were indifferent as to the origins of their

rulers: localism, license, division, anarchy and an absence of a

national feeling being the rule.^ Up to the time of the Conquest, of

275, 274 people, only 50,817 were "freemen".®

Obviously the prospect of a stronger government at the hands of

the Normans was a welcome sign to the English in view of the

Gaston Paris, La Litterature normande avant 11 annexion 912-1204. (Paris: Bouillon, 1899), p. 69.

7 Emanuel Walberg, Quelques aspects de la litterature anglo-normande (Paris: Droz, 1936), p. 7. (Hereinafter referred to as Quelques aspects.)

8Shelly, Eng. & Fr., p. 17. suffering they had experienced under the Danes. By the end of the

Conquest in 1071, there was once more comparative peace in England, and England was none the less satisfied with its security, as we

see from the line of Anglo-Saxon Chronicle E of 1087, ’’Th e gode frith

the he (William) macode on thisan lande."^

Norman French usage in England can conveniently be divided into

two periods, the period of ascendance (1066-1250) and the period of

descendance (1250-1400). Its gradual development began under William

and continued until the loss of Normandy in 1204. While it fostered

the beginnings of a national movement, at the same time the loss

brought about a decline in French usage which was particularly evident

in the latter half of the thirteenth century. From 1066 its character

was similar to the continental version, and was spoken by the invaders

and their offspring. But by the end of the first quarter of the

twelfth century Anglo-Norman was shut off from continental influence

and had become more restricted in use. It was well on its way

toward becoming a dead language, not the mother tongue of the people,

but the second language taught in the schools.

In spite of the close relations between England and France in the

early Norman period, insular French was from the very beginning rather

isolated and conservative. ’’Sounds, verb forms, locutions, discarded

on the continent, sometimes lingered on in Anglo-Norman." Yet the

9Ibid., p. 31.

Mildred K. Pope, From Latin to Modern French (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1934), p. 421. (Hereinafter referred to as From Latin.) invaders and their descendants "allowed an acceleration of pace in 11 other changes and much freedom of analogical creation." The Norman originally spoken by William's men was greatly varied with regional differences and was in a constant state of change. This language, spoken by thousands of Normans of every social class and profession, brought into contact with a language of different root and itself great- 12 ly varied, accelerated the rate of change in insular Norman.

There has been great exaggeration as to the actual number of

Normans who arrived in England. Through corroboration of documents the size of William's army is estimated to be about 12,000. On the surface this appears small in comparison to the estimated population of the time, about two million, and would not seem to have much of a linguistic effect. But during the entire reign of William an estimated one hundred to two hundred thousand Frenchmen reached the shores of

England in search of land, court, ecclesiastical and scholastic appoint­ ments, promised in return for fealty. Moreover, approximately 500,000 of the total English population had died in the wars, had been executed, or simply had fled. Five thousand Norman knights had received fiefs in England, often seized from Saxons in punishment for insurrection, 1 as was often the case in Northumberland. Gradually Englishmen lost titles to the French. By 1072, of the 12 earls of England, only two

1:LIbid., p. 425. 12Ibid., p. 426.

l%alberg, Quelques aspects, pp. 9-10. were English, and by the time of William's death, 1115 strongholds were

in the hands of the Norman barons.^

Yet from the Domesday Book we learn that there were instances of

larger English holdings with Norman tenants, so that the granting of

fiefs was not always in favor of the Normans.^

Prior to the time of the Invasion, the condition of the Church was

ruinous, but with the Norman administration there came stonecutters

and masons to rebuild the decaying churches, and several religious

orders, namely the Cluniacs and Augustins arrived to re-establish the monasteries. Realizing that the entire structure of the Church was in need of reform, the king replaced the English bishops with Normans,

but the number of English abbots remained too few to affect Norman

usage. French or Latin in the monasteries was indeed fixed by Church

regulation in the thirteenth century.^ The linguistic influence of

the monks and friars cannot be underestimated, for they spread through­

out England, mingling with the common people to preach, to teach, or

to farm. Preaching however, was done in French or Latin, in spite of

the fact that the masses could not understand, as few priests could

preach in English.^

^Shelly, Eng. & Fr., p . 32. 15, Ibid., p. 34.

^■^Walberg, Quelques aspects

17 Vising, Anglo-Norman, pp. 11-14. Since teaching during the Middle Ages was a preoccupation of the

Church, there were established in England between the time of William the Conqueror and John Lackland, 557 schools with instruction in either

French or Latin.

As to the use of Anglo-Norman in the law courts and the Parliament, there seems to be some disagreement. The English and Normans acted together as judges, witnesses or litigants in the courts and in the

Curia Regis during William's reign. The king, in 1070, called all the

English nobles who were acquainted with the laws to give testimony.

The old and new laws were codified, put into Latin, as were all the official documents, writs and charters. Occassionally such documents were drawn in English, but never in French. The Chronicles bear this fact out. It is only later that French became the obligatory language in the Courts.^

The use of French in trade received its impetus from the many natives of the chief Norman cities of Caen and Rouen who had moved to

England "because it was a fit place for their trade and better stored with goods in which they were wont to deal." French thus became the language of the mercantile class officially up to the thirteenth century. The municipal laws and ordinances of the merchant guilds were either in French or Latin.^0

Generally speaking, then, the use of French became more and more

Walberg, Quelques aspects, p. 12.

19 Shelly, Eng. & Fr., p. 20.

20 Pope, From Latin, p. 424. widespread at Court, in the Church, in the schools, in trade, and to a lesser extent at this time, in the Parliament and the law courts.

The linguistic changes which were taking place were the result of circumstances. At no time did William attempt to abolish English by 21 decree. It is known that William made definite attempts to learn

Anglo-Saxon, but due to his preoccupation with affairs of state, he never was quite successfull. Obviously the Normans favored the study of their own language which they directly or indirectly imposed on the

English. How the Normans were able to remain so long without learning the language of the people is a mystery. Even as late as the thirteenth century the higher classes still had not acquired a firm knowledge of the language. On the other hand the Anglo-Saxons made much progress in learning due to social and economic necessity.^

From the time of William, therefore, the use of French became universal enough to gradually displace English temporarily. That the change was gradual is supported by the fact that even up to 1075, English was still the native tongue of the majority, "if not all of those born of an English mother and foreign father."^ Yet the popularity of

E.A. Freeman, A History of the Norman Conquest (Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1904), Vol. V, pp. 506-08. (Hereinafter referred to as Norman Conquest.)

22 Thommerel, Recherches, pp. 19-21.

23 Shelly, Eng. Fr., p. 86. Anglo-Norman 100 years later had developed even among the unlearned, as

Hue de Roteland pointed out in Ipomedon:

Ne di pas q'il bien ne dit Cil qi en latin l1ad descrit Mes plus •*. ad leis ke lettrez; Si li latin n'est traslatez Gaires n'i erent entendanz; Por ceo voil jeo dire en romanz A plus brevement qe jeo saurai Si entendrunt clerc et lai."24

But by the first half of the thirteenth century we learn that

French is the more notably understood as shown in the Vie de Saint

Eustache:

...mais clerc e lai communeaument Solent user ronianz sovent, Pur co voil en romanz parlier."

Again in the Royal Charter of 1233 we learn that English law terms had to be translated into French so that they could be understood by all.^5

The necessity of both Anglo-Saxons and Normans working in close contact from the very beginning required that many persons should become bilingual. It has long been assumed that both English and Norman were used concurrently without any contact between the two. But records show the contrary. Englishmen and Normans officiated at the Ecclesias­ tical Synod of 1070 and both served side by side in the military in the insurrection of 1088 and the Battle of Maine. The difficulty is that throughout the twelfth century we have no documents which

0 / Vising, Anglo-Norman, p. 14.

25Ibid., pp. 16-17.

26shelly, Eng. Fr., p. 50. specify what language was spoken during any particular circumstance.27

We can only assume that there were people who, of necessity, were bilingual. P.V.B. Shelly summarizes the period 1066-1100 by stating

that there was no feeling of English national unity during the eleventh century, that there was no hatred of the Normans, contrary to the

Chronicles, Hume, the false Ingulf and Sir Walter Scott, and that there was no ill-feeling on the part of the Normans for the Anglo-Saxons, as we see from their intermingling, even as early as 1066. However at

the end of the century English still had a greater amount of speakers 2ft in spite of the inroads made by French. In support of this, Freeman

says, "It is plain that throughout the twelfth century, though French was the home speech of the higher ranks and English was the home speech

of the lower, there was at least nothing wonderful for a man of the highest rank being able to speak English and a man of the lowest rank being able to speak French, when so to speak was needful to either of

them."29

We find therefore, that French influence which had begun with the

introduction of a Norman Court under Edward the Confessor, had been

greatly reinforced by William, but not sufficiently by 1200 to make

Norman French universal or to make bilingualism unnecessary. Almost

200 more years were required for Anglo-Norman to become widespread in

Freeman, Norman Conquest, p. 528.

2®Shelly, Eng. & Fr., p. 91.

29 Freeman, Norman Conquest, p. 527. the upper classes and to have filtered down to the lower classes.

Until such time as the language question was to be solved, it appears that bilingualism in all classes, of necessity, was not unusual.

1204, the year of the loss of Normandy under John is often regarded as the date of the beginning of the decline of Norman French in England.

Yet historical facts do not bear this view out, as the loss of

Normandy strengthened, rather than weakened, the use of French for fifty more years. The loss of Normandy brought numerous migrations from other areas of France in addition to Normandy and as Freeman points out, "All through the thirteenth century, while everything is getting more and more English, the official language is getting more and more 31 French." The turning point of the linguistic struggle came during

the reign of Henry III. At that time Anglo-Norman lost ground to

English not because of a popular movement against the language, but

against the king. Politically Henry tended to favor those French who

arrived after 1204, over his own Norman barons. The triumph of the barons culminated in the Provision-of Oxford of 1258, a document drawn 32 up in French, which allotted more freedom to the barons. From that

time English became used more frequently side by side with French and

Latin in the declarations of the Parliament of Oxford. In addition,

30 Walberg, Quelques aspects, p. 13.

^Freeman, Norman Conquest, p. 529.

^Paul Studer, The Study of Anglo-Norman (Oxford: The University Press, 1920), p. 9. the fame of Oxford University became more extensive, which resulted in a smaller number of scholars leaving the country. More trade with the

Low Countries developed, and Henry's wars fostered a feeling of national unity, again causing an increase in English usage. The displacement of Anglo-Norman French in literature, education and law moved slowly, however. This is brought out in the Prologue of Richard Coeur de

Lyon, c. 1260.

In Frensshe bookys this tym is wrought Lewede menne knowe it naught Lewede menne cunne French non Among an hondryd unnethis on.-^

On the other hand the use of French by the aristocracy remains uncertain. Vising tells us that the greater use of English is in the latter half of the thirteenth century, and is reflected in the more popular and numerous works of English literature which began appearing.

But while the language at Court is still French up to the time of

Henry IV, the maternal tongue of the aristocracy and their children is English. Primers, such as Gauthier de Bobbesworth's manual of

French were being published to teach the children of English noblemen, as Gauthier states, the "proprietes" of the things they see (in

Q / French) and when they must make gender distinctions. By the end of the fourteenth century, although French is the language at Court, it is plainly an acquired language:

qq JJVising, Anglo-Norman, p. 20. 34 Walberg, Quelques aspects, p. 16. Pour ceo que les bones gens du Roiaume d'Engleterre sont embrasez a sqavoir lire et escrire, entendre et parler droit Franqois afin qu'ils puissent entre comuner ove lour voisins, c'est a dire les bones gens du roiaume de France, et ainsi pour ce que les leys d'Engleterre pour la graigneur partie et aussi beaucoup de bones choses sont misez en Franqois, et aussi bien pres tous les soigneurs et toutes les dames en mesme roiaume d'Engleterre volentiers s'entrescrivent en romance, trenessaire je cuide estre aus Englois de s9avoir la droite nature de Franqois." (Donait Franqois, p. 25)35

In spite of the continued advance of English in the fourteenth century, the law still remained the stronghold of French usage. The language at the Parliament until fifty years after Chaucer's death was

French, but the statutes did not cease being written in French until the reign of Henry VIII. The 1362 Act of Parliament, drawn up in

French, decreed that pleas should be pleaded, shown, defended, answered, debated and judged in English on the grounds that the French language was too unknown.

A reform in the schools in 1385 again reflects that French had now acquired a secondary position at the end of the fourteenth century.

John Cornwaile, a schoolmaster, began the reform by requiring that his students "construe" in English. The result was that students learned no more French "than their left heel", as stated by John of

Trevisa. The nobles had ceased to a great extent to teach their children French. 37 However the interest still remained, as evidenced

35Ibid., p. 25.

Vising, Anglo-Norman, p. 22.

37Ibid., p. 25. by several grammars which were written at this time, notably the

Maneres de Langage of 1396 and 1415, the Petit Livre pour enseigner les enfanz de leur entreparler comun francois of 1399, and in 1409 the

Donait francois pur briefment entroduyr les Anglois et la droit language de Paris et de pais la d* entour fait aus despenses de Johan Barton 38 par pluseurs bons clercs du language avandite, previously cited.

Thus we have seen the introduction of Norman French into England by Edward the Confessor, and how it was reinforced by the arrival of

William the Conqueror and his court.

The influence of the French monks, the establishment of the French schools, the use of French by the merchant class which was mainly Norman, and the continued use of French at court further reinforced the hegemony of French, so that by the twelfth century bilingualism prevailed.

Norman French or Anglo-Norman continued to be spoken in England until the beginning of the thirteenth century when it began its steady decline. English was being used side by side with French and Latin in

the declarations of the Parliament at Oxford. The feeling of national unity which began to prevail had as a result an increase in English usage even by those of Norman origin. By the end of the thirteenth

century numerous works of English literature began appearing. Anglo-

Norman, being shut off from continental Norman, was quickly becoming

relegated to the position of second language.

By the act of Parliament in 1362 English became the language of

Kathleen Lambley, The Teaching and Cultivation of French during Tudor and Stuart Times (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1920), p. 404. (Hereinafter referred to as Teaching.) the courts of law. The latter half of the fourteenth century saw a proliferation of French grammars, indicating that French was being

taught to children whose mother tongue was English, and who at the

same time were of noble blood. Yet instruction in French began to be

directed more and more to the merchant classes, and much of the

Maneres de Langages deals with vocabulary and expressions of particular

use to merchants and travelers. One of the first books published by

William Caxton is just this sort of work— a vocabulary in French and

English, and can be considered the first pre-dictionary published in

England (1480-1483). As the title page of the original work is lack­

ing, it has sometimes gone under the title A Book for Travelers, A

Vocabulary in French and English, and more recently Dialogues in

French and English.

The early development of the dictionary in England had been going

on for several centuries however, by the time of Caxton1s first publi­

cation, and were an extension of the glosses of the seventh and eighth

centuries. Their beginnings were simple and universally similar, but

occurred earlier in Celtic and Germanic areas than in the Romance, as

the similarities between Vulgar-Latin, Low Romance, and the earlier

stages of the Romance languages with Classical Latin did not present

difficult translation problems to the monks. As they came upon a

particularly perplexing Latin word in a manuscript, the monks would

write in a gloss— that is, a translation or explanation, immediately 39 above it. The idea later occurred to place all the glosses in one

39 J.A.H. Murray, The Evolution of English Lexicography (Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1900), pp. 6-7. manuscript, or glossary, so that the monks could have a quick and easy reference for translations. The Leiden Glossary (600-700 A.D.) represents this earliest phase of the glossary. The work is a collec­ tion of glosses from earlier manuscripts listed according to manuscript, and in order of original appearance in the manuscript followed by a 40 list of animals at the end. The teaching of Latin to a greater number of students caused a demand for new grammars and vocabularies.

The new word lists at this time assumed a new format. To make memoriza­ tion of the word lists easier they began to be listed according to subject matter: parts of the body, domestic animals, wild beasts, fishes, trees, heavenly bodies, etc. The word lists in Latin side by side with their meanings in the vulgar tongue began to be called

"Vocabularies," or "Vocabularium." Conceptualization of the vocabulary in alphabetical order did not occur until the fifteenth century, however. During the period 1066-1400 two small vocabularies reflected the changes which were taking place in the speech community of

England-the rise of French speech with the concurrent descendance of

English, and by the end of the fourteenth century the ascendance of

English. The Epinal Glossary, for example, contains fewer Old English forms, whereas in the later Corpus there are more numerous English entries, fewer Latin explanations and more English equivalents to the

Latin entries.In the fifteenth century six vocabularies were

40Ibid., p. 11.

41 Ibid., p. 14. AH

written, but only one in alphabetical form, in manuscript- The Medulla

Grammatices, generally conceded to be the "first" Latin-English dic­ tionary from the press of Wynkyn de Worde of 1500, the Ortus Vocabulorum, which was published up to 1553, and another edition from the press of Ao Pynson in 1509. The printing of the first English-Latin dictionary by a Dominican friar, Brother Galfridus Grammaticus of Lynn Abbey in

Norfolk, the Promptorium Parvulorum, was undertaken by several printers,

Wynkyn de Worde, Pynson and Julian Notary. Another Latin-English work, the Catholicon Anglicum remained in manuscript form until 1881. The sixteenth century saw numerous Latin-English and English-Latin vocabu­ laries and dictionaries. The first occurrence of the term "dictionary"

/ Q was at this time with the Dictionarius liber, by Sir Thomas Elyot.

It was actually a collection of "dictiones" or sayings. The grammarians adopted the term and used it in the same sense as the vocabularies.

After several reprintings, Elyot1s dictionary was reprinted and en­ larged by Thomas Cooper, a school master of Maudlins near Oxford and

later Bishop of Lincoln and Winchester. Apparently Cooper's penchant

for re-editing previous works was well noted. In 1565 he founded his

Thesaurus Romanae et Britannicae on the Thesaurus of Robert Estienne

and was duely taken to task by a Martin Marprelate in his Epistles:

His Lordship of Winchester is a great Clarke, for he hath translated his Dictionarie called Cooper's Dictionarie, verbatim out of Robert Stephanus his Thesaurus, and ill- favoured too, they s a y ! 44

42 Ibid., p. 16. 43Ibid., p. 17. 4AIbid., p. 20. Two other English-Latin dictionaries during this period achieved great popularity and influence-the Abecedarium of Richard Huloet or

Howlet in 1552, dedicated to Edward VI, and the Alvearie of John Baret dedicated to Elizabeth in 1573.

But the most significant development in the sixteenth century was

/ C ' the dictionary of English, with a modern language. Giles du Guez or du Wes, French tutor to the Lady Mary, later to become Queen Mary, published a work Introduction for to lerne to rede, to pronounce and to speke French trewly in 1527. A second more important work by John

Palsgrave, the Esclarcissement de la Langue Francoyse revised and published in 1530, is believed by some to be the earliest dictionary of a foreign language, in French as well as English. Palsgrave of London, and a Cambridge graduate, had been chosen to be Mary Tudor's private instructor and accompanied her to France where she was to become the bride of Louis XII of France. The Esclarcissement, actually Palsgrave's lessons, was put together upon his return to England. But the question as to whether in actuality this could be the first "dictionary" could be debated, as it was not originally conceived as a dictionary, but as a grammar with a vocabulary as a secondary addition. It is 46 perhaps better classified as a pre-dictionary. But even within this category, it cannot be among the first works of this type, as the first published pre-dictionary, that of Caxton's Vocabulary in French and

English, along with the numerous vocabularies which followed, were already being published, and has been for the past fifty years.

45 Ibid., p. 23. 46Ibid., p. 24. William Caxton

William Caxton was born in Kent but the year of his birth is not quite certain. His biographers cite 1412 as a possible date, since by

1438 we find him in London working as an apprentice to a prominent mercer, Alderman John Large. Caxton was brought up in Kent, an area of Flemish influence. Flemish families, encouraged by Edward III, had immigrated there to engage in the wool trade, which was a thriving industry by the fifteenth century. There is a record of a manor in the Weald of Kent owned by a Causton family of which Caxton may very well have been a descendant. His apprenticeship and subsequent early labors did not indicate that he was a member of the landed aristocracy however, although his family may have had some influence among trades­ men. Caxton was probably alluding to the strong Flemish influence in his homeland when he noted that, "I was born & learned myn englissh in

Kente in the wiild where I doubte not a spoken as brode and rude englissh as in ony place of englond."^

Caxton's apprenticeship placed him in a position in which he often dealth with Flemish mercers from Bruges, and there, upon the death of his master, he continued his apprenticeship. By 1446 he had become a freeman, and by about 1463 was the official "governor of the 48 English merchants in Bruges". Curiously, by 1471 he had abandoned

47 William Blades, The Biography and Typography of William Caxton. (London: Trubner & Co., 1877), pp. 1-5. (Hereinafter referred to as Biography.)

48Ibid., p. 19. his thriving trade and was in the service of the Duchess of Burgundy, translating the Recuyell of the Histories of Troye from French into

English. Caxton felt that the time had come to translate works of literature into English, in spite of the fact that French still had pre-eminence at the English Court. In his Prologue to Book 1 of the

Recuyell Caxton set forth the rationale for his undertaking:

When I remembre that euery man is bounden by the comandement & counceyll of the wyse man to eschewe slouthe and ydleness whyche is moder and nouryssher of vyces and ought to put myself vnto vertuous occupation and besynesse/ Than I hauynge no grete charge of ocu- pacion folowynge the sayd counceyll toke a frenche boke and redde therein many strange and raeruayllous historyes where in I had grete pleasyr and delyte/ as well for the nouelte of the same as for the fayr langage of frenshe, whyche was in prose so well and compendiously sette and wreton/ whiche me thought I understood the sentence and substance of euery mater/ And for so moche as this boke was newe and late maad and drawen in to frenche/ and neuer had seen hit in oure englissh tongue/ I thought in my self hit shold be a good besynes to translate hit in to oure englissh/ to thende that hyt rayght be had as well in the royame of Englond as in other landes/ and also for to passe therwyth the tyme and thus conclu­ ded in my self to begynne this sayd worke.^9

Caxton was correct in his assumption, as the great demand for his translation indicated. Caxton did not limit himself to translating, however. His interest extended to complete book production, and it was toward this end that he learned the art of printing in Cologne between 1471-1472."^ It was fortunate indeed for Caxton that Bruges

49Ibid., pp. 30-31. 50 S.H. Steinberg, Five Hundred Years of Printing (Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1955), p. 101. was not only a trade center but a printing center as well which enjoyed

the artistic patronage of Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy. Produc­

tion of books achieved such large proportions, that in 1454 the Guild

of St. John the Evangelist, patron saint of scribes, was established.

Under the training of Colard Mansion and with his assistance, along with

the fine libraries seemingly at his disposal, Caxton turned all his

efforts to translating and printing.5^

Leaving Bruges in 1476, we next find Caxton operating a printing

establishment in Westminster, London, with three workmen, Wynken de

Worde, Richard Pynson and William Copland, under the sign of the Red

Pale.52

Caxton's thirty years as tradesman in French and Flemish speaking

Bruges and his time at the French speaking court of the Duke of Burgundy

qualified him as a most likely translator of French works. Yet his

long sojourn away from England made him less facile in his mother

tongue, and his translation of the Vocabulary bears numerous cases of 53 erroneous translations and Flemish influence.

Caxton's Vocabulary in French and English is based on the Livre

des Mestiers, the original of which may date as far back as 1367.

This latter work, containing vocabularies followed by dialogues, was

intended as a teaching aid. Caxton updated and altered the work for

^Blades, Biography, pp. 36-38.

-*^Ibid., p. 70.

^William Caxton, Dialogues in French and English, ed. by Henry Bradley (London: Trubner & Co., 1900), pp. XXIV-XXVI. English readers, directing the work toward a hew public, which, in the late fourteenth century, would have found great need for a bilingual 54 word list. These new readers were the travellers and tradesmen.

Since no title page appears in the original edition, there is much speculation as to just what the true title was. William Blades, a

Caxton biographer chose the title from the first few lines of the text itself, entitling it Doctrine in the whiche one everich may shortly lerne frenssh and englissh. The work was earlier described as A Book for Travellers whereby one may learn French and English (Ames,

Typographical Antiquities, 1749), and this description remained through- 55 out the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Blades, however, dis­ agreeing with the description, called it A Vocabulary in French and

English. The work has been edited twice, in 1900 by Henry Bradley for the Early English Text Society, who entitled it Dialogues in French and

English, and in 1931 by Jean Gessler who included it under the same 56 title in his Livre des Mestiers de Bruges et ses derives.

Caxton’s Vocabulary (as we shall henceforth entitle it) is a folio of twenty six leaves. A total of four copies are known to exist: (1) the Cambridge Copy, (2) The Spencer John Rylands Library copy, (3) The

Bamborough Castle-Durham University copy, and (4) The Devonshire-

Henry E. Huntington Library Copy. There are also several fragments in

the Bodleian Library of Oxford University.

Caxton employed type 4 print, examples of which can be found in

54Ibid., p. XVIII. 55Ibid., p. XXXIV. 56Ibid., p. V. Blades Life and Typography of William Caxton, Vol II. It is assumed by some that the printing date was prior to June 10, 1480, as the first use of type 4 print in a dated book with Caxton signatures appears at

that time. Contrary to Bradley, Blades establishes the printing date

at about 1483."^

The Cambridge edition has 49 pages of text, and is unpaginated.

The first two pages contain a prologue or introduction in which the

author explains the purpose of his book and specifies the vocabulary to be covered:

Frensshe Englissh

Cy commence la table Hier begynneth the table De ce/t prouffytable doctrine Of this prouffytable lernynge. Pour trouuer tout par ordene For to fynde all by ordre Ce que on vouldra aprendre That whiche men wylle lerne

Premierment linuocacion de la trinite Fyrst the callyng of the trinite Comment on doibt che/cun saleur How every man ought grete othir Les meubles aual la mayson The catayllys langyng to the hou/e Les noms des chares & des bee/ties The names of fle//h and of be/tis Et doy iaulz priues & /auuages And of byrdes tame and wylde Les noms des poy//ons de mer The names of fy//hes of the fe e Et des poy//ons des Ryuiers And of fy/fhes of the Riuers Les noms de compenaiges. The names of whyte mete Les noms des fruies darbres The names of the fruytes of trees Les noms des plui/eurs arbres... The names of diverse trees...58

That Caxton clearly intended his Vocabulary for tradesmen is

indicated in the last few lines of his introductory pages:

En la fin de cest doctrine In the ende of this doctrine Trouuerers la maniere Shall ye fynde the manere Pour aprendre acompter. For to lerne rekene. Par liures par /oulz par deniers. By poundes by shelynges by pens Vostre recepte et vo/tre myse Your receyte and your gyuiiig oute Raportes tout en /omrne Brynge it all in /omrne

57 Ibid., pp. XXXXIII-XXXXLV. •^Ibid., p. 1. Faites diligence daprendre Doo diligene for to lerne Fuyes oy/eu/ete petyz et grandes Flee ydleness mal and grete. Car tous vices en Jonnt /ourdans For all vices /pringen thereof

Tresbonne doctrine Ryght good lernyng. Pour apprendre For to lerne. Briefment francoys & engloys. Shortly fren/^h and engly/^’h'1”

Page 3 begins the actual Vocabulary with an invocation to the Holy

Trinity. Pages 48 and 49 complete the text ending with the vocabulary of tradesmen as indicated in the introductory pages:

Une liure de Jterlins A pound /terlings Une marcq que vault. A marcke that is worth Deux uobles dangleter Two nobles of englond Une liure de gros A pound grete Monoye de flaundres Moneye of flaundres Une Joulde que vault A /hellyng that is worth Trois gros ou douze deniers Thre grotis or twelve pens Ung denier une maille A peny a halfpeny Ung quadrant une mitr. A ferdyng a myte Cy fine cejt doctrine Here endeth this doctrine A we/tmejtre les lundres. At We/tmejtre by london En formes impre/yee. In fourmes enprinted. En le quelle ung chejcun In the whiche one euerich Pourra briefment aprendre. May /hortly lerne. Fran ois et engloys Frenjffh and engli//h La grace de /ainct e/perit The grace of the holy ghooyt Veul enluminer les cures Wylie enlyghte the hertes De ceulz qui le aprendront Of them that j hall lerne it Et nous doinjt per/euerance. And be gyue per/eueraunce En bonnes operacions In good werkes Et apres cejfte vie tranjitorie And after this lyf tranyitorie La pardurable ioye & glorie The everla/tyng ioye and glorie.^

As Caxton was most familiar with the French spoken in Bruges, the

dialect employed in the Vocabulary is of the Hainault region of north­

ern Picardy, the dialect most similar to that which was spoken in the

Flemish area of Belgium and northern France during Caxton1s time.

59Ibid., p. 2. ^ I bid., pp. 48-49. 32

But it seems that the numerous errors found throughout Caxton's work

are due much less to dialectical interference than to grammatical

error. Bradley cites frequent confusion of gender, and lack of agree­

ment of nouns with adjective and past participle, as cest table, cest

ville, ilz sont malladeT Robert le messaeier est ennoves, and seront

hannv.

According to Bradley, Caxton demonstrates further confusion

between qui and que, qui and qu1il; de, du and de JLa; le and les, and

shows lack of familiarity of verb forms.^

Aside from his grammatical errors, Caxton's English translations

.are frequently stilted. His own countrymen accused him of not being an

Englishman, and in 1607 his entire Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye

had to be reworked. Caxton rationalizes his loss of proficiency in

his mother tongue in the Prologue to Eneydos:

Certaynly our language now used varyeth ferre from that whiche was vsed and spoken when I was borne.^2

Instances of linguistic interference point out that Caxton had

cause to doubt his own capabilities. For example the Middle English

negative ne placed before a verb followed by a supplementary negative

was changed by Caxton's time to simply verb followed by not. But the

normal French sequence of ne followed by verb apparently influenced

Caxton's translation:

I ne knowe no more to speke. I ne shall not. Ce ne seroit mie sens. II ne lairay rieus. ^3

61Ibid., pp. XI-XIV. 6^Ibid., p. XIX. 63Ibid., p. XX. Yet in other sections of his work where it is not a question of trans­

lation, he does use English not after a verb without a preceding ne.

An explanation for the inaccuracies in the Vocabulary is that

Caxton may have worked on the translation before he was sufficiently

proficient in French, and may have worked on the English after his

return from the continent. But such an explanation does not coincide with the sense of responsibility Caxton is known to have had. He would not have published a work he knew to be poorly translated.

Although we cannot accuse Caxton of vocabulary translation errors, which are minimal, the numerous instances of French and Flemish

linguistic interference on his English morphology and syntax lead one

to question the entire validity of Caxton1 s proficiency.^^

Caxton's work, while not a dictionary in our sense of the word,

bears importance to our study as the first printed French-English pre-

dicticnary published in England. While vocabularies very similar to

Caxton's continued to be seen, it was not before almost one hundred

years that the first bilingual dictionary in the form as we know it

today, first appeared under the supposed authorship of Lucas Ilarryson.

64Ibid., p. XXVIII. CHAPTER II

THE RENAISSANCE

There is probably no more important period to the development of the dictionary than the Renaissance. From 1539 up to the time of

Lucas Harryson's Dictionarie French and English of 1571, a total of

68 known glossaries and dictionaries were published in Europe, and up to 1611, the year of Randle Cotgrave's Dictionarie of the French and

English Tongues, 104 works were added to this list. However, the

English-French dictionary had slow beginnings, since out of this total of 172 glossaries and dictionaries, only three were of the English-

French bilingual variety: Harryson's dictionary, Claude Hollyband's

A Dictionarie French and English, and Cotgrave's dictionary.

The time for the introduction and perfection of these dictionaries was therefore relatively short. In the present chapter we will see how, in the space of only forty years, the English-French bilingual

dictionary was expanded from a modest lexicon of limited appeal

consisting mainly of one or two equivalents with a minimum of descrip­

tive sentences, to a much larger lexicon of wide appeal, containing

numerous equivalents, both English and French explanations, descrip­

tive sentences, proverbs, and idioms, all of which were the result

of exhaustive investigations and compilations. 35

Harryson, Lucas. A Dictionarie French and. English. London: H. Bynneman, 1591. STC 6832

A first edition of this dictionary is available at:

St. John's College, Cambridge, England Boston Public Library, Boston, Massachusetts Henry E. Huntington Library, San Marino, California.

Nowhere in A Dictionarie English and French does the name of Lucas

Harryson appear, although his initials do appear at the end of his preface. This anonymous work was published for Harryson and is attested to in a list of works published by Henry Bynneman of London. (N.B.)

The title page contains a woodcut depicting two classical columns supporting a rounded arch, all of which are entwined by garlands of snakes, ivy, birds and branches. Under the arch appears the following:

"A Dictionarie/ French and / English/ Anno Do. M.D. LXXI" There is no doubt as to Harryson's reasons for publishing the work as evidenced from his preface page:

To the Reader./ Blinde Bayarde is boldest to/ launch into the deepe, and / rash Souldiour readiest to/ give the first assault: Though wilful/ blindnesse, and headdy rashnesse be/ vices intolerable, yet suche blinde-nesse and suche rashenesse (in my/ iudgement) is comendable, as either/ breaketh the yce into the better see-/ ing, or treadeth the path to the discret/ and cunning. This perswasion hath/ made me presume to Englishe this/ worke: and this mine onset hereafter/ may prouoke the skilfull to perfit the/ same. In the meanwhile (good -Rea-/der) vse it to thy profit, so shalt thou/ en­ courage me (according to my skill/ and leasure) to further thy studies./ L.H./

The entire work measures 19.1 x 14 x 1.3 cm. The edition consulted was acquired from the Pierce Fund September 5, 1878,

N.B. A certain M. Chaloner, who along with Hollyband assisted Baret in compiling his Alvearie, may well have been the true author of this work. Accession 251,068 now at the Boston Public Library. The copy has been rebound in brown morocco and is bordered by a gold leaf design on front and back covers and on the spine. The inside back and front covers and their facing pages are decorated with a design in red, green and yellow. The paper is coarse, with watermarks of vertical striations. There are 125 pages recto and verso: Inside cover page;

Page 1 blank; Title Page; Page 4 to The Reader, signed L.H.; Pages

5-124 recto and verso, body of text; Page 125 recto, blank, verso with statement in script: "Dictionnaire devenu fort rare, et qui, a cause de son anciennete, est curieux pour les deux nations. Brunet-ed,

1861. Tome 2-col 689" The number of editions is unknown, but there probably was no more than this one edition. The work is a monodirec- tional bilingual French-English dictionary in one volume, although there exists a possibility of a second English-French volume no longer available. The text is in alphabetical order which by no means is complete, arranged in two columns per page headed by guide letters:

A ante B/C/C/F/G/I/L/M/N/P/R/S/T/V; B ante A/E/I/O/R/V; D ante A/E/I/

0/V/; E ante A/C/D/F/G/I/L/M/N/P/Q/R/S/T/V/X; F ante A/E/I/O/R/V.

G ante A/E/I/L/O/R/V; H ante A/O/V; I ante A/E/L/M/N/O/V; L ante

A/E/I/O; M ante A/E/I/O/V; N ante A/E/O/I/V; P ante A/E/I/L/O/R/V;

Qu ante A/B/E; R ante A/E/O/V; S ante A/E/C/E/l/O/P/T/V; T ante

A/E/I/O/R/V; V ante A/E/I/IN/N/O/R/S/T/V; Y ante A/E/V; Z ante E/I."

C ante 0 appears after C ante H then returns to C ante I. CO entries appear under their normal guide letters. Some PR entries are misplaced under PL, as well as are some R ante I/O entries which appear immed­

iately after S ante I and before S ante 0. V at all times is used

in place of U, as is I for J. Thus U entries appear together with V 37

entries and J with I entries. There are approximately 43 entries per page, and there is no pagination. All entries are capitalized, eg.

Du Lard, En Latin, Vne Lettre. Accents in the French are sometimes, but not always, included: Consacre a Dieu, natiuite, but repeter.

Occasionally the tilde appears over nasal vowels in both French and

English: Cofiner aulcun en quelque lieu l£ bannir, Reprehensio,

Rondace, ou Rffdelle, and in the English preface to the dictionary cftmendable. The use off for S appears throughout somewhat erratically, and j is used in place of the compensatory acute accent eg.: Ejgorger,

to out one's throat;," rather than egorger. (N.B.) Nor has the circum­

flex accent replaced long vowel fo/J which is indicated by doubling

the vowel: saage. No phonetic description appears under the letter

entry, however there is a grammatical description included under A:

A. The firs t le tte r ferueth many times to express the Dative Case: As, le l1 ay donne a mon pere J gave f t to my father: Sometime it ferueth for the preposition, T o : a s , le m ’en vay a mon pere, J go to my father.

Alphabetization of entries beyond the first four letters is

disregarded in several instances: "Cordouannier, ajhoomaker, a

oordwayner" ±s followed by "Cordouannerie, a Jhoomaker row ," and

"Crocheteur, cl common porter, a burthen bearer," by "crocheter, to

fasten up." Nor are the expressions under each entry alphabetized any

more logically:

Auant, depe or farre in. bie Auant dedens, very depe in venir en Auant, to come foorth

N.B. The use of f for s.occurs up to about the end of the eighteenth century. The printing reform of using s in initial, medial and final position is attributed to John Bell in 1791. Mettre en Auant quelque cho/e, to put~foorth a thing. Auant le temps, before the time. d'icy en Auant, from this time forwarde Auant que, before that.

A great deal of inconsistency is shown in the matter of the arti­ cles. Occasionally no article is hown at all, as in "Hache, an a c e , " but "la Hanche, the hanch." The definite article may be translated by an indefinite: "La Gueule, a beastes mouth." The French entry may be introduced by the indefinite article: "Vne guette ou espie, a watch man, a s p ia ll." On the other hand the plural definite article may sometimes be encountered: "Les Habitants d'un pays, the inhabi- tantes o f a country. "

Harryson's dictionary shows inconsistencies in entries of verbal forms. The infinitive of the regular verb is presented immediately followed by its English definition, but in the case of the irregular verb the infinitive may be followed by the second and third person present indicative forms: "EJ'tre, t o b e e ; Tu Es, th o u a r t " and "II

E/t, hee i s . " Yet no form other than the infinitive is shown for avoir, whereas "Hair, t o h a te " is shown with its past participle" Hai, h a te d " and no further elaboration of its irregular forms.

The definitions of entries are normally equivalents, but broader definitions are frequently used: "Barbu, b e a rd e d ," "Abondant, abu n­ d a n t , " "Abuje, misused, deoeyued, begiled." When necessary particular­ izing words are used: "Accorder, to agree, to oonjent, to graunt;

Accorder la fille en mariage, ou on fils, to betrouth or make Jure a Jonne or daughter."

Whatever inconsistencies are present in the Harryson dictionary,

this work must be considered in the light of what it is— the first

attempt in a long line of works to follow and as such a major achievement in the development of dictionary-making from word-list to alphabetical order. We have seen that approximately one hundred years elapsed between the first printed English-French word list and the first

English-French bilingual dictionary. Forty more years will have elapsed before the publication of the major bilingual dictionary of the Renaissance, that of Randle Cotgrave. Yet several other bilingual, polyglot and monolingual dictionaries intervened and contributed to lexicographical development. John Higgins’ Huloet's Dictionarie neweleye corrected (1572), for example, was first published by Richard

Huloet as the Abecedarium Anglico-Latinum, pro Tyranculus in 1552, a purely English-Latin work. By improving on Huloet and by adding

French to the glosses to help one find "any word you will" Higgins was able to compile a polyglot dictionary. His French equivalents or definitions unfortunately were often lacking, in spite of his good intentions. But his dictionary stands as an example of how a lexicographer would build and improve upon a preceding dictionary, a frequent and apparently accepted practice at the time. Nor was Randle

Cotgrave an exception to this practice. We shall see later in his

Dictionarie of the French and English Tongues how he was able to base his glosses on some of those found in Hollyband's A Dictionarie French and English, among others.

^"\john Higgins, Huloet's Dictionarie, newelye corrected (London: I. Marsh, 1572), To the Reader Page. Claude Hollyband (Holyband, Holliband, Holiband) alias Claude de Sainliens

Claude Hollyband was a Huguenot refugee from Moulins, France who arrived in London about 1564. He took to teaching French and within a short period of time had published three works which enjoyed great popularity. His earliest known work of 1565, the French Schoolemaister, wherein is most plainlie showed the true and most perfect way of 66 pronouncinge of the French Tongue, is extant.00 A reedition appearing in 1573 shows it to be a collection of grammar and punctuation rules, sayings, dialogues, prayers and vocabulary. The dialogues are arranged in French and English on opposite pages and concern common everyday happenings. ^ A second work, the French Littleton, now extant, appeared in 1566. By 1576 we find Holyband giving private lessons at the residence of Lord Buckhurst, but he later returned to conducting a school at St. Paul’s Churchyard. Reeditions of the

French Schoolemaister in 1573, 1580(?), 1582, 1606, 1612, 1615, 1619,

1631, 1641, 1649, 1655, 1668, and of his Littleton in 1581, 1591,

1593, 1597, 1602, 1607, 1625, 1630, 1633, and 1639 attest to the tremendous popularity of his works. In 1580, three new publications were added to Hollyband's list of works, but they did not enjoy the popularity of their predecessors: A Treatise for Declining Verbs,

^Lambley, Teaching, p. 134.

67Ibid., p. 135. 68Ibid., pp. 405-08. De Pronuntlatione Linguae Gallicae. and the last, The Treasurie of the French Tong. The Treatise saw re-editions in 1599, 1615(?), and

1641, but the De Pronuntlatione never saw a re-edition, nor did Holy- band's work of 1585 the Campo di Fior. The Treasurie of the French

Tong however, was later expanded and published in 1593 as A Dictionarie 69 French and English. Although this dictionary was unique in light of the fact that only Harryson’s dictionary preceded it, subsequent editions did not materialize, no doubt having been superseded by the

Cotgrave dictionary which came only eighteen years later.

69Ibid., p. 141. Hollyband, Claude, alias Claude de Sainliens.- A Dictionarie French and English. London: Thomas Woodcock, 1593.

A first edition of this dictionary is available at:

Library of the British Museum, London, 626f.l G 639 Houghton Library, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts. 6235.593 Yale University Library, New Haven, Connecticut. Rare Book HF 28 500.

The title page of this dictionary contains a woodcut depicting two square columns supporting a rounded arch covered with birds and leaves. The lower portion of the woodcut shows a view of a city, presumably London, surrounded by an oval frame. The space within the arch reads as follows: A/ Dictionarie French/ and English:/ Publifhed for the benefit of the stu-/dious in language:/ Gathered and set forth by Clau-/dius Hollyband./ For the better understanding of the or-/der

of this Dictionarie, peruje the/ Preface to the Reader./ D u m fp iro , f p e r o . / Imprinted at London by T.O. for/Thomas Woodcock. 1593./ Verso

of the title page the following is written in script: Harvard

College Library/ From the heirs of / William A. White/ June 30, 1939/.

The entire work measures 19.4 x 14.6 x 2.9 cm. This rebound edition

is in brown morocco and cloth, and has gold lettering on the spine.

The paper is coarse but thin with visible vertical and horizontal

striations. There are two blank pages, Title Page, two dedication

pages, recto and verso, to Monseigneur Edward Zouch written in French

beginning with A Tres-noble, Honorable, & ver-/tueux Seigneur,

Monseigneur Edtiard/ Zoucht ferme base3 p illie r et vray/ Mecoenas de

toutes raes/ e f tu d e s . / There is one preface page, recto and verso,

headed Claudius Hollyband , to the Students/ of the French tongue./

There are 242 pages in the body of the work, a monodirectional bilingual French-English dictionary. There is no record of a subsequent edition. The dictionary is alphabetical in order with no pagination, and is arranged in two columns per page, headed by guide letters, eg.

A ante B. There are approximately 44 entries per page. Hollyband generally does not give a phonetic description of the letter entries.

He does, however, note some sounds which apparently presented difficulty in pronounciation: "A, one o f the sixe vowels in the/ French tu n g 3 a,e,i,o,u, and y3/ is pronounced fu lly w ith an open/ mouth3 and hath diuers significati-/ons: firsts it is the third person sin-/gular of the verbej i'ay,J h a u e : tu/as, th o u h a s t : il a, he hath: as3 Ie-Han

Wheeler a de bon vin: Iohn / Wheeler hath good wine. Le Roy/ a vne grand1armee: the king hath/ a great arm ie...n and under Q ante

V: "Wheresoever you fin d q before/u3 sound it as K3 so in / steed o f

Quadragenaire fortu-/yeeres of age3 pronounce it 3/ as if it were

W2,ittew/kadragenaire. /"

The order of the alphabet is the following: A ante B/C/D/F/G/H/I

& J/L/M/N/P/R/S/T/V & U; B ante A/E/O/I & J/L/O/R/V & U; C ante

A/E/H/I & J/L/O/R; D ante A/E/l/O/R/V; E ante F/M/N/P/Q/R/S/T/X;

F ante A/E/l/L/O/R/V; G ante A/E/I/L/O/R/V; H ante A/E/I/O/V & U;

I and J ante A/E/M/N/O/T/V & U; L ante A/E/F/I/O/V; M ante A/E/I/O/

V & U; N ante A/E/I/O/V & U; 0 ante B/C/E/F/I/M/N/P/R/S/V&U; P ante A/E/I/L/0/R/V& U; Q ante V; R ante A/E/l/L/O/V;

S ante A/E/I/O/V; T ante A/E/l/O/R/ V & U; V ante A/E/I/L/O/S/ V & U;

Y ante A-V; Z ante A, ending with Zoucet.

J entries appear as I, and U entries as V. K,W and X are missing.

The first letter of the entry is capitalized and the definitions are italicized. The first letter of the entry is capitalized and the

definitions are italicized. Alphabetization beyond the first four

letters is inconsistent, as observable in gourmand, gourmandif e,

gourmander, gourmandere ff e, gourmandant (In that order). The days-

of the week are capitalized in English. Both the acute and grave

accents appear, but occasionally the acute is used in place of the

grave: Enregister, Gagne, but Vne Ba^tardiere. The circumflex

accent does not replace double long a fa/? as in Aage and the tilde

is used over the French nasal vowel C o] as in Cabocho, Abolitio, whereas in Abandon it is not used. Both equivalents to entries and

definitions are used, as well as particularizing words: "Baailler,

to gape3 gafpe3 to yawne; les feuillets d'un livre; Goupil, I-ik e a

foxe tying in his den." As to verbs, Hollyband indicates only verbs

which offer particular orthographic difficulties, or which are

completely irregular. The verbs are listed under infinitive, and

usually follow in first person forms of the present indicative, passe

simple, passe compose, and future indicative, as for example

"S1enorguillir, je m'enorguillis, je m'enorguilly, je me ^uy

enorguilli, je m'enorguilliray, to wax proud; Enrichir, j'enrichis,

j ’enrichy, j ’ay enrichi, j 'enricheray, to enrieh3 make w eatthie."

Irregular verbs are similarly shown, but occasionally include second

and third person forms. The verb Vouloir, is briefly explained as

11 Je veux, je voulu, j'ay voulu, je vouldray, to w i l t 3 whereas E{tre

is more complete even to examples in usage: "Ejtre, je ^uy, je fu,

j ’ai ejte, je jeray, to h e . II fujt iadis vn Roy, there was in

time pajta King. Fu^t que aucun raconta|t que & c. whither it was that one should te ll ,

Hollyband's treatment of verbs and his attempt to give descriptive phrases or sentences for each gloss represent an achievement over the preceding Harryson dictionary. Hollyband was not content in merely furnishing a list of equivalents for each gloss, but included, where he felt it necessary, a longer definition. His contribution to the development of bilingual dictionaries is one of content rather than format: The expansion of the gloss, more concise and complete defini­ tions as well as descriptive sentences or phrases, and a fuller treatment of verbs showing principle parts.

However, Cotgrave was later able to improve upon Hollyband's treatment of verbs by presenting a complete grammar synopsis with accompanying verb charts at the end of his Dictionary of the French and English Tongues. It also has been indicated that Cotgrave owed much to Hollyband. Although this was true to a certain extent, he was by no means his only source. We will observe that glosses in the Cotgrave dictionary reflected deeper research than Hollyband's and had a stronger affinity with those found in Nicot's Thresor de la

Langue franqoyse. RANDLE COTGRAVE

Very little is known about the life of Randle Cotgrave. It is certain that he was a student under the Lady Margaret Foundation at St.

John's College, Cambridge University, having been admitted November 10,

1587. What further information we have has been gleaned from what he tells us himself in the Dictionary and from the contents of two letters written to M. Beaulieu, secretary of the English Ambassador to Paris.

From these letters, the first of which is dated November 27, 1610, we learn that M. Beaulieu along with a Hr. Limery had assisted Cotgrave in his compilations, and that Cotgrave was in the employment of

William Cecil, Lord Burghley during the time he was writing. Cotgrave1s employment is further confirmed in the Dedication to his Dictionary, in which Cotgrave thanks him for his assistance.^®

The Dictionary of National Biography indicated there was a Randal

Cotgrave, son of William, of Chistleton in Cheshire. If this is the same person as our lexicographer, then we know that he became

Registrar of the Bishop of Chester, was married to Ellinor Taylor of

Chester, and had five children. From another source, Cooper's

Memorials of Cambridge, we learn that Cotgrave "flourished" in 1634, and probably was alive to see the 1632 re-edition of his dictionary. These bits of information comprise the extent of our knowledge of Randle n . 71 Cotgrave.

^^Vera E. Smalley, The Sources of A Dictionary of the French and English Tongues by Randle Cotgrave (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1948), pp. 14-15. (Hereinafter referred to as Sources.) 71 "Randle Cotgrave," Dictionary of National Biography, 1920-21, IV 1012. (Hereinafter referred to as DHB.) Cotgrave, Randle. A Dictionarie of the French and English Tongues. London: A. Islip, 1611.

An original edition of this dictionary is available at:

The New York Public Library, KC 1611 Yale University Library, New Haven, Connecticut, Rare Book Hf 28 01C Houghton Library, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, fSTC 5830

Cotgrave's A Dictionarie of the French and English Tongues was published in 1611 by Adam Islip in London. The entire work measures

29.2 x 20.4 x 26 cm. and is covered in brown morocco. The spine is gold embossed with the lettering COTGRAVE'S DICTIONARY. There are

478 pages recto and verso of text, unpaginated with the exception of the last ten pages. Page 1 is blank, page two recto contains the title page which reads as follows: "A/DICTIONARIE/ OF THE FRENCH/

AND ENGLISH/ TONGUES/ Compiled by Randle/ Cotgrave. There appears a medallion in the center of the page with the Latin inscription i n d o / mino/ oonfi/ do encircling it. Below the medallion appears the city of publication LONDON/ PRINTED BY ADAM I(LIP/ Anno 1611/." The title information is centered, flanked by two columns, each topped by a swan, all intertwined with grapes and leaves. A pot au feu flanked by two candles appears at the top. The dedication page, follows on the recto, the to the reader page verso side.

TO THE RIGHT H0N0-/ RABLE, AND MY VERY GOOD LORD AND MAI TER,/ Sir William Cecil Knight, Lord Burghley, and £onne/ and heire apparant vnto the Earle of Exceter./’

I here present vnto your Lordjhips view an Ac-/ count of th'expence of many houres, which in your/ Jervice, and to mine owne benefit might haue beene/ otherwise imploied: for floth, how^oeuer, had not/ con/umed them; Jo mewhat i mu/t haue done the/ whilst; nor could I haue be/towed them on a/ worke of 1e/e uJ e for your Lord/hip, the French being alreadie Jo well vnder/tood by you, and all/ yours. In which regard, as I am particularly bound to acknowledge/ your Lordj'hips goodnejje, bearing with my humor to follow, and allowing me time to fini/h, it; Jo haue all they, to whom it J hall proue of any worth, iuj t/ cauJ e to honour in your Lord/hip that goodne//e, continued a long time into / their, and the common good. No priuat consideration was fit to make your Lord/hip often to dijpence with th ordin- arie attendance of an ordinarie Jer-/ uant. But this is one of the l e a j t of your Lord/hips re/pects to the Publicke;/ and I would be loath to ingage in your Judgement, or Honour, on the Jnc.ee JJ e of/ f o meane a Peece. My de/ires haue been aimed at more /ub/tantiall markes; but/ mine eyes failed them, and forced me to Jpend much of their vigour on this/ Bundle of words; which though it may be vnworthie of your Lordships great/ patience, and perhaps ill /orted to the expectation of others, yet is it the/ b e jt I can at this time make it, and were, how perfect /oeuer, no more then due to your Lordship, to whom I owe, for what I haue beene many yeres, what-//oeuer I am now, or looke to be hereafter./ Your Lordj'hips/ m o ft bounden J e ruant,/ Randle Cotgrave.

The To the Reader page on the verso side of the dedication page provides us with some interesting and important information concerning

Cotgrave’s method, procedure, and dedication to his public and to his work.

Au favorable Lecteur Francois./ Lecteur, l’auteur de ce livre (Gentilhomme Anglois, a qui /on propre/ Pays & Jurtout, le notre ont vne obligation particuliere, qu’ilz ont a peu d'autres apres avoir peniblement veille & travaille par plu- Jieurs ans, J u t cet oeuvre, non moins, certes, ingrat que laborieuz; En fin e j t / contraint de le laij/er partir de J e s mains, plutot vaincu de 1'importu-/nite de J e s Amis, & de la n e c e f f lt e que le Public en a, que /atisfait en/ J o n ame de J o n propre ouvrage. Et t'a j j u t e que J i on l'eut voulu croire,/ il fut encore apres a Je tourmenter, pour trouver la Signification/ de telz mots, qui, po/jible, ne J e v o n t jamais plus ouyz en ce monde, (quoy que luz) &/ dont, ie croy, il n'y a per/onne qui ait ouy parler depuis cent ans, que luy; tant /a curio/ite a/ ete grande & exacte a lire toute /orte de livres, vieuz & nouveauz, & de tous noz dialectes./ A cette cau/e, peur, poj/ible, qu'ayant egard a ce que tu voys, non a ce que tu ne voys pas, tu/ l'accu/e plutot de ce qu'il a dit, que de ce qu'il a tete contraint de laif f er; qui toutfois J e roit/ vn tre/or ine/timable, s'il eut pu trouver, ou par de pa ou en France me/mes (ou il a ete j i curi-/ euz d'envoyer expres) qui l 1eut pu, ou voulu re/oudre de Jes doutes; II te /upplie bien fort, J ± ! tu trouves icy quelques mots qui /onnent mal auz oreilles, ou mejme qui n'y ayent encore/ iamais /onne, de croire, qu'ilz ne /ont point de Jon invention, mais recueilliz de la multitude/ & diver/ite de noz Au­ teurs, que poj/ible tu n*auras pas encore luz, & qui, tant bons que/ mauvais, de/irent tous d'ejtre entenduz. II pouvoit bien citer le nom, le livre, la page, & le/ pa JJ age; mais ce n'eut plus icy ete vn Dictionaire, ains vn Labirinte. Ceuz qui ne les /auront pas, les apren- dront; Ceuz qui les /auront, jugeront bien que I1ignor­ ance, po/Jible, d'vn/ seul mot, Joit /ubytanciel, metaforique, inu/ite, ou tire de variete des Ars, peut /ouvent/ ob/curcir tout vn j e ns, & rendre barbares les conceptions les plus gentilles. Permis a qui/ nous put arriver, que de remettre fuz, certains mots Jur-annez, que nous avons mieuz aime/ lai//er perdre, quoy que tre propres & /ignificatifs; Et a autres de notre propre cru, bien que/ de divers terroir, allans plutot mandier chez les Etranger pour nous exprimer, ou bien nous tai/ans du tout, ou parIans par vn long contournement de paroles, que d'ouvrir vn peu/la bouche pour en prononcer quelques vns quijembloyent trop reve/ches pour la douceur/ du palais de noz Damoi/elles, ou grater l'oreille delicate de MeJ/ieurs noz Courti/ans de ce/ tems-cy. Quant auz fautes de lfImpression, l'Autheur ne les peut totalement prendre /ur /oy,/ ne niant pas qu'il n'en /oit e/chape a//ez, comme au//i poj/ible en quelques endroits, quel-/ que impropre interpretation; e/perant bien toutfois, que les vnes ny les autres ne j e ront/ pas J i grandes que ta courtoijfie n'y puif j e bien Juppleer. A tant, Il recomande Jo n oeuvre/ a ta bonne reception, & moy ie demeure/ TON TRE AFFECTIONNE PATRIOTTE,/ 1. L'oiseav de Tourval, Pari/ien

Cotgrave is the first bilingual lexicographer to make extensive use an errata section, which immediately follows the To the Reader Page.

Located at the end of the work in ten pages recto and verso and paginated are supplementary materials never before seen in a bilingual

dictionary- a two page section discussing vowels and dipthongs, a one

page fold-in containing verbs, four more pages of verb lists, and the

last three pages discussing parts of speech.

The order of the text is alphabetical, letters I and J appearing

together, as well as U and V. There are no W listings. Expressions

listed under the definitions are alphabetized, as, for example:

Porter.- Porter son bois; Porter une chemise blanche; Porter coup;

Porter coup a la foy; Porter droict contre; Porter ct deuz efpaules;

Porter fu r Jes efpaules. Entries within the same etymological

family are listed alphabetically beyond the first four letters:

Infante; Infanterie; Infanticide; Infantile; Infantin followed by

Infatigable; Infatue; Infateur, etc.

Cotgrave makes use of J in lieu of S in both initial and internal

position of words, and S in final position. The first letter of each

entry is capitalized. Acute accents are shown, and the circumflex

accent still does not appear over () or A, as is usual for this period:

H o jte and A age. As to the grave accent, although not appearing over

IS, it does appear occasionally over A: Pot a confitures. Here and

there Cotgrave includes the diresis and the cedilla: Moue; Machoueres; fc a u ra .

The arrangement is in columns of two, with boxed-in quide letters

at the head of each column, eg. ACC, ABV, etc. There are approximately

fifty entries per page in one part or volume, monodirectional.

The compiler included both equivalents and full definitions for

his entries: A b h o rre : m. ee: f. dete/ted, abhorred, loathed.

B a c h e lie r : m. A bacheler; a youth of /ixteene, or eighteene yeares of age; al/o, he that hath paj/ed Master in a trade, but is not yet Jworne of the Companie; al/o, a Batcheler of Art; al/o, a title of gentrie inferiour to B a n n e re t3 and jfuperiour to E J c u y e r ; a young gentleman that a/pires unto Knighthood, and the priuiledge of bearing a Banner in the field; aljo, the Lord of a ca/tle, fort, great hou/e, or Place, that is deriued from (but in iuri/diction equall with) an Earledom, Vicountie, or Baronie.

Normally Cotgrave indicated all nouns as masculine or feminine by m.. or fj_ Adjectives are listed under their masculine form, with a faminine adjectival ending immediately following as in the examples above. This was an important innovation, as none of the previous lexicographers included both forms. Occasionally Cotgrave indicated no gender at all, but this occurs in less common nouns:

B y z e : The/ea-fijh, Bonito. Bacohe. A kind of wild Peare C a c h ile . Sea-rocket.

From the humorous character of some of his illustrative material we are left with the impression that Cotgrave was a man of great wit.

Plays on words, popular during his time, rhymes and side comments abound. Wherever possible he illustrated an entry with a Proverb.

This he preferred rather than citations taken from poetic works or the

Classics:

PotfJon iu if . The (ouglie and unluckie) Mallet Fi/h.

Ieune chair & v ie il poijfon: Prov. Olde fle/h and young fi/h (is fit for the di/h)

I l n'a pas tenu le bee en I ’eau. He hath played the wine-pot, and is become tip/ie; hee is thoroughly drunke (but not with water) I l faut avoir mauvaije bejte par douceur: Prov. Some-what like our the rough Net is not the be/t catcher of Birds; Shreud bea/ts would be caught by Jweet baites.)

Robbe re fa it moult I'homme: Prov. Good clothes doe much for a man (that would be hand/ome)

Cotgrave attempted to include entries representing all facets of

the human experience. Terms bringing as many professions as possible

represent Cotgrave1s desire to appeal to a public at large:

H a jte r e a u : m. The throat-piece or forepart of the neck of a hog.

M ercuriale: f. Mercurie, French Mercurie; an herb whereof there be three kinds, a male, a female, and Mercuriale sauvage...

Oxcycedre. r Cedar Jumper, the Crimjon or jjricklie Cedar.

P o ly m tx e . A candle hauing many weekes.

Q u a r r il. The fourth part of a Spanish Real

Further evidence that Cotgrave was aiming his work for general

consumption is reflected in his gloss for Sauce in which he describes

the cooking process and spices to be added for such delicacies, as:

Sauce Barbe Robert, Sauce blanche, Sauce chaude, Sauce froide, and

Sauce d'enfer. For Saucijfe de Boulongne and H a r ic o t he presents

a discussion that would be more properly found in a cook book, rather

than in a dictionary:

Sauciffe de Boulongne. A Bolonia Saucidge, is made of beefe and leane bacon in equall quantitie, flayed, and chopped j-a ia .ll with halfe as much lard, and Joma Pepper, Ginger, and /alt; then put into a cleane Oxe gut halfe a foot long, and layd in Jalt for two daies together, and afterwards hung up in the /moake.

H a r ic o t : m. Mutton Jod with little turneps, J o me wine, and to/’ts of bread crumbled among; tis al/o made otherwi/e, of ^mall peeces of mutton fir/t a little jodden, then fried in ^eam, with (liced onions, and lastly boiled in beefe broath with Parsley, I (op, and Sage: And in another fajhion, of liuers boiled in a pipkin with jliced onions and lard, veriuice, red wine, and vinegar, and ^erued up with to(ts, jmalljpices, and ( (ometimes) chopped hearbs.

What seems to be a deliberate attempt on Cotgrave's part to list legal and government terminology for which he was later criticized by Miege, is shown by eight pages of text appearing under the entry Droict alone.

The glosses for Roi, Parlement, and E (tat reflect equal attention to detail.

Cotgrave's dictionary is invaluable for those studying Renaissance and early seventeenth century French language as he included entries which are variant dialectical forms, gleaned particularly from

Rabelais. The following demonstrate the extent of the variants

Cotgrave listed:

O b la d e ;t. A kind of great-eyed and little mouthed jea Ruffe, or Jea Pearch, hauing a blacke (pot, on the root of her tayle.

Pe cheteau. m. The (ea Frog, (ea-Toad or (ea Diuell. B o u rd e lo is

I o n g le u r m... .V ic a r d

Mugereuljm. A kind of Mullet N a rb o n n o is

Difparagement ...Norman

Iou...E t iou mot. For my part I will be whi(t, or not (peak one word. G a jc o n

I o . as Moy: P o ic t e v in . Rab.

L u c h e t. A Jpade; or as Louohet. Languedoc Vera E. Smalley's study of Hie Sources of "a Dictionarie of the French and English Tongues" explains the tremendous amount of research which went into the Cotgrave compilation. From her study of glosses for the letter A, she concluded that his dictionary sources were Estienne's Dictionnaire franqois-latin of 1549, Nicot's Thresor,

Hollybandfs French and English Dictionarie previously cited, and

Palsgrave's Eclaircissement de la langue franQoyse.7^ But unlike his predecessors, and those lexicographers to follow, he was not content to use solely dictionary sources in his compilation. For material in the area of natural history he chose entries gleaned from Dioscorides'

Materia Medica, Pliny's Naturae Historiarum, and Columella's De re 73 rustica. Glosses for law, political science and medicine were chosen from Franqois Ragueau's Indice des droicts Roiaux et

Seigneuriaux (1583), the Traicte des ordres et simples dignitez by

Charles L'Oyseau, Le Guidon general des financiers (1584) by Jean

Hennequin,7^ Les Six livres de la Republique (1576) by Jean Bodin, and lastly, the Oeuvres of Ambroise Pare (1561).7^ Entries from literary works, other than those of Rabelais, can be cited as sources for 76 Cotgrave's lexicon, namely works of the Pleiade group and Du Bartas.

However, the most interesting part of this dictionary from the standpoint of the philologist is the grammatical section at the back

^ S m a l l e y , Sources, pp. 216-19. 7^Ibid., p. 103.

7^Ibid., pp. 161-62. 75Ibid., pp. 182-83.

76Ibid., p. 207. following the last page of glosses. The first page of this section numbered Fol.l bears tht title "Brief Directions for juch as de/i-re/

to learne the French Tongue:/ and fir^t of the Vowels, and Dipthongs"/.

It is the most complete discussion of sounds thus far seen in our

study, and the most authoritative.

Under A Cotgrave likens the French vowel to (Early Modern)

English CO'l as in all, and admonishes that the pronunciation is not

that of English tale and ale. He accurately differentiates between

French open and close 12 which he describes as "Masculine" and

"Feminine", and gives "Is he come" to explain open 12 pronunciation.

This is open to further investigation, as Cotgrave's comparison does

not seem to coincide with our present knowledge of the Early Modern

English vowel system.

Cotgrave was probably well aware of the phenomena of nasalization

of French vowels, but was at a loss to explain their pronunciation.

That this is so may be reflected in his discussion of JE and C) followed

by N or M where no distinction is made between nasalized and denasalizd

vowels:

E, In the /ame Jxllable before N or M is to be founded like a, as e n fa n c e 3 the fir/t /illable like the /econd: Except mien, tien, /ien, bien, chien, rien, and ybme others...

0, Before N or M, hath the /ound of oo in our Engli/h word Moone. So mu/t you pronounce the French word mon, comme on dit commencement, & c.

But he accurately explains the syllabic break in enerver where JE is

"not founded in the Jarae Jillable with n."

I Cotgrave likens to English ee, whereas JV is given the English counterpart [u3as in Lute. He adds that _I and V are consonants when put before other vowels, and that V may be a consonant before a

following 11, such as in vray.

The pronunciation of the dipthong AI_ varies according to Cotgrave.

It is pronounced "as it is written" in the verbal ending of the first

conjugation in the Passe Simple, which he writes as g ’ aim ay if

followed by a vowel as in g 'o.ye3 ayons3 and a y a n t, and if followed

by 11. In all other cases it is pronounced as a close E^fej e.g. g 'a y 3 g ’aimeray3 g'e3 g'emere. AO in j a o u l is pronounced as Sou by dropping

the "prepositiue" vowel, whereas the "Jubiunctiue" vowel is not pro­

nounced in taon, pao n. The dipthong AU is correctly likened to

English 0^ "as wee pronounce it in Jaying Pauls crojye; o ybund aux

paux like os pos."

Cotgrave continues that the apostrophe "taketh away a vowell out

of a work of one jillable, when it ytandeth before another word

beginning with a vowell; as L'egliy’e for la eglije..." and by the

process of Synalepha the final e (mute e) of a word is dropped when

preceding a word beginning with a vowel, "as mon pere & ma mere ont

dijne,11 which should be read as "mon per & ma mer ont dijne."

Conversely, by the same process T^ is inserted when a verb ending in a

vowel precedes a pronoun beginning with a vowel: Parle il, parlet il

and dira on, dirat on.

As for the consonants, Cotgrave begins by giving a general rule:

. . . if a word end in a aonfonantj and the word follow ­ ing begin with another , the fin a l1 oonjonant o f the word going before is not to befounded3 as tout ce qui luit n'est pas or, read it thus3 tou ce qui luy ne pas or, 1. The word end in a liquide • l,m.n.r, mon pere not mo pere. H o w b e it 1 i s n o t to be ounded in the word il, as il faut, re a d i t i faut. 2. The word end ina3 as avec Except moy3n o t ave moy. 3. The word end ing3 as le boeuf d ’Angleterre. 4. The word end ing3 as le ioug de Chri/t e f t legier 5. The word end ing3 as vn coq d'Inde. 6. There follow any point3

y.. • ? • j* • • •

Each consonant is treated individually: C^, before H, (i followed by N and before front and back vowels. An indication that

I. has been lost in medial and final position is evident in a u l t r e 3 o u lt r e as well as f o l 3 m o l3 and a o l3 which Cotgrave advises should be pronounced as autre3 outre3 fou3 mou3 and aou.

Cotgrave recommends that final M should be "...founded like N as nom, faim, dam, temps, like non, fein, dan, tans." As in the case of the nasal vowels previously cited, he may be attempting here to explain the nasalization process. Consonant N, he continues, is not to be pronounced in the third person plural verbal endings, and the pronunciation of (JU before vowels as £kj is accurately noted.

Doubled R is to be " trongly" sounded, but when appearing as a single consonant should be pronounced "gently" as in guerre as compared to guere.

An entire page is devoted by Cotgrave to the discussion of S_.

He is the first lexicographer in our study to mention that single is sounded as when intervocalic, but he is loathe to be more specific: "When preceding a consonant (S)is completely suppre/Jed (as in the mo/t naturall French words) or fully to be /ounded."

Cotgrave's list of voiced, unvoiced and dropped pronunciations is indicative of the phonological vacillation which was taking place during the Renaissance. £[ is pronounced:

A. Acco/ter, when it /ignifieth to approach; but whe it jignifieth to prop up, the s is not to be /ounded.

B. Ba/tonnades: and yet in Barton the s is not to be /bunded. Be/tialite; & Be/tiole; howbeit that in Be/tail, Be/te, & Be/telette, the s bee not jounded.

E. E/carlatin; yet in the word E/carlate the s is not /ounded.

F. Fe/tin, but yet in Fejte you mu/t not /ound s.

I. Inve/titure, and yet in the verbe Ve/tir the s is not to be /ounded. M. Mon/tre, when it jignifieth a mon/ter: but when it jignifieth a mu/ter of jouldiours, the s is not jounded.

P. Pajtorelle; but in Pa/toureau, and Pai/- tre, s is not to bee /ounded. Projcrire; but in E/crire, and De/rire, you mu/t not jound s.

T. Tempejtatif; yet in Tempe/te the s is not to be jounded.

The pronunciation of T concerns Cotgrave in et^, in which he says it is soundless. His description of X reflects the same vacillation of J5, as he claims that at the end of a word it "is to bee /ounded like

S, as paix, prix like pais, pris." whereas in the medial position

"it is to bee /ounded as Z, dixie/me, dizie/me." The exceptions he lists as: "Soixante, Lexiue, Bruxelles, Complexion which should be

/ounded as, Le/Jive, Comple//ion:.

Lastly Cotgrave explains that the last syllable of words should be accentuated unless the syllable has an "e feminine", and that vowel lengthening is used to distinguish words that ordinarily would be homophonous:

...Note this moreouer, that the taking away of a letter caujeth the vowell that goeth before it to be pronounced long, and consequently /erueth to di/tingui/h betweene words of like/ound, as te/te an head, and tete a brea/t, ma/tin, a ma/tiue, and matin the morning, & c.

In the succeeding grammatical section Cotgrave introduces nouns with their respective articles which he declines together in the nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, vocative and ablative cases in both singular and plural. The manner of forming noun plurals with exceptions, as well as a discussion of gender, adjectives and pronouns all are presented with detail. A complete summary of the French verb system is given in a fold-out on page Fol.4. The two auxiliary verbs

Avoir and E ftre are included along with a verb representing an example from each conjugation: Parler, Baftir, Veoir, and Cognoi/tre.

The nomenclature and groupings of the verbs are at variance with present day practice. Under the indicative mood, for example,

Cotgrave lists present, preterimperfect (imperfect), aorist (passe simple), preterperfect (passe compose), preterpluperfect (pluperfect) and future tenses. Under the imperative mood Cotgrave includes the first and second person singular forms and those for the plural. The optative mood, our present day subjunctive, which Cotgrave states

"... Hath alwaies an Adverbe ioyned," consists of the present (present subjunctive), preterimperfect (imperfect subjunctive) preterperfect

(present perfect subjunctive), preterpluperfect (pluperfect subjunc­ tive) and the future (future subjunctive) tenses. The subjunctive mood Cotgrave states:

borroweth its Ten/es partly from the Indicatiue, and partly from the Optatiue mood, by adding one of theje Coniunctions, veu que, f e e ing that; combien que, albeit that; /i, if; quand, although that; comme ain/i /oit, f e e in g that: as for example, Pre j ent. Veu que j'ay, as in the Indicatiue mood; or, Combien que j'ay, as in the Optatiue. Imperfect. Veu que j'avoye, as in the Indicatiue; or, Combien que j'eujje, as in the Optatiue.

Cotgrave lists only one tense under the subjunctive mood, the preter­ imperf ect, which is our present day conditional mood. Present, perfect and future infinitive forms follow, and the forms of the parti­ ciples complete the list. In the next pages Cotgrave discusses the formation of the tenses and how to place a verb in the passive voice.

Numerous pages are devoted to irregular verbs for each conjugation.

On pages 8, 9, and 10 Cotgrave returns to grammatical discussion of adverbs, conjunctions and prepositions.

Cotgrave was not interested in simply compiling a lexicon, but rather attempted to make his work as versatile as possible. By including additional material such as the pronunciation guide and grammar in his dictionary he undoubtedly was able to enhance its

saleability. The bilingual English-French dictionary saw no equal coverage

in range and scope prior to Cotgrave. Twenty thousand new entries

never before included in a lexicon were gathered from this wide range

of material at Cotgrave1s disposal. While much of his dictionary is

of a highly technical nature, his work is the first to be aimed at a

larger public through its style and recourse to popular and literary

sources. Lexicographers who succeeded Cotgrave, such as Miege and

Boyer were critical of him, but their criticism was minor, as Cotgrave had established for them a solid basis on which they could develop

their own compilations. CHAPTER III

THE SEVENTEENTH AND EIGHTEENTH

CENTURIES

Although the Renaissance saw the birth, development and perfection of the English-French bilingual dictionary, discounting Robert

Sherwood's re-edition of Cotgrave's dictionary as a bidirectional effort, the dictionaries were raonodirectional.

The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries saw two important inno­ vations in bilingual English-French lexicography: the introduction of bilingual bidirectional works originally conceived as such, and the pocket dictionary. All of the first editions of the major dictionaries published during this period and covered in this study were bidirec­ tional: Guy Miege's A New Dictionary, French and English with another

English and French, Abel Boyer's The Royal Dictionary in Two Parts,

First French and English, Secondly English and French, Thomas Nugent's

A New Pocket Dictionary of the French and English Language, and Louis

Chambaud's Nouveau dictionnaire Frangois-Anglois et Anglois-Franqois.

Yet they all differed in form and content one from the other.

In the present chapter we will observe: that Guy Miege has the distinction of being the first lexicographer to compile a bidirectional dictionary, but that he also is guilty of a pervasive grammatical prescriptivism; that Boyer appears to be an overly severe critic of the works of his predecessors; that Nugent's innovative work was significant because it underlined the importance of the quick, easy- reference portable dictionary, and that its impact as a serious, scholarly work was minimal; and lastly that Chambaud's work was questionable as to its content, and reflected an occasional confused knowledge of the English language. Guy Miege

Guy Miege \?as born in 1644 and spent the greater portion of his youth in Lausanne, Switzerland. After his arrival in London in 1661 he was first employed by the Earl of Elgin. Two years later we find him working under Charles Howard, Earl of Carlyle, then Ambassador to

Russia, Sweden and Denmark. In this employment Miege was able to travel extensively, and wrote critical reports of the countries he visited, geographical descriptions, and political exposes. In this service, and with his employer's permission Miege anonymously published his first work, The Relation of the Three Embassies in 1669. The

French edition, published in Rouen in 1670 was immediately followed by a Dutch (Amsterdam) 1672, 1700, and a German edition, Frankfurt and

Leipzig, 1701. A much later edition based on the 1700 Dutch work with a preface by Prince Galitzen, appeared in Paris in 1857. ^

Between 1669 and 1691 Miege published a total of 15 works, not counting re-editions of both a linguistic and non-linguistic nature.

Following his 1677 London edition of A New Dictionary he published in

1678 A New French Grammar, and in 1679 A Dictionary of Barbarous French.

Turning to geography and political science in 1682, he added A New

Cosmography, L 'Etat present de 1*Europe, and in 1683, The Present State of Denmark, to his list. Miege's A Short Dictionary, English and French of London 1684 had several re-editions, the Third Edition, London 1690;

77 "Guy Miege," DNB, XIII, 367-368. UJ

the Hague 1691; Fifth Edition, London 1701 and 1703; and Rotterdam,

1728.7® His Nouvelle Methode, London, 1685 was reissued as Grammaire

Anglaise-Franqaise under Boyer in Paris 1767. The Nouvelle Nomencla- ture originally published with the Nouvelle Methode was reissued as the

Great French Dictionary, London, Part 1, in 1688, whereas the Grounds of the French Tongue which Miege first published in 1687, formed

Part II. His last grammatical work, the English Grammar, second edition, London, 1691, appeared in the same year as two other works, one of which was highly controversial: A Complete History of the Late

Revolution, appearing under anonymous authorship, was attributed to

M i e g e . 79 But his New State of England, a geographical and political atlas, brought him severe criticism, as the work bore strong resemblance to Chamberlayn's yearbook Angliae Notitia in both form and content.

Miege defended himself against Chamberlayne's son's accusations of plagiarism in a pamphlet Utrum Horum? and claimed priority of publica­ tion. Miege1s last work, Miscellanea, London 1694 was reissued in 80 1697 under the title Delight and Pastime.

78-rk-;Ibid.

79Ibid.

80Ibid. Miege, Guy. A New Dictionary, French and English with another English and French. London: Thomas Basset, 1677 12953.ddl (LBM)

A first edition of this dictionary is available at:

The Library of the British Museum, London, England 12953.dd 1 (LBM)

Miege's dictionary has the distinction of being the first bidir­ ectional bilingual French-English dictionary. The entire work measures

24.9 x 18.8 x 7.1 cm. and is covered in brown morocco. The paper is of medium weight and coarse. There are 860 pages to Part 1, the

French-English section. Part II the English-French section is somewhat smaller, counting only 452 pages, and there is no pagination in either section. In the British Museum edition there are no blank pages before the title page. Page 1 recto, the title page reads as follows: "A NEW/ DICTIONARY/ FRENCH and ENGLI/H;/ With Another

ENGLIjH and FRENCH;/ According to the/ Pre/ent USE, and Modern

ORTHOGRAPHY/ of the FRENCH./ INRICH'D/ With New Words, Choice Phrases, and/ Appojlte Proverbs;/ DIGESTED/ Into a mo/t Accurate Method;/ And

CONTRIVED/ For the Use both of Englijh and Foreiners./ By Guy Mifege,

Gent./ LONDON,/ Printed by Tho. Dawks 3 for Thomas B afjet3 at the

G eorge; near C l i f f o r d s - Inn,in Fleet treet. 1677./ "Verso of the

title page bears the stamp of the British Museum. A dedication to

Prince Charles Lenos appears on Page 2 both recto and verso:

Au Tres Illu/tre PRINCE CHARLES LENOS, Due de RICHEMONT, Comte de MARSH, Baron de SHEDRINGTON.

• Monseigneur,

Je prens la liberte de Vous pre/enter cet Ou- vrage, qui est un Racourci de deux Langues Vulgaires, le Fr angois & l'Anglois. J'ai cru que je ne pouvois pas dedier plus a propos un Ouvrage de cette nature qu'a Vous, MONSEI­ GNEUR, qui etes un Abbrege de tout ce qu'il y a de parfait en votre age & dans la France & dans l'Angle- terre. Hercule etoit Hercule dans le berceau, & les grandes Ames ont dans l'enfance memes je ne ai quel brillant, qui ravit d'abord le monde en admiration, C 'e f t cela memes, MONSEIGNEUR, que l’on remar- que deja dans votre Per/onne. La Nature Vous a don- ne outre les graces du Corps un E/prit ravi//ant & capa­ ble de grandes cho/es, la Fortune Vous comble de Biens pour en venir a bout plus facilement, & la Renommee cette glorieu/e Me/Jagere des Herosj 1impatiente de por­ ter le bruit de vos Vertus par tous les coins de la Terre. Ain/i, MONSEIGNEUR, je lai//e a pen/er quelle prej/’e il y aura a Vous rendre fe s re/pects, & quelle gloi- re a captiver votre bienveuillance. Pour moi, qui n'ai point de plus grande ambition que celle la, je Vous offre des a pre/ent avec un profond re/pect tout ce dont je ^uis capable. Et, parmi tant de Competiteurs qui travaille- ront a gagner vos bonnes graces, aiez la bonte de vous /ouvenir, MONSEIGNEUR,

De votre tres humble & tres obeijjant Serviteur,

GUY MIEGE"

Page 3 recto and verso and Page 4 recto contain the preface in which Miege gives his reasons for publishing the work, discusses prior

dictionaries, in particular the Cotgrave dictionary, and gives an

explanation of his "Method"-including all principal parts of a word

together under the main entry word. He begins by stating that the

French language was saved from decaying further by the efforts of

Cardinal Richelieu whose Academy was established to "correct and improve

it," so that now it is the "darling language of Europe," and the

universal language in EuropeJ"but especially amongft the Gentile part

of it." The English, he feels, not only recognise the worth of the French language on its own merit, but also that English "is so much made up of the French" that Englishmen can well become more proficient

in their own language by studying it. He accuses Cotgrave of not bringing the French in his dictionary up to "our pre/ent Age" and that

even in the latest edition updating was not successful as evidenced by

the numerous obsolete words and phrases. He feels that Cotgrave's dictionary is valuable as an aid in the study of old texts, but not

for reading new books or for "Jpeaking the Court French".

In his preface Miege claims to have arranged his dictionary based

on usage and orthography of his day. He discriminates between types

of words-Common everyday spoken words, high or choice words-those used by scholars and educated people, and Terms of Art-words common to a particular "Art". Miege claims not to have omitted any English or

French words in the first group and has included as many terms of Art

that "reason" allows, but he did make it a point to include a great many law words. He has omitted obsolete words which he describes as

the "rubbish of any language," and accuses Cotgrave of including all

the rubbish of the French tongue. Words which he classifies as semi-

obsolete and neologisms are included in his work, but are indicated

with an asterisk.

Miege makes it a point of noting that he has chosen to give

examples of entries in sentence contexts, or in proverbs, as did

Cotgrave. And as an extra aid he arranges the entries according to

primitives or main words indicated in capital letters, and all the

derivatives of the main word in smaller letters under the primitive.

But he also takes care to include the derivatives under their normal alphabetical order.

Father Pomey’s Dictionary Royall French and Latin Miege admits, is the basis for his French section, but then he tells us that he has not plagiarized, and takes umbrage at Pomey’s value judgements concern­ ing the Protestants:

But, as it is ujuall in Things improvable of this kind, I have altered, added, and retrenched a great deal. And, as I differ from him bejides in my Method, /o I was resolved not to imitate him (as one might) by way of revenge in that ungentile Character he gives to Prote/tants, under the words Calvini/te, Huguenot, &c. For, be/ides that a Dictionary is a most improper book to make Declamations in, I thought it very unworthy of Christians to be ever barking at one another. But F. Pomey, though otherwi/e a man of good parts, is of another temper; and cannot f o much as name a Calvini/t, or a Huguenot, but he must pre ently fly out, cold at him, and call by the name of Hereticus, Impius, Sacri- legus, as if either Wit or good Manners could find no better Latin to de cribe a Protestant."

Page 4 verso contains the words "Imprimatur Mart. 12 167^

GULIEL. WIGAN" and is the first of the first edition dictionaries

to bear this mark. Page 5 recto begins the text of the dictionary.

Entries in both parts are alphabetically arranged in columns of

three, each headed by guide letters, eg. AB, AC etc. A border appears

on all four sides and a line separates the columns. Of the letters of

the alphabet, K, U, W and X are lacking. Following the lexicographical

tradition of the past, I and J are treated together rather than

separately, as for example INUTILEMENT is followed by JOIAU, JOYE and

IRE. U entries are likewise under V, but graphic differentiation

is made between each. U and V are included together even in the

second letter position: AVOUER is followed by AUPRES. The use of

instead of S is continued. Miege apparently took great pains to 70

carefully alphabetize, as the alphabetization is beyond the first four letters. However, his alphabetization of expressions after each entry is somewhat confused, as for example, Etre dans appears before

Etre content. Nor did Miege include any phonetic or orthographic explanation for each letter. There are approximately ten entries per page. Each entry appears in upper case lettering, nouns without article. Rather than using either definite or indefinite articles.

Miege chose to make use of (f.)or (m.) immediately after the noun,

Occasionally the first letter of a noun which is part of a definition or explanation is capitalized, as are the first letters of the days of the week and the months of the year. Primitives, or what Miege explains as derivatives of each main entry are included in lower case, while English definitions or explanations are in Italics:

Next to the Proverbs, I am to give an account of my Method, whereby Deriva­ tives are reduced to their Primitives. So that the Primitive go's as a Lead­ ing Word in Capitals, and its Deriva­ tives that come after in Jmaller cha­ racters .. By which means one hath a curious and diftinct Pro/pect of every Primitive, with all its off-/pring to­ gether. Which is certainly a great Conveniency, and must needs be a Singular Help to the Learner, who finding by this means the Etymology of Words lying all along before him. will ea ily ma ter the Language.

(Notice the use of capitalized nouns)

This grouping of words which constituted Miege's "Methode" led to some curiosity of arrangement. Mourir for example is listed under

MORT, but cross-references do not always appear, as Miege states in his preface. He was hard put to follow his system of placing nouns 71

first and verbs as derivatives afterwards, as Baignoir and Bain appear under BAIGNER and not vice-versa. He fails also in some instances where he gives no definition or equivalent at all, but refers the reader to a cross-reference: "Bailler. V. Donner". Moreover his treatment of principal parts is not consistent:

Etant. V. Etre Ete (from the Verb Etre) V_. Etre ETRE, exister, avoir existence, to be Etre dans l'erreur, to be in an errour... Etant (the Participle) being Cela etant ainji, the thing being o_ whereas Avoir is not so thoroughly treated:

AVOIR, to have Avoir beaucoup d'e/prit & peu de jugement, to have mueh w it and little judgement ...

The fact that Miege included a total of 35 examples under Etre and only eight under Avoir indicates that his treatment of irregular verbs was not consistently thorough. Inclusion of regular verbs is limited to infinitives and past participles:

ABBREGER, racourcir une choj^e, to shorten3 abridge3 abstract3 abbreviate3 epitomise3 curtail or cut short... Abbrege, raccourci, shortened3 abridged...

It is interesting to note that Miege, in addition to giving an English equivalent or definition for a French entry, occasionally furnishes some French synonyms, as in ABBREGER previously cited, and in the following:

ABHORRER, dete/ter ABDIQUER (en terme de droit), rejetter son fils BAGUE (f.) anneau etc.

In his effort to stress usage and the spoken language of his time,

Miege, of necessity, had to resort to particularizing words, which greatly expanded his work to.cover more than one narrow denotative mean­ ing:

MOURIR... Mourir (de faim), d’amour BANDE... Bande de fer, ou d ’autre metal... Bande de fer, autour d ’une roue Bande de gens de guerre... CAISSE... Caisse de Marc'nand ou Banquier... Caisse de tambour... BAAILLER, to gape , to yaw n. Baaillant; a s 3 Faire queque cho/e en baailant, cd. avec negligence, to do a thing Jlo th fu lly j negligently

Miege1s English-French section follows essentially the same' format

as the French-English. As in Part 1, Part II has no pagination and U

and V entries appear together, but with distinct graphic differentia­

tion between them. To UNYOAK therefore is followed by A VOCABULARY,

continuing through A VOYAGE, which in turn is followed by UP. But whereas Miege places approximately ten entries per page in Part 1, he

includes double that amount in Part II.

Miege’s inconsistent usage of initial capital letters on nouns

within the body of a definition, again without system, is continued

throughout Part II, and is probably a reflection of the orthographical

vacillation during this period of English. He will occasionally

capitalize a noun, as he does under Tio ACCEPT : "Some Books find

more acceptance than others.11 under ABSOLUTE: "He is an absolute

Knave." under CAPE: "CAPE, or a rising land hooting forth into the

Sea, un C a p " . Yet under ABOUT we find "Better to go about than fall

into the ditch." and under CAPABLE: "That man’s genius is capable of

anything." and again under BUSIE: "Who more bufie than they that

have leaj t to do." 73

Extending his "Methode" to Part II, Miege places in upper case form those lexical elements he considers to be the main or primitive entries, and employs the lower case forms, but with an initial capital letter, for those entries he considers to be derivatives, or those forms dependent on the main or primitive entry, as, for example:

TO CANCEL, canoeler3 oroifer une ecriture. Cancelled, o a n o e le , o r o if e . A Canceller, qui oanoelle , qui oroife une &oritwre. A Cancelling, or cancellation, I ’action de oanoeter une e o r it u r e .

But again Miege cannot decide which element is to be considered the primitive. For T

ACCENT is listed as primitive, the verb derivative. Just what criteria he uses for this order, is not made clear, as his previously cited preface indicates.

Miege's contribution to dictionary development, a two part bilingual, bidirectional English-French dictionary, is by no means his least. What Miege thought innovative, his "Methode" of showing principal parts of verbs and lexical families under a main entry, was not really so new, for we have seen that Hollyband did likewise, although certainly not as thoroughly.

Miege was clearly attempting to compile a lexicon that would appeal to the public at large. He therefore was required to decide which entries satisfied his notions of prescriptivism. What was finally accepted as an entry was the result of careful discrimination, and was clearly exemplified in sentence contexts.

The popularity of Miege’s dictionary is reflected in a substan­ tial number of re-editions in 1679, 1684, 1688, 1690, and 1700. On the other hand, as Miege had virtually no competition, the number of re-editions may simply have reflected a growing public need. Miege encountered no opposition for nearly twenty years. However Abel

Boyer seriously criticized Miege in the preface to his dictionary of

1699, thus insuring himself of an appreciative audience. The Miege work was never able to match the numerous re-editions of the rival Boyer afterwards. Abel Boyer

Abel Boyer was a French historian and lexicographer born in

Castres, France in 1664. Forced to leave the country because of the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, he sought refuge in Geneva, and, finally, in 1689, arrived in England, where he remained until his death in 1729. This is about the extent of our knowledge of his personal life.8^

In addition to his Dictionnaire anglais-franQais francais-anglais of 1699, which we shall discuss later, Boyer wrote several works which achieved almost as much popularity as his Dictionnaire, and, as in the case of Miege, in several divergent areas. His Grammaire franqaise et anglaise enjoyed numerous reprints-notably in 1700 and 1745. It was re-edited and enlarged in 1756 by Matthew Flint. The Biographie

Universelle Ancienne et Moderne suggests it may have been written by

Paul Boyer whose relation to Abel is not clear. The Nouvelle

Biographie Universelle, on the other hand, attributes the authorship

to Abel Boyer. ^

A History of William the Conqueror, printed in London in 1702 is definitely attributed to Abel, although he was erroneously thought to 83 have written a History of William III which appeared in 1703.

®^"Abel Boyer," Biographie Universelle Ancienne et Moderne, 1854, V, 577.

82Ibid.

83 Ibid. Turning again to language, Boyer followed the History with the

Compagnon anglais-francais ou Recueil de sentences. pensees, bons mots

OA en anglais et en franqais in 1701.

Three more works of a historical nature point to Boyer’s versa­ tility. Between the years 1710-1729 he successfully published a periodical L ’Etat politique. He added to this the Annals of Queen

Anne, which appeared in eleven volumes, and which served as the basis Q c for his History of the Reign of Queen Anne in 1722.

The popularity of translations of works of French literature as well as their lucrativeness resulted in Boyer's collaboration with

Littlebury in 1725 to produce his contribution to translated literature- An English translation of Telemaque et les Aventures 86 dfAristonous. Boyer, Abel. The Royal Dictionary. In Two Parts. First, French and English. Secondly, English and French. London: R. Clavel,1699.

A first edition of this dictionary is available at:

The Library of the British Museum, London, England 827.ee 1. The American Antiquarian Society, Worcester, Massachusetts

This bilingual, bidirectional one volume work, bound in brown morocco, measures 25.4 x 21.6 x 8.3 cm. Page one recto bears the title page which reads as follows: "THE ROYAL/ DICTIONARY./ In Two

Parts.u FIRST,/ FRENCH and ENGLISH./ SECONDLY,/ ENGLISH and FRENCH./

The FRENCH taken out of the Dictionaries of E ic h e le t ,/ F u r e tie r e ^

Tachart3 The Great D ictionary o f the French-Academy ,and/ the Remarks of Vaugelas3 Menage3 and B o u h o u rs ./ AND The ENGLISH Collected chiefly out of the Be ft D ictionaries3 and the/ Works of the Greatejt Mafters o f th e ENGLISH Tongue; Juch as/ Archbijhop Tilloton,B ijh o p Sprat,

S i r Roger L'E/trange, Mr. Dryden,/ S i r William Temple, etc./ For the

U/e of His Highnejs the Duke of GLOCESTER./ by Mr. Boyer./ M u lta re n a centur quae jam cecidere3 cadentque/ Quae nunc funt in honore vocabula3 ji volet Ufus3/ Quem penes Arbitrium e jt3 & Jus3 & Norma loquendi./

Hor. Art. Poet./ LONDON,/ Printed for R. Clavel, H. Mortlock, S.

Lowndes, J. Robinjon, D. Brown, W. Henjman,/ S. Crouch, E. Evets,

J. Laurence, R. Sare, A. Churchill, S. Smith, L. Meredith,/ J. Taylor,

F. Saunders, T. Bennet, J. Knapton, J. Wyat, E. Cajtle, D. Midwinter.

1699/" The edition used for this study is that of the American

Antiquarian Society. Page 1 verso is blank, 2 and 3 recto and verso contain the dedication. It is interesting to observe that although

Boyer was a former French citizen, his dedication leaves a somewhat I u

anti-French and patriotic English note. This is not surprizing in view of the reason for his immigration.

To His Illu trious HIGHNESS WILLIAM Duke ofGLOCESTER May it plea[e Your HIGHNESS,

No J’tudy can be more u[e ful to Thoje, whom God has ordain'd for COMMAND than that of LANGUAGES: And therefore I hope Your HIGHNESS will favourably accept of this Work, which comprehends what feems mo^t Necejjary for an English PRINCE. The Fir|t Part of this Dictionary is a Collection of all the Words that make up the FRENCH Tongue: A Language which of late has obtain'd Jo far, as to become Universal, not only in all Courts of Eu­ rope, but alfo in the Armies, and a- mongjt Men of Bujinejs. The Second pre­ sents Your HIGHNESS with a full View of the ENGLISH Tongue: A Speech which would easily prevail over all modern Languages, if its Richness, Delicacies and Exprefjivenejs, together with the Glory and Sway of the Nation that $peaks it, were Sufficient to Spread it abroad. I confejs, the FRENCH jeem to afcribe the Extenjivenejs of their Language, not only to its Beauties, but principally to the Fame of their King and the Grandeur of their Monarchy; but if that were the true Cauje, the Englijh Tongue might with more Reason expect to become General, {ince the Monarch that now fills the Englijh Throne Is eminent over all the Princes of the Uni­ verse; and that at this Time no Nation makes a greater Figure, nor is more fam'd for Martial Valour, Learning or Trade than the Englijh. But, SIR, 'tis often the Caprice of Uje and Fajhion that influences Languages, and their Fate is independent upon that of the People who Jpeak them: Thus, in former times, tho' Greece was Jubdued by the Romans, yet the Greek Tongue remain'd uriconquer'd, and was no le/s favour'd and e/teem'd in Rome than in Athens: And thus, in our Days, altho' France be /hrunk in her Power, yet her Language is / till admir'd and in Vogue. Now /ince this Book contains all the Terras that Oratory can require to frame a Panegyrick, the World may, perhaps, expect to /ee upon Your ILLUSTRIOUS HIGHNESS prefix'd to it: But I Jhall decline Jo hard a Tajk, both from a Sen/e of my Incapacity, and becau/e Your Vir­ tues being /till upon the Growth, if I fhould be Jo bold as to attempt Your Picture, a few Years would Jink it below the Original Yet thus much I will venture to Jay, that Your Rijing Sun is Jo Glorious, that ENGLAND may well expect to be che­ rish'd and animated by a powerful in­ fluence when it arrives to its Meridian; And that Your HIGHNESS is like to be the Paramount HEROE of the next Age, as Your ROYAL UNCLE is of this. May Your Highnejs ill Copy all Military, Political and Moral Virtues from Jo Noble a Pattern, and be the Dear Comfort of Your ROYAL PARENTS, and the Hopes of theje three Nations, while, at an awful Di- Jtance, I remain,

Illujtrious SIR,

Your HIGHNESS's

Mojt Humble, mojt Faithful, and

mojt Obedient Servant,

ABEL BOYER

The preface appearing on pages 4-6 recto and verso gives us a good idea of Boyer's impressions of previous works and in particular, his thoughts on lexicography. The author has an opportunity to justify his work in the preface, says Boyer, and to show just how his efforts stand apart from what previously has been written. He apparently held the critics in high esteem, if not feared them, as they had the power "to reverse the fatal decree.”

Boyer felt that although the usefulness of the dictionary was well established, yet there were several published in England which were defective and which cast doubt on their usefulness. He cites

in particular the dictionaries of Cotgrave and Miege. He gives credit where it is due, however, by complementing Cotgrave ”for being the

firjt that undertook Jo great a Work” and by noting that Miege

"rais’d his Works to a far greater Perfection than Cotgrave." Yet

he aims his remarks throughout the preface at Miege*s Great Dictionary

and rationalizes that the faults he has noted are observable by any

man. He takes Miege to task, for example, for being too concise in

some glosses, and too free in other places. To substantiate this he

notes Miege's long explanations of law terms, and the inclusion of

historical passages. On the other hand he accuses Miege of superficial

interpretation of English words "derived from the Latin". Secondly,

Boyer states that Miege does not really explain all of his glosses,

but that he merely gives a string of synonyms, with no indication of

shades of difference between them. To reinforce his statement Boyer

offers us an example of one of Miege's glosses and compares it to his

own:

Miege: To Move. M o u v o ir , retnuer; propofer3 mettre fu r le tapis 3 fa irs I'ouver- ture de; Jo llio ite r3 inciter3 porter3 exhorter3 toucher3 emouvoir3 Je mouvoir: fe remuer3 J'ebranler.

Boyer: To MOVE, Verb. Act. (to tir) Mouvoir3 Remuer. To Move, ( or Jhake, in a proper 81

or figurative Jenfe) M ouvoir* branler, ebranler, remuer, agiter. To Hove, ( to |tir Up, to egg on, to Jollicite or per/uade.) M ouvoir*, emouvoir, exciter*, inciter*, animer*, poujfer, porter*, exhorter, fo llic ite r. To Move, (to affect or touch) E m o u v o ir, Toucher, A ttendrir To Move, (to provoke) to anger. F a ir e mettre en colere, facher, irrite r, p ro v o q u e r. To Move, (or caufe) Laughter. Faire rire. To Move (to propo/e, to speak for) a thing, Propofer une chofe en faire la Proposition, ou I'ouverture, la mettre fur le tapis, la mettre en avant. To Move, Verb. Neut. (to ftir, or be in motion.) Se mouvoir, fe remuer, fa ire une mouvement, etre en mouve- ment, bouger, branler, <5 c.

Boyer notes that Miege includes phrases from Holy Scripture throughout his work. This, he feels, is a mistake, and that rather examples should be taken from "Histories, Novels, News-books and

ObJ’ervators." Interestingly, Boyer favors oral usage, and underlines the usage of plays as a vocabulary source. Through them Boyer was able to include nearly three thousand entries which were lacking in

Miege's work.

According to Boyer, Miege neglected to give a gloss for at least

500 entries in both parts of his dictionary, in many cases gave a false gloss, or merely a synonym without a description, or vice versa.

Lastly Boyer notes that Miege gave no indication of what expressions were "proper or figurative", what was "vulgar" and what "proverbial".

Although Miege's folio dictionary was his masterpiece, by his own admission, Boyer claims that basic indications of parts of speech, voice of verb and gender distinctions, were lacking. The criticism may be valid for Miege's Great Dictionary, although we have seen that Miege did distinguish gender in his New Dictionary of 1677.

Turning to his sources, Boyer weighs the merits of two important works-Furetiere's Dictionnaire and that of the Academie frangaise.

The former, he claims, is inaccurate in distinguishing the "good” from the "bad" expressions, while the latter is superior as to linguistic standards. Boyer is not completely satisfied with the Dictionnaire de l1Academie frangaise, however, preferring to follow alphabetized form rather than including words under "radical Primitives" or families.

Here he undoubtedly is referring to the Dictionnaire de 1*Academie frangaise of 1694, which was subsequently revised and placed in alphabetical order after Boyer's publication.

None of the English dictionaries already in print seem to have impressed Boyer, and he is dismayed that nothing equivalent to the

Dictionnaire of the Academie had been published. The dictionaries of

Cooper, Littleton, Cole, Skinner and Blount he calls "attempts" and

"Lame and imperfect pieces, much below the dignity of the Subject."

Boyer shows some honesty by admitting that his work could not have been done without the "advice of several ingenious and Learned

English Gentlemen, to direct him (Boyer) in his Undertaking." Since,

he says, no man can be completely bilingual. Whether these English

gentlemen he refers to are simply friends and/or collaborators, or

the authors he mentions in his title page, is uncertain. He mentions

the name of one friend, however:

I thankfully re/ign part of the honour to my Worthy and ingenious Friend Mr. Savage, who with no jma.1.1 pains, has increased my Collections with above a thousand Words of his own Gathering. A post script at the end of the last page of the preface announces the forthcoming Second Edition of the Compleat French Majter.

Page 7 recto contains a comprehensive list of marks and abbrevia­

tions to be used throughout the text, arranged in two columns, English and French. Boyer takes pains to indicate a separate sign for obsolete words or expressions, vulgarisms, alternate and figurative meanings,

"mean” words used in a figurative sense, proverbs, remarks, see elsewhere, substantive, masculine and feminine genders, adjectives,

infinitives, active, neuter and reciprocal verbs, adverbs, prepositions,

interjections and example. No previous bilingual dictionary in our study has had such a complete list of aids to the reader. Page 7 verso notes additions and corrections for each part. Part I contains approximately 322 pages recto and verso. The order of the work is

alphabetical, arranged in columns of three, each headed by three guide

letters, eg. BAI/ BAL/ BAL/ etc. Each entry is in upper case as is

the first letter of the gloss. All the letters of the alphabet are

present with the exception of W, and I and J, as well as U and V

entries are included together.

Inconsistencies in the use of accents occur throughout the work.

A completely incorrect accent may be seen, or even none at all, as in

Siege, s'epanouir, c*etoit, but repeter. Interesting to note, too,

is the loss of S in the orthography of Etre and Etrange, and the more

consistent usage of the circumflex accent:

On ne Jauroit lui oter cela de la tete, ou de l'ejprit. One can't beat it out o f his Head.

Faithfull to his statement in the preface, Boyer attempts in Part I to furnish us with both synonyms and full descriptions in his glosses:

Mufeau, S.M. (des chiens & de quelques autres animaux) Muzzle, Snout Poyj'ible. Adj. (qui peut etre ou qui peut fe faire)

To fully give all shakes of meaning, literal and figurative, he makes widespread use of particularizing words:

Eteindre (etancher) la Joif, to quench the t h i r s t . Epuijer (laj’j'er) la patience de quel qu’un to wear or tire out one's Patience.

Although he does not furnish the complete paradigm of regular or

irregular verbs, he does include present and past participles as

adjectives in their respective alphabetical order within the text.

This treatment is contrary to Miege, and a good deal more orderly.

Normally Boyer employs infinitive constructions in his glosses, but will actually show a conjugated verb within a sentence or phrase if

the verb is unusual or irregular. In the case of Etonner, for example

we see "Etonner (Ebranler) le Cerveau to Jtun the Brains." Yet for

Etre we see " II n'ejt pas en Vous (ou en votre pouvoir) de le faire,

it is not, or it lies not in your power to do it. "

Boyer shows much care in the matter of gender, but indicates it

with the abbreviation S.M. or S.F. The article appears with the

substantive in the descriptive sentence or phrase of the gloss:

"Balance, S.F. ...Emporter la balance, to carry it, to outweigh."

Of all lexicographers studied prior to Boyer, only Cotgrave added

phonetic descriptions to his work. But unlike Cotgrave, Boyer

included these descriptions within the body of his dictionary, rather

than in an appendix. Since we know that Boyer favored oral usage as a criteria for inclusion of an entry in his dictionary, it is not surprizing that he differed from Miege on this point. And whereas

Cotgrave gave a grammatical description for A, a musical description for IJ, and under JC a mention that Ca is pronounced "SA" (the extent of his description for A in both his English-French and French-

English parts. No phonetic description of any of the first three

letters of the alphabet is given by Miege in either of the two parts of his dictionary. Boyer, on the other hand went to great lengths to give both phonetic and exhaustive grammatical descriptions:

A The fir t Letter of the Alphabet in a ll languages 3 and f ir ft o f the five V o x e ls . A in French sounds like a in English, in thefe Words. T all3 War Ex. Cadavre, a C o rp s3 Attaquer, to A tta c k .

Exceptions. 1. When A goes before an i marked w ith two T ittle s3 or before an y th e n i t sounds like the Englifh A in the Words Make3 Plate. Ex. Pais, c o u n tr y ; Playe, Plague3 Wound. 2. A is mute (or not pronounced) in thefe Words3 Saone, the name o f a River; Saoul, fatisfied3 fudled; Aout, A u g u ft; and in the fecond Syllable of Extraordinaire, Extraordinary3 which are pronounced Sone, Sou, Souler (?), Out, Extrordinaire...

B S.M. The Second Letter of the Alphabet i s fo u n d e d b£ in French...

C S.M. is the Third Letter o f the French A lp h a b e t. This Confonant has Two d iffe re n t Sounds. I. it founds like a K before the Vowels A, 0, U. II. It founds like an S before the Vowels E, I, and before the other Three when it has a Cerilla under it; thus3 g This Cerilla is c a lle d Cedille by the French3 and g a queue by their P rinters... A EST la 'premiere le ttre de I'Alphabet chez tous les Peuples3 & la premiere des cinq Voyelles; Elle fa it un fon de- Jagreable ji elle Je reaontre Jouvent dans une meme P S rio d e 3 comme le rem arque C ia e ro n . A Se prononce diverfement en Anglois. Tantot il Je prononce comme la Dipthongue ai, ou comme notre e ouvert. Ex. To Cultivate; c u l t i v e r , Date, d a te 3 E t t a n t d t comme n o tr e a. F ra n q o is . Ex War G u e rre ; Tall,hauts Grand. R. On pourroit donner des Regies fur la Prononciation de cette Voyelle3 mais elles font JuJettes a tant d ’Exceptions que le plus Court ejt de les apprendre par ujage...

B E ft la Seconde Lettre de I ’Alphabet Anglois; En la nommant en (sic) la p ro n o n c e Bi, & c'est en cela Jeulement qu’elle differe de notre B Franqois... C Subjt3 E ft la Troifieme Lettre de I'Alphabet3 Les Anglois la prononcent cilo r s q u ’ e l l e e f t J e u le comme3 dans I'Alphabet3 mais dans les mots elle a le meme Jon qu’en Franqois3 exceptez le 5 avec une Cedille3 qui e jt particuliere a notre Langue & qui eJt inconnu en A n g lo is . R. To indict, avec Jes derivatifs3 in­ dicted, or indictment, Se prononcent comme q u e lq u e s uns le s e c r iv e n t 3 a v o ir 3 To indite, indited, inditement, En f a is a n t Jonner I ’i de la feconde Syllable ai.

Under A Boyer notes that a similarity exists betweenFrench ji and English a^ in Tall and War. This would be correct for the end of the seventeenth century at least in the case of Tall.

The English-French section of Boyer's dictionary is somewhat longer than the French-English. There are a total of 372 pages recto and verso of text excluding the preliminary pages, but the format is essentially the same.

The preface to Part II is a French translation of that of Part I. In lieu of the adjective Fine and the verb To Move which Boyer used as a comparison of glosses with those of Miege, here he employs

Note and Nourrir to accomplish the same end.

Boyer continues his procedure of including equivalents or complete definitions for his entries. In this regard he may have been somewhat harsh in his earlier criticism in the preface- that

Miege did not include full definitions for all his glosses, as Boyer himself occasionally included simply a one word translation, out of necessity as: "Asparagus or Sparagrass. Subst.A s p e rg e s

The major dissimilarity between Part I and II appears to be in the treatment of verbs. Regular verb entries are given in their infinitive forms, while paradigms for the irregular verb T

I am, j e s u is ; Thou art, t u e s ; He is, i t e f t ; We are, nous Jommes; Ye are, Vous e te s ; They are, U s f o n t ; I was, j'e to is 3 ou je fus; I have been, j 'ay e t e ; I had been, j ’avois} ou j ’eus e t e ; I jhall be, je. f e r a i ; That I be, afin que se fo is ;l Jhould be, j e f e r o is , ou je fujfe.

Although he took care to alphabetize beyond the first four

letters, his expressions within a gloss were at times erratic

alphabetically:

IN. In my Mind, in my Opinion, A mon Avis, felon moy,In haste, a la hatejln rejpect to him a fa consi­ deration. LAND. Land-Forces, or Land-men.... Land-captain....Land-flood....Land- Mark....Land-cape....Land-tax.... Land-lope....Land-cheap....Land- teward... Boyer’s dictionary appears to this writer to be the most complete endeavor seen so far in the study of first editions. Needless to say,

Boyer already had some excellent models on which to base his work, but he did make innovations heretofore unseen in the English-French dictionary. It is no small wonder that this dictionary was re-edited throughout all of the eighteenth and well into the nineteenth centuries.

We shall see to what extent the last two dictionaries of impor­ tance to our study of the eighteenth century, those of Nugent and

Chambaud, were innovative and carried out the established tradition of dictionary making. Thomas Nugent, LL.D.

Thomas Nugent, born in Ireland about 1700, spent the major part

of his career in London. So numerous and scholarly were his original works and translations that he was awarded the honorary LL.D. from

Aberdeen University in 1765, and elevated to fellow in the Society of

Antiquities in 1767. He died April 27, 1772 in London.®^

A total of four original works were written by Nugent: The

History of Vandalia: containing the Ancient and Present State of the

Country of Mecklenburg , its Revolutions under the Venedi and the

Saxons, with the Succession and Memorable Actions of its Sovereigns,

London, 1766-73, 3 volumes; A New Pocket Dictionary of the French and

English Languages, London, 1767; Travels through Germany, with a

Particular Account of the Courts of Mecklenburg: in ja Series of

Letters to a Friend, London, 1768, 2 volumes; The Grand Tour, or a

Journey through the Netherlands, Germany, Italy, and France, London,

1778, 3 volumes.

In 1745 he edited a work K&QtyToSOfyfi&foV'Tl'fcoJi) Cebetis Thebani

Tabula, London. But he was chiefly known for his translations from

French, several being: The New System, or Proposals for a General

Peace upon a_ solid and lasting Foundation: with a Prefatory Discourse

by the Translator on the horrid Consequence of the present Wicked and

Unnatural Rebellion, London, 1746; Jean Baptiste Dubos's Critical

07 Thomas Nugent," DNB, XIV, 718.

-,.., 88Ibid. Reflections on Poetry, Painting and Music, London, 1748, 3 volumes;

Burlamaqui's Principles of Natural Law, London, 1748; Burlamaqui's

Principles of Politic Law. London, 1752; Montesquieu’s Spirit of Laws,

London, 1752, 2 volumes; Voltaire's Essay on Universal History: the

Manners and Spirit of Nations from the Reign of Charlemaign to the

Age of Lewis XIV, Dublin, 1759, 4 volumes; Grosley's New Observations on Italy, London, 1769, 2 volumes; Tour to London, or New Observations on England and its Inhabitants, London, 1772, 2 volumes; Benvenuto

Cellini's Autobiography, London, 1771, 2 volumes; Totze's Present

State of Europe, London, 1770, 3 volumes; Isla's History of the Famous

Preacher-Friar, Gerund de Campazas, otherwise Gerund Zotes, London,

1772, 2 volumes. In addition he made several translations of the Port 89 Royal Greek and Latin Grammars which were highly esteemed.

Chalmer's Biographical Dictionary indicates that there was some question as to whether Nugent made a translation of Rousseau's Emile:

His translations were generally admired for elegance and accuracy; his principal was the translation of Rousseau's Emilius, but it seems doubtful whether he translated this, or only permitted his name to be used.90

89 Ibid.

90 Alexander Chalmers, "Nugent, Thomas," The General Biographical Dictionary, XXIII, 270-271. Nugent, Thomas, LL.D. A New Pocket Dictionary o£ the French and English Language. London: Edward and Charles Dilly, 1767.

A first edition of this work is available at:

The Library of the British Museum, London, 1212.b30 The Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris, X29640

This work is a two part one volume bilingual bidirectional dictionary. It measures 12.7 x 13 x 3.3 cm. and is bound in red morocco. The first page is blank, the recto side of the title page which follows reads: "A NEW/ POCKET DICTIONARY/ OF THE/ FRENCH AND

ENGLISH Languages./ In TWO PARTS./ I./ FRENCH/ AND/ ENGLISH./ II/

ENGLISH/ AND/ FRENCH./ CONTAINING/ All WORDS of general U e, and authorized by/ the be,ft WRITERS./ AS ALSO/ Distinguishing thejeveral

Parts of SPEECH, with the Gender/ of Nouns in the F re n c h Language./

To which are added./ The ACCENTS of the English Words, for the Uje of

Foreigners, / and an ALPHABETICAL LIST of the moj11 common ChriJ tian/

Names, with their ujual ABBREVIATIONS./ Carefully compiled from the moj't approved DICTIONARIES, French and E nglijh3/ particularly from

that of the ROYAL ACADEMY at P a r i s . / By THOMAS NUGENT, LL.D./ LONDON;/

Printed for EDWARD and CHARLES DILLY, in the Poultry, MDCCLXVII./"

The edition used for this study is that of the Library of the British

Museum.

Verso of the titJLe page is blank, while a short preface appears

on page 3 recto and verso. Here Nugent explains the purpose of the work and outlines its format. Apparently, according to Nugent, a

portable dictionary, as he called it, had been much in demand:

The JmallneJs of the Jize renders it aljo of eajy purchase, and proper on that account in Schools, where DICTIONARIES of large bulk and expence are become a burden.

Nugent claims that his dictionary has as many words as some of the larger versions, but that there are no sentences and phrases listed for the entries in order to limit the size of the work. "Bejides," he rationalizes, "idioraatical exprejjions are to be acquired by the constant u^e of the purejt and mojt elegant Authors." Nor are the

French participles included, he claims, since he assumes that those who are using his dictionary are already well acquainted with French grammar and are able to form the participles on their own. Yet he includes an abbreviation for participles later on in his text. The work is based purely on word for word equivalents and no broad definitions are used. Nugent mentions that his French words "are carefully accented according to the rules of the Grammarians;" and that in the English section he has placed accents over the English words to assist foreigners to pronounce correctly.

His volume, he continues, is based on the "Best Dictionaries" including that of the Royal Academy which he claims to be the standard of the French language. However he has used his discretion to include words which were "not adopted by that learned body where the particular energy or force of exprejjion, Jeemed to jujtify their uje."

Nugent ends his preface with an appeal to the reader to excuse his errors.

The French-English text immediately follows. There are 244 pages in Part I and 236 pages in Part II, all unpaginated. Added at

the end of Part II is a listing of Christian first names of men and women, and a listing of books published by the Dilly Company. On the

$ first page of text Nugent furnishes the equivalents to the abbrevia­ tions to be used throughout the text.

The entries are arranged alphabetically in columns of three, each headed by guide letters, eg. AU/ AU/ BA/ There are approxi­ mately 75 entries per page in Part I, 85 per page in Part II. All the letters of the alphabet are represented in Part I with the exception of W and X. Likewise, X entries are lacking in Part II; U and V and

I and J entries are included together in both parts. The first letter of each entry is capitalized, a grammatical identification is placed immediately after the entry, and an equivalent follows:

Abaijyer, v.a. abafemant, Abandonnement, f .m. abandoning, profligacy. AbeJJe, f.f. abbefs. Cabler, v.n. to tw ift threads into a cord. S'abonner, v.r. to bargain. D'accord, ad. agreed. Aupres, prep. near.

Although the glosses are limited to equivalents, he occasionally makes use of particularizing words. Rather than listing these entries under the verb, Nugent includes them under their particularizing word:

Mettre baj, v.n. to bring forth. Faire la cabriole, to be hanged. Mettre en cage, to impriJoni Frauder la calabajje, to c h e a t.

Part II has basically the same arrangement as Part I. The order of grammatical information within the gloss, however, is somewhat different:

Addre/s, v.a. addreffer. Addrejs, J'. addrejf e, f . Adventurer, /• a v a n t u r ie r 3 m. e u j e j. Bat, J. croff e3 f. okauve fouris, m. Bawdy, a. obfoene. Cackle, V.n. gloujfer.

Nugent's work is valuable to our study because, although not as complete as the preceding and succeeding dictionaries, it was the fore-runner of similar works now still, in use. And the criticism frequently leveled at present day pocket dictionaries, that they are incomplete and sketchy in their glosses, is exactly the criticism one could direct at the Nugent dictionary. He includes, for example, such entries as:

Baguer, /. m. ring-oafe. Bave, J.m. flaver. Calcedine, J. f. Calcedony. Bullace, J. prunelle3 f. Cacophony, J. aaaavhonie3 f. Cart-rut, J. o miev e 3 f.

.yet includes no gloss for more common entries such as J3e baisser. Se

donner and To B_e. Nevertheless the necessity for the existence of

such a dictionary, and its popularity, cannot be denied, as attested

to the over fifty re-editions of the "Nugent dictionary, the last of which was dated 1916.

As a dictionary of a specialized type, the Nugent work was in

no way a threat to the position of the preceding Boyer, so different

were they in range, scope and purpose. Curiously, one work, the

Nouveau Dictionnaire Franqois-Anglois et Anglois-Franqois of Louis

Chambaud did present some keen competition, judging from its preface.

Although certainly acceptable as a serious and thorough work, it did not

appear to capture the dictionary market as Chambaud had anticipated. 95

Louis (Lewis) Chambaud

Little information is available concerning the life of Louis

Chambaud, in spite of the staggering amount of publications attributed to him. Watt’s Bibliotheca Britannica simply tells us that he was

"an author of many ingenious productions both in French and English" who died in 1776. A total of ten works, mostly of a linguistic nature, are credited to Chambaud. Of these, four were published in 1750: The

French Grammar, London, second edition, London, 1794: The Treasure of - the French and English Languages, London; Exercises to the Rules of

Construction of French Speech, London; and Themes Francois etAnglois, 91 or French and English Exercises, London. Three works were added in

1751: Rudiments of the French Tongue, London, fourth edition, London,

1791; Idioms of the French and English Languages, London; Fables choisies a 1'usage des Enfans et des autres personnes qui commenfoit a apprendre la langue francois (sic), London. Chambaud’s only non- linguistic effort, Geography methodized, for the use of young gentlemen and ladies, containing a true account of the World and the present

State of the several Kingdoms and States contained therein, &c. was 92 published in 1754, city of publication unavailable. Two more works appeared in 1761, The Elements of the French Language, and the

^Robert Watt, "Chambaud, Louis," Bibliotheca Britannica, I, 2090.

92 Ibid. 96

Dictionary French and English, London. This latter work was augmented by Jean Perrin in London, 1778. Watt does not indicate an earlier

edition augmented by J.B. Robinet in 1776 and published both in

Amsterdam and Rotterdam. Watt lists this edition as Dictionary

French and English and English and French, which is erroneous. The

edition of 1761 was monodirectional, whereas the Amsterdam and Rotterdam

edition of 1776 was corrected and expanded by Robinet with the addi­

tion of the English-French section. The 1778 London edition, also

bidirectional, was expanded and corrected by Jean Perrin. Bernard

Quemada in Les Dictionnaires du FranQais Moderne 1539-1863, volume I,

only lists the Chambaud 1761 edition.

Chambaud*s works are available in the Readex Microprint Edition

of Early American Imprints, published by the American Antiquarian

Society of Worcester, Massachusetts. 97

Chambaud, Louis. Nouveau Dictionnaire Francois-Anglois et Anglois- Franqois. Amsterdam & Rotterdam: 1776

A first edition of this dictionary is available at:

The Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris X2852-2853 Yale University Library, New Haven, Conn. WE 2829

Due to the unavailability of the 1761 edition, the 1776 edition

at the Bibliotheque Nationale was used for this study. Volume One,

the French-English section of this two volume set pleasures 27 x 22.2 x

4.3 cm. The spine reads: DICTIONNA/ DE/ ROBINET/ TOM 1/ and bears

the stamp of the Bibliotheque Royale, signifying an early acquisition.

Both volumes are bound in red morocco.

The first page recto and verso is blank. Page 3, the title page,

reads as follows: "NOUVEAU/ DICTIONNAIRE/ FRANCOIS-ANGLOIS,/ et

ANGLOIS-FRANQOIS./ Contenant la Signification des Mots,/ AVEC LEURS

DIFFERENS USAGES,/ LES CONSTRUCTIONS, IDIOMES, FAgONS DE PARLER

PARTICULIERES,/ ET LES PROVERBES USITES DANS L'UNE ET L 1AUTRE LANGUE;/

LES TERMES LES PLUS ORDINAIRES DES SCIENCES ARTS ET METIERS;/ LE TOUT

RECUEILLI DES MEILLEURS AUTEURS ANGLOIS ET FRANCOIS./ TOME PREMIER./

CONTENANT LE FRANCOIS DEVANT L TANGLOIS./ DE MR. LOUIS CHAMBAUD;/

Corrige et conjiderablement augmente par lui & PAR MR. J. B. ROBINET./

A AMSTERDAM ET ROTTERDAM,/ CHEZ ARKSTEE ET MERKUS ET H. BEMAN,/

MDCCLXXVI./" The page is divided in half horizontally between the

title information ending with "AUTEURS ANGLOIS ET FRANCOIS" and the

tome information. A woodcut as well as two stamps of the Bibliotheque

Royale appears between "ROBINET" and "A AMSTERDAM."

Unpaginated Page I and paginated Page II begin the preliminaries

with an "AVERTISSEMENT DES LIBRAIRES" from which we learn that since 98

Mr. Chambaudfs French-English dictionary (pre sumably the edition of

1761) was so well received by the public, he decided to collaborate with Mr. J. B, Robinet to perfect the original volume and to addthe second volume in English and French. A third person, Mr. Jaques

TeiJ f ier, assisted them in the corrections. A mention of Boyer, who was deceased, but whose editions continued to be published, appears in the "Avertissement". Ironically, his death did not cause him to escape in his turn, the very criticism he heaped on his predecessors.

The fact that an edition of the Boyer dictionary appeared in the same year may lead one to suspect that the critical remarks in the

"Avertissement" were written for competitive purposes:

Le d it Sr. (Chambaud) convenant que Jon Dictionnaire quoique reconnu le m eilleur , pouvoit £tre perfectionne3 s ’e jt prete volontiers a le reformer de concert avec Mr. J. B. Robinet3 its ont profite de tous les bons avis a in ji que les juftes critiques faites fu r les ouvrages de ce genre3 & particulierem ent fu r celui de Mr. Boyer3 qui a encore meme d a n s la derniere edition Jes faux principes3 <5 Jurtout en Anglois fon mauvais langage: ils . ont Hague tout ce qui etoit fuper- flu & ajoute tout ce qui pouvoit etre u tile & rendre fuperieur a tous egards ce Nouveau D ictionnaire...,

The page ends with another woodcut design different from the one which

appears on the title page.

Unpaginated Page III through Page VII contains a lengthy preface which immediately begins with a biting comment on the Boyerdictionary:

It is alj o notorious that not one (dic­ tionary) publijhd has anjwered the pur­ poses of directing the learner, or Jatijfy- ing the curious; for, Boyer's Dictionary, even the lajt edition, is full of enormous faults, as fal/e genders, falje con truc- tions, forged exprejjions and barbarous Engli/h. But how was it pojjible, to ex­ pect a good Englijh verfion, when Mr. D. D. who had the care of the work, was absolutely unacquaninted with Englijh?

(Mr. D. D. whom Chambaud refers to here is D. Durand, of the Societe

Royale who revised the Boyer dictionary in 1753 as the Royal Dictionary.)

Chambaud insists that the method of including derivatives and compounds under the primitive form should be abandoned since "tho/e who are unacquaninted with the primitive, as is generally the caj*e with young Jtudents, are at a lojs where to find the compound word: which method, however, very well Juits thoje who are majters of the language." Chambaud holds the booksellers responsible for perpetuating

the system of listing entries under primitives. He cites the case of

Ainsworth, who when he compiled a Latin dictionary based on Faber’s, was required to follow past precedent concerning primitives, against his better judgement: "Ainjworth, who had his directions given him,

and was enjoined to compose his Dictionary on the plan of Faber's, hath neverthele/s very judicioujly preferred the alphabetical to the

derivative order: and his work would be much more valuable, if all

the examples and paj^ages of the Latin authors were englijhed;..."

Chambaud adds that when Young attempted to revise the Ainsworth

dictionary to make it more uniform, "...his hands were tied up by the

Bookfellers." What Chambaud objects to is a lack of consistent and

uniform order of entries. Yet at times he follows exactly the same

practice of listing entries under primitives. A comparison of the

entry "ABANDON" in the Boyer and Chambaud indicates that the order of

sub-entries is similar as is the descriptive sentence in some cases. Boyer Chambaud

ABANDON, S.M. ... ABANDON, /.m. A l'abandon, Adv. ... A L'ABANDON, adv. Abandonne, ee, (infigne) ABANDONNE, EE, part, of Arrantt Profligate. Ex. Abandonner, ... Vous etes le plus abandonnez ABANDONNE, adj II Calomniateurs qui furent faut que vous paJJiez jamais. You are the moft pour le plus abandonnes profligate (or arrant) Ca­ calomniateurs qui furent lumniators that ever were. jamais. You must pafs Un Abandonne, S.M. for the most profligate Une Abandonnee, S.F. Slanderers that ever exi - Abandonnement, S.M. ted. Abandonnement, LewdneJs, ABANDONNlJ, f.m. ... Excels, Debauchery ABANDONNEE, f. f. ... ABANDONNER, Verb Act. ABANDONNEMENT, m. ... S'abandonner Verb Recip. ABANDONNER. .. . Ex. S’abandonner a toutes S'ABANDONNER, v.r. ... sortes de Vices... II s'ejt abandonne a toutes Dans cette extremite il sortes de vices. ... ne s ’adandonna point... S'ABANDONNER (se confier) S'abandonner au hazard, II s'abandonne a la Pro­ to commit oneself to vidence. He commits him- F o r tu n e " J e lf to Providence ."

Chambaud's entries do appear more orderly by his use of

upper case lettering for his main entries, smaller upper case forms for

the sub-entries, lower case forms for the text and italics for the

target language. In addition the discussion under each entry and sub­

entry is indented, thus making for an improved format over the Boyer

edition.

Chambaud explains that he has included both literal and figurative

meanings as well as equivalents and definitions in his glosses, since

"some words are never ufed in their proper senfe,..." Consequently

Chambaud claims he has made use of diverse forms of speech to describe

his entries, such as idioms, unusual "turns of exprejj'ion," proverbs,

conversational, common or vulgar expressions, "thoje which are

appropriated to poetry," formal, humourous and ironical phrases and 101

obsolete forms. Technical terminology from industry and the arts and sciences, Chambaud continues, have been included so that gentlemen may not be at a loss to communicate with artists and tradesmen when necessary. Obsolete words have been added because such writers as

Brantome, Montaigne and Rabelais are still read. But he uses the best

(modern) French writers to exemplify the entries.

Yet in spite of his statement that he includes all types of speech, it seems that Chambaud is still primarily interested in aiming his dictionary to the literary intelligentsia:

The ufe of a dictionary is to attain the knowledge of the books written in the language which one is Jtudying, and to be consulted upon occajion with rejpect to any expre/Jion or phraje that may occur. But how much more advantageous would not J*uch a performance be if the dulnejs generally attending it were re­ moved, and one could read it through with pleasure, like any other book of Literature? In that view whatever is moj11 interej ting and entertaining in the be j t French writers is here intro­ duced.

On Page 5 of the preface Chambaud takes issue with several lexico­ graphers for what he claims to be faults. The Dictionnaire de

l*Academie franqaise and those of Trevoux, Richelet and Furetiere do not show all senses of an entry-and in particular the figurative.

Nor do they quote "any authority to prove the explanation given."

The proper translation of the descriptive sentences in the gloss

seems to preoccupy Chambaud. He gives several examples of innacurate

translations in other works which he feels are the result of a

"Bookfellers drudge who wrote for bread." and from whom "no good production can be expected." He explains.that he has translated the descriptive sentences with a great deal of care, as this is the most important part of the dictionary. But the translator's task is no easy one:

A translator mujt firjt be master of the language of his original. His part is to make his author write, as he would have done, had he written originally in Eng­ lish. He ought neither to Stick Jervily to the letter, nor paraphraje his thoughts; but carefully express his meaning, pre­ serving his Jpirit, and transfuje the force, not the lifelejs idiom, of his ex- prejj ion.

The question of what orthography would be used in his dictionary prompted Chambaud to consult the Dictionnaire of 1762. But Chambaud claimed that it contained several examples of orthographical inconsis­ tencies such as: " a u th e u r and auteur 3 autorite and authorite3 bled and b la jo n and blazon3 o u ille r and o u illie r3 entre eux and e n t r 'e u x 3

Jecretement and JeorStement jecretement3 feorettem ent." Rather than use the archaic spelling noted in the Dictionnaire, Chambaud explains that he will employ the reformed spelling of the modern writers.

However, he does not appear completely sure of his method, as we see from the final paragraph of his preface:

When a word is written diverjely, and each way of writing is Supported by the authority of good writers, I Jet down both ways, as ABSINTE, ABSYNTHE, OR ALEZAN, ALZAN: and when a word may be Jpelt different ways, I Jet down each way in its proper place, in Italics, and refer to the true reading, as AIEUL, V. AYEUL, &c. Without Such references, thoje who know only the way of writing or Spelling the word, and do not find it where they ihink its proper place to be, might be induced to imagine it is omitted, and not to be found in the Dictionary. Page VIII of the preface contains an explanation in both English and French of the abbreviations and other marks found in the dictionary.

Volume I, French-English, has 744 pages all paginated, with the exception of the first page. There are approximately 55 entries per page arranged in columns of three, each headed by three guide letters, eg. ABA/ ABB/ etc. All the letters of the alphabet are present from

A to V. I and J entries are listed separately, W and Y entries are lacking, but X and Z entries are listed. Chambaud seems to demonstrate some confusion of alphabetization, however, apparently due to the preceding practice of including U and V and I and J entries together.

Although he listed these separately under his alphabetization of first letter entries, he did not follow through completely, as he lists the

following in this order: AVARIE, AUBADE, AUJOURD'HUI, AVIRON.

Main entries appear in upper case letters with accents when necessary. Nouns are immediately followed by j . to indicate substan­

tives, an f. or m. to indicate gender, a short French explanation in brackets, and an italicized equivalent in the target language:

BAGUETTE, f . f. £ verge, houjfine, baton fort menu]] A §witoh3 a rod, a wand, a Jmall Stick. CACHET, J. m. [ petit Jeau pour cacheter des lettresj S e a l

Verb entries appear in their infinitive form in upper case, and

are immediately followed by their principal parts, which themselves do

not appear under a separate entry. An abbreviated form showing whether

the verb is active, neuter, reciprocal or impersonal, and a short

bracketed explanation in French follow: BADINER, badinant, badine, je badine, je badinai; v.n. £faire le badinj BAISER, baifant, baife, je baije, je baifai; v.a. jjappliquer fa bouche fur quelque chofe en Jigne d’amitie, d’amour, de rejpect &c.J SE BAISSER, v.r. ffe courberj

As is to be expected, Chambaud treats irregular verbs more fully:

ALLER, allant, alle, je vais ou je vas, nous allons, ils vont, j'allai, j'irai, que j'aille, nous allions, ils aillent v. n. ^TRE, etant, ete, je fuis, tu es, il eft, nous Jommes, vous etes, ils font, je fus, je Jerai, je Jois, nous foyons, ils /oient, verbe que les Grammariens appellent Substantif: exifter AVOIR, ayant, eu, j'ai, nous avons, ils ont, j'avois, j ’eus, j'aurai, que j ’aie; v.a.

(Chambaud is generally careful to include accent marks where necessary, even over upper case letters of the main entry).

Faithful to his promise in his preface, Chambaud attempts to dis­ cuss both literal and figurative meanings and to show them in proper contexts. The following entry is an example of the thoroughness of some of his glosses:

AFFAIRE, f. f. chofe; terme general qui fe dit de toutes fortes de chofes & que l'on fubftitue fouvent a la place des termes propres & particuliers de chaque chof e A t h in g 3 an affair. Le mariage est une choje trop Jerieufe pour moi, Matrimony is a thing too Jerious for me. II a pouff e 1'affaire d'une affez vigou- reufe maniere, He has carried on the a ffa ir with a high hand. Voyez un peu la belle affaire! A f i n e matter truly to make Juch a pother a b o u t! C'eft la le bon de l'affaire, T h a ts th e glory of it. AFFAIRE, tout ce qui eft le fujet de quel­ que occupation A ffair} business3 c o n c e rn . J'ai affaire. I have fomething to do.- Avoir des affaires par de// us la tete, To have an in fin ite deal of bufinefs Avoir affaire avec une femme, To know a woman carnally. C ’ejt une affaire (Je dit d'une cho/e qu'on regarde comme penible ou mal- aijee a faire) Tis hard to do; Tis trouble; Toutes affaires cejjantes, A ll bufinejs being at a ftand; AFFAIRE tout ce qu'on a a di(cuter, a de- m&ler avec quelqu'un dans le commerce de la vie Dealing, concern, bufinefs a f f a i r e . N'ayez point d'affaires avec cet homme la, Have no dealing with that man. Sortir d'une affaire avec honneur, je tirer bien d'affaire, to come o ff honour­ a b ly . AFFAIRE embarras, demele trouble, fcrape II ne veut point d'affaire. He wont bring him felf into trouble. II m'a fait une affaire avec elle He made me fa ll out with her. II vous donnera bien des affaires, He w ill cut out work for you. AFFAIRE proces, tant en matiere civile qu'un matiere criminelle Action, cafe, caufe, law fuit. II a une affaire au Parlement, He has an action or caufe before the Parliament. AFFAIRE action de guerre Action, fight, fkirm ifh, battle ... AFFAIRE bejoin Heed, occafion. Avoir affaire d'argent To have occafion fo r money. J'ai bien affaire de cet homme la, What do I care fo r that man? AFFAIRE ce qu'il appartient a une personne de faire, & ce pourquoi elle a un talent particulier Bufinejs, -province... C'est mon affaire, AFFAIRES, ce mot au pluriel Je dit gene- ralement de toutes les chojes qui concern- ent la fortune & les interets du public & du particulier A ffairs, concern, buji- n e fs . Chacun fait Jes affaires, E v e ry one knows his own concerns. Ce ne font pas la mes affaires, That is none o f my b u s in e s s . Faire Jes affaires, To do one's needs. Aller a Jes affaires, To go to the neceffary house. AFFAIRE, f.m. ce mot pemploie au ma^culin pour designer joliment & avec mode^tie les parties qui jervent a la generation A f f a i r3 t h in g . and to expand his glosses he of necessity was required to make full use of particularizing words:

Abattre des arbres, un foret. To fe ll trees , or a forest. Abbattre un rideau, To le t a curtain down. Abbattre les mats d ’un vai$(eau (terme de) Marine) To fhoot the mafts of a veffel by the board.

In the matter of phonetic description Chambaud seems to have gone further than his predecessors. But, as we shall see, he frequently makes misleading statements which point to his confusion between pro­ nunciation and orthography. The English pronunciation equivalents he furnishes are at times inaccurate. These inaccuracies are understand­ able as he was a Frenchman living in England and his command of English may have been less than perfect. His misleading statements concerning

French pronunciation, however, are not understandable.

Congrary to Cotgrave, Chambaud1s phonetic descriptions are not in an appendix, but within the body of the text, and he is the first to attempt to describe nasalized vowels. He describes A as having two sounds: "fhort and flender 3 as i n matin and the English words bat, cat," and secondly "long and broad 3 as i n matin and the English all and awe: besides its nafal found as in an, and the English long."

The digraph d t Chambaud claims to be out of use, having been replaced by j^, but the city of Caen he tells us, is pronounced as "a na al" to sound like Can.

A followed by i Chambaud calls an "improper or orthographical dipthong" and is pronounced as ay. as in may. He notes the exceptions

"hair, emailler," and "email, in which cafes a keeps its found."

A followed by y; however, does not "make a vowel or fylla b le3 because y ftands for two i's, the firs t whereof is joined to a a n d makes the improper dipthong ai as i n pays."

Occasionally Chambaud's examples are reminiscent of Boyer's but in the case of the nasals he appeared to be more accurate:

I n paon, jaon, flaons, and Laon ( th e name o f a city) ao takes the nafal found , as if ' theje words were fp e lt pan, fan, flans, Lan.

...(in) Saone (a rivers name) and extrordi- naire (sic), a lofes entirely its found as if they were fp e lt. ..Sone, extrordinaire (sic).

I n taon, ao takes the nafal found of o (ton) I n aout...a lofes its found...

Chambaud indicates that there may be a vowel difference when a_ is

followed by u (which he calls an "improper dipthong"). It may have

"thefhort and flender found of o as in chapeau, and the long and broad found o f o as i n l'eau..." This distinction seems to be

inaccurate. He may be attempting to distinguish open £ f p j from close

£ D>J , but according to present information the pronunciation of

chapeau in 1776 was identical to 11eau.

IS Chambaud claims as having five different pronunciations. The mute _e, which he calls "guttural e" as found in French jjs, me, and

recevoir is quite correctly likened to the last vowel in English dinner

and porter, the second, acute £, as in French bonte and English fate,

the third grave as in tres, apres and e in English servant, the fourth

circum flex as in bete and Huzza, the fifth "middle founding e" as in French regie and English excell. He adds to this the nasal vowel in bien, and that e may be soundless at the end of a word as in ame.

Chambaud's insistence on five different French pronunciations of e at this time is questionable. The French vowel structure was fixed by the time we reach the last quarter of the eighteenth century. Accord­ ing to present information, there were three pronunciations of this vowel-mute j2, open e^ jjfJ and close e^ j e j , and apres, bete, and regie were probably all pronounced as open e |V] . The English example servant, which he furnishes for this vowel, is probably correct, but his "Huzza" is suspect. The question of Chambaud's phonetic descrip­

tions, as well as his English and French examples, may well warrant further investigation.

Numerous exceptions to the normal pronunciation of e follow.

Among them, Chambaud lists before 11, which he claims has two pronunciations:

...the fir jt which is found in jeut i s nothing elfe than the guttural found of e,je and jai being pronouneed exactly a l i k e (!) the fecond found o f eu i s that of the vowel u, and is found only in the participle and other tenses of avoir (eu,'j'eus,) and in thefe three or four wordsy Eustache, gageure, rheume and rheumatism, tho' even thefe two la ft are better £pelt as pronounced rume, rumatisme.

Interestingly, Chambaud compares the pronunciation of French to

that of English I_ in fit and finished, which appears erroneous. _I [iQ

from the Middle English to the Modern English periods remained constant

in the examples Chambaud offers, whereas from the Old French period

on had remained D l - 109

As to 0, he distinguishes between "Jhort and flender o" as in

French cote (N.B.) and oa in English petticoat, and a "long and broad o" as in cote and £a in English coast. This vowel, he says,

"must always have a circum flex aeeent placed over it, except that the najal vowel merely is followed by the nafal c o n fo n a n t But he seemed hard-pressed to explain £ followed by £. Giving the examples oeuf, coeur, foeur (soeur?) he tells us that o£ "takes the fir ft found of the fa lfe dipthong eu."

He was equally hard-pressed to explain French £, which he does not describe with the typical thoroughness of the preceding vowels:

The fifth vowel and the -twenty fir ft le tte r o f the Alphabet has a found not to be found in English, tho ’ very easy to be pronounced. The addition of n o r m gives it a nafal found, as in un, brun, parfum: but in foreign or Latin words become French u followed by m takes the nafal found o f o, as i n factum, un to turn.

Turning to the consonants, we learn that Chambaud sees no difference in pronunciation between English and French I). He indicates that occasionally it is soundless as in fond, but that it takes the

"articulation of t" when followed by a vowel, or particularlywhen a verb precedes its pronoun, as prend-il, vend-il. According to

Chambaud double consonants were pronounced in words derived from Latin, such as addition and reddition.

As in the case of he states f is frequently not pronounced in final position, for example cerf, nerf, neuf (new), and chef d foeuvre.

N.B. Probably English "quota." and when final followed by a word beginning with a consonant as neuf guinees-

Volume J.I, the English-French part of this work differs only slightly .in format from Volume I. The Volume measures 10.6"x8.7Mxl.4".

The spine reads "DICTIONN/ DE/ ROBINET/ TOM II/. The title page bears the following information: "A NEW/ DICTIONARY/ ENGLISH AND FRENCH:/

AND FRENCH AND ENGLISH./ CONTAINING THE SIGNIFICATION OF WORDS,/ WITH

THEIR DIFFERENT USES;/ THE TERMS OF ARTS, SCIENCES AND TRADES;/ THE

CONSTRUCTIONS, FORMS OF SPEECH, IDIOMS,/ AND PROVERBS USED IN BOTH

LANGUAGES;/ THE WHOLE EXTRACTED FROM THE BEST WRITERS,/ VOL II./

CONTAINING THE ENGLISH BEFORE THE FRENCH./ BY LEWIS CHAMBAUD/ AND

J. B. ROBINET/ AMSTERDAM AND ROTTERDAM,/ Printed for ARKSTEE ET

MERKUS AND H. BEMAN,/ MDCCLXXVI./" The title page bears the stamp of the Bibliotheque Royale and has a woodcut at the bottom of the page.

The verso side is blank, and is followed by the preface page recto and verso, the latter numbered page IV. The French preface to this volume is a shortened version of the preface to Volume I. It contains essentially the same information, however, and, for the most part, is directly translated. The pagination extends from page 2 to page

606. All the letters of the alphabet are represented, and I and J entries are separate. There are approximately 80 entries per page, indicating that although Volume II is somewhat shorter than Volume I, many more entric-.s are included. The arrangement of the entries, capitalization, and placement of accents are similar to those found in Volume I.

Chambaud alters his method of indicating verb entries because of the difference in linguistic systems. Infinitive, present participle and preterite forms are normally given for weak verbs:

To ABET, ETTING, ETTED, v.a. To ABOLISH, ING, ED, v.a. To CAJOLE, ING, ED, v.a.

Whereas the infinitive, the present participle and perfect and preterite forms are given for the strong verbs:

To ABIDE, ING, ABODE, ABID, v.a. ...They abode, or abid, the fir^t charge, I l s soutinrent le premier choc. CAN, v.n. and defective: I can, thou can(t, he can, we can &c and its pre­ terite. I could, thou coulde^t, he could, &c. To DO, doing, did, done, v.a.

Occasionally Chambaud was constrained to show all forms for a particular verb if it proved to be too irregular, as in the case of To Be.

To BE, BEING, I was, I have been, v.n. and jub/t. Etre dans plufieurs fens. This verb is fo remarkably irregular, that it is necejjary to Jet down its terminations. I am, j e f u i s ; thou art, t u e s 3 he or he is, il ou elle eft; we are, nous Jommes 3 you are, vous e t e s j they are, ils ou elles font. I was, j ' e t o i s ou j e f u s ; we were, nous etions ou nous fu m e s ; I have been, j ' a i e te . I Jhall be, j e f e r a i . Be, f o i s 3 fo y e z . That I be, que je fois. I jhall be, j e f e r o i s 3 ou je fuffe.

But his gloss for Tto Have is not nearly as complete as English To Jie

or French Avoir in Volume I.

A glance at a single verb entry reveals much the same thoroughness

we encountered earlier:

To COME, ING, CAME, COME, v.n. V e n ir 3 a r r i v e r . ... To COME [to become^ d e v e n ir . ... To COME [ t o fall, to happen J Arriver, fe f a i r e . ... To COME ABOUT fto change, to come roundj c h a n g e r , to n r n e r . ... To COME AGAIN Cto return] R e v e n ir 3 r e t o u m e r . .. To COME AFTER £to follow} Suivre. ... To COME ALONG S ’ en v e n ir 3 marcher. ... To COME ASUNDER Se de fa ire 3 Je mettre en p ie c e s 3 fe defunir 3 &c . . . . To COME AT or BY Cto obtain, to reach I] O b te n ir 3 a c q u & r ir3 a t t e in d r e3 parvenir a. ... To COME AWAY, S 'e n v e n ir 3 Je retirer. ... To COME BACK Revenir. ... To COME DOWN Defcendre. ... To COME FORWARD, A v a n c e r3 J 'a v a n c e3 r p r o - f i t e r 3 faire des progr&s. ... To COME FROM Venir de. ... To COME IN Cto enter} E n t r e r 3 a r r i v e r3 J e re n d re a3 fe porter pour. ... To COME IN FOR Pretendre. ... To COME IN TO [ t o join with} Se joindre a J e c o u r ir 3 venir au Jecours. ... To COME IN TO C o n je n t ir 3 condefcendre 3 if ^GLQQOy?diQ‘P • * « • To COME INTO TROUBLE, S’a ttire r des affaires3 J'engager dans quelque malheur. ... To COME NEAR, Approcher au propre & au figure. ... To COME NEXT, Suivre. ... To COME OF [ t o preceecQ Venir de. ... To COME OFF, S 1 e c a r t e r3 fe t i r e r 3 J o r t i r d ’une affa ire3 to m b e r 3 [e d e f a ir e3 deperir. ... To COME OFF FROM, L a i f j e r3 omettre. ... To COME ON, A v a n c e r3 j ’avancer3 f a i r e des p r o g r e s . ... To COME OVER, Se d iff iper 3 fen alter. ... To COME.OUT OR FORTH, . S o r t i r 3 devenir public 3 paroitre au jour. ... To COME OUT, Se montrer fur I ’horizon en parlant des aftres3 p a r o i t r e 3 p o u f f e r en parlant des plantes. To COME OUT WITH [ t o give a vent toj D onner i f f u e 3 la iffe r echapper 3 la c k e r . ... To COME TO, V e n ir 3 p a r v e n ir 3 £tre reduit 3 c o n f e n t ir 3 Je rendre. ... To COME TO, R e v e n ir d 3 m o n te r a 3 a b o u t ir a3 fe terminer &. ... To COME TOGETHER, Venir enjenble 3 f ’ajjembler3 J e m a r ie r3 J’unir par les liens de mariage. To COME UP, M o n te r 3 p o u jf e r 3 J’etablir. ... To COME UP TO, S’approcher de 3 parvenir a3 113

f'elever a, revenir ou repondre a. ... To COME UPON, Attaquer, Jaisir, furprendre. ...

Occasionally Chambaud does not follow through with, a careful alphabetization of expressions within a gloss:

To GIVE, v.n. To GIVE EAR, OR A HEARING, ... To GIVE A CALL, ... To GIVE A FALL, ... To GIVE WAY, ... To GIVE ONE'S SELF OR ONE'S MIND TO ANYTHING, ... To GIVE FOR LOST, ... To GIVE AGAIN, ... To GIVE AWAY, ... To GIVE BACK, ... To GIVE FORTH, ... To GIVE IN, ... To GIVE INTO, ... To GIVE OFF, ... To GIVE OUT, ... To GIVE OVER, ... To GIVE UP, ...

Chambaud's phonetic descriptions in Volume II reflect a sometimes

confused notion of the English vowels. He states, for example", that

the English A has three sounds, the first full and open as the

French vowel found in the English all, apply, advise, tall, warden,

was and animal. He adds that the second sound similar to that

represented by the French (orthographical) dipthong ai, is found in

the words hat, cap, humane, and female, while the third, a long and

close vowel, similar to French j§e is observed in English fare, grace

and fable. It is questionable whether all these vowel comparisons he

mentions were, in fact, equivalents.

The vowel El, according to Chambaud, may be long as in scene,

or short as in men. He does state that the final JE of have, give, etc.

remains unpronounced, whereas the final E of epitome becomes long. 114

English (letter) JL is accurately described as generally pronounced

as _ai when followed by a single consonant in pride and crime, pronoun-

ed praid and craim, when followed by the consonant combinations nd.

Id, and ght in mind, child and fight. But he seems to be confused when he says "It may also have the pronunciation of open and short E when followed by R," then tells us that it may have a pronunciation

approaching o in that same environment: "Ce meme jon Je modifie &

approche tant Joit peu de l'o dans Jtir, dirt, Jhirt, third, bird,

&c." His statement that hither and thither are pronounced as an open

£ is subject to disagreement for this particular period of English.

He completes his discussion of vowel I by stating that it occasionally

is scarcely pronounced: "A pein Je fait-il entendre dans marriage,

carriage, parliament, venifon, ordinary, evil, & devil." The

inaccuracies Chambaud is guilty of in this particular vowel follow the

typical pattern of French phonemic interference.

Of all the English vowels, apparently jD gave our lexicographer

the most difficulty. He states that it is pronounced ordinarily in

English as it is in French. However, he lists the exceptions as,

for example, obdurate, object, obstacle, odd, of, off which he likens

to French and adds that there are others "qui J'apprendront par

l’usage." Additional words in which English 0_ is similar to French A

he lists as body, apothecary, God, box, long and horn. Roll, cold,

bolt, port, short, shorn, worn, most and comb, he says, have the normal

0 , but adds that there are irregular forms "que la pratique Jeule peut

apprendre." Chambaud makes vowel distinctions between certain words

which today may be homophonous: Born fe prononoe born, quant-il fignifie p o r t &3 & barn, quand it fignifie ne; ainfi form, un b a n o 3 une olaffe 3 fe prononoe fdrm; & f&rm quand il veut dire forme. De m$me holy, f a i n t3 fe prononoe holy; & holy- day, jour de f§te fe proyionoe haly-day.

He describes English Rome, lose, move, prove and womb as having an

O U fotrj prononciation, but then explains yolk, anchor, maggot and women should be articulated yelk, ennker, maiguet and ouimmin (N.B.)

() he concludes, may be leveled to schwa as in reason, capon, mutton,

fashion, cushion and punchion.

Chambaud is not quite as explicit in his comparisons for the vowel U. When it stands alone, he states it is pronounced IOU.

However, it has

...un son o la ir et presque Jemblable a eu dans Bury, busy, & dans tous les mots termines en ure, oomme picture, lecture &c.; de meme que dans faculty, diffi­ culty & autres Jemblables.

He apparently is alluding to jy\J when he maintains that it approaches

the French vowel <3 as it occurs between two consonants in the same

cyliable in but, tub and cub. Lastly, he claims that it ’'approaches’1

the French (orthographical) dipthong OU in chuse and bull.

Whereas the last edition of a very long series of re-editions of

the Boyer work available for this study was dated 1875, the last

Chambaud work was dated 1817. This dictionary although certainly much

more complete than the Boyer dictionary of 1699, for someunexplainable

reason did not enjoy public popularity, if the fewer number of

N.B. These may be dialectical forms. The whole question of rounded 0 as Chambaud sees it may well be the subject of further in­ vestigation. 116

re-editions is an indication. It may.well.be that Boyer's reputation

had already been too well established to be affected by the Chambaud work, and that since originally in one volume, the Boyer dictionary was less cumbersome and cheaper.

The lack of a clear notion of the pronunciation of Standard

English sounds seems to be common to Boyer and Chambaud. Miege

included no phonetic descriptions in his work of 1677, but did so in

his Great Dictionary of 1688. His descriptions were equally unclear.

Several questions point to a need for future investigations along

these lines. Were their inaccuracies indicative of an imperfect know­

ledge of either of the languages, or merely the result of an inability

to explain the differences? Had Miege, Boyer and Chambaud been too

much out of touch with the standard pronunciations of French and

English, or were their pronunciation examples taken from usage of

localities other than London? Helge Kbkeritz in "Guy Miege's

Pronunciation" points out that Miege acquired Scottish-Northern pro­

nunciation, which although modified by some London pronunciation,

nevertheless greatly influenced his work: "Though he made certain

changes in his rules (of pronunciation) in his Great French Dictionary

(1688), it is questionable whether he fully realized the difference

between contemporary London usage and the speech habits of the people 94 with whom his work brought him in daily contact.", Miege's first

94 Ilelge Kokeritz, "Guy Miege's Pronunciation," Language, XIX (April-June 1943), 142. 117

employer, the.second Earl of Elgin, was a Scotchman, his second employer, the first Earl of Carlyle, was born in Cumberland. Could our other lexicographers, Boyer and Chambaud, have had parallel situations?

We have seen the progression of the English-French bilingual dictionary from Caxton to the end of the eighteenth century, and how almost a century had passed before the first dictionary in alphabeti­ cal order by Harryson developed out of the printed vocabulary lists.

Shortly thereafter the Cotgrave dictionary appeared and remained a model for succeeding lexicographers. Miege, Boyer, Chambaud and to a lesser extent Nugent greatly expanded their dictionaries, and/or made worthwhile innovations, but their works did not change basically from the example which already had been set by Cotgrave. The nineteenth and twentieth centuries saw a plethora of bilingual dictionaries, and the publication of specialized English-French, French-English bi­ lingual dictionaries too numerous in range and scope, to ennumerate here.

Our concern up to the present has been mainly with the chronolo­ gical development of bilingual lexicography from the point of view of format. In Part II we will make a brief comparative study of selected entries to determine to what extent our lexicographers compiled their work on the work of their predecessors and contemporaries. PART II

A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF SELECTED ENTRIES CHAPTER IV

NOUNS

A glance at the corpus of material derived from our seven major bilingual works reveals that verb entries were far outnumbered by those for the .noun. And as we have learned from our previous discussion of format, the placement of the noun may vary considerably from dictionary to dictionary, depending on whether entries are listed according to word families, or in alphabetical order. This affected the total number of entries in the corpus, and eliminated the possibility of a one to one entry in each of the works. The additional problem of orthographical changes also arose, which caused entries to be re­ grouped alphabetically and out of the scope of the corpus. In the case of "Aage" for example', its alphabetical position changes by the time we reach Miege's dictionary of 1677. Semantic changes and changes in usage accounted for occasional inclusions and exclusions in the corpus. Consequently all entries are not consistently present in all the dictionaries covered.

• Due to the extent of the original corpus, twenty glosses were randomly selected from it to form the corpus for this study. These glosses were taken from the works covered in Part I, and from the following additional dictionaries:

Robert Estienne, Dictionnaire franqoislatin (1539)

John Higgins, Huloct's Dictionarie neweleye corrected (1572)

John Baret, An Alvearie or Quadruple Dictionarie (1580) Jean Nicot, Thresor de la langue frangoise (1606) (N.B.)

Antoine Furetiere, Dlctionnaire universel (1690) -

Pierre Richelet, Nouveau dlctionnaire franQois (1694)

Dictionnaire de 1*Academie franQolse (1694)

Samuel Johnson, A Dictionary of the English Language (1755)

As to the comparison of the glosses themselves, it will be shown

that a large number bear similarity to those appearing in previous works. As it was a practice of lexicographers to build their dictionaries on earlier ones, a seemingly identical gloss may not necessarily mean that a lexicographer borrowed from his predecessor, but that both may have taken material from a third source. Accord­ ingly, the aim of Part II of this study will be to observe the chrono­

logical progression of the glosses, their structure, inclusions,

exclusions, modifications caused by semantic changes and changes in

usage, their differences in each work, and lastly, some of their possible sources.

N.B. The 1621 edition of the Thresor is a reprint of the 1606 edition, with minor changes in the title page and preliminaries. Its glosses are identical or similar to those in Nicot's Dictionnaire frangois-latin of 1584. Of the seven dictionaries in our study, only three included a gloss for aage. Harryson furnishes us with but one equivalent, and therefore is of little interest, while Cotgrave's gloss is disappoint­ ingly brief. But by comparing Hollyband's gloss with those found in

Robert Estienne's Dictionnaire franqoislatin and Nicot's Thresor de la langue franqoise several striking similarities appear. For example,

Estienne begins by furnishing a Latin equivalent for his French entry, then glosses Petit ou bas aage. Nicot writes Bas aage followed by

Petit age (sic) as two separate sub-entries. Descriptive sentences appear later in Nicot and Hollyband, sometimes with slight modifica­ tions, but occasionally they are identical. Estienne's "L 'a a g e de quartorze ans es mafles: & de douze es fem elles" became in Nicot

"L'aage de quartorze ans es mafles & de douze es femelles3" whereas in Hollyband it is altered to a phrase, and "es" is eliminated entirely. This may indicate a change in usage, or merely a stylistic variation in Hollyband: "L'aage de quartorze ans pour les majles, et douze pour les femeles (sic) th'age of fourteene yeeres is for menkinde, and twelue fo r the female kind." Estienne's Latin equiva­ lent for "Tout d'un aage, a e q u a le s3 a e q u a e u i" is further elaborated by Nicot. Hollyband dropped this entry, however, preferring to in­ clude a complete sentence in his gloss, yet similar to Estienne's:

Ilz ejtoyent tout d'un aage. which appears in Hollyband's gloss, but with a change in tense: Ilz. (bnt tout d'un aage. Although both

Estienne and Nicot include very complete glosses, they were guilty of repetition from time to time. Hollyband showed some discrimination in

this regard. Estienne, for example, gives both II ejt de ceft aage

la and Nous Jommes de ceft aage la. Hollyband includes only the

former, with no change. Rapporter l'aage l'ung a 1*autre are almost

identical in Estienne, Nicot and Hollyband, save for the orthographi­

cal change of ung to un in Nicot and Hollyband, but the latter's

Selon que l'aage le porte, le permet, le ouffre appears to have no

counterpart in either Estienne or Nicot. Homme de grand aage listed by

both Estienne and Nicot is glossed .as Home fort aage, ou de grand aage

by Hollyband. And whereas Nicot lists Femme de bonne aage (sic),

Hollyband writes Home de bon aage. His last gloss of interest to us,

Quel aage vous eft-il aduis que ,j' aye? is identical to Nicot's except

for a change of vous to _t.

Cotgrave's gloss includes no descriptive sentences, but does

contain more equivalents than Hollyband's. But his equivalents bear

little resemblance to either Hollyband, Nicot or Estienne:

Aage: m. age3 ye a re s, dayes; alJo3 an a g e ; timey^eaJon. De grand aage: v e ry o l d , a grandfire, a graybeardy whof e tone foot is alreadie in the graue. De petit age: very yongt a dhildy an in ­ f a n t, an innooenty an underling. Avoir de l'aage: to be ftrong and lu jtie : alfo to be well in yeares, o r w e ll Jtrieken in yeares.

Hollyband:

Aage, age: m.

Nicot:

Aage, m. j'ub jtantif. penac. II vi'e't de oe mot Latin aetas,... Es tienne:

Aage, aetas.

Abandon

Both the Estienne and Harryson give the alternate forms Abandon and Bandon for this entry. Estienne furnishes two Latin equivalents

Indulgentia and Licentia which Harryson changes to licence, libertie.

Higgins adds little to this definition, including under the entry

"Abandon, cha/titie. Pudicitiam, pro/tituere" while Baret informs us that abandon or bandon is a French word meaning leave, licence or libertie and adds the same Latin definition found in Estienne. Nicot includes two b's in his orthography,, and a lengthy definition, calling it a "delaiffment de Jon pouvoir3 cornne3 Mettre ja foreft en abbandon3 o'eft ne la tenir en defenfe3 & la liurer a quiconque y vondra mener paistre (sie) Jon best ail (sic) 3 ou bucheronner3 ..."

He adds to the gloss a descriptive sentence which is later picked up by succeeding lexicographers and is remiscent of Higgins1: E lle a mis Jon corps en abbandon . He ends the gloss by stating that it is composed of a. followed by bandon thus explaining the alternate forms found in Estienne, Harryson and Baret. Hollyband*s gloss is a repetition of the Harryson equivalents, but with the addition of English bandon.

Cotgrave, however, offers the most interesting gloss of those which preceeded him. After incorporating in his gloss a descriptive sentence similar to that found in Nicot: Mettre fa forejt en abandon,

Cotgrave furnishes two French proverbs followed by an English explanation, and, in the case of the first, an equivalent English proverb: Abandon fait larron; Prov. Things earelefly l e f t 3 la y d up 3 or looked vnto 3 make them theeues that otherwife would be honejt: we f a y3 fa{t hind fa ft find. Qui faict nopces, & maijon, il met le _fien en abandon; Prov. The building o f houfes and making o f feafts3 are vnlim itted wajters o f a mans fubftayice.

Miege's gloss appears a good deal more brief, but suggests the proberv explained by Cotgrave:

ABANDON (m.) the quitting or leaving of a t h in g 3 or the expoSing of it to any bodies ufe. Laiffer a 1'abandon queque chofe, t o le a v e a thing for any body to take it or ufe it.

Miege differs from our previous lexicographers in that he includes in his gloss not only the abandoning of an object, but a person: "Lai/Jer une personne a 1 'abandon, l'abondonner tout a fait, to leave one to the wide World 3 to forjake him altogether 3 to abandon him." Furetiere and to a lesser extent the Academie franqaise added to their glosses what can later be seen in Boyer's, a greater specifying of terms.

Furetiere's definition is substantially what was seen earlier:

"ABANDON, JubJt, majc. Mepris, delai/Jement de quelque choje." but he gives us a secondary meaning "/ignifie au//i, De/bauche, licence qu'on Je donne de tout faire." He makes it very clear that abandon is used in an adverbial sense. Richelet confirms this by stating in his gloss that abandon has been replaced as a substantive by abandonnement. He follows it with a quote from Moliere's Tartuffe showing the use of abandon. The remainder of the gloss contains examples of abandon in adverbial constructions. The change in usage

is further corroborated by the gloss in the Dictionnaire de L'Academie franQaise. Boyer appears to be the first of"our bilingual lexicogra­ phers to mention the change in usage, which he indicates at the very beginning of his gloss. His list of equivalents with descriptive sentences falls into three groups, the deliberate abandoning of goods, of persons, and a haphazard abandoning. He includes the proverb

"Abandon fait larron" which we found earlier in Cotgrave, but furnishes us with a more succinct English discussion. At the end of his gloss he adds a secondary definition of abandon much as did

Furetiere and Miege. Again, Nugent gives us one equivalent, despite the fact that the word had developped several important new meanings.

Chambaud’s treatment, on the other hand, presents some interesting features. Contrary to Boyer, he offers few equivalents and makes no statement regarding the weakening of abandon as a substantive. But he does use the gloss as a vehicle for moralization, carefully avoiding any allusion to prostitution and debauchery:

ABANDON, {.m. etat ou e f t une personne, ou une choje, delaiffe The being forfaken... When a woman, who is forjaken by her ad­ mirers, engages in a religious courje of life, pie is commonly censured as a hypo­ crite, who mocks God injtead of honouring him. But who jo? Being thus forfaken 3 She conceives a d ijlik e to the world: yet her tender affections f t ill remain 3 and mujt be fixed upon jome object: and heaven is the object fhe chufes. Dans un tel abandon, In fuch a for­ lorn condition .. A L 1ABANDON, adv. At fixes and fevens3 Tout ejt a I1abandon, Every thing is at fixes and Jevens3 or at rack and m anger.

Abandonnement

Estienne includes this entry under his discussion of abandon. The gloss contains a Latin equivalent De (ertio, a descriptive phrase

"Abandonnement de raiJon3 Defectio a recta ratione," and an additional

equivalent Licentur, Indulgentur. Harryson, on the other hand notes

only one equivalent, a giuing over. Higgins appears to combine all

the previous and some new equivalents of his own "Abandoning, leauing

or for(aking, Derjetio, defectio, dejtitutio, Abandonnement."

As a synonym for abandonnement Baret added Delaiff ement as did Nicot.

And Nicot's gloss contains the same Latin equivalents found in

Estienne and Baret- DeJertio, defectio, dejtitutio, but a much more

detailed French definition:

C 'eft abandon, A in ji d it on Abandonnement de b ie n s 3 pour la aefsion de biens que fa it vn debiteur a jes creanoiers3 q u 'o n pourroit au si dire deguerpiff ement de b ie n s 3 Bonorum abdicatio, Cejjio bonorum.

A separate entry Abandonnement de raijon, identical to Estienne's

appearing under abandonnement will, in addition to the above entry,

later be seen in Cotgrave's work. Hollyband's gloss presents no

interesting comparisons, being identical to Harryson's, but Cotgrave's

gloss reveals some interesting developments. Starting with the main

entry, he lists numerous equivalents never before seen in the previous

works. Significant too, is the close similarity of his gloss with

that of Miege:

Cotgrave:

Abandonnement: m. an abandonning, q u i t t i n g 3 f o r J a k in g 3 leauing o ff 3 giuing ouer 3 la ie n g open f o r 3 proftituting vnto 3 o th e r s ; a l f o a projoribing or outlawing.

Miege: Abandonnement (in) an abandoning3 q u i t t i n g 3 leaving o ff 3 giving over 3 laying open for.

Cotgrave adds to his glc)ss Abandonnement de raison identical to both

Nicot's and Estienne's French entry, but with an acute accent placed

over the first e, a feature not seen earlier in our study. Repeating

the same remark under abandon, Furetiere states that "abandonnement

e [t plus en usage qu'abandon." That the word had developped accepted

secondary meanings is confirmed by Furetiere's gloss:

II (ignifie aujl’i, Desbauche, prostitu­ tion. Cette per^onne eft dans un grand abandonnement. ce pecheur endurcy eft dans un grand abandonnement.

Richelet's gloss adds two new French equivalents, Defordre and deregle-

ment, and restores Faire un abandonnement de tous fes biens to the gloss

reminiscent of Nicot. The Academie notes prostitution as a secondary

meaning for abandonnement which Richelet failed to mention, however:

”Abandonnement eftant mis fans regime, jignifie Prostitution, grande

debauche." Boyer's gloss shows little difference from his prede­

cessors save for a re-ordering of the equivalents, and his descriptive

sentence Faire un abandonnement de jes Biens is identical to

Richelet's and similar to Nicot's. But contrary to the Academie and

Furetiere, he makes no mention of prostitution in his gloss:

Abandonnement, S.M. an abandoning3 f o r ­ s a k in g3 le a v in g3 q u i t t i n g 3 oaf ting o ff 3 g i v in g 3 de/ertion. Faire un abandonnement de tous (es Biens. To give over 3 or resign one’s Ejtate. Abandonnement, L e w d n e fs3 E x e e js 3 Debauchery. Etre dans le dernier abandonnement. to be extremely lewd.

While Johnson and Nugent offer little to our study of this gloss, Chambaud seems to summarize in his gloss all the changes in usage up to his time: 0013111ement entier, ce|fion de biens, dereglement exce((if. His two descriptive sentences in this gloss are reminis­ cent of those found in the glosses of our earlier lexicographers:

Chambaud: II a fait un abandonnement general de tous (es biens Boyer: Faire un abandonnement de tous jes Biens. Acad. Fr.: Apres 1'abandonnement de tous Jes biens. Richelet: Faire un abandonnement de tous Jes biens. Nicot: Abandonnement de biens.

Chambaud: II vit dans le dernier abandonnement. Boyer: Etre dans le dernier abandonnement. Acad. Fr.: ...le dernier abandonnement. vivre dans l1abandonnement.

Abaissement (abbaissement)

Estienne's gloss for this entry, which consists of Abaissement followed by particularizing words, is repeated either whole or in parts by Harryson, Hollyband, Nicot, Cotgrave and Furetiere. He glosses it as "Abaijfement de voix 3 Submi/fio vocis. A bbaiff ement de c o u r a g e Animi demijjio, Infractio animi. Abbaiff ement de fon e fta t3

Capitis diminutio." Harryson's entry, also composed of abaissement with particularizing words, includes the English equivalent: "Abaijfe- ment de voix, a (peaking Jofte." Hollyband uses a cross-reference under the main verb directing the reader to "Jeeke AbbaiJJer" rather than "abai/er." His gloss is somewhat longer than Harryson's although he too relies on particularizing words for his gloss:

"Abbaiff ement de voix ou de fon eftat, a fpeaking fo ft 3 a decay of e j t a t e , " Nicot uses no particularizing words for his initial gloss of abbaissement, but adds two entries followed by particularizing words with their Latin equivalents. The second entry is identical to the latter half of Hollyband's entry shown above "AbaifJement de fo n e j t a t . Capitis diminutio." Cotgrave offers the most impressive list of equivalents which amply explain the entry: "Abaijsement. a debajing, abating, dejecting, humbling, proftrating; bending downewards, bringing downe, making low ; alfo a fbooping; decreafing, falling, waxing low." Miege, like Hollyband, provides for the orthographical variation of Abaisser by listing a cross-reference. Although he includes two entries for Abaissement, his gloss bears no similarity to either Cotgrave, Nicot or Hollyband: "Abaijfement (m) a bringing down, or making low. AbbaiJJement, 1* etat d'une choje abbaijjee, th e J t a t e , or condition o f a thing brought down, made low, or humbled." Furetiere shows a primary and secondary meaning under two separate entries. His secondary meaning clearly is in the figurative which Cotgrave, Nicot and Hollyband seemed to have stressed as more important:

ABAISSEMENT, Je dit figurement en chojes morales. L 'a b a iff ement devant Dieu ejt une action digne d'un Chretien. L'a- b a ijf ement de courage ejt mal-Jeant a un Philojophe.

But interestingly, his primary meaning had not been stressed by our earlier lexicographers. Whether this is due to their neglect, or is a reflection of lack of usage is questionable. It would seem that, at least prior to the seventeenth century it, had a literal meaning as did the verb from which it developped:

ABAISSEMENT. JubJt. majc. Diminution, re- franchement de hauteur. L'AbaiJJement de ce mur qui otoit la veiie a cette maijon l'a bien egayee. Richelet clarifies the question, at least for the seventeenth century, by stating that it is found in "Quelques traitez qui regardent la

Chirurgie" and proceeds to cite a reference from De Bligni's Traite des hernies. Later in his gloss he notes that it is seldom used

except in a figurative sense: "Ce mot dans le propre n'ej*t pas ce

semble, ujite, ou du moins ne l'ejt guere." Boyer's gloss bears similarity to Richelet's in that it appears to be a translation of his

definition:

Richelet:

A b a iff ement. Humiliation, profternation, action d'une perjonne qui s'abai/(e pour Juplier, ou pour donner quelques marques de ses re/pets.

Boyer:

Abbaif/ ement, Hum iliation> abafe ment3 f t o o p in g 3 c r in g in g 3 f a l l3 d ijg r a c e .

Nugent's English equivalent abafement was seen in Boyer's list of

equivalents, but does appear in Cotgrave. And although Furetiere and

Richelet inferred that abaissement defined as a physical diminution was

rarely used, at least for Chambaud this did not appear to be so. His

primary meaning as a diminution de hauteur is followed by three

descriptive phrases or sentences which reflect standard usage:

L'AbaiJJement du mur a donne du jour a la maijon, The towering o f the walls has thrown more lig h t upon the houfe. L'abaiJ/ement des eaux, the abatement o f the waters. L'abaiJJement de la matrice, The f a l l o f the m atrix.

Descriptive sentences which follow his secondary meaning which he

describes as Abjection.and humiliation, again reflect Chambaud's bent for moralization:

Un parfait Chretien doit /e plaire dans l'abai/(ement, A true C hrijtian ought to delight in hum iliation. Tiens-toi dans un profond abaijjement aupres de celles qui partagent mon amour, Behave thy fe lf with the mojt profound Jubmijf ion towards thofe that divide my love.

Bachelier, Bachelage, Baccalaureat

These three entries show inconsistent development throughout all the works covered. Estienne includes both Bachelier and Bachelage in the same gloss: "Bachelier, Bachelage. Vng ieune bachelier en armes, Neoptolemus, Tyro. Bachelage, apprentijfage, Tyrocinium.11

Harryson lists both separately, altering the meaning of Estienne's first entry, and making a typographical error in the second: "Vn ieune Bachelier en armes, a frejh water foldiour. Bachelage,

Bpprentij^age (sic), bachelorship, prentifhode." We note a change in meaning under Higgins, however, as he does not indicate apprenticeship as a qualifying factor for bachelier, although he does indicate the passing of the age of fourteen as a factor. This corroborates with

Nicot's gloss under Aage in which fourteen was the turning point of youth to manhood:

Bachelir, or one unmarried, or hauing no wyfe... Qui pajf e quatorze ans. Ieun homme. Bachilers, yong men, they that haue pajfed the tender tyme of childhoode. Bacheliers.

Again Baret shows Bacheler as an unmarried man, but at the end of the gloss indicates the academic degree, with no French equivalent: "A bachelor of artes. Artium candidatus..." That the meanings must have expanded since the time of Estienne is reflected in Nicot's gloss. He begins with a discussion of the degree of Bachelier which is awarded at the end of a period of study, and then mentions the term as a title of nobility. At the end of his gloss he repeats Estienne’s definitions. Hollyband1s gloss is identical to Harryson’s while

Cotgrave's shows a greater similarity to Nicot's. Cotgrave changes

the beginning -age of bachelorhood to sixteen, and further defines it

as a person under apprenticeship, who has received an academic degree, or who is a lower ranking member of the aristocracy inferior to

Banneret, but superior to Ejcuyer. Curiously, no mention of marriage is made in his entire gloss. And Miege simply mentions the

degrees Bachelor of Art and Bachelor of Divinity as his English equiva­

lents. Bachelage which he defines as Batchelor(hip at the end of his gloss is not found in any of the succeeding works of our study.

Furetiere is our first lexicographer to include a reference to

Baccalaureat with which he begins his gloss for Bachelier: "...Celuy

qui a le degre de Baccalaureat. B a o h e l'ie v en Theologie, en Medecine,

en Droit Civil, & Canon." With great detail he discusses the entry

as a title of nobility, giving several possible etymological develop­ ments. In a sub-entry he explains its usage in crafts and trade:

BACHELIER, ejt aujji parmi les artijans, et dans tous les corps de mejtiers, un Maijtre elu pour a/jijter les Jures en la fonction de leurs charges. On elit tous les ans deux Jures & deux B a c h e H e rs du me/tier.

Furetiere also lists Baccalaureat separately, defines it, and gives

a cross-reference to Bachelier. Richelet throws some light on

seventeenth century usage of Bachelier. Specifically, he stipulates the terms under which the academic degree is granted in the various faculties, and gives a lengthy discussion of Bachelier as a title of nobility. But the most interesting part of his gloss reveals a meaning not heretofore encountered in our study, yet which he claims is obsolete:

Bachelier. Ce mot jignifie auj/i celui •qui fait 1*amour a une jeune fille. Amant de quelque jeune fille. Le mot de b a c h e lie r en ce Jens ejt hors d'ujage.

Boyer adds no new insights into the entry, choosing to define the entry as an academic and aristocratic title. He includes Baccalaureat separately, equating it to the Bachelor of Art in the University.

Nugent lists both separately, but his equivalent for Baccalaureat seems to be incorrect in relation to our previous lexicographers'

equivalents: "Bachelier, J.m. bachelor of art. Baccalaureat, ,m. batchelorship. (sic)" Chambaud’s gloss is extremely brief, possibly

revealing a narrowing of meaning at least for Bachelier toward the

last half of the eighteenth century.

Badin, Badaud, Badinerie, Badauerie, etc.

These and related entries are present in all of the bilingual

dictionaries of our study and in several of the other major works.

Harryson modestly glosses it "Badault, Badin, a dolt, a foole."

Nicot*s treatment is equally modest as he presents only the forms

"Badinage, Badinerie, Nugae," with none for Badaud or Badin.

Hollyband, however, expands the gloss considerably. He retains

Badinage but glosses it more extensively than Nicot u...pettrie, or

riffe raffe, or ceremonies: apijhnes: m. II ejt fait au badinage, he is acquainted with fuch a matter: he hath the tricke ." Badinerie, which appeared in Nicot is retained by Hollyband, although treated

separately from Badinage: "... vices3 trickes: apifh trickes." The

gloss we saw earlier in Harryson's work and which was missing in

Nicot's, re-appears with new French equivalents under Hollyband, but with the same English meanings: "Badault, badin, badelori, debadault

de Paris, a dolt3 a foole: m." Cotgrave gives a list of equivalents

under Badinage which reveal expanded meanings from what we saw in

Hollyband's gloss, but he does present the same descriptive sentence

with a thorough English explanation:

II ejt fait au badinage. He hath his part readie, his le//on at his fingers end ; he hath got the tricke of it; he is thorough­ ly in tructed how to handle the matter3 how to carry the comp lo t.

Badinerie Cotgrave refers back to Badinage and Badaui^e to Badauderie,

which he glosses as ".. .SottilhnefJe3 fopperie3 doltifhneffe." The

latter form along with Badaudij*e appear to be new to our study, not

having been listed by Hollyband, Nicot or Harryson. The main

entries Badin, Badaud have changed positions of importance, if the

size of the gloss in Cotgrave is any indication. Both Hollyband and

Harryson list them together, and in that order. We note that Cotgrave

begins by furnishing Badault as a French equivalent, lists several

English equivalents, three new idioms never before seen along with

English explanations, and a proverb which he does not explain. His

gloss for Badaud however consists merely in a list of English

equivalents with no further elaboration: Badin: m. as Badault; alJo3 a Iugler; Tum­ bler; or any Juch Jport-maker. Badin enfarine; & Badin (ans farine. A notable coxconbe3 an A jf e in graines3 alio a foole3 or Viae in a play. Aller en badin. To goe J lo w ly 3 as one that Jeemes to count the Jteps he Jets. Efcholier babillard prez le feu, & badin hours la clajje: prov. Looke Ejfcolier.

Badault: m. A foole3 dolt3 Jot3 fop3 affe3 • coxcombe3 gaping hoydon.

Miege's gloss for Badin is not unlike Cotgrave's. Under Badinage he includes "Etre fait au badinage...to play booty with one.u and follows this with the identical descriptive sentence found in Cotgrave and Hollyband: "II ejt fait au badinage, he has got the trick on’t3 he knows how to carry him jelf in the combination ." His gloss for

Badaud contains French and English equivalents which appear to be a re-ordering of those found in Cotgrave and Hollyband. He does, however, offer a long French descriptive sentence: "Un badaut, qui re­ garde conf idere niaij*ement tout ce qui je pre^ente j[ jes yeux.

Furtiere, Richelet and the Academie all present thorough glosses for these entries. Furetiere explains Badinage as Petite folaj trerie, divert i J J ement peu ferieux, jeu d'enfants, and gives a secondary definition: Jignifie auffi en matiere de galanterie, de petites my - teres, de petites faqons grimaces qui fervent ji divertir ou a^ cacher aux autres Ja pajyion. Badinerie is explained as the existence of nothing serious or solid, Badaudij'e as jottife, Richelet's treatment of the entry is not unlike Furetiere's. In addition to the definition found in Furetiere, Richelet glosses Badinage as Enjouement, maniere de dire agreablement les cho f es. The remainder of the glosses which appear under Badinerie do not appear to differ substantially from the glosses of our previous lexicographers. It is interesting to note, however, an apparent change in usage as reflected by Furetiere and

Richelet's glosses for Badin and Badaud. Whereas Cotgrave and Miege included a longer gloss for Badin, Furetiere and Richelet include more information under Badaud, and by the time we reach Chambaud both

forms are substantially narrowed and altered in meaning. The

Furetiere and Richelet gloss for Badin is limited, and in addition,

Richelet makes no provision for a feminine form:

Furetiere: BADIN, INE. adj. & 5ub(t. Qui ejt folajtre, peu jerieux, qui fait des plaijanteries. Les enfants jont naturellement b a d in s . il n'ya rien plus agreable qu'un amour b a d in.

Richelet: BADIN. j-. m. Sot, fat, benet. C Elle croit qu'un badin qui danje & (aute vaut mieux qu'un honnete hommej

Badaud on the other hand is given more complete treatment by Furetiere.

He begins his gloss by giving both masculine and feminine forms, and

adds the equivalents Sot, niais, ignorant. Both Furetiere and Richelet

refer to the Badaud as an inhabitant of Paris, which is reminiscent of

Hollyband:

Furetiere: C'ejt un jobriquet injurieux qu'on a donne aux habitans de Paris, a cauje qu'ils s'attroupent & s'amujent a voir & a admirer tout ce qui Je rencontre en leur chemin, pour peu qu'il leur jemble extraordinaire.

Richelet: Ne a Paris. £ Les badauts de Paris. Mais en ce jens le mot de b a d a u t je dit en riant.2

The Academie's treatment of the entries is not unusual, and not nearly

so complete as its predecessors. The descriptive sentence Elle ejt faite au badinage again appears under Badinage, otherwise its gloss and those for Badinerie and Badauderie offer nothing of interest. The

Academie*s glossing of Badin is not as full of Badaud, although it glosses the latter almost as briefly as Cotgrave.

BADIN, INE. adj. ... II e(t aujfi (ub$t. C 'e f t un vray badin3 un frano badin.

BADAUD, AUDE. Jub$t. Niais qui s'amuje a tout & admire tout. C 'eft un vray badaud3 badaud de P a r is .

Boyer's entry for Badinerie is listed as a sub-entry under Badiner, however the infinitive gloss appears similar to Richelet's for

Badinage. Boyer's gloss for Badauderie appears to be influenced by

Furetiere's. Badin, however, receives fuller treatment under Boyer.

He lists, for example, more English equivalents than Cotgrave, and shows a feminine form Badine. Badinage appears with much the same equivalents we have seen before, followed by Elle e(t faite au badinage, also seen earlier in 'liege, Cotgrave and Hollyband, but in the masculine third person singular. Badaud and Badaude appear with brief glosses, but the following interesting, if not questionable reference appears: "Badaud and Badaude, are Nicknames fo r Parisians3 as Cockney is for Londoners." At the end of the gloss a cross- reference is indicated for Badaudage and Badauderie. Nugent glosses

Badinage, Badinerie, Badauderie, Badin-e, Badaud-e, all with one word equivalents, none of which present any interesting developments. Of all the glosses studied, Chambaud presents the most thorough for

Badinage. His gloss includes a ■:rench explanation of the entry, an

English definition, a series of English equivalents, and several French descriptive sentences with their English translations. Chambaud'

choice as his first descriptive sentence is familiar to us: Elle e^t

faite au badinage. With the exception of the Nugent and Harryson dic­

tionaries, this descriptive sentence has found its way to all the bilingual dictionaries of this study, in addition to the Dictionnaire

de 1'Academic franqoise. Badinerie, Badauderie, Badin-e all appear in

separate glosses with no unusual equivalents. Under Badaud-e however, we find two new equivalents and the same descriptive phrase seen

earlier in Boyer, which seems to be a questionable over-simplification:

BADAUD, AUDE, £.m. & f. £niais qui admire to u tj A jilly man or woman3 a foolijh ad­ mirer o f anything , a ninny3 a nincompoop. Un badaud de Paris, A C ockney.

Bail, Bailli, Baillie, Baillement, etc.

These entries show a gradual decline in usage throughout our

study. Estienne glosses several related noun entries which are seen

in works of succeeding lexicographers. They are: "'Bailie en garde3

Commendatus, Baillement3 Traditio, Tributio, B a ill e u r 3 Praebitor,

Tributor, Bailleur de bons iours3 Nugator. ...Mettre quelqu'ung

en la baillie d'aucung, |oubz l'ejperance qu'on a de Ja foy & du bon

traictement." Harryson's glosses are not nearly as complete as

Estienne's, and for the most part consist of one word equivalents. He

translates Estienne's Latin equivalent of Baillement to English ja

giuing, £i deliuering, as well as his Bailleur to a giuer. However, he

includes ''Bailli, a B a y l i" f which Estienne omitted. Higgins glosses

Bayle or mainpryje as Baillement. Baret glosses two entries, a Bayle

as prorne( (e. ou obligation de comparoir deuant le iugc, au i o u r a (Jigne, and "Bayly...qui a la charge de quelque chofe." Nicot's entries and equivalents are frequently identical to Estienne's, although he includes a much more complete explanation of the entries, adds some entries of his own, and makes some changes. For example he lists Bailie en garde and Mettre quelqu1un en JLa baillie d faucun, ^ous 1 * e^perance qu'on a_ de Ja foy, du bon traitement. He glosses Baillement and

Bailleur exactly as Estienne, but alters Estienne's entry to Bailleur de beaux iours followed by an additional equivalent Crejtologus. Bail he equates to Traditlo, the same equivalent he gives for Baillement, and adds "Bail a ferme3 Ball a louage. Ablocatio, Elocatio, Contrac­ tus elocationis," for which no prior model appears in the corpus. This entry is later seen in Cotgrave's work. Under the entry Bailli Nicot furnishes a complete discussion of the system of the Bail. At the end of the gloss he makes some curious parallels:

Bailli,.. .A lnjl appele3 parce quH l a en Ja b a illie 3 o 'e ft a dire Joubs Jon gou- uemement3 £ iu ri diction3 ceux de fon balllage. Et notez qu’al pais de langue- doc & adlaces on appelle Senefchal} Com- blen que audit pays de Langue d'ouy 11 y a it au s i quelques SeneJchaux. Le Languedoc d lt Balle en m afculln pour le m agljtrat du village. Et Balle en feminin pour vne nourrlce3 le tout de 'B aillie3 par ce que tant le d lt magl- tra t a enfon gouuernement le village3 que aufsl la nourrlce fa nourrljjon.

Baillie which we saw in Estienne's descriptive sentence, appears as a

separate entry with equivalent and descriptive sentence in Nicot's

work. Hollyband's gloss does not reflect the variety of Nicot's.

However, Bail as renouvelcr on bail de dix en dix ans which he glosses

as J^o renew his leaJe euery ten yeares lias no prior counterpart,

although his Bail, or gardien appears reminiscent of Nicot. Cotgrave's main entry under Bail presents the clearest discussion of the entry in several different contexts.

Bail: m. A guardian, or gouemour o f a Ward, or (as a husband) of a wife ; alfo, fuoh a wardship, tuition, gouemement; aljo, the Deed, Inftrw nent, or Lea/e, whereby a thing is pajfed, or let upon a certaine rentj aljo a giuing, graunting, yeelding, pajfing ouer in farme, or by leafe ; See Garde.

Two descriptive phrases Bail ji ferme and Bail ji louange were seen earlier in Nicot, but are glossed more completely by Cotgrave:

Bail a ferme. A lea/e for yeares; ejpeoially Juch a one, as giues the lefjor power to re­ enter for non-payment of the rent.

Bail a louange. A ehattell, or moueable hired out for a certaine time, and with clauje of reentrie, as before.

Cotgrave lists four other types of Bail: Bail a_ ferme d ’heritage,

Bail de justice, Bail de mariage, Bail naturel. His last entry

Tenir le Royaume en bail he glosses as To_ be Protector of the Kingdome or haue the Regencie, or Gouernment thereof. It is not surprizing that Cotgrave gave such complete glosses for these entries, as we saw from our discussion in Part I that he paid special attention to law terms. Miege's treatment of Bail although not as complete, is clear nevertheless. His Bail de maifon, de terre which he glosses as letting of a houfe (or of a farm) to rent, is covered in Cotgrave's

gloss for Bail. Two sentences which Miege presents in his gloss

appear to be poor choices as descriptive sentences for this entry, so

similar are they to each other in thought. Nor are they dissimilar

in thought to Cotgrave's Bail de mariage and Bail naturel: Le mari vivant a le bail de Ja femme, th e livin g husband hath the ward/hip or govern­ ment o f his wife and her whole eftate.

Le mari ejt bail de Ja femme, the husband is his wifes guardian.

Bail, tutele, the wardfhip a father or mother hath of their child.

Furetiere’s treatment of Bail is not unlike Cotgrave’s. He discusses at length several aspects of the Bail which he claims to be a law term, as, for example Bail conventionel a voluntary lease between two parties, Bail d’heritages which was discussed by Cotgrave, Bail as the document, and lastly as a guardianship or tutelage. Richelet's contribution to this entry, the Bail d1amour, will be seen later in

Chambaud's work:

B ail d'amour. Contrat de mariage, une a/furance d 1aimer, & de ne pas quitter une mai/trej^e. Pour rendre votre esprit certain, je vous pajferai des demain un bail d'amour devant un notaire.

The remainder of Richelet’s treatment of the gloss is brief compared to what we have seen in previous works: "Bail, J. m. Ce mot fait au pluriel, baux. Contrat pajje devant notaire, de quelque mai^on, ou de ferme." The treatment of the gloss by the Academie is generally similar to Furetiere’s and Cotgrave’s. However, a figurative meaning never before seen in any of our previous works, and not seen later, is included in its gloss: ”0n dit fig. Cela n 'e jt pas de mon b a il, pour dire, Qu’entre les chojes que je me Juis oblige de faire ou de dire, celle-la n'y e j t pas comprise..." Boyer's gloss simply reads

"BAIL, S.M. (Convention pour donner a ferme, a lover, a rente un heritage, une Mai (on, & c.) a Leaje, a farming, or giving to farm ," and Nugent gives but one English equivalent leaje. Chambaud, on the other hand, gives two meanings, the usual literal meaning we have seen in our previous works "... contrat par lequel on donne une terre a ferme, ou une maijon a louange Leaje," and a figurative meaning, reminiscent of Richelet:

A Jon age, il a deja eu a bail deux Comediennes, Young as he is 3 he has already had two ActreJJes in keeping. Cette jolie Comedienne a pajj e bail avec Mylord un tel, This pretty Aotrejs has entered into articles w ith Lord juch a one.

Cabaret

This entry is listed as two distinct nouns by Estienne. He glosses " C a h a re tj Popina," and "Vng Cabaret fecret3 Arcana, popina."

A second entry reads "Du Cabaret. Herbe qu'on appelle cabaret, Asaru, perpen a." Harryson equates Cabaret to a Tauerne or vitling houfe, but also glosses the herb mentioned by Estienne as Hafel wort. Nicot describes it as a tavern "en laquelle on ajsied a pieces <5 d e f t a i l .

Popina." He adds it is somewhat like a hojtellerie where people and horses are received, and where one is placed at the host's table, and somewhat like a tavern where one drinks wine. Nicot includes

"Vn cabaret fecret3 Arcana popina" later in his gloss and defines it exactly as did Estienne. However, Nicot presents several new noun additions such as Valet de cabaret, Vn hanteur de cabaret, Cabaretier.

The herb Cabaret he includes as a separate entry, defining it identi­ cally to Estienne. Hollyband is brief, but differing somewhat from

Harryson, he glosses Cabaret as ja victualling houje. Cotgrave gives us several equivalents, only one of which is identical to Hollyband. His equivalents indicate an agreement with what we learned from Nicot concerning the various types of establishments which came under the name of Cabaret.

Cabaret: m. An Ale-houfe; a tip lin g 3 and victualling houJe3 tent3 or booth ; a l / o 3 the hearbe UajeU)ort3 Folefoot3 Cabaret3 Ajarabacca.

At the end of his gloss he adds "Suppoft de cabaret. An Ale-knight3

Ale-houfe haunter3 lick- pigot3 common tip le r3 ordinarie drunkard."

Miege distinguishes between the "Cabaret a vin, a ta v e r n 3 " and the

"Cabaret a biere, an ale houje." He adds "Cabaretier (m) tenant cabaret, a Tavern-keeper3 or an Ale-houfe-keeper" to the gloss which we have not seen since Nicot. As we might expect, Furetiere specifies the difference between the Cabaret and the Taverne which Miege and

Cotgrave accounted for, and which Nicot attempted to explain. To

Furetiere the Cabaret is an establishment in which wine is sold "en detail" and where there are no tables and chairs, while the tavern sells wine with dinner: "Au lieu qu'a la ta v e rn e on vent le vin par ajjiette & on y apprejte a manger." He claims that wine purchased at the Cabaret is "pre/que toujours frelate, & fait mal a la tete."

The inclusion of "C a b a re t borgne, un mechant c a b a re t qui n'ejt frequente que par de gens pauvres, qui e|t objcur, mal propre, & mal

Jervi," is significant as it is later seen in Chambaud's dictionary.

Cabaretier which we saw in Miege1 s gloss is listed separately under

Furetiere. Richelet makes no effort to distinguish Cabaret from

Taverne but simply defines it as "Logis ou l’on vend du vin en detail,

& ou l'on donne a boire a pot & a pinte. Cabaret borgne. C'ejt un merchant petit cabaret." Contrary to Furetiere, the Academie tells us that a Cabaret is a Taverne,maifon ou l'on donne a_ boire 8^ a_ manger ji toutes jortes de perjonnes en payant, which seems to be closer to

Nicot's earlier statement. Another reference to the Cabaret borgne, observed in both Furetiere and Richelet, appears at the end of the gloss. Boyer's gloss consists of a French explanation: Lieu ou on vend du Vin en detail followed by an English equivalent a^ Tavern. He makes no mention in his explanation of French Taverne. For clarity however, he distinguishes between the several types of Cabaret:

Cabaret Biere, Cabaret ji Cidre, but he gives no specific designation for the Cabaret a^ vin, and does not stress the distinction between

Cabaret and Taverne which Furetiere would have him do. Entries for the keepers of the Cabaret complete the gloss: "Cabaretier...(qui tient un Cabaret a Vin) a Tavern-Man, one that keeps a Tavern,

Cabaretier...(qui tient un Cabaret a biere) an Ale-hou/e keeper,

Cabaretiere...(maiftre/{e d'un Cabaret a Vin) a Tavern Woman,

Cabaretiere, (d'un Cabaret a biere) an Ale-hou^e Woman." Chambaud equates Cabaret to French Taverne and makes no distinction in either

French or English between the two:

CABARET, /.m. £ taverne, mai/on ou l'on donne a boire & a manger pour de 1'argent]T a v e rn3 houfe o f entertainment. Cabaret a biere, An A le - h o u je . Un cabaret borgne (mauvais & peu frequente) A blind tavern, a ■poultry place.

Chambaud lists a new noun never before seen in our corpus. This

Cabaret he defines as Tea-table or tea-equipage and explains it as a petite table ou plateau, qui a_ los bords releves, jur quoi on met des taffes pour prendre du the, du caffe. Chambaud ends his gloss with an entry for the Cabaret plant. In spite of the fact that this entry can be traced as far as Estienne, it is the first instance in which the medicinal value of the plant is mentioned: "Cabaret plante, dont la racine e£t vomitive Afarabacca."

Cabinet

The development of this entry throughout the dictionaries studied indicates a series of semantic changes. Estienne first mentions it as a kind of chest: " C a b in e t, Ci^tula, Scrinium, Le cabinet de M ithri- d a te s , Sanctuarium, vel janctuaria Mithridates,-Le cabinet d'une feme, toutes les fortes d'ornemes, joyaulx <5 affiquetz qu’elle ha -pour f'aaooujtrer S a ttife r, Mundus, and Les cabinetz des femmes. Arculae muliebres." Harryson repeats Estienne's gloss practically verbatim, but adds the English equivalents: Cabinet, a C o fe r, Les cabinets des femmes, Womens c a s k e t s . ” Nicot presents some new meanings in his gloss which are later repeated in succeeding dictionaries. For example, he adds "Le cabinet du Roy, Cimeliarchium, Le maistre du c a b in e t , Cimeliarchu," and lastly "Cabinet en iarden, Nubilarium, vel Suffugium..." He repeats Harryson's and Estienne's entry Le cabinet d 1une femme giving Estienne's Latin equivalent Mundus.

Hollyband's French entries Le cabinet and Les cabinets are identical to Nicot's, Harryson's and Estienne's, and are glossed exactly as

Harryson's. II ejt au Cabinet du jardin is reminiscent of Nicot's entry. "Cabinet, a coffer," which we saw in Harryson's dictionary, has an additional English equivalent a Wardrope (sic). Cotgrave introduces several new meanings in his gloss, along with a clear explanation Cabinet: m. A cabinet3 or eafket3 for iewels3 &c: a ljo3 a elojet3 little chamber3 or wardrobe3 wherein one keeps his be ft or mojt e(teemed3 JnbJtance: alJo3 an arbor in a garden.

"Le Cabinet du Roy, The p rivie chamber3" which originally was seen in

Nicot, is included later in Cotgrave's gloss. An entirely new entry

Cabinet d'Allemagna, Cotgrave explains is a /tandijh made of ebony, whereas Richelet later mentions it as an efpece d* armoire avec des tiroirs, faite d'ebene, de noier, ou d'autre beau bois, propre

ferrer des hardes. We make no reference to Allemagne, however. The

Academie, on the other hand describes the Cabinet d1Allemagne as a buffet with drawers or shelves. Miege's treatment of the gloss reveals a change of order of the equivalents. Contrary to Cotgrave's order, he begins by giving a French explanation of Cabinet and

follows with an English equivalent a. clofet. His second entry defines

it as a_ cabinet for jewels. The Cabinet de verdure, which he gives as

a French equivalent for Nicot's Cabinet en jardin, and which was mentioned by Cotgrave, is more clearly explained by Miege: "Cabinet de verdue, ou de Jardin, fait de branches d'arbres, an harbour."

Furetiere describes it as a secret room in a royal apartment or a great house, a study where one may hide valuables, a leaf-covered en­

closure in the back part of a garden, a wardrobe, a toilet, a boutique where curiosities are sold, a special room in a Royal household where articles are arranged in rows or a certain order, a

Buffet, a kind of portable organ, and lastly, the king's private

council. He makes no mention, in spite of this rather thorough list,

of the original meaning of woman's casket for precious jewels. Richelet and the Academie present essentially the same information as

Furetiere, however not nearly as complete. Richelet calls it a study, the king’s council, an armoire, an arbor and a type of organ. The

Academie adds to this an office, and the contents of the cabinet itself:

II Jignifie au/Ji, Tout ce qui ejt contenu dans le cabinet; comme, II vend /on cabinet, il fa it un cabinet, on ejtime le cabinet d'un tel vingt m ille efcus.

An interesting expansion of meaning of this entry is presented by the

Academie:

C a b in e t s veut dire au/fi, Les /ecrets, les myj'teres les plus cachez de la Cour. I l entend mieux le cabinet qu'homme qui fo it a la Cour. I'intrigue du cabinet.

The re-ordering of equivalents in Boyer's gloss reveals new patterns of usage. He begins his gloss by giving a French equivalent:

"CABINET.S.M. (petit lieu retire dans une Mai on) a C lo s e t . " Immedia­

tely following he includes the expanded meanings indicated by the

Academie: "...(les Jecrets, les My/teres de la cour)..." Boyer replaces Cotgrave's Privy Council with Cabinet Council and adds "Etre

du Cabinet, to be of the Cabinet Council." He glosses Cabinet

(Buffet) as CheJt of drawers and distinguishes between two types of houses in a garden- the Cabinet as an arbour, or an enclosure covered with greenery, and a Summer houje, a garden enclosure made of wood or brick. Boyer mentions Cabinet as a study indirectly in a descriptive

phrase: "Un Homme de Cabinet, (un homme Jtudieux) a Studious or

Bookijh Man." Finally he gives the English equivalents Clofet, Hou(e

or office. In spite of the varied meanings of this particular entry, Nugent gives only one English equivalent Cabinet. Chambaud, unlike

Boyer who neglected the meaning of Cabinet as a study, begins his

gloss as ''...lieu de retraite pour travailler, ou converter en

particulier...Clojet, |tudy." He follows this with Homme de Cabinet

which we observed at the end of Boyer's gloss, and Cabinet as a cheft

of drawers. The Cabinet as an organ, which we have not seen since

Furetiere and Richelet, returns to Chambaud's gloss as "Cabinet

d'orgue, A chamber organ." The distinction between summer house and

arbor made by Boyer is retained by Chambaud. However, they appear as

part of the same gloss:

CABINET £ petit lieu couvert dans un jardin, Joit de treillage, de magonnerie, ou de verdurej A jummer-houjet a green arbour , a b o tie r.

Cabinet as the confeil jecret du Roi, Cabinet, cabinet-council

completes Chambaud's listings for this entry.

Cachette

Estienne's gloss for this entry consists mainly of descriptive

sentences and phrases. He begins with Vne cachette for which he gives

no Latin equivalent, followed by Vng lieu plein de cachettes, and the

adverbial construction En cachette with the Latin equivalents: Clam,

clandestino, ex occulto, in occulto, latenter. Harryson repeats

Estienne's main entry, but adds two English equivalents a corner, a

clofe place, and a new noun not previously seen, "Cachement,a hidyng."

En cachette is glossed as privily, closely, hiddenly. Nicot describes

the entry as lieu ou on _jjc cache retire. En cachette is followed by

identical Latin equivalents as in Estienne's. Cachement differs from Harryson's gloss in that it is followed by Occultatio. Hollyband in­

cludes but two entries with a descriptive phrase: Vne Cachette and En

Cachette which he glosses exactly as Harryson. His descriptive phrase

"Chercher des Cachettes, to jeeke darke corners" has questionable value

in the gloss. Cotgrave carries both entries under one gloss, but

increases the number of equivalents substantially. Of all the equiva­

lents in his gloss, only two appear earlier: "Cachette (f.) a lu r k in g

hole or corner, a eloje nooke 3 fecret place 3 hiding hold: alfo a

denne 3 or couert. En cachette. P r i v i l y 3 c l o f e l y 3 f e c r e t l y 3 c o u e r t ly 3

h id d e n ly 3 vnder-hand 3 in hugger mugger." Miege's gloss has several

equivalents identical to Cotgrave: "Cachette (f.) a lurking hole or

c o m e r 3 a Jecret place. En cachette, en Jecret, p r i v i l y 3 f e c r e t l y 3

u n d e r-h a n d 3 in hugger-mugger. " He also includes a new entry "Cachot

(m) prison objcure, a dark priJon 3 a h o le 3 " as part of the gloss.

None of the previous or succeeding lexicographers include this entry

as part of the gloss for Cachette. Furetiere's gloss is merely an

equivalent, with a descriptive sentence, although he does include the

adverbial construction En cachette as a sub-entry. Richelet glosses

Cache rather than Cachette. He suggests, however, that it is a place

where one hides things rather than oneself: Lieu on l'on jerre

quelque choje pour n* etre ni veu, ni trouve. His only comment for

En cachette is that occasionally it is spelled with a final s. The

Academie glosses it with one equivalent, but interestingly mentions it

is a form growing obsolete: "CACHETTE. J.f. Petite cache. II

vieillit." Chambaud's gloss coiisists of four equivalents which are

identical to Cotgrave's: "CACHETTE, j . f . £ petite cacheJ A lu r k in g hole or hidden-comer. EN CACHETTE, adv. [a la derobe£jU n d e r-h a n d 3 in hugger-mugger." CHAPTER V

VERBS

Abbatre, Abattre, Abbattre, Abatre

The spelling of this entry was variable in the corpus. Estienne,

Harryson, Hollyband, Cotgrave, Boyer and Nugent indicate Abbatre, whereas Furetiere and Richelet indicate Abatre. Miege notes both

Abattre and Abbatre, but his gloss appears under the latter, while

Chambaud glosses his entry under the former.

Estienne equates the entry to Latin Decutere, De truere, Deturbare,

Diruere, Percellere, Pro ternere, which he follows with the descriptive phrases and their Latin equivalents Abbatre une maifon..., Aije a_ abbatre... Occasionally his sentences or phrases are suggestive of, if not identical to, those appearing in the glosses of his successors, as, for example: La fain et la Joif abbatent le corps. Ce3.a abb at l'yurongnerie d'une per^onne & le de^enyure... Vaincre quelqu1ung & abbatre qu'il joit des noftres... Harryson’s gloss is a series of one word equivalents with no accompanying descriptive phrases or sentences.

His English equivalents are for the most part English translations of

the Latin equivalents found in Estienne's gloss: to beate downe,

throwe downe, or hurle downe. Moving to Nicot we discover a French

explanation not previously encountered:

Abatre, act. penac. E jt mettre par terre, ruer ius quelque ehoJes la faire cheoir ou trebuaher de haut en has.

followed by generally the same Latin equivalents seen in Estienne, but with the addition of Euertere and the dropping of Diruere and

Percellere. He includes an etymological derivation, and the same descriptive phrases and sentences seen in Estienne, but with the usual orthographical changes: Aije a abbattre... La falm & la joif abbatent le corps. Vaincre quelqu'un 6^ l1 abbattre ji £e qu'il (oit des nojbres. He substitutes yurejje for Estienne's yurongnerie in Cela

abbat l'yurejje d'vne per|onne, & le dejfenyure. Hollyband's gloss is

innovative in that he presents the principal parts of the verb as well

as the infinitive, which was not included in the glosses of his pre­

decessors: "Abbatre, j'abbas, j'abbati, j'ay abbatu, j'abbatray, to beate downe3 throwe downe3 to hewe3 or hurle downe." With the

exception of to hewe, Hollyband's English equivalents are identical,

even in order, to Harryson's. An apparently erroneous inclusion which

has no relation to Hollyband's gloss reads: "II porte un ^ynople a

trois Lyons d'argent, he beareth a green j'hielde w ith3

descriptive sentence La fain et la foif... which we saw originally in

Estienne is translated as ...hunger and thirjt do beate or bring downe

the body. Substituting L'huile for Cela, Hollyband's sentence L'huile

d'olif abbat l'yvrongnerie d'une perjbnne, et le dejenyvre, which he

translates as Jalet oyle doth driue away drunkenes, &c, is suggestive

of Estienne and Nicot. Cotgrave glosses the entry as:

Abbatre, to fe ll: to beat or breake downe: violently to beare3 or bring downe: to ruine3 ouerthrow3 oajt to the ground: aljo to defeat utterly3 dijoom fit wholy.

His descriptive sentence "Cela abbat l'yvrejje, that quels allaies3

abates drunkenneJJe; or makes a man Jober againe3" bears similarity

to Hollyband, Nicot and Estienne. However he adds to his gloss the

proverb: "Fort e j t qui abbat, & plus fort qui Je releue," not hereto­

fore seen in a gloss. Miege's treatment of the entry appears to be the most original up to this point. He does not include the principal parts as does Hollyband, but instead indicates differences in tense within the context of his descriptive sentences: "Cela lui abbatra le courage, that w ill abate his courage; Je lui abbattrai le caquet; La pluie abbat la poujjiere." His English equivalents are similar to those seen in the glosses of his predecessors, with the exception of to pull or break down. Both figurative and literal meanings are covered in Miege's gloss; "Abbattre des fruits d'un arbre; Abbattre fa robe, to make his gown hang down, Abbattre le courage." Two more phrases in his gloss appear similar to Nicot and Estienne: "Abbattre quecun, l'affliger, to cajt one down, to grieve, to a fflic t him;

Abbattre quecun, le vaincre, to bring one down, to give him an over­ throw, to beat him. " Lastly Miege appears to be our first lexico­ grapher to indicate Abbattre with a reflexive pronoun: "La chaleur s'abbat, the heat begins to be a lla y 'd Turning to Furetiere, we note a considerable number of new meanings in addition to those already cited. Among them are: to crack open, " on a b a t les noix avec la gaule"; to fall, "ce cheval e f t ^ujet a s 'a b a t r e , c'eft a dire, a broncher, a tomber"; to overcome, "...le tabac abat les fumees du yin, les vapeurs"; and to weaken, "Cette maladie, ce voyage l'a bien abatu."

Nautical and falconry terms are covered in much of Furetiere's commentary. Abatre in the former sense he describes as Defcheoir, deriver, s'ecarter de JLa vraye route, to lose ones course (due to ocean or wind currents). Abatre in falconry, he explains, is used in the sense of to hold down a bird in order to powder him, or to give him medication. His examples of Abatre in the figurative sense are much the same as those seen previously, as, for example, il s*e(t laiffe vaincre

& abatre a la douleur. He completes his gloss with the proverb "Petite pluye abat grant vent," and the statement that a man who completes many tasks and a judge who expedites many cases "abatent bien du bois."

Richelet begins his gloss with a listing of the principal parts of the verb. Of his equivalents, only one, couper to cut, is of interest to us. To explain this new equivalent he offers: Qu'il verfera de fang, qu'il abatra de tetes. He also indicates that the verb is used by butchers to mean to remove the hide from an animal with a knife.

Richelet lists S 'abatre along with its principal parts: ie m'abas, je m'abatis, which he equates to s'abaif^er, _£e laij^ er tomber. He offers a literal and figurative descriptive sentence and phrase as part of his gloss: L' oifeau s'abat, and Se lai (fer abatre 1 la moindre afliction. Boyer begins his gloss with a French explanation: Renverfer entierement, and a string of English equivalents. Of these, to batter down has not appeared previously. He gives no principal parts, but compensates for this by including twenty descriptive sentences, a great many of which employ the entry in a figurative context. Apparently this verb lent itself to much popularization, and hence, expansion.

Used alone, Boyer indicates, the verb may have the meaning of to humiliate, or t

Abbatre les Rideaux, to untie, to draw, or to le t down the Curtains. Abbatre des Arbres, to fe ll (or out down T re e s . ) ...Qu'il abbatra des Tetes? How many Heads w ill he out off? How many Heads w ill fa ll before him? ...La pluye abbat la poujjiere. ...Elle abbatit ja Robe. ...Abbatre le Cuir d'un Boeuf

Boyer employs Abbatre as a nautical term, but includes it within a slightly different context from Furetiere: "Abbatre les Mats d'un

Vaij^sea (en Termes de Marine) to Jhoot the M a jts by the b o a r d ."

Used reflexive! y, Boyer notes the verb means to fall, to tumble down, 9 . •> • 1 ' ~r 1 M r r ' 11- » and gives the examples: "Mon Cheval s'abbatit jous moi, my H o r/e fe ll under me; Le vent s'abbat." A third example, "La chaleur s'abbat, the heat abates3" is identical to Miege's. Chambaud indicates principal parts after the infinitive, a French equivalent, followed by a series of English equivalents. His treatment of the entry, although inten­ sive, does not include the large number of figurative meanings found in Boyer. His first descriptive phrase "Abattre une maijon, to p u l l a houje domn3" recalls Furetiere and Estienne. Abattre des arbres, un foret, un rideau and Abattez votre robe appeared in previous works.

Chambaud's Abattre les mats is identical to Boyer's example, as is the expression Abattre bien du Bois to Boyer and his predecessors. Je lui abattrai le caquet, although somewhat different in its translation:

I will ftrike him dumb, is the same descriptive phrase found in Miege and Boyer. And Chambaud's proverb "Petite pluie abat grant vent" is observable in Miege, Furetiere and Boyer. Under the reflexive verb

Chambaud lists "Je laijjer tomber, To f a l l ., t o J to o p " and "perdre

courage, To be aajt down> to dejpond." The descriptive sentences he

furnishes for the former bear striking resemblance to Boyer:

Mon cheval s'abbatit Jous moi... L'oijeau s'abat... Le vent s'abat... Le chaleur s'abat... But his descriptive sentence for the latter, "Le jage ne s'abat point dans l'adver|ite, The wije man is not oajt down in adver/ity ," appears not to have any previous antecedents. Nugent indicates one equivalent for this entry: v.a. pull down.

Abbayer, Abboyer, Aboyer

Estienne, Harryson, Nicot, Hollyband and Cotgrave gloss this entry

as Abbayer, whereas Miege, Furetiere and the Academie spell their entry

Abboyer. Furetiere, however, does indicate the alternate spelling of

abbayer. Nugent's entry is listed under aboyer, as is Boyer's, although

the latter includes a cross-reference to abayer.

Estienne begins his gloss with the infinitive of the verb followed by the Latin equivalents Latrare and Oblatrare. He adds only two

descriptive phrases: "Quand I'eaue bat eontre quelque riue3 tellement qu'elle Jemble abbayer.. .Abbayer a quelqu'ung, Allatrare." Harryson

furnishes only a one word equivalent _to^ barke. Nicot includes the verb

under his discussion of the noun, which he claims is derived from the

Latin deponent verb Baubor, baubaris, or else developed as an imitation

of a sound dogs make: "...Abay & la juite, Junt verba factitia a jono

canis latrantis." He equates the infinitive with the same Latin verbs

mentioned by Estienne, and presents the same descriptive phrases:

Quand l'eau bat contre quelque riue, tellement qu'elle emble abbayer,

and Abbayer a quelqu'vn. To this he adds an explanation of his own:

"C 'ejt le pour uivre de paroles en oriant apres luy." Hollyband's

gloss consists of the infinitive and principal parts _j * abbaye, ,1' abb ay ay,

j'ay abbaye, j 1abbayeray and one English equivalent to barke.Cotgrave's

gloss lists four English equivalents, two of which are figurative: to barke, or bay at; alfo to reuile extreamly, lowdly to raile on.

In this gloss Cotgrave inserts three proverbs which he tersely explains:

II abbaye contre le Laune, he barks at the Moone; Jayd of one that obftinatly ftrives to fat fifie 3 or dijgrace the truth: wherein he fpends his indeauors mojt ridiculously3 vnprofitably 3 m ifzrably. Chien qui abbaye ne morel pas; Pro. The barking dogge bites little ; and He that fayeft moft3 commonly does le aft. Qui ^ert commun nul ne le paye, & s'il defaut Cha cun 1*abbaye; Pro. He t h a t ferves a Comnunaltie is controlled by euery one3 rewarded by none.

The verb entry appears as part of Miege’s gloss for the noun ABBOIS.

He lists only the infinitive, an English equivalent, and the same descriptive phrase seen in Nicot and Estienne without the preposition a_ and with an English equivalent: "Abboyer quecun, ou contre quecun,

to bark at one." Furetiere explains the entry as "...quije dit pour

exprimer le cri des chiens," which he follows with "Les chiens a b b o y e n t quand ils entent des larrons.” He is not sure of the origin

of the word, but does mention Nicot's suggestion that it developed out

of the sound dogs make. He claims, moreover, that abboyer and abbayer

are two different verbs, the former being related to the sound of

dogs, whereas the latter "je dit figurement des hommes, lors qu'ils

s ’attendent a quelque choje, qu'ils la dejirent & pourjuivre avec

avidite." Nevertheless, aside from the meaning of to bark, Furetiere

does not include a discussion of its other figurative meanings. He

glosses it as: to look at something with envy, to covet, as in "Cet

homme abboye apres cette juccej[ion, cette charge; ce chacaneur abboye

toujours apres le bien d’autruy," and to follow at one’s heels, to

"hound" someone, as in Cet homme e (t (i mechant, fl endebte, que tout le monde abboye apres luy. Lastly, Furetiere adds to his gloss the same proverbs noted in Cotgrave: "A b b o y e r a la lune," and "Tout chien qui abboye ne mord pas." The Academie lists the verb as meaning

Japper, to bark, and that it normally is "neuter," but that occasionally it is used actively: il. abboye aux voleurs: il abboye contre tous les paffants; il abboye apres tous le monde, but: Ce chien abboye les paj ( ants; abboye tous les pauvres. Like Furetiere, the Academie lists the figurative meanings of this entry as ^o follow someone relentlessly, and covet. Its examples for these are similar to

Furetiere's: Tous jes creanciers abboyent apres luy, and Abboyer apres quelque chofe. The same two proverbs noted in Furetiere and

Cotgrave are also listed in the Academie's gloss. Boyer lists the verb as both neuter and active. Under the neuter verb he lists its literal meanings, followed by a descriptive phrase: "Aboyer contre quelqu'un, to bark at Jomebody. As a Dog does." His "Aboyer aux

Pajjans, ou apres les Pa/Jans, to bark at goers by; Aboyer apres quelqu'un," are both similar to the descriptive phrases seen in

Furetiere and the Academie. He lists only one proverb: "Aboyer a la

Lune," and under Aboyer as an active verb he includes the same descrip­ tive sentence seen in the Academie's gloss: Ce chien aboye tous les

Pauvres. Nugent's gloss mentions the verb as neuter, with one

English equivalent; to bark.

Abolir

Estienne glosses this entry as: Abolere, Abrogare, Antiquare,

Conuellere, Exterminare, Inducere, Interuertere, Obliterare, Re (ignare.

As this verb is frequently found within legal contexts, half of Estienne's descriptive phrases or sentences of his gloss concern Abolir

as a legal terra: Abolir une partie d'une loy par une nouvelle;

Abolir ce qui e j t faict jelon les loix...; Abolir les loix...; Abolir

du tout quelque magiftrat... Estienne includes the verb with a

reflexive pronoun in a descriptive phrase which we will see repeated

in later glosses: "S'abolir et alter hors d'ujagej .Inuale|cere."

Abolir has the meaning of ^o strike out, to cross out, in his phrase

"Abolir une eferipture par petis poins qu'o met au dejfoubz de ehafque

le ttre en la maniere des anoiens} Expungere." Harryson's gloss is merely a list of English equivalents: To abolijh, to difalow, to

abrogate, all of which are translations of the Latin equivalents

found in Estienne. Higgins' glosses show much the same meanings as in

Estienne, but with the added English equivalents: To undoe, and

di anulle. His gloss: "Abolifh or put out of office, Magi^tratum

abolere alicui, pro abrogare magiftratum. Abolir & ojter quelque

o f f i c e j " bears similarity to Estienne's gloss. Hollyband furnishes the

infinitive, the principal parts: j 'abolis, j 'aboly, j *ay aboly,

.1'aboliray, the English equivalents _to abolifh, to dis fallow, to

abrogate, but gives no descriptive phrases or sentences. Nor does

Cotgrave, although, as usual, he furnishes a larger number of English

equivalents: J^o abolijli; to raje, to deface, blot, or put, out; to

abrogate, annihilate, extinguish, foredoe, dijanull. To abolish and

to abrogate are found in the works of all the previous lexicographers

in our study, To raje in Higgins and Estienne, to put out in Higgins

to blot out in Estienne, and put out of office in Higgins and

Estienne. Miege'a gloss consists of generally the same English equiva- equivalents seen earlier. His descriptive phrase Abolir une Loy, une

Coutume is reminiscent of Estienne. Miege is the first lexicographer

in our study since Estienne to indicate abolir as a verb with a reflex­

ive pronoun, and his gloss of the verb is suggestive of Estienne’s des­

criptive phrase: "S'abolir, to grow out of uje3 to decay." Miege adds

one descriptive phrase not previously seen in our study: "Abolir la memoire de queque choje, to obliterate a thing3 to gut it out of our remembrance." As to Furetiere, he indicates Mettre quelque choje hors d'ufage, as his primary meaning, and follows it with: 1'effacer,

la mettre a neant. His descriptive phrases and sentences, like

Estienne, appear to be concerned with the verb in a legal context, as

in: "Le magiftrat a a b o li cette mechante coutume; le Roy a a b o li une

telle loy...; il a entierement aboli les duels; il n ’y a que le Roy

qui puifje a b o l i r un crime." Lastly, Furetiere lists a b o l i r with a

reflexive pronoun with much the same meaning as was seen in Miege;

"ABOLIR, je dit auj/i avec le pronom perjonnel. Les Mandats Apoj^toli-

ques je font a b o lis par un non-ujage; il ne faut pas Jouffrir que les

bonnes coutumes s fa b o l i j j e n t ." Turning to the gloss of the Academie,

we note no new French equivalents. However several descriptive sen­

tences bear similarity to those in previous glosses, such as les

nouvelles Coujtumes ont aboli las anciennes; le Roy ja aboli les Duels.

Under Abolir un crime the Academie presents a clearer explanation of

this entry as a legal term:

...Se dit lors que le Prince par des Lettres qu'il donne, remet d'autorite abjolue la peine d'un crime qui n'ejt pas remifj ible par les Ordonnances. The Academie completes its gloss with an explanation of the usage of the entry as a passive:

...Se dit auj(i, avec le pronom personnel S ’ a b o l i r ; & alors ile f t neutre pajjif. C e tte tte C C oujtum oujtum e e s s ’ e ’ e j t j t a a b b o lieo lie d d ’ e ’ e lle lle -m -m e efm fm e e .Ce c 'e jto it une anaienne -pratique qui s ’e jt a b o lie .

Boyer's list of equivalents is almost as complete as Cotgrave's. He includes a great many of the equivalents seen earlier. Of these, only one equivalent J^o antiquate, which was first seen in Estienne, has not been seen in intervening works. But following the example of previous lexicographers, most of the descriptive phrases and sentences in his gloss reflect usage in a context of the law, as, for example,

"Abolir une loy, To abolijhj to repeal a Law; Abolir un impot, to ta k e o f f 3 or away a Tax; Abolir un Crime, to pardon a Crimes to rem it the punijhment due to it s to dijaharge a Malefactor ." His two phrases

Abolir la memoire d'une e, and Abolir une coutume, are reminiscent of Miege. S'abolir, Boyer glosses as Verb. Recip. to be abolished, annulled, &c. and indicates no descriptive phrase or sentence support- ing it. Nugent's gloss simply reads: "Abolir, v.a. to abolifh."

Baailler, Baailler, Bailler, Bailler

Estienne, Harryson, Nicot, Hollyband, Cotgrave, Miege and Nugent indicate Baailler for this entry, whereas Boyer gives Bailler, and

Bailler, but glosses the entry under Baailler. The Academie and

Chambaud note Baailler with the alternate form Bailler, and Richelet presents both Baailler and Baailler. A propos of this spelling varia­

tion Furetiere states "Ce mot a la premiere 5yllable longue, & on ecrivoit autrefois B a a il le3 r " and glosses his entry under Bailler. Estienne glosses this entry as Dehi[cere; and Hiare. " F o r t b a a i l l e r, Inhiare, O^citare," and "B aailler de fonrneil, Hifcere,

O^citare, O^citari," which follow the Latin equivalents of the infini­ tive, appear together as one descriptive phrase: Fort baailler de

Jomeil qu'on ha. Estienne translates two other phrases in his gloss, each into a one word Latin equivalent, albeit that the phrases are somewhat lengthy:

Baailler de fa t & ardeur au'on ha d'auoir quelque chofe3 Inhiare. Quurir & faire baailler quelque ehofe aa & la come quad on ouure ung compas3 Di- uaricare.

Nicot's gloss for this entry was almost verbatim out of Estienne.

Harryson's gloss reads as follows: "Baailler, to gape3 yafke (sic), to y a u n e ," Baailler de jommeil, which is identical to Estienne, is translated as _t£ gape for jleape. Nicot differs from Estienne in that immediately following the main entry he presents a French explanation of the verb: "Baailler, neutr. acut. E jt par eruption & ejlanoement des fubtiles fuperfluitez vaporeufes du corps3 ouurir aueo Joupirement la bouehe," but adds the same Latin equivalents as Estienne, and curiously, an Italian equivalent: " I ' l t a l i e n dit Sbadagliare." As to

Hollyband, his gloss is identical to Harryson's save one additional equivalent for Baailer de Jommeil, - to gafpe. Cotgrave's gloss, which reads: To gape, to yawne; to open, or Jpread wide, is dis­ appointingly brief. Miege's gloss contains the infinitive, and two

English equivalents already observed in previous dictionaries. He

furnishes a sub-entry with a French equivalent and the same English

equivalents noted in Cotgrave: "Baailer, s'entr'ouvrir, to open o r fpread wide." "Habitude de baailler, an habit of gaping," completes the gloss for the infinitive. Furetiere offers an unwittingly naive

"scientific" explanation of the yawning process in his gloss, which is not unlike the explanation we saw earlier by Nicot: "Faire des baillements, qui font caufez par une vapeur qui fait ouvrir la bouche extraordinairement pour Jortir, & qui marque de l'ennuy, ou du Jommeil.

Aside from this and the previously mentioned comment concerning the spelling of the entry, Furetiere's gloss contains little of interest to our study. Richelet begins his gloss with the French equivalent

Ouvrir la bouche fNe faire que baaillerJ He follows this with

Ouvrir la bouche de telle forte qu'on marque de 11 ennui, and a figura­ tive meaning S1ennuier, to be bored. He presents the verb within the content of two descriptive sentences: Quand on feroit refjfuciter

Heleine, je baaillerois pres d ' elle a ffurement, and .Je ne fai pourquoi je bailie en li fant la Pucelle. As to the Academie, we note a new

French explanation: Re(pirer en ouvrant extraordinairement la bouche

& involontairement, but with the examples: Bailler d'ennuy, and bailler de jommeil, which we have already seen. The Academie explains

that the entry has the meaning of S 'entre'ouvrir, ejtre mal joint, as

in Les ais de cette cloifon baillent. A sub-entry Entrebailler as a

synonym for S'entr'ouvrir is termed by the Academie "peu d'ufage."

Turning to Boyer we observe a French explanation of the main entry, which is suggestive of the explanation in the Academie's gloss:

Ouvrir extraordinairement & Involontairement la bouche. Boyer's two

English equivalents _to gape, and Jjo yawn, have been seen in earlier

glosses. Apparently Boyer differentiates Baailler or Bailler from 163

"Bailler (s’entrouvrir), to gape3 chap3 or chink3" which appears to be the same figurative meaning mentioned by the Academie. Chambaud pre­ sents some interesting developments in his gloss. He begins by pre-

% senting the infinitive of the verb and its principal parts: baillant, bailie, je bailie, je baillai, followed by a French explanation sug­ gestive of what we have seen in earlier glosses: refpirer en ouvrant la bouche, then claims that Lafontaine employed the verb in the sense of fouhaiter, to wish. He equates the entry to the equivalents To yawn, to gape, and he glosses a sub-entry Bailler, To gape, in the sense of S'entr1ouvrir, using a descriptive sentence suggestive of that which appears in the gloss of the Academie: "les ais de la cloi^on baillent, the boards of the partition gape." However, a third meaning of Bailler presented by Chambaud and which none of our previous lexi­ cographers mention in their glosses, is significant. He claims that this verb, formerly part of popular speech, was used in the sense of donner. In support of this specialized meaning, he offers: Tu Dieu: l'ami, comme vous baillez des ^ouflets: Odfbud3 friend , how you deal your blows about!" For this entry, Nugent supplies a one word English equivalent, gape.

Baguenauder

This entry is found neither in Estienne nor in Harryson, although

the latter does gloss the noun: "Baguenauder, a trifle r, a lingerer, a

l o y t e r e r . " Nicot is the first lexicographer in our study to gloss the verb: "Baguenauder, Tu ne fa is que Baguenaudert Nihil aliud quam nugaris." Hollyband glosses the noun exactly as Harryson, but does not gloss the verb. Cotgrave merely lists the English equivalents

and furnishes no descriptive sentences or phrases: To trifle 3 toyt dally with3 idle out the time. Miege presents the noun Baguenaude as a

"forte de plante, red winter-cherries, red night Jhade, alcakengy," but makes no mention of the verb. A clue as to the relationship between the entry and its noun is given by Furetiere, who claims that children would crush the berries of the baguenaude, so that they could enjoy the resulting cracking noise, hence, baguenauder. It is also significant that Furetiere is the first lexicographer in our study to suggest that there may be a relationship between baguenauder and badaud

"BAGUENAUDER. v.n. Faire le badaud, s'amujer a faire des chojes

inutiles, legeres & peu ejtimees..." The Academie glosses the verb as

"S’amujer a des chojes vaines & frivoles. Il ne faut pas baguenauder dans une oecajion Ji JerieuJe3" adding to the gloss: "Ce mot ejt bas."

Boyer presents two French equivalents, the first of which was seen in

Furetiere: faire le Badaud, and s'amufer ja des Niaiferies, followed by

several English equivalents which are somewhat different from those

previously seen: "...to Jtand trifling3 to mind nothing but Trifles3

to fool the time away." For this entry Chambaud furnishes, in addition

to the infinitive, the present and past participles, a French

explanation: s ’amujer a_ des chojes vaines, and two English equivalents

the second of which was seen earlier in Boyer: To mind trifles, to

Jtand trifling. He adds no descriptive phrases or sentences to his

gloss. Nugent equates the entry to trifle.

Baiser

Estienne gives no gloss for Baiser alone. Infinitives employed

with particularizing words make up his gloss, along with a series of

Latin equivalents. These equivalents may be one word, or may also be followed by particularising words: "B aifer quelqu'ung, Bajiare,

Affligere o/culum, Alique ojculo impertire, O^culu dare, aut ferre, aut pangere, ojculari Suauium dare, aut facere, Sumere Juauium, Suauiari."

In addition he includes the following descriptive phrases and sentence, all of which are later seen in Nicot:

Bailer haftivement en paffant... ■Baijer, ou ejtre baife... Baifer, doulcement ... Baifer, eftroietem ent... Baifer, fa fille ... Baifer quelqu'ung en rendant I'am e... Baifer la terre... Baife la a ma requefte...

Harryson's gloss for this entry is brief, consisting of Baijer quelqu*vn, with one English equivalent, kiffe. Nicot's gloss is identical to

Estienne's, but with two new additions: Baifer quelque chofe, which appears immediately following "Baifer queIqu'vn. .. Suauiari," and

"II ne b a ijo it pas de bon coeur, il n’y prenoit pas grand p la ifir,

0 culum illud fuit, non Juauium," after Baife la a ma requefte.

Cotgrave reveals some interesting English equivalents to the infini­ tive, one of which is still a popular form today: "Baijer, To k i f f e , to fmoutoh, to fmaeke ," and he adds an idiom which he laconically explains in English, but for which he gives no actual English equiva­ lent: "Baijer le babouin. Bafely to jubmit him felfe, doe reuerenae, or yeeld rejpeet, unto an unworthy thing." A curious insight into a social custom is reflected in his gloss: "Baijer la porte, ou la

Jerrure, ou le verrouil de l ’huis du fief. A Vaffall to kiffe the gate, &e. of the prineipall Mannor houje of his abfent Lord, in lieu of the homage he Jhould otherwije haue done him, had he bin pref ent."

Miege equates the entry to kxfs, and to falute with a kijs, adding two descriptive sentences to the gloss: "Monjieur, je vous bai/e les mains,

S ir I kijs your hands," and "Jamais je ne fus tant baijee, I never was so kijjed in my life ." Furetiere defines the verb as to give a mark of friendship, love, respect and humility by a touching with the mouth.

His examples indicate different types of kissing, as "les peres & meres doivent b a i j e r leurs enfants au front; les aniis Je b a i je n t a la joue, & les amants a la bouche," and different occasions when kiss­ ing is performed: "on b a i je par civilite ceux qui vont a la campagne, ou qui en arrivent," and "lors qu'on donne, ou qu'on regoit quelque cho/e." He includes numerous examples of the practice of hand-kissing, and his descriptive sentence "Judas b a if a Notre Seigneur en le trahi//ant," appears under the gloss for the noun in Richelet, Boyer and Chambaud. When the verb appears with the reflexive pronoun se,

Furetiere explains, it is used in a figurative sense to mean that two objects are extremely close together, a meaning which persists today, at least in English: "on dit figurement que deux chores je b a ije n t , quand elles Jont Ji pres l'une de 1'autre qu'elles J e touchent." He

ends his gloss with the same expression found in Cotgrave, but not so graphically presented: "On dit aujji, Faire B a if e r le babouin, pour dire, obliger quelqu'un a /e Joumettre aux plus dures conditions."

Richelet defines the entry similar to Furetiere: "Aprocher /a bouche de celle d'une autre pour marquer d1amour, ou d'amitie." And like

Furetiere, he notes the different situations in which the verb is used,

as in seeking the favor of a Lady and assuring a person of one's

service. But he implies that with a change of intonation, Je vous

baife les mains, can be taken facetiously: "Ces mots prononcez JerieuJement marquent qu'on ejt Jerviteur d'une perjonne, mais Ji on

les prononce d'un ton un peu fier, ils marquent quelque refus." The

Academie's treatment of the entry is similar to what we have seen in

Furetiere and Richelet. Although its first explanation reads:

"Appliquer la bouche Jur quelque cho/e en Jigne d'amitie, d'amour, de

rejpect," the majority of its gloss deals with kissing as a sign of

respect and humility:

...it n'ojeroit pas Jeulement lug baifer le bout du doigt. baifer la terre... baijer la Croix, les Reliques 3 une im a g e ... baifer les pieds du Pape. Les vaff aux baifent la main a leur Seigneur... baiJer la main d'un Evefque. ...baifer les pas par ou il paffe.

As we saw in Richelet, the Academie mentions the use of bai fer les

mains in a figurative sense: "On dit en raillerie,Je vous baife les

m a in s, pour temoigner a une perjonne qu'on ne l'approuve pas, ou qu'on

rejette ce qu'il dit." Finally, it equates Je baiter to Je joindre,

meaning, however, to be close together, and strictly limited to

inanimate objects. Boyer briefly glosses the entry as to k i j j , but adds

a new English equivalent to_ Bufs. He offers the well-known descriptive

phrase "Baijer les mains de quelqu'un, (ejpece de compliment) to k i f s

a Man's Hands..." and completes the gloss with Se baijer. (Je toucher.

f e joindre). He makes no mention of Baijer or Faire baijer le Babouin

under this entry, but does so under the entry Babouin: "Faire baijer

le babouin a quelqu'un, to make one truckle , or creep and crouch."

Chambaud furnishes the principal parts baijant, baife, je baije, je

baiJai, followed by a French explanation, similar to what we have seen

earlier. Chambaud's gloss contains mostly descriptive phrases and sentences concerning the practice of hand-kissing:

Baijer les mains (terme de compliment & de civilite To kijs one's hands. Dites-lui que je lui baije les mains, My c o m p lim e n ts t o him ; Prefent my Jervice or rejpeots to himj Remember me to him. Je vous baije les mains... Y o u r Jervant for that, (said sarcastically)

He includes je baijer, v.r. as a sub-entry, meaning 11 Je toucher,Je joindre. To lie elofe." Nugent glosses the entry as "BaiJ’er, v.a. t o k i j 's . " It is to be noted that in none of the glosses is there an indication of the replacing of BaiJer with Embrasser. Apparently this was a development since the end of the eighteenth century.

B aiter, Se Baijjer

Estienne treats both of these entries under the same gloss. He begins with a descriptive phrase for the reflexive verb which reads:

"Se baijfer pour J ’aocoufter a I'oreille d'autruy3 Dimittere Je ad aurem alicuuis." This he follows with a phrase for Baijjer: "Baijfer la tejte3 Objtipare verticem." As a third example Estienne presents a descriptive sentence showing the reflexive verb in an inanimate context

"Le iour Je baijje & J' en va3 Inclinat dies." He completes his gloss with the past participle in a descriptive phrase: uBaiffe aontre terre3 Humilis." Harryson furnishes two separate glosses for these entries. Bai jj er he glosses as To bring lowe, to jtoop, whereas for

Je Bai j j er he writes: "...pour s'accoujter a I'oreille d'autruy,

to Jtoop too harken to one." The same descriptive phrase, BaiJJer

contre terre, which appeared in Estienne is included in Harryson's

gloss under BaiJJ er, and is a translation of Estienne1s Latin equiva­

lent. Nicot's gloss is similar to Estienne's, with the exception of some additions. After BaiQfer pour I'accoufter he adds, for example; "Au b a ijfe r des lances3 i. In concurfu lanceariorum," and after Bai^Cer la tefte he adds "Baijfer les oreilles 3 Demitte auriculas." Hollyband glosses Baiffer as to bring low, to j'toop and follows this with the identical descriptive phrase for Baij*f er found in Nicot, Harryson, and Estienne: ,Se baiffer pour s'accoufter ji

1 Oreille d'autruy, translating it exactly as Harryson. Cotgrave's equivalents for the first entry read: To bow downe, lay downe, bring low, let fall, humble, deiect, abate, abafe. Se baij'fer appears immediately afterwards and is glossed as To ^toop, to bowe downe, decline, bend, or incline downewards. But Cotgrave gives only one descriptive sentence for the reflexive verb, Le iour fe baif|e, which appeared in both Nicot and Estienne. "Baijfer bois, Ils baij*(erent bois. They put their launees in their re jts3" is reminiscent of

Nicot's Un baiffer des lances. Three descriptive phrases: Baijfer les c o m e s , Baij^er le front, and Baijyer la te|te, all appear to have related meanings according to Cotgrave. The first he glosses as To humble himjelfe, to let fall his erejt; the second and third as:

To hold, or bow downe, the head in jign of humblene|je, or of, yubmijj* ion, with the added meaning for Baiffer la te^te of " . . . t o fe ttle or prepare him jelfe unto an exploit 3 or combat ; (fro m th e custome o f horned beafts3 that bow downe th e ir heads3 when they are to meet an enemie)..." Miege shows only two English equivalents for this entry: to let fall, which wc saw in Cotgrave's list, and let down.

He includes a new use of Baijfer not previously observed in our study:

"Baifj’er un pont levis, to le t down a draw bridge ." He adds Baifjer la.tete, and Se baijfer, which are similar to our earlier glosses.

Furetiere's treatment of the entries reveals numerous new meanings not heretofore seen in our study. He initially explains Baiffer as a lowering of something, the placing of something in a position lower than it originally was, as in "II faut b a i f f er ce tableau pour la mettre a la portee de la veue." His " b a i f f e r les piques pour combattre, was alluded to in Cotgrave and Nicot,and his " B a i j f e r un pont levis" was already presented by Miege. He equates the entry Bailj*er to j^incliner and jfhumilier, to lower, or humble oneself, as in "II faut b a i f f e r les genoux devant la Majejte Divine." He notes that

Baijjer la lance may have the figurative meaning of to submit oneself

to a higher authority. Baijfer may mean to weaken, as "Ce malade b a if f e fort," or to show a change in a person's senses or disposition due to old age: "L'efprit b a i j j e avec l'age." The verb may be

employed to show the lowering of the tides: "La mer b a i f f e quand

elle eft dans fon reflus," or nightfall: "Le jour b a i f f e Furetiere

explains that this verb is included in naval terminology, and in that

context is employed as to lower the sails when the wind is too great,

or to lower the flag when greeting another ship. As to Se baijjer.

Furetiere states it is frequently used in a situation when an individ­

ual who has not succeeded in a task, must return embarrassed and

crestfallen: "On dit aujji de celuy a qui une entreprije n'a pas

juccede, qu'il s'en revient les oreilles bailees." Richelet is not as

complete in his gloss as is Furetiere, nor is he very original. He

states that Baifj"er may be used to describe the action of the tides,

as in La mer hauf fe & balf(e deux fois le jour, which we have seen alluded to in Furetiere, and his Baiff er la tete, and Baijjer les piques we have seen in almost all previous works studied. Under the

French equivalents Diminuer, S'afoiblir he presents the descriptive

sentence Son ejprit baijje, which is suggestive of Furetiere. For

Se baijj'er, Richelet indicates a new French equivalent JSe Courber, to

lean or bend over. The Academie lists Baijj er with several particu­

larizing words which are new to our study, demonstrating an expansion

of this verb in both literal and figurative senses. They are:

Baiffer la portiere d'un oarroffe. (To lower the door-curtain of a carriage.) Baiffer les yeux.(To have one's eyes down­ cast. ) Baiffer la voix. (To lower one's voice.) B a if f e r le p ie d . (To lower one's foot.) Dejoendre par eau. (To go down-stream) On b a if f e depuis Roane jujqu'a Orleans. (One goes down-stream from Roane to Orleans.) Sa faveur baiffe. (He is losing favor.)

However, we have already observed elsewhere several of the descriptive

phrases and sentences noted by the Academie:

Ce m alad e b a i f f e B a iff er le pavilion> (But now with the figura­ tive meaning to defer.) B a iff zr la lance. Le jour baiffe.

In one descriptive sentence, the Academie has inserted an indirect

object pronoun before the verb:

Furetiere: L'efprit baijje avec l'age. Richelet: Son ejprit baijje. Acad. Fr.: L'ejprit luy baijje.

Boyer glosses Baijjer as both an active and neuter verb. As an active

verb, he glosses it as: "(mettre plus bas) to put downt to bow, to

bow down3 to bring down." He includes two descriptive phrases seen in the gloss of the Academie: Baijjer le yeux, and Baifj er la voix.

To Baijjer la tete he adds pour pa(Jer jous une porte, then glosses it

as to Jtoop, to bow one * s Head to go through ,a door. Two nautical

terms which we encountered in Furetiere: BaijTer les voiles, and

BaiJJer le pavilion, he glosses as To lower the fails and T<3 Jtrike the

flag, respectively. Although we have seen Baijfer la tete in numerous

contexts, Boyer is the first to gloss it simply as To nod. Turning

to Bai ffer as a neuter verb, Boyer lists the equivalents: To fall,

decrease, fink, decay, flag, lower or (horten. It will be noted that

none of our previous lexicographers included as many English equiva­

lents for this gloss as does Boyer, and, as we will see later,

Chambaud. Of all Boyer's descriptive sentences in this gloss, only

one appears completely original: "Quand le merite baijje le gout

baijj e aujji, our ta jt or re lijh of things Jinks in proportion with

our M erit." His La mer haujfe et baifje, is identical to Richelet's,

and Le jour commence cl baijj er, is suggestive of the Academie and

Furetiere. We also observed that in Cotgrave, Nicot and Estienne,

the verb employed for this meaning was reflexive, i.e. Le iour fie

baijj" e. La Malade baijje was seen in the gloss of the Academie and

Furetiere. Boyer's Sa faveur balfje, also found in the Academie's glos

is not as questionable as his Nous baijj ames depuis Roane ju Jqu'a

Orleans, which is specific enough to be considered a direct borrowing.

At the end of his gloss Boyer lists one suggestion of a reflexive

verb "Se baijjer. Verb Recip. to J t o o p . " As to Chambaud, he lists

a main entry for Baisser followed by its principal parts: baiff ant,

baijje, je baijjc, je baljjai, and its French and English equivalents: 11 abaijfer, mettre plus bas, rendre plus bas 'To le t down, to bring lower, to lower." Three sub-entries follow: "BAISSER, v.n. aller en dirainuant, s'affoiblir To fall, t o deoreaje, t o Jink, to decay, to flag: BAISSER de j cendre le long de quelques rivieres To fall or go down a riv e r," and lastly: "SE BAISSER, v.r. Je courber To f t o o p . "

Under the main entry we note one new descriptive phrase and sentence:

"Baijfer une muraille, To lower a wall," and "Ne va pas ici rougir

& baijjer les yeux, Do not blujh, nor drop thy eyes." His Baifj er un pont levis was seen in Furetiere. Baijj*er le pavilion, and Baijjer les voiles in Furetiere and Boyer, and Baijj er la voix, Baijj er les yeux in the glosses of both the Academie and Boyer. Under the neuter verb Chambaud presents four new descriptive sentences, the last of which he paraphrases:

II baijje a vue d'oeil, He decays v ijib ly . Je vous entens, repliqua-t-il: Je vous pa- rois baijjer, n ’ejt-ce pas? I underJband you (he replied) you think I flag, don't you? Le vin baijje, The wine grows fla t. C'eft, dit-on, que Ja tete baijje: on ne manque gueres par cette raison de devenir devot a Jon age, And, .no wonder, fay Jome, the poor man's intellects begin to fail: it is Jeldom otherwiJe with old men; when their reajon is on the decline, they commonly turn religious.

Chambaud’s La mer haujf e et baifj e deux fois le .jour is identical to both Boyer and Richelet. His L'ejprit lui baijje is similar to

Furetiere, Richelet and the Academie, but with the addition of the indirect object pronoun as in the gloss of the Academie. Chambaud*s

Le Malade baifj e is identical to Boyer and similar to the Academie and

Furetiere. Son credit, sa faveur baijje was seen in both the Academie and Boyer, and Chambaud's "Baiffer I'oreille,•(je decourager) to defpond," was alluded to in Furetiere, but was not seen in our study

since Estienne. Under Chambaud's second sub-entry Se baiffer,he

includes a completely new descriptive sentence: "...To Jtoop. C'eft

un homme qui ne je haujje ni ne se baijje (il ejt toujours egal, & il ne s'emeut de rien) He i s of an unconcerned temper." Nugent glosses

Baijj er as both an active verb meaning £0 let down, and as a neuter

verb _to decreafe. He also glosses Tete baifjee as hand over head, but

makes no mention of j>e baifj er.

Cacher

Estienne's extensive gloss for this entry begins with a long

series of Latin equivalents: Abdere, Ab jondere, Ab jtrudere, Celare,

Condere, Ab oculis remouere, Occulere, Occultare, Recodere, Tegere,

Supprimere, Velare. Several of his descriptive phrases and sentences

covering both literal and figurative meanings are later seen in Nicot

and Cotgrave. Occasionally these sentences deal with the hiding of

some inanimate object, such as: "Cacher quelque choje et difjim ule r ,

Ferre objcure aliquid, C a ch e r quelque choje en Jorte qu'on ne la

p u i/ f e tro u u e r> Supprimere, Qui cache le hie & recelle autres provi-

Jionsy attendat la charte,' Dardanarius," and the proverb "Pas c&chez,

quad on n'y uoit point de trajje." Often these phrases or sentences

deal with the hiding of some personal trait or situation:

Cacher et couurir quelque vice... C acher Ja f o l i e . . . I l cache <2 celle en Jon cueur la grande trijte Je qu'il ha <5 tient enclos.. . Ilommes qui ne cacher: t on faigncnt & d ijf innilent rien .. . Three examples deal with the hiding of an individual, the last two of which show the verb as reflexive:

Cacher les enfans es bois ... Se cacher du m aiftre ... Se cacher derriere aucung ...

And three of Estienne*s examples could refer to either animate or in­ animate objects: Qu*on ne fcauroit cacher,..., Ejtre cache,..., and

Ejt re cache mu(f e,... Harryson simply glosses this entry as To hide, to conueye awaye. Nicot begins his gloss identically to Estienne.

However, after the infinitive he includes a detailed explanation of

Cacher en la mer, the substance of which Cotgrave later used in his gloss:

Cacher en la mer3 e jt vne fcqon de parler de m ariniers3 pour bouter & enfoncer en la mer3 dijans: le beaupre & la mijaine re- leuent <$ haujj ent le nez au nauire3

Aside from dropping Estienne*s Cacher les enfans es bois, Nicot's gloss is identical to Estienne*s. Cotgrave's gloss reads: To hide, conceale, keepe Jecret; conuey away; to couer, to /upre// . He notes that this verb has the meaning of Cha f f er in the Picard dialect.

Cacher en la mer, which Nicot discussed at length, is glossed by

Cotgrave as: To /end into the Jea; a. fhip to go Jo low before, that at euerie puj~h forward jhe is like to thruJt her nofe into the j e a .

Included in his gloss are two descriptive sentences which present the entry in a figurative context, and which are paraphrased rather than

translated: "II iette la pierre, & cache le bras. He does m ijchiefe3 but w ill not be feene3 norjeeme to haue any hand in it 3" and "Du temps qu’on je cachoit pour pre/ter de I ’argent. In time of honeft implici- tiet and innocent confidence; when men were more cajcefull to conceate others necejfities} than to Jecure their own debts." The proverb

"On ne cache pas aiguilles en jac," the equivalent for which he gives

Needles are not hidden or laid up in jacks, completes his gloss. Miege furnishes only'a one word equivalent for this entry: To hide, but he does present the verb within the context of several descriptive phrases and sentences. Cacher en la mer, which we observed in Cotgrave and

Nicot, is missing from his gloss. Cacher queque choj'e, la mettre en queque lieu cache, which he gives as hide a^ thing, appears to be original, whereas "Cacher jes vices jous de belles apparences de vertus, to cloak his vices with a fair Jhew of virtue." is suggestive of Cacher couurir quelque vice in Estienne and Nicot. His

"cacher queque choje, la tenir jecrete, to conceal a thing3 or to keep it Jecret3 " appears to be a translation of Ferre ob (cure aliquid, from the gloss of Nicot and Estienne. His question "Pourquoi me cachez-vous cela? Why do you conceal it to. me? Why do you hide it from me?" appears to be original, and is significant in that we have not seen this type of syntactical construction previously. Of interest too, is the translation it_ jbo me rather than jLt from me in the first translated question. Miege furnishes only two examples of the use of Cacher with a reflexive pronoun: "Se cacher en queque lieu, to hide himfelf

Jomewherei " and "II ne s ’en cache point, he do's it openly, he do’s it not in hugger-mugger." Furetiere’s French equivalent for this entry is not unlike what we have already seen. He defines it as to put something in a secret place where it will be discovered only with difficulty: "Mettre quelque choje en un lieu Jecret ou il ne puijje etre veu ni trouve par d'autres qu'avec grande difficulte." To explain this he writes: "On dit en ce Jens, que la nature nous a cache

Jes trejors..." He adds that it may mean to veil or disguise, to be absent from view, as in: "dans cette Ecclipje la Lune c a c h o it la moitie du di que du Soleil." Figuratively, it may be used in a moral sense: "il ejt avantageux Jouvent de c a c h e r ja penjee." As to

Se cacher, Furetiere equates it to Vivre en retraite, or to put oneself in an undisclosed place, as in "cet homme craint la prijon, ±1 J e c a c h e } il ne va que la nuit." Richelet’s gloss, with the exception of the verb Serrer, is little different from Furetiere's: Serrer une choje qu'on ne La pui(fe trouver qu'avec peine. Under j>e cacher, Richelet adds two verb forms, followed by a French equivalent, and a quote from Moliere:" ie me cache, je me Juis cache. Ne je pas montrer.

Allez vous cacher vilaines. Mol. " The Academie begins its gloss with a French equivalent similar to Furetiere's, but with the inclusion of several descriptive phrases: Cacher des papiers, des pierreries, de 1*argent &c. and cacher quel qu'un. It briefly adds several other meanings each followed by a descriptive phrase, such as: "Couvrir,

Cacher un tableau , cacher Ja gorge: Celer. Cacher Jon nom, cacher un

J e c r e t 3 " and Dijjimuler. Cacher Jon rejjentim ent3 i l ne cache rie n ."

Se cacher, according to the Academie, is a neuter passive verb, and may be used with the preposition Sous as in IJL _fe cache Jous le lit, De as

*-n il Jj- cache de moy, and A in On ne ^e peut cacher a_ Joymef me.

Chambaud presents the entry with its principal parts cachant, cache, je cache, and cachai. Its French equivalent mettre quelque cho e en lieu ou on ne puif (e pas le trouver, is suggestive of the Academie,

Furetiere, Richelet, Nicot and Estienne. Although Chambaud's English equivalents are not unlike Cotgrave's, he does include more descriptive phrases in his gloss. However, these phrases are not in support of the English equivalents he furnishes at the beginning of his gloss:

To hide, to conceal, to ecret, but "Cacher ja gorge, To cover one's n e c k j" and "Cacher un dejjein, to keep a dejign Jecret." Chambaud supplies both a literal and figurative meaning for Cacher (on jeu, as Tio hide one's cards, and T£ keep one's dejigns very Jecret.

Chambaud's descriptive sentence "II ne s'en cache point, He does i t openly or bare faced3 and not in hugger-mugger3 17 is identical to

Miege's. Nugent's gloss reads: "Cacher, v.a. to hide."

Cachetert Cachetter

With the exception of Richelet, all the lexicographers in this study included their glosses under the entry Cacheter.

Estienne glosses the verb as "Cacheter des le ttre s , Objignare literas & epijtolas." Harryson's gloss appears to be an English translation of Estienne's Latin equivalent: "Cacheter des lettres,

To Jeale le tters." Nicot's gloss is identical to Estienne's, but with the addition of two more Latin equivalents: Conjignare, Sigillare.

Hollyband's gloss is identical to Harryson’s. Cotgrave re-words his

English equivalent to to Jeale, as a letter. Miege's gloss, in addition to the same English equivalent appearing in Hollyband and

Harryson, contains the descriptive sentence: "J'ai oublie de cacheter ma Lettre, I forgot to Jeal my Letter. Furetiere's French explanation reads: Appliquer un cachet fur quelque choJe qu'on veut envoyer fermee, but he makes no mention of "letter" ih either his explanation, or descriptive phrases: " C a c h e te r un paquet, une bo&jte, une bouteille."

Richelet glosses this entry simply as Fermer avec le cachet, and gives

the phrase Cachetter une lettre. The Academie is more explicit in its explanation of the sealing process by its descriptive phrases within the gloss: Cacheter des lettres, cacheter un paquet, cacheter

avec de la cire d'Efpagne. Its French equivalent, however, is not

unlike what we already have seen. Chambaud's entry contains the principle parts: cachetant, cachete, je cachete, and je cachetai.

He equates the verb to French appliquer un cachet fur quelque cho£e, which is suggestive of Furetiere and the Academie, and to English

To feal, to jeal up. Nugent furnishes the one word English equivalent

to Jeal.

Cailler

The first listing of this entry occurs in Harryson: "Cailler le

Laict, to tio m e 3 or curd nrylke." Nicot includes a complete explana­

tion of the process of curdling milk in his gloss:

...jig n ifie fe prendre & J'ejpaijjir en mafje ce qui e fto it liquide auparauant. co- agulari. Comrne le la ict je caille3 Lac c o - agulatur. Car il importe energie & action fur la choje mefme qui caille. Si que ayat terminaijon actiues il a jignification p a f f iu e .

He completes his explanation with a listing of equivalents in Spanish,

Italian, and Languedoc: "L'Efpagnol d it caujar, & I ' i t a l i e n Quagliar,

a in ji que le Languedoc dit auffi caillar, acut. Le tout prouenant

de coagulare, L a t i n . " Hollyband's gloss is identical to Harryson's.

Miege presents the verb followed by a French equivalent, and a series of English equivalents; "... faire cailler qtieque cho/e, t o c u rd 3 curdle3 or turn into curds3 to c o a g u la te He includes one descriptive sentence: "Le baume fait cailler le lait, bai) am turns the m ilk into c u r d s j" and at the end of the gloss he lists the verb with a reflexive pronoun: "Se cailler, devenir caille, to curd3 or curdle3 neut."

Furetiere glosses the entry as coaguler, figer, followed by a series of descriptive sentences. His sentences reflect the use of the verb in the sense of both curdle and J^o clot:

La morjure des Jerpens tue, parce qu'il fait c a i l l e r le sang & empeche la cir­ culation. Le Jang Je c a i l l e Ji- tojt qu'il ejt hors des veines, ou prive de chaleur, Le lait /e c a i l l e avec la pre- / ure...

In Richelet the entry is treated under S_e cailler, which is glossed le me caille, je me juis caille, je E®. caillai (?) , followed by the French equivalent S-e prendre, s'epaiffir en monceaux. Richelet includes tv/o descriptive sentences: Le lait Je caille, and JLe fang J e caille under

Se cailler, and the phrase Faire cailler le lait under Cailler. The

Academie glosses both Cailler and Sj2 cailler together, and lists the same French equivalents for both: "CAILLFR, SE CAILLER. v.n. pajj. Se figer, s'ejpaijjir, J e congeler." .Three descriptive sentences follow: "Le la it Je caille3 le sang fe caille3v and " c e la fa it cailler le lait. " Boyer is more careful in his treatment of the entry. He lists Cailler as a neuter verb, Se cailler as reciprocal, but lists two French equivalents after Se cailler : "CAILLER, Verb.

Neut. Je Cailler, Verb. Recip. (je figer, s'epai/Jir)." These equivalents are similar to two cited in the gloss of the Academie.

Boyer's English equivalents for this entry read: to curd, curdle, or turn into Curds, as Milk does. Iri a special note he adds that Se

Cailler may be used in speaking of the blood, to mean to coagulate, or

turn into Clods, as Blood does. Only the noun entry Caille which is glossed as J.m. curds whey, appears in Nugent.

The comparative study of the lexicon corroborates previously held opinions, and reveals new facts worthy of future investigation.

Although this study is by no means definitive, the frequent instances

of identical and similar glosses observed in the corpus fortify the

opinion that our early lexicographers made it a practice of borrowing

glosses from their predecessors and contemporaries.

We know from Professor Smalley’s work mentioned in Part I that

Cotgrave's sources were Nicot, who in turn took from Estienne, and

from Hollyband. Our study reveals that the former was certainly true,

but that for the most part, at least in the glosses examined, Holly­

band' s were so superficial that they had little to offer Cotgrave.

In addition, our comparative method revealed numerous instances

of identical glosses for both Hollyband and Harryson. This leads us

to believe that Hollyband may have been more beholden to Harryson,

than Cotgrave was to Hollyband.

It is remarkable that with the fine example of the Estienne

dictionary seemingly available to them, neither Harryson nor Hollyband

were able to compile more authoritative and complete works. Our

study reveals that both men may have been familiar with Estienne's

dictionary, as their glosses show some degree of similarity.

As expected, Nugent's dictionary was the least valuable to this

study. Although the range and scope of his work was limited, Nugent's difficulty lay in choosing one equivalent out-of the many possibilities before him. Frequently his choice was not the most satisfying equiva­ lent, consequently the criteria he employed for his selection are questionable.

Finally, the study indicates that Chambaud’s dictionary was generally not as scholarly a work as Boyer's, which .may explain the latter's greater popularity. While Chambaud's glosses were well organi­

zed, his entries were not always well glossed, occasionally his descriptive sentences and phrases did not illustrate his equivalents, and frequent moralization and paraphrasing detracted from his scholar­ ship. Chambaud's work appeared to have a higher incidence of verbatim borrowing than those of other lexicographers in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.

As we stated earlier, the existence of similar or identical glosses may indicate borrowings from a third source, nevertheless, only deeper studies in the glosses themselves can point to sources with any certainty. It would seem, therefore, that a further study of the glosses, but with an expanded corpus to include a larger number of

entries, and a greater number of both bilingual and non-bilingual

dictionaries, might yield significant information concerning the

sources of the English-French bilingual dictionaries not yet fully

investigated. CONCLUSION In this study we have discussed the historical development of spoken French in England from the time of Edward the Confessor up to

1480, the year of Caxton’s Vocabulary. We saw that French was introduced at the English Court in the early eleventh century, was reinforced with the arrival of the Normans, and reached its apogee in the early part of the thirteenth century, at which time bilingualism prevailed. When French declined to a position of second language we saw the arrival of the French word books. Although they were originally intended to teach French both to children of noblemen and to students, they later showed in their subject matter that they were also aimed at tradesmen. This was understandable due to the increased trade which was developing between England and the continent.

We also saw that the word books were a direct descendant of the early glossaries, which in turn were compilations of the glosses from earlier separate manuscripts. Like some of the later glossaries, the word books were arranged in order of subject matter, as conceptualiza­ tion of the word book in alphabetical order did not take place until the fifteenth century.

However, no printed word books appeared in England until the arrival of William Caxton. This merchant would-be scholar developed an interest in translating works of French and Flemish literature into

English. Giving up a thriving trade in Belgium, he left for Cologne

to learn the craft of printing, then returned to his native England.

In our discussion of his Vocabulary of 1480 we pointed out that the major flaw in his work was an occasional mis-translation due to his being out of touch with English during his long stay on the continent, but that the work as a whole was significant as the first printed

English-French vocabulary, and that it may be termed a "pre-dictionary."

In Chapters II and III we examined the life and works of

Harryson, Hollyband, Cotgrave, Miege, Boyer, Nugent and Chambaud, and made a detailed investigation and evaluation of the first editions of their dictionaries in order to establish their contribution to the field of bilingual lexicography. We noted how they differed one from the other in form and content, in their treatment of the entries, and in the progression of the glosses from one word equivalents, as in

Harryson*s dictionary, to complete lists of equivalents, descriptive phrases and sentences, explanations and proverbs, as in Cotgrave's and

Boyer's.

In Part II we saw the glosses of twenty randomly selected entries from all the bilingual dictionaries under study, and other important bilingual and monolingual dictionaries of the period. By comparing the glosses we were able to determine possible sources, and to observe semantic and syntactic developments within the context of sentences and phrases for both English and French. Through the use of the compara­ tive method, we were able to evaluate these dictionaries in terms of their glosses, and to see the feasability of further investigation.

Although Professor Smalley's dissertation on Cotgrave's sources is definitive, similar studies along the same lines for Miege, Boyer and Chambaud, have not been undertaken. As French emigres living in

England, these three men led active lives, were politically oriented, and prolific writers of grammars, dictionaries, and works of a non-linguistic nature. Thus a lexicographical study of these men along with a detailed biographical account might produce some interesting

conclusions.

A frequently brought-out point throughout our inquiry was that

Chambaud was not entirely familiar with English. An evaluation of

the phonetic discussions, the descriptive phrases and sentences and

their translations, found in the works of Chambaud may well bear this

out. Similar studies for Boyer and Miege may cast some new light

on seventeenth and eighteenth century English.

And lastly, an investigation into the validity of the claims and

accusations observed in the preliminary pages of the works of Miege,

Boyer and Chambaud, and the possibility that they were for advertising

purposes, may reveal some significant insights into the intrigues of

the printing and book trade of the period.

This study was essentially an attempt to review pertinent material

in the field, to gather and evaluate the first editions of the major

English-French, French-English bilingual dictionaries from the

Renaissance to the eighteenth century, to show their steady progression,

and to present biographical and bibliographical information concerning

their compilers. It is hoped that this inquiry has served its purpose—

to fill the lacuna in bilingual lexicography, and to open the way to

new areas of investigation. EXPLANATORY NOTES TO APPENDICES I-V.

Appendix I is an annotated bibliography of important medieval glosses in manuscripts which bear on the development of the bilingual dictionary.

Appendix II is an annotated bibliography of editions and re­ editions of strictly English-French/ Frcnch-English bilingual diction­ aries published between the sixteenth and eighteenth centuries. In

those cases where re-editions extended into the nineteenth and twentieth

centuries, these have also been included. Availability of editions in

several U.S. and European libraries, and where applicable, call number,

are indicated after each entry. The designations for the abbrevia­

tions, employed are as follows:

AAS American Antiquarian Society, Worcester, Massachusetts

BN Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris, France

BRU Brown University Library, Providence, Rhode Island.

HC Dinand Library, College of the Holy Cross, Worcester, Massachusetts.

LBA Library of the Boston Atheneum, Boston, Massachusetts.

LBM Library of the British Museum, London, England.

LSU Louisiana State University Library, Baton Rouge, Louisiana.

LC Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.

NYP New York Public Library, New York, N.Y.

WL Widener Library, Harvard University, Cambridge Massachusetts

Y Yale University Library, New Haven, Connecticut.

Appendix III is a listing of other important works from the sixteenth to the eighteenth centuries, including monolingual English,

French, and Latin dictionaries; polyglot dictionaries; English-

Latin, French-Latin, Spanish-English, Italian-English etc. bilingual dictionaries, both mono and bidirectional; and other important works not fitting into the category of dictionary.

Appendix IV is a listing of strictly English-French/ French-

English bilingual dictionaries published during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Other significant works published contemporan­ eously with these are included in Appendix V. APPENDIX I

BILINGUAL AND POLYLINGUAL GLOSSARIES OF THE MIDDLE AGES IN MANUSCRIPT

Cambridge-Arundel Gloss (21) in MS of Walter of Biblesworth of the reign of Edward II and in the MS Arundel 220 (early 14th century). Cambridge University Library, Cambridge, England.

Cambridge EE Gloss (22) in MS Ee IV 20 f. 162 (c. 1340). "Nominale Siue Verbale in Gallicus cum e::positione euisdem in Angliois.” Cambridge University Library, Cambridge, England. This work contains 888 verses in French with English equivalents covering natural noises, parts of the body, acts of men and women, assemblies, building a house, utensils, winds, storms, breaking things, etc.

Digby 172 Gloss (17) (late 12th century). Bodleian Library, Oxford, England. An Anglo-French and early Middle English Gloss.

An English-French Legal Gloss (20) printed from MS Cotton Julius D VII f. 127 (c. 1250) and Cotton Galba E IV f 46 (1285-1331) with the Chronicles of Roger of Hoveden, Bartholomeus de Cotton and Higden. Chartulary of St. Mary’s Abbey, Dublin, Ireland; the Monuments of the Guildhall, London, and the Red Book of the Exchequer. This gloss was copied widely, separately, in chronicles and/or in collections. An estimated 30-50 copies are extant.

The Epinal Glossary MS 17. Municipality of Epinal, Epinal, France. Copy available in facsimile: Latin and English of the Eighth Century. Photolithographed from the original manuscript by W. Griggs, and edited with transliteration, introduction and notes by Henry Sweet...London: E.C. Printed for sub­ scribers and for the Philological and Early English Text Societies, 1883. Sweet regards this as the earliest extant monument of the English language, based on structural and linguistic evidence within the text. It is an alphabetical glossary in which Latin and some Greek words are explained in either Latin, or Greek, and sometimes English.

Harley 978 and Advocates Glosses (23) in MS Harley 978 f. 24 r. (c. 1265) and MS Advocates Library Misc. 18, 5, 16. Advocates Library, Edinburgh, Scotland. Both of these glosses contain a series of Latin plant names with their English and/or French equivalents. Leiden (Leyden) Glossary MS Voss. Q Lat. no. 69. Library of Leyden University, Leyden, the Netherlands. Copy available in facsimile: A late eighth century Latin Anglo-Saxon glossary. Edited by John Henry Hessels... Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1906.

Stowe 57 Glosses (19) in MS Stowe 57 ff 156, 158 (c. 1200). Library of the British Museum, London. Under "De Natura Jussentorum Bestiarum et Cunctorum Animalium," there appear lists of animal names, precious stones, trees and plants. Placed above the Latin term is a sporadic Anglo-Saxon or Norman equivalent. The glosses are unfortunately few in number, however. APPENDIX II

ENGLISH-FRENCH FRENCH-ENGLISH BILINGUAL DICTIONARIES SIXTEENTH-EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES

BOYER, ABEL. The Royal Dictionary. In Two parts. First French and English. Secondly, English and French. The French taken out of the dictionaries of Richelet, Furetiere, Tachart, the great dictionary of the French Academy, and the remarks •of Vaugelas, Menage, and Bouhours. The English collected chiefly out of the best dictionaries and the works of the greatest Masters of the English tongue...For the use of His Highness the Duke of Glocester. 2pt. London: R. Clavel, 1699. (AAS: LBM: 827. ee 1.)

'______The Royal Dictionary, Abridged. London: R. Clavel, 1700. (LBM: 1490 b 11.)

______Dictionnaire royal franQois et anglois...par Monsieur Boyer... La Haye: H. Van Bulderen, 1702. (BN: X 2625; LBM: 626 i. 16; WL: KG 6914.)

______The Royal Dictionary, Abridged...The second edition... corrected and improved with above fifteen hundred English words. As also an alphabetical list of the most common Christian names of men and women, etc. London: R. Clavel, 1708.’ (LBM: 1486 b 56.)

______The Royal Dictionary, Abridged. Third edition. London: D. & J. Brown, 1715. (LEM: 12953 bbb 22; WL: 6233.8.)

______Dictionnaire royal. Amsterdam: P. Humbert, 1719. (WL: KF 7360.)

______The Royal Dictionary. London, 1720. (WL: 6233.8.5.)

Dictionnaire royal. Amsterdam: R. & G. Wetstein, 1727. (BN: X 2626; WL: 6332.6.)

______The Royal Dictionary. London: J. & J. Knapton, 1728. (NYP: RFK.) BOYER, ABEL. The Royal Dictionary, French and English, and English and French...This new edition revised, corrected and improved, with the addition of some thousands of new words and phrases. London: J. & J. Knapton, 1729. (LBM: 12955 ee 7.)

______The Royal Dictionary, Abridged. In two parts I . French and English. II. English and French. Sixth edition carefully corrected. As also an alphabetical list of the most common Christian names...By Mr. A. Boyer. London: R. Wilkin, 1738. (BRU: PC2640 B69 1738; LBM: 12953 bbb 18.)

______Dictionnaire royal frangois et anglois, et anglois et frangois. Nouvelle edition, revue, corrigee & augmentee...d'une dissertation sur la prosodie frangoise, par Mr. de la S.R. i.e. D. Durand 2 pt. Londres: J. Brotherton, 1748. (LBM: 12950 1. 3.)

______The Royal Dictionary, Abridged. London: W. Innys, 1751. (BN: X14430-14431, Rel. aux armes de Clermont d'Amboise.)

______Dictionnaire royal. London: W. Innys, 1752. (BN: X2627-2628.)

______Dictionnaire royal. Amsterdam, 1752. (LBM: 12952 f. 2?) (N.B.)

______Dictionnaire royal. Nouvelle edition. London: W. Innys, 1752. (Y: Hf 28 084f.)

______Dictionnaire royal...Revu pour la seconde fois & augraente d'un grand nombre de mots & de phrases...et d’une Disserta­ tion sur la prosodie retouchee & amelioree par D.D. de la S.R. i.e. D. Durand, de la Societe Royale. (The Royal Dictionary...Revised and improved by D.D. F.R.S.) with a portrait 2 vol. London: J. Brotherton, 1753, 52. (LBM; 12954 g 14, 12952 f. 3; Y: Hf 28 084k.)

______The Royal Dictionary, Abridged...The ninth edition. London: W. Innys, 1755. (LBM: 1609/668; NYP: RFK.)

______Dictionnaire royal...Nouvelle edition. London: W. Innys. 1756. (LBM: 12952 i.l.?, 1486 1.8. NYP: RFK.)

N.B. (?) Hereinafter used to show that the edition does not show publishing house. 192

Dictionnaire royal franqois-anglois et anglois-franqois... augmente d'un grand nombre de mots & de phrases, tant angloises que frangoises, etc... 2 pts. London: W. Meadows,1759. (BN: X2629; LBM: 1501/136; WL: 6232.65; Y: Hf 28 084p.)

The Royal Dictionary, Abridged, French English English ji French. The eleventh edition. London: C. Bathurst, 1762. (BN: X14432-14443.)

Dictionnaire royal...Douzieme edition. Londras: T. Osborne, .1764. (LBA?; LBM: 12953. i. 16; WL: 6233.9.)

The Royal Dictionary, Abridged...The twelfth edition. London: C. Bathurst, 1767. (BN: X14434; BRU: PC 2640 B69; LBM: 1509/1465; WL: 6233 9. 25.)

Dictionnaire royal franqois-anglois et anglois-franqois, en abrege, par M.A. Boyer...Lyon: J. M. Bruyset, 1768. (BN: X2630-2631, X14435-14436; WL: 6232, 7?)

Dictionnaire royal franqois-anglois et anglois-franqois, en abrege, par M.A. Boyer... Basil: J. Shweighauser, 1768. (NYP: RFK.)

Dictionnaire royal...Basil, 1769. (WL: 6232.8.)

The Royal Dictionary, Abridged...London: C. Bathurst, 1771. (LBM: 12956 b 24.)

Dictionnaire royal frangois et anglois...par Monsieur Boyer... Londres: C. Bathurst, 1773. (BN: X2632-2633, with an engraved portrait of the author; BRU: PC 2640 E69, Drowne Coll; LBA; LBM: 626.1. 17, G 701.)

Boyer's Royal dictionary Abridged, in two parts: I . French and English. II. English and French... the fourteenth edition, carefully corrected...by J.C. Prieur. London: C. Bathurst, 1777. (BN: X14437; NYP: RFK.)

Dictionnaire royal...Lyon: j.-M. Bruyset, 1780. (BN: X2634-2635; LBM: 12955 dd 1.?; WL: 6233.22.14.; Y: Hf 28 084t.) 193

BOYER, ABEL. Dictionnaire royal franqois-anglois et anglois- frangois...par Hr. A. Boyer. Nouvelle edition...par J.C. Prieur. Londres: C. Bathurst, 1783. (BN: x2636; LBM 676.g. 19, 12957 e.8.)

______Dictionnaire royal franqois-anglois et anglois-franqois, en abrege, par M.A. Boyer...Quinzieme edition...(par J.-M. Bruyset). Lyon: J.-M. Bruyset, 1783. (BN: 14440-14441; LBM: 1486 b 50, wanting volume I, 1486 c. 2, wanting volume II?; WL 6233.10.?)

______Boyer1s Royal Dictionary Abridged, in two parts I. French and English, II. English and French... The fourteenth edition, carefully corrected...by J.C. Prieur. London: C. Bathurst, 1783. (BN: 14438-14439.)

The Royal Dictionary Abridged...Lyon: J.-M. Bruyset, 1783. (WL: 6233, 11.)

______Dictionnaire royal...The sixteenth edition. Lyon: J.-M. Bruyset, 1784. (BN: X14442.)

______Nouveau Dictionnaire franqois-anglois et anglols-franqois de M.A. Boyer...corrige et considerablement augmente par MM. Louis Chambaud et J.-B. Robinet. Paris: C. Panckouke, 1785. (BN: 4 X 135.)

The Royal Dictionary Abridged. The sixteenth edition. London: C. Bathurst, 1786. (LBM: 12953f 5.: WL: KF 10042.)

' Dictionnaire royal...Lyon, 178 . (WL: KPE 200?)

______The Royal Dictionary, Abridged. The seventeenth edition. London: Rivington, 1791. (AAS; LBM: 12986 f. 16.)

______Dictionnaire royal...Lyon: Bruyset Freres, 1792. (BN: X2638-2639; WL: 6272.15?)

______The Royal Dictionary...The seventeenth edition. Dublin: J. Moore, 1793. (NYP: RFK.)

The Royal Dictionary Abridged...by J.C. Prieur. London: 1794. (WL: 6233.12?) BOYER, ABEL. Dictionnaire royal...Nouvelle edition...soigneusement revue...par P.M. Fierville. Londres: Thomas Davison, 1796. (LBM: 433.d. 12, 68 e. 34; NYP: RFK: Y: Ilf 28 085.)

______Dictionnaire royal...Nouvelle edition...revue par J.C. Prieur... Londres, 1797. (BRU: PC 2640-2641?; LEA ?)

______Dictionnaire royal...Dix-huitieme edition...Paris, 1802. (WL: 6233.14.)

Le Nouveau Dictionnaire Universel francois-anglois et anglois- frangois, extrait des ecrits des meilleurs auteurs ainsi que des dictionnaires les plus estimes...et particulierement de celui de A. Boyer... par John Garner. Rouen: Vve. P. Dumesnil et fils, 1802. (BN: X2640-2641, et Res X1397-1398; LBM: 12950 f. 35?; WL: Andover-Harvard Library?)

______The Royal Dictionary. The twentieth edition, carefully corrected and improved by N. Salmon. London: Johnson & Ginger, 1802. (WL: 6233.15?; LBM: 12950 f. 35.)

______The Royal Dictionary Abridged...Montrose: Bell & Bradfute, 1803. (WL: KE 10041.)

______The Royal Dictionary Abridged. Montrose: J.A. Duncan, 1807. (WL: 6233.16.5.)

______The Royal Dictionary... The twenty second edition...by J.C. Prieur. Montrose: D. Buchanan, 1807. (LBM: 12954 c.12.)

______The New Dictionary French and English and English and French. Lyons: Corraan & Blanc. 1808. (LBM: 1509/6; NYP: RFK: WL: 6233.22.13.)

______The Royal Dictionary Abridged...by N. Salmon. London, 1809. (WL: 6233.16?)

______The Royal Dictionary Abridged...Edinburgh, 1814. (WL: 6233.18?)

Dictionnaire franqais-anglais et anglais-franpais, abrege de Boyer. Vingt-troisieme edition, revue...par N. Salmon. Pat Is: Lefevre, 1815. (BN: X14443-14444; WL KE 7608.) BOYER, ABEL. Dictionnaire franQais-anglais et anglais-franqais... Vingt-quatrieme edition. Paris: Lefevre, 1816. (BN: X14445-14446; NYP: RFK.)

______The Royal Dictionary.. .New edition...London: F.C. & J. Rivington, 1816. (HC: PC 2640 B7 1816; LBM: 12952.d.7; WL: 6232.12.)

______Dictionnaire anglais-franqais et franqais-anglais, abrege de Boyer, augmente...par N. Salmon. Vingt-cinquieme edition, revue...par L.-F. Fain. Paris: Brunot-Labbe, 1817. (BN: X14447-14448; WL: 6233.17.)

______Dictionnaire anglais-franqais et franqais-anglais...par A. Boyer, L. Chambaud, J. Garner et M. Des Carrieres... an adaptation of A. Boyer's Royal Dictionary and other works Nouvelle edition, revue et corrigee par L.-F. Fain. Paris,1817. (LBM: 12952 g. 9?)

______Dictionnaire franqois-anglois et anglois-franqois...par A. Boyer, L. Chambaud, J. Garner et M. Des Carrieres...Nouvelle edition...par L.-F. Fain. Paris: Lefevre, 1817. (BN: X2855.)

______Boyer's Royal Dictionary, Abridged...London, F.C. & J . Rivington, 1819. (WL: KE 10043.)

______The Royal Dictionary. The twenty-third edition. London: F. C. & J. Rivington, 1819. (LBM: 12954 f. 12.)

______Dictionnaire anglais-franqais et franqais-anglais...Vingt- sixieme edition. Paris: Tardieu-Denesle, 1821. (LBM: 12950 e. 5; NYP: RFK; WL: KE 10063.)

______Boyer's French Dictionary...Boston: W.B. Fowle, 1822. (AAS; BRU: XHB B69?; WL: 6233.22.2.)

______Dictionnaire anglais-franqais et franqais-anglais, abrege de Boyer, augmente...par N. Salmon. Vingt-septieme edition... revue...par M. Stone,lllParis: Tardieu-Denesle, 1825. (BN: X14449; Y: WB 46130.)

______A French Dictionary. Comprising all the additions & improve­ ments of the latest Paris & London editions...Boston, 1826. (Y: WC 556?)

______Boyer's French Dictionary...Boston: T. Bedlington, Bradford & Peaslee, 1827. (LBM: 12953 bbb 21; NYP: RFK?; WL; 6233.19; Y: Hf 28 548.) -L^O

BOYER, ABEL. Dictionnaire anglais-franqais et franqais-anglais,... Vingt-huitieme edition. Paris: Tardieu-Denesle, 1827. (BN: X14450-14451.)

______Dictionnaire anglais-franqais et franqais-anglais, Vingt- huitieme edition, augmente de cinq mille mots, revue et corrigee par M.S. Stone. Paris, 1829. (LBM: 12952 g 10?)

______Dictionnaire anglais-franqais et franqais-anglais,...Nouvelle edition. Paris: Ledentu, 1829. (WL: KG 11601.)

______The French Dictionary...Boston: Hilliard, Gray, Little & Wilkins, 1830. (WL: KF 7364.)

______Boyer’s French Dictionary. Boston: Hilliard, Gray, Little & Wilkins, 1830-31. (Y: Hf 28 553.)

______Dictionnaire anglais-franqais et franqais-anglais, abrege de Boyer, augmente... par R. Salmon. Vingt-neuvieme edition... revue et corrigee par M. Eugene Tnunot. Paris: Ledentu, 1831. (BN: X14452.)

______The French Dictionary...Boston: Hilliard, Gray, Little & Wilkins, 1832. (WL: 6233.22.3.)

The French Dictionary...Boston: Hilliard, Gray, Little & Wilkins, 1833. (WL: KE 4877; Y: WC 2394.)

______Nouveau dictionnaire...Paris: C. Hingray, 1834. (NYP: RFK.)

______The French Dictionary...Boston: Hilliard and others, 1835. (HC: 2640 A2B7 1835; NYP: RFK; WL: KF 7379.)

An English-French Dictionary. Boston: Hilliard, Gray & Co., 1836. (WL: 6233.22.5.)

______Dictionnaire anglais-franqais et franqais-anglais. Trentieme edition. Paris: Ledentu, 1837. (BN: 14453-14454.)

______Boyer’s French Dictionary. Boston: Hilliard, Cray & Co., 1838. (Y: WD 623.)” IV/

BOYER, ABEL. Nouveau Dictionnaire franqais-anglais et anglais-franqais, abrege de Boyer.Nouvelle edition, augmentee d'un dictionnaire de pronciation, et de vocabulaires de mythologie, de geographie et de marine, par G. Ilamoniere.. .Paris: C. Hingray, 1838. (BN: Ge. FF. 9323-9324.)

The French Dictionary. Boston: Hilliard, Gray & Co., 1840. (WL: 6233.22.7.)

______Dictionnaire anglais-franqais et franqais-anglais. Trente- et-unieme edition. Paris: Ledentu, 1841. (BN: X12413.)

______The French Dictionary. Boston: Hilliard, Gray & Co., 1841. (WL: KF 4355.)

______Nouveau Dictionnaire franqais-anglais et anglais-franqais. Paris: C. Hingray, 1844. (BN: X14487.)

The French Dictionary. Boston: B.B. Mussey, 1844. (WL: 6233.22.9.)

______An English-French Dictionary. Boston: B.B. Mussey, 1845. (WL: 6233.22.9.)

Le Nouveau Dictionnaire. Paris: Baudry, 1846. (WL: 6233.22.12.; Y: Hf 28 553b.)

______Nouveau dictionnaire anglais-franqais et franqais-anglais, abrege de Boyer...Trente-septieme edition entirement refondue...par Ml. E. Thunot et C.E. Clifton. Paris: Baudry, 1851. (BN: X14455-14456.)

______Nouveau Dictionnaire franqais-anglais et anglais-franqais... Paris: C. liingray, 1851. (BN: X14488.;

______Nouveau Dictionnaire franqais-anglais et anglais-franqais... Paris: C. Hingray, 1853. (BN: X14489.)

______Nouveau Dictionnaire anglais-franqais et franqais-anglais... Trente-neuvieme edition. Paris: Vve. Baudry, 1854. (BN: X14457.)

______Nouveau Dictionnaire anglais-f ranqais et franqais-anglais... Quarantieme edition. Paris: Vve. Baudry, 1857. (BN: X14458; LBM: 12953 g 20.) 198

BOYER, ABEL. Nouveau PictlonnairG franqais-anglais et anglais-franqais. Paris: C. Hingray, 1858. (BN: X14490.)

______Nouveau Dictionnaire franqais-anglais et anglais-franqais. Paris: C. Hingray, 185-. (NYP: RFK.)

______Nouveau Dictionnaire anglais-franqais et franqais-anglais. Quarante-et-unieme edition. Paris: Vve. Baudry, 1860. (BN: X14459; LBM: 12985.g.l.)

______Boyer’s French-English English-French Dictionary. Boston: De Wolfe, Fiske & Co., 1860. (HC: PC 2640 A2 B7.)

______Nouveau Dictionnaire anglais-franqais et franqais-anglais. Quarante-deuxieme edition. Paris: Baudry, 1866. (BN: X14460.)

______Nouveau Dictionnaire franqais-anglais et anglais-franqais. Paris: C. Fournaut, 1868. (BN: X14491.)

______Nouveau Dictionnaire anglais-franqais et franqais-anglais. Quarante-troisieme edition. Paris: Baudry, 1875. (BN: X14461.)

______Nouveau Dictionnaire...Paris: C. Hingray, 18- (WL: 6233.22.10.)

______The Royal Dictionary...London, 18-. (NYP: Ford Collection RFK.)

CHAMBAUD, LOUIS. Nouveau Dictionnaire franqois-anglois..,T.I.. .de M. Louis Chambaud, corrige...par J. B. Robinet. A New Dictionary English and French and French and English...Vol II... Amsterdam et Rotterdam: Arkstee et Merkus et H. Boman, 1776. (BN: X2852-2853; Y: WE 28-29.)

______Nouveau Dictionnaire franqois-anglois...A New Dictionary English and French and French and English...Paris: T. Barrois, 1776. (BN: X2622.)

Nouveau Dictionnaire franqois-anglois...A New Dictionary English and French and French and English...Paris: C. Panckoucke, 1776. (BN: X2620-2621; NYP: RFK; WL: 6234.3.) CHAMBAUD, LOUIS. Nouveau Dictionnaire franqois-anglois .& anglois- franQois. (A New Dictionary English and French and French and English)...Nouvelle edition, revue, corrigee, augmentee...par M. Jean Perrin. Londres: W. Strahan, T. Cadell & P. Elmsley, 1778. (BN: X2623-2624; LBM: 12952 f 4, 68 e. 5,6.; WL: 6234.6?)

______Chambaud!s Dictionary French and English and English and French. Carefully abridged by Mr. John Perrin. London: A. Strahan, T. Cadell and P. Elmsley, 1787. (BRU: PC2640 c44.)

______Nouveau Dictionnaire...Nouvelle edition...par J. Th. H. Des Carrieres...Londres: Cadell & Davies, etc., 1805. (LBM: 12950 v.l.)

______Nouveau Dictionnaire...Nouvelle edition...Londres: Cadell & Davies, etc., 1815. (LBM: 12955 c. 10; NYP: RFK.)

______Dictionnaire francois-anglois et anglois-franqois...par A. Boyer, L. Chambaud, J. Garner et M. Des Carrieres...Nouvelle edition...par L.-F. Fain...Paris: Lefevre, 1817. (BN: 2855. This is the same edition listed previously under Boyer.)

COTGRAVE, RANDLE. A Dictionarie of the French and English Tongues, compiled by Randle Cotgrave. London: A. Islip, 1611. (BN: 4 X243; BRU: 1611 c82; LBM: N.L. 3.c, G 7645; LSU: 432.2 C82 D; NYP: KC 1611; WL: 6232.20; Y: Hf 28 01 c.) N.B.

______A Dictionarie of the French and English Tongues, compiled by Randle Cotgrave. Whereunto is also annexed a most copious dictionarie of the English set before the French, by R.S.L. (Robert Sherwood, Londoner.) London: A. Islip, 1632. (BN: X600; LBM: 1482.e 3, 626.1. 13; NYP: KC 1632; Y: Hf 28 080.)

______A French-English Dictionary compil'd by Mr. Randle Cotgrave, with another in English and French, whereunto are newly added the animadversions and supplements...of James Howell...London: J. Williams, 1650. (BN: Fol.X 42; BRU: PC 2640-c7?; LBM: 2055.g?)

______A French-English Dictionary...London: W.H. (Whiliam Hunt) for Luke Fawne, 1650. (LBM: 1605/103.) COTGRAVE, RANDLE. A French-English Dictionary...London: W.H. (William Hunt) for George Lathum, 1650. (LBM: 1505/45.)

______A French-English Dictionary compil'd by Mr. Randle Cotgrave; with another in English and French by Robert Sherwood . Whereunto are newly added the animadversions and supplements, &c. of James Howell. London: W.H. (William Hunt) for Octarian Pulleyn, 1650. The title page of the English-French section bears the imprint "Printed by Susan Islip: London, 1650." (LBM: 2055 e.)

A French-English Dictionary...London: W.H. for Richard Whitaker, 1650. (LBM: 71. f. 6.)

A French-English Dictionary...London: W. Hunt, 1660. (BN: X601; LBM: 12952 h. 6.)

______A French-English Dictionary...London: Anthony Dolle, 1673. (BN: X940; LBM: 625K 10. The title page bears the date 1672; LSU: 443.2 H83f; WL: 6231.6; Y: Beinecke Lib. Hf 28 081.)

HARRYSON, LUCAS . A Dictionarie French and English. London: H. lly nneman, 1570. (Henry E. Huntington Library, San Marino, California; Boston Public Library, Boston, Massachusetts; St. John's College, Cambridge, England; Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut.)

HOLLYBAND, CALUDE. (CLAUDE DE SAINLIENS). A Dictionarie French and English. London: Thomas Woodcock, 1593. (Caen; LBM: 626 f. 1., G. 639; WL: 6235.593 ; Y: Hf' 28 500.)

MIEGE, GUY. A New Dictionary French and English, with another English and French: according to the present use and modern ortho­ graphy of the French, etc. London: T. Dawks for T. Bassett, 1677. (LBM: 12953.dd 1.)

______A New Dictionary French and English, with another English and French...enrich'd with new words, choice phrases, and apposite proverbs... to which is added a collection of barbarous French., by Guy Micgo...London: T. Bassett, 1679. (BN: X2619; LBM: 840.K.41: WL: 6232.3 ; Y: Beinecke Lib. Hf 28 510.) 201

MIEGE, GUY. A Dictionary of Barbarous French...Taken out of Cotgrave's Dictionary, with some additions. London: J.C. for Thomas Bassett, 1679. (LBM: 626. i. 17.)

______A Short Dictionary English and French. London: Thomas Bassett, 1684. (NYP: RFK; Y; Beinecke Lib. Hf 28 511.)

______A Short Dictionary English and French, with another French and English...the second edition...by Guy Miege...London: Thomas Bassett, 1685. (BN: X16293.)

______The Great French Dictionary. London: J. Redmayne for Thomas Bassett, 1688. (This is an enlarged edition of the New Dictionary of 1679. BRU: PC2640 M5; HC: Treas. PC 2640 A28M6; LBM: 12953.K.4, LR 300 bbb 7; WL; KJ 289; Y: Beinecke Lib. Hf 28 M585.)

______The Short French Dictionary, in two parts...London: Thomas Bassett, 1690. (LBM: 1508/1070; NYP: RFK; WL: 61-472.)

______The Short French Dictionary abridged from the author’s Great French Dictionary . The third edition with some improvements. The Hague: Henry Van Bulderen, 1691. (LBM: 1471 aaa 14.)

______The Short French Dictionary...The fourth edition. The Hague: Henry Van Bulderen, 1699. (WL: 6236.15.5.)

______The Short French Dictionary...The Fifth edition. The Hague: Henry Van Bulderen, 1701. (LBM: 12952 bbb 10; WL: 6236.16.)

______The Short French Dictionary...The fifth edition. The Hague: Henry Van Bulderen, 1703. (LBM: 626.f.2.)

______A Short Dictionary English French -with another French English. Second edition. London, 1720? (WL: 6233.4.) zuz

NUGENT, THOMAS. A New Pocket Dictionary of the French and English Languages in two parts: I French and English: II. English and French...by Thomas Nugent,...London: E. and C. Dilly,1767. (EM: X29640; LBM: 1212.b 30.)

______A New Pocket Dictionary of the French and English Languages... Second edition...improved by J.S. Charrier,...London: E. and C. Dilly, 1774. (BN: X14368; LBM: 1212 b 31.)

' A New Pocket Dictionary of the French and English Languages... Third edition...improved by J.S. Charrier,...London: E. and C. Dilly, 1779. (BN: X14369; LBM: 626. a 28.)

______A New Pocket Dictionary of the French and English Languages... Fourth edition. London: E. and C. Dilly, 1781. (LBM: 626. a 30.)

______A New Pocket Dictionary of the French and English Languages... London: E. and C. Dilly, 1784. (BN: X29641.)

______A New Pocket Dictionary of the French and English Languages... London: E. and C. Dilly, 1786. (BN: X14373.)

______A New Pocket Dictionary of the French and English Languages... Fifth edition. London: E. and C. Dilly, 1783. (LBM: 012955. a. 18.)

______Nouveau dictionnaire portatif des langues fran^aise et angloise. en deux parties...Thomas Nugent,...The New Pocket Dictionary of the French and English Languages in two parts...London: T. Longman, 1793. (BN: X14370.)

______Nugent's Improved English French <& French 6^ English Pocket Dictionary. London: 1793. (NYP: RFK?)

______Nouveau dictionnaire portatif...Ninth edition...by J. Ouiseau... London, 1795. (LBM: 626.2.31?)

______Nugent' s Improved English &_ French French English Pocket Dictionary. London, 1795. (NYP: RFK?)

______The New rocket Dictionary of the French English Languages. Paris; Bossange, Masson & Besson, 1797. (IIG: Treas. PC 2640 N9 1797.) 203

NUGENT, THOMAS. Nouveau dictionnaire portatif...The New Pocket Dictionary...Tenth edition...by J. Ouiseau...London, 1799. (LBM: 12952.aa 30?)

______Nugent1 s Improved English French French English Pocket Dictionary. London: C. Dilly, 1799. (NYP: RFK.)

______Nouveau dictionnaire portatif...Eleventh edition...by J. Ouiseau...London, 1803, (LBM: 12952.aa 29.)

______The New English and French Pocket Dictionary...by Thomas Nugent...to which is prefixed a compendious English grammar... by J.S. Charrier. A new edition...Nouveau dictionnaire portatif franqois et anglois...Paris: Levrault, 1804. (BN: X14371-14372.)

______Nouveau dictionnaire portatif...The New Pocket Dictionary. Thirteenth edition...by J. Ouiseau...London: J. Mawman, 1810. (LBM: 12953 a 11.)

______Nouveau dictionnaire portatif...London: A. Wilson, 1812. (LBM: 12954 b 8.)

______Nouveau dictionnaire portatif.. .Fourteenth editiion.. .by J. Ouiseau...London, 1816. (LBM: 626 a 39?)

______The New Pocket Dictionary of the French and English Languages. In two parts. The second American edition from the last London edition. By J. Ouiseau. New York: S.A. Burtus, 1817. (Y: Hf 28 517c.)

______Nugent’s Improved English & French, French English Dictionary. New York: Duyckinck, 1817. (NYP: RFK.)

______Nugent's Improved English French, French English Dictionary. New York: G. Long, 1817. (NYP: RFK.)

______Nouveau dictionnaire de poche franqois-anglois et anglois- franqois...par Thomas Nugent, augmente par J. Ouiseau...Dix- septieme edition, revue...par L.-F. Fain...precedee de la grammaire arigloise de Siret. Paris: Tardieu-Denesle, 1818. (BN: X1437414375; NYP: RFK.)

______Nugent's Improved English&_ pencil, French <& English Pocket Dictionary. New York: G. Long, 1821. (NYP: RFK.) 204

NUGENT, THOMAS. Nouveau dictionnaire de poche...Dix-huitieme edition... Paris: L. Tenre, 1823. (BN: X14376-14377.)

______Nugent’s Improved English & French, French Ji English Pocket Dictionary. New York, G. Long, 1826. (NYP: RFK.)

______The New Pocket Dictionary, French and English, and English and French, containing all words in general use... by Thomas Nugent . Part the second containing the English before the French. A new edition...Paris: J. Smith, 1826. (BN: X14396.)

■ Nouveau dictionnaire. de poche francais-anglais et anglais- franqais...par Thomas Nugent, nouvelle edition entierement refondue...par J. Ouiseau. Dix-heuvieme edition...New Pocket Dictionary French-English and English-French...Paris: Baudry, 1827. (BN: X14378-14379; WL: 6236.30?)

______Nouveau dictionnaire de poche franqais-anglais et franqais- anglais. ..Vingtieme edition. 1828. (BN: X14380-14381; Y: WA 22029.)

______A New Pocket Dictionary of the French and English Languages, in two parts...The nineteenth edition. Carefully corrected... London: C. & J. Rivington, 1828. (Y: 22031.)

______A New Pocket Dictionary of the French and English Languages..., Nouvelle edition revue par Tibbins et Nimmo. Paris, 1829. (LBM: 12952 df 13.)

Nouveau dictionnaire de poche...Vingt-et-unieme edition. Paris: H. Bossange, 1829. (Y: Hf 28 517m.)

______The New Pocket Dictionary of the French ^ English Languages... by J. Ouiseau...Philadelphia, 1830. (WL: 6236.29?, 6236.29.5?)

______Nouveau dictionnaire de poche franqais-anglais et anglais- franqais...par Thomas Nugent. Nouvelle edition entierement refondue...par J. Ouiseau. Vingt-deuxieme edition revue par Tibbins et Nimmo...New Pocket Dictionary French and English, and English and French...Paris: Baudry, 1830. I. BN: X14382.)

______Nouveau dictionnaire cte poche...Vingt-troisieme edition.. .Paris: Baudry, 1830. (BN: X14383.) NUGENT, THOMAS. Nugent’s Improved English-French, French-English Pocket Dictionary. New York: G. Long, 1830. (NYP: RFK.)

______Nugent’s Improved English-French, French-English Pocket Dictionary. London: Longman, 1831. (NYP: RFK.)

______Nouveau dictionnaire de poche franqais-anglais et anglais- franqais...par Thomas Nugent. Nouvelle edition entierement refondue...par J. Ouiseau. Vingt-cinquieme edition, revue... • par M. French,...Francais-anglais. New Pocket Dictionary, French-English and English-French...English and French. Paris: Vve Thierot, 1832. (BN: X14397.)

______A New Pocket Dictionary of the French and English Languages, in two parts. Fourth American edition...by J. Ouiseau. New York, 1834. (BRU: 4-XH N89n 834; Y: WA: 22028.)

______A New Pocket Dictionary of the French and English Languages... Fifth American edition by J. Ouiseau. New York, 1834. (BRU: N89n 834?)

______Nouveau dictionnaire de poche...Trente-troisieme edition... Paris: Vve. Thierot, 1839. (BN: X14398, et 8 16427.)

______Nouveau dictionnaire de poche...Paris: Baudry, 1839. (BRU: A.M. Brown Mem.)

______Nouveau dictionnaire de poche franqais-anglais et anglais- franqais, de Thomas Nugent. Nouvelle edition, entierement refondue...par Asborne de Chastelain,...Franqais-anglais. A New Pocket Dictionary in two parts...In English and French. . Paris: J. Langlume et Peltier, 1839. (BN: X14404.)

______The New Pocket Dictionary...Twenty-fourth edition by J.C. Tarver. London: Longman & Co., 1841. (LBM: 12955 a 33.)

______Nouveau dictionnaire de poche...Trente-cinquieme edition... Paris: Vve. Thierot, 1841. (BN: X14399.)

______Nouveau dictionnaire de poche...Trente-huitieme edition... Paris: Vve. Theirot, 1845. (BN: X14440.) 206

NUGENT, THOMAS. Nouveau dictionnaire de poche...Trente-neuvieme edition...Paris: Baudry, 1850. (BN: X14385.)

______Nouveau dictionnaire de poche...par Asborne de Chastelain... Paris: J. Langlume et Peltier, 1850. (BN: X14404 bis, LBM: 829. a 28-imperfect wanting the title page of part I.)

______Nouveau dictionnaire de poche...Quarante-et-unieme edition... .Paris: Vve. Thierot, 1850. (BN: X14401.)

______Nouveau dictionnaire de poche...Quarante-deuxieme edition... Paris: Vve. Thierot, 1852. (BN: X14404.)

______Nouveau dictionnaire de poche frangais-anglais et anglais- frangais...par J. Ouiseau. Trente-sixieme edition revue par Tibbins et Nimmo. Bruxelles, 1852. (BRU: XHB N89.3?)

______Nouveau dictionnaire de poche...Quarante-et-unieme edition... Paris: Baudry, 1853. (BN: X14387.)

______Nouveau dictionnaire de poche...Quarante-troisieme edition ...Paris: Vve. Thierot, 1853. (BN: X14403.)

______Nouveau dictionnaire de poche...Quarante-deuxieme edition... Paris: Baudry, 1854. (BN: X14388.)

______Pocket Dictionary of the French and English Languages...By Brown & Martin. Stereotype edition of Nugent's New Pocket Dictionary of the French and English Languages . n.p..1854. (LBM: 828.a.66.)

______Dictionnaire de poche frangais-anglais et anglais-frangais... par Thomas Nugent. Nouvelle edition entierement refondue... par L.A.G. Frangais-anglais. Nugent's Pocket Dictionary French and English and English and French. Paris: Vve. Thierot, 1855. (BN: X14406.)

Nouveau dictionnaire de poche...Quarante-troisieme edition... Paris: Baudry, 1856. (BN: X14390.) 20 V

NUGENT, THOMAS. Nugent's Improved English French, French English Pocket Dictionary. Brunswick: G. Westerman, 1856. (NYP: RFK.)

______Nugent's Pocket Dictionary of the French 6^ English Languages... A new edition, carefully corrected and abridged, etc. London, 1856 . (LBM: 12953.a.41?)

______Nouveau dictionnaire de poche...Quarante-quatrieme edition... •Paris: Baudry, 1857. (BN: X14391.)

______Pocket Dictionary of the French and English Languages... By Brown & Martin...Brunswick, 1857. (LBM: 12985 a.77?)

______Dictionnaire de poche...Paris: Vve. Theirot, 1858. (BN: X14407.)

______Pocket Dictionary of _the French and English Languages... New edition...by L.A.G...Paris, 1858. (LBM: 12983 a.46?)

______Nouveau dictionnaire de poche...Quarante-cinquieme edition... Paris: Baudry, 1859. (BN: X14392.)

______Dictionnaire de poche...Paris: Vve. Theirot, 1862. (BN: X14408.)

______Nouveau dictionnaire de poche...Quarante-sixieme edition... Paris: Baudry, 1862. (BN: X14393.)

______Nugent's Improved...London: L. Hachette, 1863. (NYP: RFK.)

______Nouveau dictionnaire de poche...par Asborne de Chastelain,... Paris: T. Lefevre, 1864. (BN: X14405.)

______Nouveau dictionnaire de poche...par Tibbins et Nimmo...Quarante- septieme edition...Paris: Baudry, 1865. (BN: X14394.)

______Dictionnaire de poche...Paris: Vve. Thierot, 1866. (BN: X14409.) 208

NUGENT, THOMAS. Pocket Dictionary of the French and English Languages... Seventeenth edition by Brown & Martin...Brunswick, 1866. (LBM: 12954 a. 31?)

______Dictionnaire de poche...Paris: Vve. Thierot, 1869. (BN: X14410.)

______Dictionnaire de poche...Paris: Vve. Theirot, 1872. • (BN: X14411.)

______' Pocket Dictionary of the French and English Languages... New edition...by L.A.G....Paris, 1872. (LBM: 12941 aaa 5?)

______Nouveau dictionnaire de poche...Quarante-neuvieme edition... Paris: Baudry, 1874. (BN: X14395, 8 X5684.)

______Pocket Dictionary of the French and English Languages...London, 1876 . (LBM: 12950 a.8?0

______Dictionnaire de poche francais-anglais et anglais-franqais... par Thomas Nugent. Nouvelle edition entierement refondue... par L.A.G., augmentee des Regies de la prononciation anglaise.,. par A. Bazire. Franqais-anglais . Nugent's Pocket Dictionary French and English and English and French...English and French. Paris: Andre Guedon, 1877. (BN: 8 X2009.)

______Pocket Dictionary of the French and English Languages...Twenty ninth stereotype edition. London, 1878 . (LBM: 12950aa 26?)

______Nugent's Improved...London: Martin & Brown, 187-. (NYP: RFK.)

______Nouveau dictionnaire de poche...Cinquantieme edition...Paris: Baudry, 1882. (BN: X6279.)

______Nugent's Pocket Dictionary of the English and French Languages. By Brown & Martin. With additions by J. Duhamel. London: Routledge & Sons, 1897. (LBM: 12950 aaaa 1.)

______Nugent's Improved Pocket Dictionary of the French and English Languages. London: Routledge & Sons, 189-. (WL: KC 2279, KC10230.) 209

NUGENT, THOMAS. Dictionnaire de poche franqais-anglais. Paris: F.E. Guedon, 18— . (NYP: RFK.)

______The New Pocket Dictionary of the French and English Languages... The fourth American edition. New York: George Lon — , 18— . (Y: WA 22028.)

______' Nugent1s Improved Pocket Dictionary of the French and English Languages♦ n.p. 18— . (WL: KC10235, KC13460.)

______Miniature Dictionary of the English and French and French and English Languages. By Brown & Martin. With additions by J. Duhamel. Abridged from Nugent’s Dictionary of the French and English Languages... N.p. 1905. (LBM: 012216 hh 5, 12952 de 31, 12952 de 30.)

______Nouveau dictionnaire franqais-anglais et anglais-franqais... Nouvelle edition revue, corrigee et considerablement augmentee par Sylva Clapin. Montreal: Librairie Beauchemin, 1905 . (LBM: 12954 ccc 25.)

______Nugent1s Dictionary of the French and English Languages. London: F. Warne, 1915 . (WL: KC39.)

______Nugent1s Dictionary of the French and English Languages. By Brown & Martin. With additions by J. Duhamel. London & New York: F. Warne, 1916 . (LBM: 12952 de 57.)

__ Nugent1s Improved Pocket Dictionary of the French and English Languages in two parts. French and English; English and French, by Brown & Martin...Twenty eighth edition. London: F. Warne, n.d. (BN: 8 X5912.) APPENDIX III

OTHER WORKS

SIXTEENTH-EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES

ACADEMIE FRANCAISE. Le Dictionnaire de 1'Academie frangaise, dedie au roy. Paris: Vve. de J.B. Coignard, 1964.

______• Le Dictionnaire de 1'Academie frangaise.. .Deuxieme edition. Amsterdam, 1696.

______Le Dictionnaire de 1*Academie frangaise...Edition revue.... Paris, 1718.

______Le Dictionnaire de 1*Academie frangaise...Quatrieme edition. Paris: Bernard Burnet, 1762.

______Le Dictionnaire de 1' Academie frangaise.. .Nouvelle edition. Lyon, 1776.

______Le Dictionnaire de 1*Academie frangaise...Nouvelle edition. Nismes, 1786.

______Lie Dictionnaire de l1 Academie frangaise.. .Cinquieme edition. N.p.: J.J. Smits, 1799.

BAILEY, NATHANIEL. Universal Etymological English Dictionary, 1721.

______Dictionarium britannicum, 1730.

BARET, JOHN. An Alvearie or Quadruple Dictionarie...English, Latine, Greelce and French. London: H. Denham, 1580 1581 .

______An Alvearie or Triple Dictionarie in Englishe, Latin, and French... London: H. Denham, 1573.

BARETTI, JOSEPH. A Dictionary of the English and Italian Languages. 2 vols. London, 1760.

______A Dictionary, Spanish and English, and English and Spanish. London: J. Nourse, 1778.

BERLAIMONT, NOEL DE. Dictlonarlolum et colloqvia octo linguarum. Antwerp: 11. Acrtsens, 1662. BLOUNT, THOMAS. Glossographia or a Dictionary Interpreting; the Hard Words of Whatsoever Language Now Used in our Refined English Tongue;...The fifth edition with many additions. London: Thomas Newcomb, 1681.

BOTTARELLI, F. Dizionario portabile italiano, inglese e francese. Venezia, 1791.

CALEPINUS, AMBROSIUS. Dictionarium. Reggio, 1502. ed. Andreas Morguaesius. Adiunctae sunt praeterea singulis vocibus Latinus, Italicae, Gallicae, et Hispanicae, interpretationes... ■ Subjuncta sunt postremo. .. Pauli Manutij... additamenta. Lyons : Apud T. Paganum, 1565.

CAWDREY, ROBERT. A Table Alphabetical!, conteyning and teaching the true writing, and vnderstanding of hard vsual English wordes, and borrowed from the Hebrew, Greeke, Latine, or French wordes. London: Edmund Weaver, 1604.

COLES, ELISHA. A Dictionary English-Latin and Latin-English. London: D. Browne, 1722.

COOPER, THOMAS. Thesaurus linguae romanae et britannicae. London, 1578.

DANET, PIERRE. Grand dictionnaire frangois et latin. Lyon: Chex les freres Deville, 1738.

Dictionarium triglotton Latino-Graeco-Gallicum. Leodii: Apud J.M. Hovium, 1675.

A Dictionary English and Latine. London: I. Haviland for S. Man., 1623.

Les Dictionnaire de six langages. C'est sgavoir latin, flamen, frangois, espagnol, italien, et anglois: fort utile & necessaire pour tous studieux & amateurs des lettres. Reu. & cor. de nouveau. Roven: C. de Villain, 1625.

Le Dictionnaire universal frangois et latin. Paris: Veuve Delaune, 1732.

ENTICK, JOHN. New Latin-English Dictionary. London: C. Dilly, 1790.

ESTIENNE, ROBERT. Dictionnaire frangoislatin. Paris: Robert Estienne, 1539.

______Dictionarium latinogallicum... auctore R. Stephano. Paris: Robert Estienne, 1543.

______Dictionarjoluro puerorum. 1544. FLORIO, JOHN. A Worlde of Wordes: Or most copious, and exact Diction­ arie in Italian and English, collected by John Florio. London: Arnold Hatfield for Edward Blount, 1598.

FURETIERE, ANTOINE. Dictionnaire universel, contenant generalement tous les mots frangois tant vieux que modernes, et les termes de toutes les sciences et des arts. La Haye: A. & R. Leers, 1690.

GIRAL DELPINO, JOSEPH. A Dictionary, Spanish and English, and English . and Spanish. London: A. Millar, J. Nourse, P. Vaillant,1763.

GOULDMAN, FRANCIS. A Copious Dictionary in Three Parts: The English Before the Latin, etc. Cambridge: John Hayes, 1678.

GRAVE BARTHOLOMY DE (ed.) Vocabulaer in vier spraken Duytsch, Francois, Latijn ende Spaensch. Louvain: Bartholomy de Graue, 1551.

HOLYOAKE, THOMAS. A Large Dictionary in Three Parts♦..London: W. Rawlins for G. Sawbridge, 1676-77.

HOWELL, JAMES. Lexicon tetraglotton, or an English-French-Spanish- Italian Dictionary. London: J. Front, 1660.

HULOET, RICHARD. Abecedarium Anglico-Latinum. pro Tyranculus. London, 1552.

______Huloet's Dictionarie, neweleye corrected...by John Higgins. London: I. Marsh, 1572.

JOHNSON, SAMUEL. A Dictionary of the English Language in which the words are deduced from their originals, and illustrated in their different significations by example from the best writers. To which are prefixed a history of the language and the English Grammar. By Samuel Johnson. London: W. Strahan, 1755.

______Johnson's Dictionary of the English Language in Miniature. London: Joseph Hamilton, 1799.

JOUBERT, JOSEPH, S.J. Dictionnaire frangois et latin. tire des auteurs originaux et classiques. Lyon: L. & H. Declaustre, 1745.

KERSEY, JOHN; A New English Dictionary. London, 1702.

LITTLETON, ADAM. Dr. Adam Littleton's Latine Dictionary, in Four Parts. London: W. Rawlins, 1703. LUDWIG, CHRISTIAN. A Dictionary, English, German and French. Revised, corrected and augmented by J.B. Rogler. Fourth edition. Leipzig, 1771.

MENAGE, GILLES. Dictionnaire (sic) etymologique, ou origines de la langue franqoise...Paris: J. Anisson, 1694.

MINSHEU, JOHN. A Dictionarie in Spanish and English. London: Edmund Bollifant, 1599.

NICOT, JEAN. Dictionnaire franaoislatin. Paris: J. Du Puys, 1584.

______Le Grand dictionnaire franqois-latin, augmente. Paris: N. Buon, 1616.

______Thresor de la langue franqoise...Paris: David Douceur, 1606.

Nouveau dictionnaire du voyageur francois-allemand-latin...Basle: J. L. Brandmuller, 1746.

OUDIN, CESAR. Tesoro de las dos lengvas franeesa £ espanola. Thresor des deux langues frangaise et espagnolle. Paris: Marc Orry, 1607.

PALSGRAVE, JOHN. Lesclaircissement de la langue francoyse. London: Johan liaukyns, 1530.

PINEDA, PETER. A New Dictionary, Spanish and English and English and Spanish. London: F. Gyles et al., 1740.

POMEY, FRANCOIS. Le Dictionnaire royal (frangois et latin). Lyon, 1691.

RICHELET, PIERRE. Nouveau dictionaire (sic) frangois, contenant generalement tous les mots, les matieres et plusieurs nouvelles remarques sur la langue frangoise. Cologne: J.F. Gaillard, 1694.

______Nouveau dictionnaire frangois...Nouvelle edition augmentee. Rouen: F. Vaultier, 1719.

______Dictionnaire de la langue franqoise anqienne et moderne de Pierre Richelet:... Imprime a Lyon, et se vend a Paris chez J. Estienne, 1728.

______Dictionnaire portatif de la langue franqoise, extrait du grand dictionnaire de Pierre Richelet. Lyon, 1775, 1789.

______et RICHELET, CESAR PIERRE. Dictionnaire frangois, contenant les mots et les choses, plusieurs nouvelles remarques sur la langue franqoise.. .Geneve: J.II. Widerhold, 1680. RIDER, JOHN. Bibliotheca Scholastica. A Dovble Dictionarle. Oxford: Joseph Barnes, 1589.

______Rider's Dictionarie Corrected and Augmented Wherein Rider's Index is transformed into a. Dictionarie Etymologicall. London: Adam Islip, 1606.

______Rider's Dictionarie...by Francis Holyoke. London: Adam Islip, 1626.

SEJOURNANT, NICOLAS DE. Nouveau dictionnalre espagnol-franqois et latin...Paris: C.A. Jombert, 1787.

SOCIET, ETIENNE. Dictionnaire universel Franqois et Latin...Paris: Delaune, 1743.

STEVENS, CAPTAIN JOHN. A New Spanish and English Dictionary. London: George Sawbridge, 1706. Part II A Dictionary English and Spanish. London: George Sawbridge, 1705.

TELLIER, PASQUIER LE (ed.) Lie Dictionnaire des huict langages. Paris: Pasquier le Tellier, 1548.

THIERRY, JEHAN. Dictionnaire franqoislatin. Paris: Du Puys, 1564.

THOMAS, THOMAS. Dictionarium linguae Latinae et Anglicanae. London: Richard Boyle, 1587.

TREVOUX. Dictionnaire universel franqois et latin. Vulgairement appelle Dictionnaire de Trevoux...nouvelle edition corrigee et considerablement augmentee...Paris: Cie. de Libraires associes, 1752.

WASE, CHRISTOPHER. Dictionarium minum. London, 1662.

WITHALS, JOHN. A Dictionarie in English and Latine. London: T. Purfoot, 1616.

WORCESTER, JOSEPH E. A Dictionary of the English Language. Boston, 1.860. APPENDIX IV

ENGLISH-FRENCH FRENCH-ENGLISII BILINGUAL DICTIONARIES

NINETEENTH AND TWENTIETH CENTURIES

BELLOWS, JOHN. A Dictionary French and English, English and French.. New York: Henry llolt & Co., 1890, 1911, 1920.

______A French Dictionary. French-English, English-French. Fourth edition. London, New York: Longman Green & Co., 1951. (First published under title: The Bona-fide Pocket Dictionary of the French and English Languages.)

BOIELLE, JAMES. Heath * s French and English Dictionary; Compiled from the best authorities in both languages. Boston: D.C. Heath & Co., 1903.

______and Payen-Payne, de, J.B.V. A New French and English Dictionary...New York: Funk & Wagnalls Co., 1905.

______Nouveau dictionnaire francais-anglais et anglais-franqais. Paris, New York: Cassell, 1906, 1903 .

______A New French and English Dictionary. London: Cassell, 1910.

BONIFACE, ALEXANDRE. Dictionnaire franqais-anglais et anglais-franqais. Paris: Librairie classique elementaire et catholique, 1826-30.

______Dictionnaire franqais-anglais et anglais-franqais. Paris: Bobee et Hingray, 1828.

BOUCE, G. Dictionnaire de poche, anglais, franqais. Paris: Hachette, 1946.

Cassell*s New French-English English-French Dictionary. New York: Funk & Wagnalls Co., 1930.

CESTRE, CHARLES. Dictionnaire franqais-anglais. Paris: Librairie A. liatier, 1918, 1927.

Dictionnaire francais-anglais. New York: Doubleday, Doran, 1927 .

Dictionnaire franqais-anglais. Paris: Librairie A. Hatier, 1930.

CHAFFURIN, LOUIS. Dictionna?re franqais-anglais. Paris: Larousse, 1928. CHAFFURIN, LOUIS. Dictionnaire franqais-anglais. New York: F.S. Crofts, 1928.

CHEVALLEY, ABEL. The Concise Oxford French Dictionary. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1934, 1942, 1963.

The Classic French Dictionary. New York: Hinds & Noble, 18— .

The Classic French Dictionary. New York: Hinds, Noble & Eldridge, 1901

The Classic French Dictionary in two parts, French-English and English- French. New York: Hinds & Noble, 1913? .

The Classic French Dictionary; French-English and English-French; revised with a preface by Antoine Provost...Chicago: Follett, 1944.

CLIFTON, E.C. A New Dictionary of the French & English Languages. London: Hachette, 1881? .

______A New Dictionary of the French &_ English Languages. Paris: Garnier, 1881? .

______Nouveau dictionnaire anglais-franqais et franqais-anglais. Boston: De Vries Ibarra, 1866.

______Nouveau dictionnaire anglais-franqais- et franqais-anglais. Paris: Garnier, 1882-83, 1905.

'____ Nouveau dictionnaire anglais-franqais et franqais-anglais... par E. Clifton. Ouvrage...refondu et...augmente par J. McLaughlin...Paris: Garnier, 1906, 1914-23, 1929.

CALLOT, ALEXANDER G . A New Improved Standard French English English & French Dictionary. Philadelphia: C. & G. Henderson, 1856.

CONTANSEAU, LEON. A Pocket Dictionary of the French English Languages. London, 1870.

______A Pocket Dictionary of the French English Languages. A New edition. London: Longmans, Green, 1876.

______A Pocket Dictionary of the French English Languages. Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott, 1884.

______A Practical Dictionary o_f the French English Languages, composed from the French Dictionaries of the Academy, Boiste, Bescherelle & from the. English dictionaries of Johnson, Webster Richardson. Loiulon: Longmans, Green, 1884. CONTANSEAU, LEON. A Pocket Dictionary...A New edition. Philadelphia; J.B. Lippincott, 1884.

DELETANVILLE, T . A New French Dictionary: French English, English French: pref., a French grammar. London: F. Wingrave, 1804, 1814.

DE LOLME, J.L. A French and Enlgish Dictionary. London: Cassell, 1881, 1882, 1883.

______A French and English Dictionary, compiled.. .by Professors De Lolme and Wallace, and H. Bridgman, Revised, corrected and considerably enlarged from the seventh and latest edition (1877) of the Dictionary of the French Academy, by E. Roubaud. London, New York, 1883.

______A French and English Dictionary. London: Cassell, 1890, 1900, 1903, 1905 , 1906, 1908, 1915.

______A French and English Dictionary. compiled from the best authorities of both languages, by Professors De Lolme and Wallace, and Henry Bridgeman. Revised, corrected and consi­ derably enlarged by Professor E. Roubaud. 400th thousand. London: Cassell n.d.

Dictionnaire de poche f ranqais-anglais , anglais-francais. Philadelphia: Lippincott, Grambo, 1850, 1852, 1854.

Dictionnaire de poche francais-anglais, anglais-frangais . Philadelphia: Claxton, Remsen & Haffelfinger, 1869.

Dictionnaire de poche francais-anglais, anglais-francais. Leipsig: 0. Holtze's nachfolger, 1921.

DUBOIS, MARGUERITE MARIE. Dictionnaire moderne francais-anglais. Paris: Larousse, 1960# 1965.

______Larousse Modern French-English, English-French Dictionary. New York: McGraw llill, 1960.

DUFIEF, NICOLAS GOUIN. New Universal & Pronouncing Dictionary of the French & English Languages. Philadelphia: T. & T. Palmer, 1810.

EDGREN, AUGUST II. A French 6^ English Dictionary, with indication of pronunciation, etymologies & dates of dates of earliest appearance of French words in the language. New York: H. Holt, 1901, 1926.

ELWALL, ALFRED. Dictionnaire anglais-francais. Paris: Delagrave, 1895. ELWALL, ALFRED. Dictionnaire franqais-anglais a. l'usage des etablisse- ments d*instruction publique. Paris: Delalain, freres, 1897, 1907.

Petit dictionnaire anglais-franqais et francais-anglais a_ l’usage des cours elementaires. Saint-Germain: Galain freres, 1908

Dictionnaire anglais-francais. Paris: Delagrave, 1909? •

Petit dictionnaire...Paris: Delagrave, 1911.

Dictionnaire anglais-franqais. Paris: Delalain freres, 1916?

Dictionnaire anglais-franqais. Paris: Delagrave, 1920, 1922.

Dictionnaire. anglais-franqais. Paris: Delalain freres, 1924.

Dictionnaire anglais-franqais. Paris: Delagrave, 1928.

Dictionnaire anglais-franqais. Paris: Delalain freres, 1928, 1930.

______Petit dictionnaire...Paris: Delalain, 1934.

ELWES, A. Dictionnaire franqais-anglais. London, 1854-55.

English-French Classified Dictionary. London: Gale & Polden, 1915.

Everybody1s French Dictionary. Dictionnaire anglais pour tout le monde. London: W. Foulsham, 1926.

FELLER, F.E. Nouveau dictionnaire de poche franqais et anglais. New York: G.E. Stechert, 1904.

______Nouveau dictionnaire de poche franQais et anglais. New York: Bretano’s, 19— .

______Nouveau dictionnaire de poche franQais-anglais. Paris: J . Victorion, n.d.

FLEMING, CHARLES. The Royal Dictionary, English and French and French and English. Paris: Firmin Didot freres, 1841-44.

A New and Complete French and English and English and French Dictionary. Philadelphia: Carey & Ilart, 1844.

A New and Complete French and English and English and French Dictionary, on the basis of the Royal Dictionary...Philadelphia: J. Dobson, 1844. FLEMING, CHARLES. A New and Complete French and English and English and French Dictionary. Philadelphia: E.H. Butler, 1849, 1850, 1852.

______The Royal Dictionary...Paris: Firmin Didot freres, 1852-64, 1870, 1872, 1880,-85.

GARNER, JOHN. Le Nouveau dictionnaire universel franQois-anglois et anglois-franqois. Rouen: La Veuve P. Dumesnil et fils, 1802.

GASC, FERDINAND E. A Dictionary of the French and English Languages. New York: Henry Holt, 1876.

______Improved Modern Pocket Dictionary of the French and English Languages. London: G. Bell & Sons, 1882.

______A Concise Dictionary of the French and English Languages, Fourth edition. London: G. Bell, 1889.

A Dictionary of. the French and English Languages. New York: H. Holt, 1925, 1929 .

GOODRIDGE, GERALD. A Practical English-French Dictionary for English- Speaking Countries. Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1940.

GUIBILLON, GEORGES. Dictionnaire anglais-franqais. Paris: Librairie Hatier, 1918.

GUIRAUD, JULES. Dictionnaire anglais-franqais. Troisieme edition. Paris: Belin, 1926, 1932, 1937.

• Dictionnaire anglais-franqais £i l*usage des professeurs. Paris: Belin, 1937.

______Dictionnaire anglais-franqais. Troisieme edition. Paris: Belin, 1947.

HAMILTON, HENRY and LEGR0S E. Dictionnaire internationale franqais- anglais . Paris': Charles Fourault et fils, 1865, 1868, 1872, 1876, 1880, 1882, 1885, 1887, 1891, 189-.

______and SMITH, L. The International English and French Dictionary. Paris: Belin freres, 1911 .

HAMONIERE. G. Nouveau dictionnaire de poche franqois-anglois. Paris: T. Barrois fils, 1816.

______Nouveau dictionnaire franqais-anglais et anglais-franqais abrege de Boyer, n.p. 18— .

Heath*s New French & English and English French Dictionary. Boston: and New York: D.C. Heath, 1932. HECKER, OSKAR. A Systematical Vocabulary English-French. Berlin: B. Behr, 1907.

International French-English and English-French Dictionary. New York: Hinds, Noble & Eldredge, 1904.

______Ibid., New York: Hinds, Hayden & Eldredge, 1931 .

JAMES, WILLIAM OF LEIPZIG, A Dictionary of the French and English Languages. New York: MacMillan, 19— .

______. and MOLE, A. A Dictionary of the English and French Languages. Leipzig, 1883.

A Dictionary of the English and French Languages. Leipzig: B. Tauchnitz, 1904.

A Dictionary of the English and French Languages. New York: MacMillan, 1908.

______A Dictionary of the English and French Languages. Leipzig: B. Tauchnitz, 1923.

______A Dictionary of the English and French Languages. Chicago: Regan Publishing, 1925.

KETTRIDGE, JULIUS ORNAN. Dictionnaire franqais-anglais, anglais- franqais de termes, locutions et abbreviations techniques et generaux usites en finance, etc. London: G. Routledge & Son, Ltd.; New York: E.P. Dutton, 1924 .

______French-English &_ English-French Dictionary of Technical Terms and Phrases Used in Civil, Mechanical, Electrical and Mining Engineering. London: G. Routledge & Son, 1925.

______French-English and English-French Dictionary of Commercial and Financial Terms, etc. London: G. Routledge & Son, 1930?

______Dictionary of the French and English Languages, with phonetic transcription of every French vocabulary word. London: G . Routledge, 1952.

MC LAUGHLIN, J. New Vocabulary Containing All the Usual Words with Their Pronunciation Figured. English-French. Paris: Garnier freres, 1900.

MANSION, JEAN EDMOND. Heath*s Standard French and English Dictionary. Edited by J.E. Mansion. Boston and New York: D.C. Heath, 1934.

______Heath’s Standard French and English Dictionary. Edited by J.E. Mansion. Second edition. In two volumes. Boston: D.C. Heath, 1939-47. (Volume Two of this edition is the London edition entitled Harraps Standard French English Dictionary.)

MANSION, JEAN EDMOND. Shorter French and English Dictionary. Boston: D.C. Heath, 1947.

______Mansion's Shorter French-English Dictionary. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1959.

______Harrapfs Shorter French and English Dictionary, by J.E. Mansion. French-English and English-French in one volume. London, Toronto: Harrap, 1967.

MASSON, GUSTAVE. A Compendious Dictionary of the French Language. London: MacMillan, 1874, 187-, 1880.

MEADOWS, F.C. A French-English Pronouncing Dictionary, on the basis of Nugent. London: T. Tegg, 1832.

______A French-English Pronouncing Dictionary. New York: Behr & Astoin, 1835.

A French-English Pronouncing Dictionary. New York: P. Hill, 1835.

______A French-English Pronouncing Dictionary. New York: Behr, 1836.

______A French-English Pronouncing Dictionary. New York: A.V. Blake, 1840, 1843.

______A French-English Pronouncing Dictionary. New York: R. Lockwood & Son, 1846. 1847, 1848, 1851.

______A New French-English Pronouncing Dictionary, on the basis of Nugent. London: William Tegg, 1875.

______French-Eng11sh and English-French Pronouncing Dictionary. London: Ward, Locke, 1882.

ROUBAUD, E. A French and English Dictionary. Revised edition. London: Cassell, n.d.

Routledge's French-English and English-French Dictionary. London: G. Routledge & Sons, 1887.

ROWBOTHAM, JOHN. Diamond Pocket Dictionary of the French Language. Philadelphia: J. Wardle, 1836.

SADLER, PERCY. Nouveau dictionnaire portatj.f anglais-franqais et franqais 'lais. Paris: Leroy freres, 1864. SADLER, PERCY. Nouveau dictionnaire portatif *anglais-franqais et franqais-anglais. Paris: J.H. Truchy, 1864.

SMITH, LEON. Dictionnaire anglais-franqais. Paris: C. Hingray, 1847.

______The International English and French Dictionary. New edition. Paris: Charles Fourat, 1866, 1872, 1873, 1875, 1878, 1880.

______The International English and French Dictionary. New York: W.R. Jenkins, 1891.

______• The International English and French Dictionary. Paris: Charles Fourat, 1896.

______The International English and French Dictionary. Paris: Belin freres, 1911 .

SPIERS, ALEXANDER. General French and English Dictionary. Paris: Baudry, 1849.

______Dictionnaire general anglais-franqais. New York: F.J. Huntington, 1855.

______General French and English Dictionary: newly composed from the dictionaries of the French Academy, Laveaux, Boiste, etc. New York: Mason Brothers, 1857.

______Dictionnaire general anglais-franqais. Paris, 1858.

______Dictionnaire general anglais-franqais. Paris: Baudry, 1863, 1865.

______A Pronouncing School Dictionary of the French and English Languages. New York: D. Appleton, 1866.

Dictionnaire general anglais-franqais. Paris: Baudry, 1872, 1876.

______The Standard Pronouncing Dictionary of the French and English Languages. In two parts. New York: D. Appleton, 1865, 1866, 1871, 1876, 1878, 1893.

______Dictionnaire general anglais-franqais. Paris: Baudry, 1882.

Nouveau dictionnaire general anglais-franqais...London: S. Low, Marston, Searle & Rivington, 1884.

and SURENNE, GABRIEL. Spiers * and Surenne's French-English Pronouncing Dictionary. New York: D. Appleton, 1852, 1853, 1 1854, 1856." SPIERS, ALEXANDER. Spiers1 and Surenne*s English-French Pronouncing Dictionary. New York, 1858.

______Spiers' and Surenne*s English-French Pronouncing Dictionary. New York: D. Appleton, 1862.

______Spiers * and Surenne*s French-English Pronouncing Dictionary. New York: D. Appleton, 1862, 1865, 1866, 1872, 1878, 1884, 1897, 1903, 1907, 1910, 1912, 1927.

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TARVER, J.C. The Royal Phraseological English-French, French-English Dictionary. London, 1862-67.

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TRIEBEL, L.A. and GAUNTLETT, F.E. The Glotta English-French and French-English Dictionary.. .with the pronunciation of the French words in the script of the API. London: R. Jahke, 1926

WEIMAN, RALPH W. Common Usage Dictionary, French-English, English- French. New York: Crown Publishers, 1946.

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WESSELY, IGNAZ EMANUEL. A New Pocket Dictionary of the English and French Languages. Leipzig: B. Tauchnitz, 1873, 1892.

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______Burt*s French-English Dictionary. Hew York: A.L. Burt, 1900. 224

WESSELY, IGNAZ EMANUEL. A New Pocket Dictionary...New York: Brentano's, 1908.

______A New Pocket Dictionary...Leipzig: B. Tauchnitz, 1909.

______A New Pocket Dictionary...London and New York: G. Routledge & Sons, n.d.

WILSON, JOSEPH PORTER. A French and English Dictionary. London: S. Holdsworth, 1837.

' A French and English Dictionary. London: H.G. Bohn, 1847, 1858. APPENDIX V

OTHER WORKS NINETEENTH-TWENTIETH CENTURIES

ACADEMIE FRANCAISE. Dictionnaire de l'Academie franqoise. Nouvelle edition, augmentee de plus de vingt mille articles. Paris: Chez Montardier, etc., 1802.

______Dictionnaire de l'Academie franqaise. Cinquieme edition. Paris: Bossange et Masson, 1813-1814.

______Dictionnaire de 1*Academie franQaise. Revu, corrige et augmente par 1'Academie elle-meme. Cinquieme edition. Paris: Madame Dabo-Butschert, 1825.

______Dictionnaire de 1*Academie franqaise. Sixieme edition. Paris: Firmin Didot freres, 183-.

______Dictionnaire de 1 'Academie franqaise. Septieme edition dans laquelle on a reproduit pour la premiere fois les prefaces des six editions precedentes. Paris: Firmin Didot, 1878, 1884.

______Abrege du dictionnaire de 1'Academie franqaise d'apres la derniere edition de 1873. Ancien vocabulaire Nodier entiere- ment refondu et suivi d'un appendice, etc. Paris: Firmin Didot, 1883.

______Dictionnaire de I 1Academie franqaise. Paris: Librairie Hachette, 1932-35.

ANDERSON, JAMES GAUCHEZ. Le Mot juste; A Dictionary of English and French Homonyms. London: J.M. Dent, 1838; New York: Dutton, 1838.

BARRERE, ALBERT. A Dictionary of English-French Military Terras. London: Hachette, 1942.

BOTTARELLI, F. The New Italian, English and French Pocket Dictionary. London: F. Wingrave, 1805.

______The New Italian, English and French Pocket Dictionary. Care­ fully compiled from the dictionaries of La Crusca, Dr. S. Johnson; the French Academy; and others of the best authority...A new edition, very greatly augmented, and much improved by a union of the respective works of F. Bottarelli and G. Polidori. London: Wingrave and Collingwood, 1826.

BURN, ROBERT. A NavaJL and Military Technical Dictionary of the French Language. London: J. Murray, 1852. Dictionnaire usel Quillet-Flaminarion. Redige sous la direction de Pierre Gioan. New York: E.P. Dutton, 1960.

ELWES, ALFRED. Dixionario italiano, inglese, francese. London: J. Weale, 1855-56.

English-French Military Lexicon, Lexique militaire anglais-franqais a^ 1'usage des officiers et interpretes des armees alliees. N.p., 1918.

English-French Pocket Book Glossary of Building Trade Technical Terms. N.p., Westminster Technical Journals, 1916.

English-French, Turkish and Russian Vocabulary, for the Use of Army, Navy and Travellers. London and Leipzig: Franz Thimm, 1855, 1857.

FALLETTI, F.D.A. Vocabulaire encyclopedique de poche franqais-italien- anglais. Paris, 1822.

FELLER, F.E. A New Pocket Dictionary English, German and French. Sixth edition. Leipzig, 1857 .

French-Dutch-German-English Dictionary. Brussels, 1849.

GREENWOOD, JAMES. The London and Paris Vocabulary, English Latin and French. The English and Latin from the twenty fifth London edition, the French by N. Faucon. Cambridge: Hilliard and Metcalf, 1816.

HATZFIELD, A. and A. DARMESTETER. Dictionnaire general de la langue franqaise. Paris: C. Delagrave, 1895-1900.

LANDAIS, NAPOLEON. Dictionnaire classique de la langue franqaise. Paris: Didier, 1852.

LAROUSSE, PIERRE. Grand dictionnaire universel du XIXe siecle. franqais, historique, gcographique, biographique...par Pierre Larousse...Paris: Administration du Grand dictionnaire universel, 1866-90.

Larousse du XXe siecle...public sous la direction de Paul Auge Paris: Librairie Larousse, 1928-33.

.______Larousse classique illustre. . . i.llustre par Claude Auge. Paris: Librairie Larousse, 1920.

Larousse manuel 13 justr6. Paris: Librairie Larousse, 1962. LAROUSSE, PIERRE. Nouveau petit Larousse. Illustre par E. Gillon (et al.). Paris: Librairie Larousse, 1952, I960..

LE BRUN, ARMAND. Le Vocabulaire illustre des mots usuels, franqais, anglais, allemands. Paris, 1873.

LEITNER, MOSES JONATHAN. Dictionary of French and American Slang. New York: Crown Publishers, 1965.

LITTRE, EMILE. Dictionnaire de la langue franqaise...Paris: Hachette, 1881.

______Dictionnaire de la langue franQaise...Paris: Editions universitaires, 1959.

Nouveau dictionnaire de poche franqais-allemand et allemand-francais a. l'usage des deux nations, redige d'apres les dictionnaires de Schwan, De Catel, Mozin et Adelung. Troisieme edition. Augsbourg, 1841.

Oxford English Dictionary. A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1888-1928.

PATTERSON, AUSTIN MC DOWELL. A French-English Dictionary for Chemists. New York: John Wiley & Sons, London: Chapman & Hall, 1954.

PETRONJ, STEFANO EGIDIO. Nouvo dizionario italiano-inglese-francese. London: Treuttel & Wurtz, 1824-26.

ROBERT, PAUL. Dictionnaire alphabetique et analogique de la_ langue franqaise. Casablanca: Societe du nouveau littre, 1953-64.

______Dictionnaire alphabetique et analogique de jLa langue franqaise. Cover title: Petit Robert. Paris: Societe du nouveau littre, 1967.

Vollstandiges Handworterbuch der deutschen, franzosischen und englishen Sprache. Leipzig: F.A. Brockhaus, 1836.

VIZETELLY, FRANCIS HORACE. The Soldier’s Service Dictionary of French and English Terms...New York & London: Funk & Wagnall's, 1917.

WEBSTER, NOAH. A Compendious Dictionary of the English Language. From Sidney’s Press. For Hudson & Goodwin, bo'ok-sellers, Hartford, and Increase Cooke & Co., book-sellers, New Haven, 1806.

______An American Dictionary of the English Language. New York: S. Converse, 1828.

______Webster1 s Thj-Jil New International Dictionary of the English Language, a Merrinm-Webstcr. Editor in Chief: Philip Babcock Cove and the Merriam-Webster editorial staff. Springfield, Massachusetts: G. & C Merriam, 1960. WEBSTER, NOAH. A_ Compendious Dictionary of the English Language. From Sidney's Press. For Hudson & Goodwin, book-sellers, Hartford, and Increase Cooke & Co., book-sellers, New Haven, 1806.

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______Webster's Third New International Dictionary of the English Language. A Merriam-Webster. Editor in chief: Philip Babcock Gove and the Merriam-Webster editorial staff. Springfield, Massachusetts: G. & C Merriam, 1960. REFERENCES CONSULTED

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GRABHORN PRESS, SAN FRANCISCO. A Chapter from the Lives of Some Noted French Typographers. San Francisco: Edwin and Robert Grabhorn, 1920.

GRAESSE, J.G.T. Tresor des livres rares. Berlin, 1922.

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WATT, ROBERT. "LouJv- Chambaud." Bibliotheca Britannica. 1824. Vol. I. James D. Anderson was born and reared in New York City, where he attended the public schools. After receiving the degree of Bachelor of Arts in French and Spanish from Brooklyn College, he attended the

Florida State University, where he was awarded the Master of Arts in

1959. Following a brief period of military service and teaching, he enrolled at Louisiana State University in 1965, registering in . the

Interdepartmental Program in Linguistics and the Department of Foreign

Languages. Upon completion of his doctoral course requirements in

1968, he accepted a teaching position at the College of the Holy Cross in Worcester, Massachusetts, a post he presently holds. EXAMINATION AND THESIS REPORT

Candidate: James David Anderson

Major Field: Linguistics

Title of Thesis: The Development of the English-French-French- English Bilingual Dictionary: A Study in Comparative Lexicography Approved:

Maidf Professor and Chairimm

Dean of the Graduate School

EXAMINING COMMITTEE:

’r

* < {jJ JJb- V

Date of Examination:

September 16, 1971