Fibers Volume 1

Fibers, 1. Survey 3

Fibers, 1. Survey

Fritz Schultze-Gebhardt,Dusseldorf,¨ Federal Republic of Germany (Chaps.2–7) Karl-Heinz Herlinger, Institut fur¨ Chemiefasern der Deutschen Institute fur¨ Textil- und Faserforschung Stuttgart, Denkendorf, Federal Republic of Germany (Chaps.2–8)

1. Introduction ...... 3 5.4. Crystallization ...... 9 2. History ...... 4 5.5. Organization of Structural Elements 9 3. Characteristics of Fibers ...... 4 5.6. Structural Models ...... 10 3.1. Fineness ...... 4 5.7. Molecular Symmetry and Physical 3.2. Tenacity and Modulus of Elasticity .. 5 Properties ...... 10 3.3. Elongation ...... 5 5.8. Changes in Properties Caused by 4. Spinning ...... 5 Symmetry Defects ...... 11 4.1. Wet Spinning ...... 5 6. Fiber Properties Required by Textiles 12 4.2. Dry Spinning ...... 6 6.1. Requirements to Be Met by Textiles . 12 4.3. Melt Spinning ...... 6 6.2. Modification of Fiber Properties ... 12 5. Prerequisites for Fiber Formation .. 6 6.3. Comfort Properties of Textiles ..... 14 5.1. Molecular Mass and Fiber Formation 6 7. Economic Aspects ...... 14 5.2. Molecular Structure and Fiber 8. Tabular Survey of Fibers ...... 15 Properties ...... 7 9. References ...... 36 5.3. Property Requirements for the Formation of Fiber Structures ..... 8

1. Introduction into natural materials brought into fiber form by a chemical reaction (regenerate fibers) and fibers The term fibers refers collectively to a wide va- made from synthetic polymers (synthetic fibers). riety of forms of fibrous materials. Standards The following classification includes standard- have been established to introduce order into ized abbreviations that are used occasionally the field. The most frequently employed terms throughout this article: are defined here. Natural fibers that can be spun 1. Natural fibers into yarn are called staple fibers. The primary 1.1. Plant fibers, e.g., spinning of man-made fibers results in the pro- cotton duction of continuous filaments (endless fibers). flax Indeed, both monofilaments (threads; spinneret hemp has one hole) and multifilaments (spinneret has jute many holes) can be produced. A filament yarn 1.2. Animal fibers, e.g., consists of a large number of filaments that can wool be given texture by twisting, crimping and/or camel hair heat setting. angora The word tow refers to a fiber tape made from silk thousands of filaments. If a tow is cut or torn, it 2. Man-made fibers gives rise to staple fibers. Fiber tapes obtained 2.1. Fibers based on natural polymers, e.g., by cutting or tearing parallel to the fibers are viscose rayon (CV) known as fiber bands. Lyocell (CLY) Conventional standards divide fibers into (1) cellulose acetate (CA) natural fibers and (2) man-made fibers (also elastodiene (LA) called chemical fibers). 2.2. Fibers based on synthetic polymers Natural fibers are subdivided into plant and (synthetic fibers), e.g., animal fibers. Man-made fibers are subdivided polypropylene (PP)

Ullmann’s Fibers, Vol. 1 c 2008 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim ISBN: 978-3-527-31772-1 4 Fibers, 1. Survey

polyacrylonitrile (PAN) The production of synthetic fibers was the poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC), result of pioneering work on the formation of polyamide 6 (PA 6, nylon 6) synthetic polymers and the development of ex- polyamide 66 ( PA 6,6; nylon 66) trusion techniques known as wet, dry, and melt poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET) spinning. poly(ether ether ketone) (PEEK) Nylon 66 was first synthesized by W. H. polyurethane (PUR; spandex) Carothers in 1935. This was closely followed by the discovery of nylon 6 by P. Schlack in 1938. The work of J. R. Whinfield and I. T. Dickson led to the development of polyester 2. History fibers in 1941. Today, polyamides and poly- esters are the largest-volume polymers capable Natural Fibers. Natural fibers have been of being melt-spun. The production of synthetic used by humans for thousands of years. Animal fibers based on familiar polymers suchas poly- hair and plant fibers were spun into yarn and acrylonitrile, which cannot be melt-spun, was woven into textiles. Indeed, the textile industry made possible by the introduction of new sol- today is still based on this ancient technology. vents, e.g., dimethylformamide (H. Rein, 1942). Discovery of the stereospecific polymerization Man-Made Fibers. The idea of making “ar- of propylene (G. Natta, 1954) led to the in- tificial” fibers and threads is over 300 years troduction of polyolefins into the fiber industry. old. In fact, the start of the chemical fiber The development of technology and the simul- industry dates from about 1884. The process taneous elucidation of structure and properties of regenerating fiber-forming cellulose was resulted in “tailor-made” polymers and fibers. based on the discovery of solvents such as Specific properties suchas rubber elasticity (O. copper oxide – ammonia by E. Schweizer in Bayer, 1947) or extreme tenacity and stiffness 1857. Later, Count Chardonnet succeeded in were realized (high-modulus fibers, P.W. Mor- forming derivatives of cellulose which could be gan and S. L. Kwolek, 1968). In addition, high- solubilized and spun into threads; “Chardonnet temperature fibers were made from polyhetero- silk” was first made in 1884. A detailed account cyclic compounds. of the history of man-made fibers is not given in Apart from organic polymers, inorganic sub- this article. The subject was dealt with compe- stances suchas glass, carbon, BN, and SiC were tently by H. Klare in 1985 [19]. also spun into fibers. The most important developments in the pro- Future developments are likely to be directed duction of man-made fibers based on cellulose toward classical mass production, particularly were: towards the attaining of optimal processing char- 1) the cuprammonium process for solubiliza- acteristics and clothing comfort. New types of tion and spinning of cellulose; application – above all in the field of industrial 2) the formation of spinning solutions of cellu- fibers and in medical technology – will stimu- lose derivatives, suchas cellulose nitrate and late the development of special fibers with very cellulose acetate; specific properties. 3) the intermediate derivatization of cellulose to cellulose xanthate which in turn is spun into cellulose fibers; 3. Characteristics of Fibers 4) the development of new solvent sys- tems for cellulose, suchas N-methylmor- 3.1. Fineness pholine oxide (NMMO) or dimethylacet- amide – lithium chloride. The thickness of fibers and filaments ranges from 1 to 100 µm. Measuring thickness by In 1927, H. Staudinger used polyoxy- means of conventional instruments is very diffi- methylene as a model of cellulose to demon- cult. Indeed, even small variations in fiber uni- strate that fiber-forming polymers were linear formity, thickness, and cross-sectional area hin- polymeric molecules. der microscopic measurement. To make a sta- Fibers, 1. Survey 5 tistically valid statement about the fineness of a never attained because otherwise fibers undergo fiber (fiber density), lengthand mass are com- partially irreversible stretching. puted instead of thickness. The unit tex is used Temperature and moisture (weather) affect to express fiber fineness. According to the ISO, both the tenacity and the elongation of fibers to varying extents, depending on the type of poly- 1tex = 1gper1000m mer. The same applies to dimensional stability If 1000 m of fiber weigh1 g, thefineness is 1 tex. and wrinkling tendency, properties that are also Another unit commonly used to express fineness influenced by the type of fiber and by the textile is dtex. If the mass per length is given in dtex, the structure. numerical values will be comparable to those in the formerly used unit denier [46]: 4. Spinning 1denier = 1gper9000m Bothnatural and syntheticfibers are consist- ing of linear polymers. These polymers are con- verted into fibrous form by growth(animal hair, plant fibers) or extrusion (spider, silkworm, spin- 3.2. Tenacity and Modulus of Elasticity ning technology) and are specifically oriented to the fiber axis. The many mechanisms found in The cross-sectional area of fibers is generally nature for the formation of filamentous struc- nonuniform and cannot be determined easily. tures are, by no means completely understood Hence, measurements based on area have lim- (see e.g. [87]). Only a few processes are avail- ited applicability. For this reason, tenacity is not able for large-scale production of man-made measured in gigapascal (GPa) units (ISO) but fibers. Specific production techniques are based is expressed relative to the fineness. Usually, the on the deformability of fiber polymers. In prin- maximal tensile force (at break) is employed, ex- ciple, a distinction is made between spinning pressed in centinewtons per tex (cN/tex); other methods involving solutions and those involv- units used are cN/dtex (1 cN/dtex = 10 cN/tex) or ing molten polymer. For a detailed description N/tex (1 N/tex = 100 cN/tex). Textile and indus- of spinning, see → Fibers, 3. General Produc- trial fibers have tenacities ranging from 10 to tion Technology. more than 300 cN/tex (see Table 4). The mod- ulus of elasticity corresponds to the tangent to the stress – strain curve at the origin (→ Fibers, 4.1. Wet Spinning 6. Testing and Analysis, Chap. 3.). It is also ex- pressed relative to the fineness, in cN/tex. Typ- Polymer solutions are converted into fibers by ical moduli range from 50 to 1000 cN/tex for diluting a highly concentrated polymer solu- textile fibers and from 1000 to 40 000 cN/tex for tion in a coagulating bath. The extremely vis- industrial fibers. (See Table 5.) cous polymer solution, e.g., 3.5 – 10 Pa · s (still higher values are obtained with viscose rayon) can be extruded, i.e., spun, by forcing it through 3.3. Elongation a spinneret to form threadlike structures. In gen- The highest possible degree of elongation eral, polymers are soluble only in specific sol- at break (→ Fibers, 6. Testing and Analysis, vents. The viscous polymer solution is extruded Chap. 3.) varies greatly with the type of fiber. into a coagulating bath where the solvent is di- Industrial fibers, e.g., carbon fibers and high- luted, which results in precipitation of polymer modulus aramids, have values of 0.1–2%;tex- threads. For instance, polyacrylonitrile is solu- tile fibers and yarns have values of 5 – 70 %; and ble in dimethylformamide (DMF). In the coag- values of 300 – 700 % are obtained for spandex ulating bath, DMF is washed out of the viscous fibers (see Table 4). polymer threads with water, and polyacryloni- In practical applications, fibers are elongated trile fibers precipitate (Fig. 1). only to a small extent. Maximal elongation is 6 Fibers, 1. Survey 4.3. Melt Spinning

In melt spinning, the polymer is melted by heat- ing and then passed through a spinneret via a spinning pump. Only polymers that are ther- mally stable under melt conditions can be sub- jected to this extrusion (i.e., spinning) process. The fluid threads emerging from the spinneret Figure 1. Fiber formation by solvent extraction in the spin- solidify on cooling (usually air cooling) to form ning bath PAN = polyacrylonitrile: DMF = dimethylformamide filaments. This technique is applied in spinning, e.g., nylon 6, nylon 66, or poly(ethylene tere- The solvent concentration in the fiber de- phthalate) (→ Fibers, 4. Synthetic Organic). creases along the length of the coagulating bath. The difference between melting and spinning In wet spinning, several physicochemical pro- temperatures depends on the viscosity of the cesses occur simultaneously, e.g., solvent dif- melt. Usually, the spinning temperature is about fusion, polymer precipitation, and formation of 30 K higher than the melting temperature T m. membrane-like interfaces and system-specific However, if the viscosity is still too high, the morphological structures. One of the main pur- spinning temperature must be increased even poses of developing wet-spun polymers is to pro- further. For example, T m of polypropylene is duce specific fiber structures in the coagulating 170 ◦C but the polymer is spun at 260 ◦C. The bath. This is achieved, in principle, by modifica- melt index, not the viscosity, is generally used tion in the coagulating bath, which is described to characterize the melting properties of poly- in more detail under → Fibers, 4. Synthetic Or- mers. In fact, the tedious measurement of melt ganic, Chap. 5.3.3., wet spinning of polyacry- viscosity has now been replaced by simple mass lonitrile. In a spinning process of this type, the determination (→ Fibers, 6. Testing and Analy- polymer can also undergo a chemical reaction; sis). e.g., the viscose process involves acid hydroly- Hence, melt spinning requires polymers that sis of cellulose xanthate in the coagulating bath are thermally stable and, as far as possible, re- (→ Cellulose, Chap. 3.1.3.). sistant to thermal oxidation at temperatures ap- To make the process economical, the polymer proximately 30 K higher than their melting tem- concentration should be kept as high as possi- peratures (PA-6, PA-66, and PET). ble during spinning. In the case of soluble poly- Production conditions must be optimally co- mers, the viscosity of the spinning solution, and ordinated with the properties of the product to thus its basic spinnability, are directly related achieve the desired melt viscosity, on the one to the concentration and solvation of the poly- hand, and the required fiber tenacity, on the mers. However, complicated processes, suchas other. Rapid advances in process technology, exchange, diffusion, and drying, that occur dur- however, have made possible not only the pro- ing wet and dry spinning result in polymer- and cessing of very highly viscous melts, but also the solvent-dependent limitations on the polymer extrusion of solids. concentration.

5. Prerequisites for Fiber Formation 4.2. Dry Spinning 5.1. Molecular Mass and Fiber In dry spinning, the polymer solution is also Formation forced through a spinneret. Solvent is then evap- orated in a warm current of air to produce almost The spinnability of polymer melts or solutions solvent-free filaments. Cellulose acetate, poly- depends on their viscosity at technically feasi- acrylonitrile, and polyurethane are spun by this η → ble spinning conditions. The viscosity of lin- technique ( Fibers, 4. Synthetic Organic). ear polymers depends, in turn, on the molecular mass Mr: Fibers, 1. Survey 7

Table 1. Polymer type and molecular mass suitable for fiber formation

α The interaction energy (cohesion energy) con- η=K ·Mr trols the solubility and compatibility of struc- where K is a constant that is known for most tural units witheachother. Thesefactors finally common polymers. lead to specific morphological domains, which The fiber-forming tendency of a polymer in- frequently occur in block structures of varying creases withincreasing molecular mass. The chemical composition along the polymer chain, varying forces of interaction between individ- e.g., in polyurethane (spandex) fibers. The gen- ual structural groups of polymers are directly eral relationship between the structure and prop- related to the chemical nature of these linear erties of polymers suitable for fiber production molecules. For this reason, optimal conditions is discussed in the literature [47]. In this section for fiber formation are very polymer-specific. the structural elements of technically important In principle, the weaker the interaction between fibers are compared. structural segments, the higher is the molecular Table 2. Structural characteristics of polymers and their importance mass required (Table 1) [47]. for fiber properties

Structural characteristics Importance for fiber properties

Chemical structure thermochemical and 5.2. Molecular Structure and Fiber photochemical stability, Properties (primary structure) textile chemical processes (dyeing, textile finishing) Molecular organization and general properties, The thermochemical and photochemical stabil- symmetry melting point, shrinkage behavior ity of a fiber polymer is controlled by its chemi- Type of binding and thermophysical and cal structure. The possibility of chemically mod- stereochemistry (secondary thermomechanical properties ifying textile properties is determined by the structure) (moduli, elasticity) Conformation and chemical reactivity and polarity of the individ- conformational mobility ual structural units (Table 2). The type of chem- Morphological structures, diffusion (dyeing), breaking ical bonds and the stereochemistry are impor- superstructures mechanism tant for molecular geometry, interaction of struc- tural units, and thermal conformational stabil- Crystallization. The interaction between ity. Low conformational mobility is generally structural units is of considerable importance for related to high mechanical tenacity, modulus, crystallization. The chemical structure, stereo- and torsion modulus. Finally, the molecular or- chemistry, and symmetry of polymers deter- ganization is influenced by the symmetry of the mine, to a large extent, the structural conforma- structural units and of the entire molecular chain. 8 Fibers, 1. Survey tion of the polymer under prevailing conditions These requirements were fulfilled by suchas temperature (melt or solid), condition Staudinger’s model of cellulose as polymeric of solution (solvation of molecules), coil struc- formaldehyde [48]. Even this simple compound ture, and aggregation. Higher orientation or met all the conditions for fiber formation. It is a parallelism of the chain molecules increases meltable linear polymer, capable of crystalliza- orientation of the structure elements. Their in- tion withformation of fiber fibrils. teraction also depends on the possible molecular The simplest model for intermolecular dis- conformations. persion forces (van der Waals forces) is shown During spinning, a preliminary orientation of in a polyolefin molecule suchas polyethyleneor the molecules occurs, which is enhanced dur- polypropylene: ing drawing, and stabilized by partial crystal- lization. The individual segments usually crys- tallize independently of each other; hence amor- phous intercrystalline areas exist unavoidably. The course of polymer crystallization, especially of fibers, is quite different from the crystalliza- tion characteristics of low molecular mass com- In poly(ethylene terephthalate), interaction bet- pounds. ween the aromatic π-electron systems of the benzene rings and of the carbonyl groups makes dipole – dipole interaction possible: 5.3. Property Requirements for the Formation of Fiber Structures

Fiber-forming polymers require certain proper- ties that make possible the formation of typical fiber structures; these are linearity, intermolec- ular forces, and the possibility of crystallization Hydrogen bonds act on amide or urea groups in whereby, in general, supermolecular structures polyamides, suchas nylon 66 or nylon 6, or in result. polyurethane, respectively: 1) Linearity. Only linear polymers can be ex- pected to have optimal fiber-forming prop- erties. Linearity is specifically a prerequisite for the spinnability of polymer solutions and melts. 2) Intermolecular Forces. After orientation of linear polymers during spinning and draw- ing, dispersion forces, e.g., dipole-dipole in- teractions or hydrogen bonds between the The OH groups of poly(vinyl alcohol) and of polymer segments contribute to the fixation cellulose (viscose rayon) are also able to form of the polymer chains. hydrogen bonds. Very strong dipole – dipole in- 3) Crystallization. The well-developed organi- teraction occurs between the nitrile groups of zation of the polymer chains usually results polyacrylonitrile: in crystallization. Polymer-specific crystal- lization results in crystalline domains and amorphous intercrystalline areas. 4) Supermolecular Structure. The crystallites are oriented so that they lie parallel to the fiber axis, which results in supermolecu- However, this all-trans conformation of poly- lar structures, e.g., fibrils and fibril bundles acrylonitrile can change into lower energy heli- → ( Fibers, 2. Structure). cal structures [49]: Fibers, 1. Survey 9

In this step, spun fibers are stretched by more than 200 %, resulting in partial crystallization of polymer molecules (Fig. 2 D). In high-speed spinning, the extremely high windup speeds (3000 – 6000 m/min; 50 – 100 m/s) induce crys- tallization during fiber formation. The resulting preoriented yarns (POY) have to be stretched by only 40 – 100 % in subsequent steps (tex- turing). Additional polymer-specific increases in windup speeds lead to fully oriented yarns, which require almost no further stretching. Wu et al. [77] succeeded to orientate spin- ning PET in a threadline modification process. The one-step orientation (without separate draw- The strong dipole–dipole interaction of poly- ing) could be realized by the installation of a liq- acrylonitrile is one of the reasons for the specific uid bath in the spinline. High-performance fila- solubility behavior of that polymer. ments, however, have to be drawn after spinning Weak dispersion forces are effective only in a to reachmaximum fiber strength. highly symmetrical conformation. This high de- Liquid Crystals. Some linear polymers, in gree of symmetry, in turn, is possible only witha solution or molten form, tend to undergo highly symmetrical arrangement of substituents, self-organization by forming liquid – crystalline e.g., along an aliphatic carbon chain. Such a structures. Soluble linear polymers (lyotropic high degree of symmetry in linear polymers can systems) form liquid crystals as a result of their be achieved only by coordination polymeriza- rigid conformation and the formation of poly- tion, in the presence of organometallic catalysts electrolytes, e.g., the system poly(p-phenylene- (Ziegler – Natta), to yield isotactic polymers. If terephthalamide) – H2SO4. Liquid crystals can this symmetry (e.g., in polypropylene) is dis- also be formed in polymer melts (thermotropic turbed by the presence of other structural units systems). Examples of suitable systems are the (e.g., carboxylic acid ester groups; acrylic acid aromatic polyesters of the poly(4-hydroxyben- comonomers), bothpolymer and fiber properties zoic acid) type or aromatic blocks built up in change drastically. segments and separated by flexible spacers. Fig- ure 2 E shows the resulting structures of some 5.4. Crystallization high-modulus aramids; pronounced amorphous intercrystalline areas are not visible. The flexible linear polymer takes on a vari- ety of conformations during fiber formation, seeking the conformation with the lowest free 5.5. Organization of Structural energy (i.e., highest molecular organization). Elements However, spinning conditions do not allow poly- mers to attain this state completely, and fiber The arrangement of fibrils and fibril bundles in polymers usually undergo only partial crystal- man-made fibers is controlled by the produc- lization. The ratio of crystalline to amorphous tion procedure, i.e., by physical and physico- regions varies from almost totally amorphous to chemical processes. Therefore, resulting struc- highly crystalline, single-phase systems (Fibers, tures depend on production parameters, and de- 2. Structure). spite the different types of polymers employed, Linear polymers exist in solution or as the tertiary structures of all man-made fibers are molten polymer in a more or less coiled form very similar. (Fig. 2 A). In the shearing field during spin- In contrast, natural fibers have organized, ning, the molecules are partially uncoiled and evolved structures which differ considerably oriented in the direction of flow (Fig. 2 B). A from each other, depending on the organism. higher degree of orientation is achieved dur- Structural variations are reflected in different ge- ing the subsequent drawing operation (Fig. 2 C). ometric positions of the fibrils with respect to the 10 Fibers, 1. Survey

Figure 2. Various conformations of fiber polymers A: Unstirred solution (coil of polymer molecules) B: Molecular orientation in the shearing field during spinning C: Molecular orientation during drawing or liquid crystal formation from the melt or solution (polyelectrolyte molecules) D: Formation of structure on crystallization of flexible polymer chains. Examples are polyethylene, polypropylene, polyamide, and polyester. a) Crystallite; b) Intercrystalline (amorphous) region; l) Long period (10 – 20 nm) E: Formation of structure of lyotropic and thermotropic systems, such as crystallization of rigid polymer chains. Examples are high-modulus fibers of the aramid type, polyesters, and carbon fibers.

fiber axis (e.g., in cotton fibers) or in different Even more planar molecules form graphite- chemical structures along the fiber cross section like structures (Fig. 3 D). Structural defects lead (e.g., in animal hair, such as wool). Fibers could to cavities and weakly bent planes of the aro- thus be classified into two principal structural matic systems; for more details on carbon fibers, categories, namely, organized and unorganized, see → Fibers, 5. Synthetic Inorganic. if the structure of each fiber were known.

5.7. Molecular Symmetry and Physical 5.6. Structural Models Properties

The chemical structure of linear polymers de- The importance of molecular symmetry for ther- termines the degree of conformational mobil- mophysical properties (melting point, glass tran- ity of the chain segments of these molecules. sition temperature) can be demonstrated for Bothchainmobility and molecular structure, polyamides. Figure 4 shows the fluctuation of in turn, greatly influence fiber structure. Flex- melting points in the series of polyamides PA- ible chain molecules may crystallize partially to 3 to PA-13 (nylon 3 to nylon 13). Apparently, form structures that conform with the classical polyamides withan even number of carbon crystalline – amorphous model (Fig. 3 A). Span- atoms and those with an odd number of carbon dex fibers, on the other hand, have a special do- atoms belong to different structural series [47]. main structure, because the chemical structure of This can be explained by the different overall these polymers changes considerably in the vari- symmetry and, consequently, the different pos- ous segments along the polymer chain (Fig. 3 B). sibilities for hydrogen-bond formation (Fig. 5). The relatively planar structure of aramids and In PA-7, more hydrogen bonds can be formed – polyheterocyclic compounds, their conforma- at least in the all-trans conformation – than in tional rigidity, and their tendency to form ly- PA-6. Analogously, all nylon types withan even otropic structures in the spinning solution are number of carbon atoms have lower melting consistent witha structural model in whichthe points than those with an odd number of carbon intercrystalline segments are bridged (Fig. 3 C). atoms (Fig. 5). Fibers, 1. Survey 11

insertion of comonomers, suchas vinyl com- pounds. The resulting copolymer has altered properties and is no longer suitable for textile production. In addition, polar comonomers in- terfere with the isotactic course of the polymer- ization process itself.

Figure 4. Melting points of nylons as a function of chain length n.

Figure 3. Various structural models of different polymer types A: Classical structural model of amorphous – crystalline fiber polymers. Examples are polyamide, polyester, and vis- cose rayon. Long period (l)10–30nm. B: Structural model of spandex fibers (polyurethane). Lengthof hardsegment 2.5 nm; lengthof soft segment 15.0 nm C: Structural model of aramid fibers (p-structures). No amorphous phases present; stretched molecules due to ly- ◦ otropic structures during fiber formation Figure 5. Hydrogen bonding in nylon 6 (A; mp 225 C) and ◦ D: Structural model of carbon fibers; graphite structure with nylon 7 (B; mp 232 C) defects (cavities, bent layers; D = position of defect). Polyacrylonitrile is rarely used for textile fibers without comonomers being incorporated into the polymer, because the desired fiber prop- 5.8. Changes in Properties Caused by erties (e.g., deformability, dyeability) cannot be Symmetry Defects achieved with polyacrylonitrile alone. This, of course, changes the solubility of the polymer. The incorporation of comonomers affects not Polyesters of similar chemical structure, but only chemical structure, but also symmetry and, quite different molecular symmetry, also have therefore, other fiber properties. For instance, very different melting points. For example, the the tacticity of polypropylene is changed by the 12 Fibers, 1. Survey highly symmetrical poly(ethylene terephthalate) spun and, at the same time, retain their di- has a melting point of 265 ◦C, whereas the melt- mensional stability during processing, use ing point of poly(m-phenyleneisopthalamide) is and care. only 102 ◦C [47]. The same situation arises with aramids. The requirements to be met by fibers and their Here, too, the highly symmetrical para-linked parent polymers are, therefore, determined by polyamides have higher melting points (in this the demands on the final products. case, decomposition temperatures) than the less symmetrical meta-linked polymers (Fig. 6). The different dipole orientation, oppositely directed 6.1. Requirements to Be Met by Textiles or in the same direction (arrows in Fig. 6), and the total symmetry cause higher fiber tenacity The need for a variety of textile fabrics having and modulus. specific properties should be clear from the di- versity of textile uses. The priorities and order of importance of properties depend on the appli- cation in question. For clothing, textile properties like appear- ance, aesthetics, optics, drape, formability (iron- ing, pleating), comfort, heat and moisture trans- port, handle, ease of care, and fastness of all types are of considerable importance. In ad- dition, certain chemical requirements, such as dyeability, crease-resistant finishing, and dimen- sional stability, must be met in the production of textile materials. Finally, processibility to the finished textile product in partially automated production lines has become increasingly im- portant. Industrial textiles must also possess specific properties, depending on their application. For example, high tenacity is required for ropes; high modulus, for fiber reinforcement; heat stability, Figure 6. Effect of dipole orientation on the melting point for protective clothing and insulation; high water (decomposition temperature) of aramids absorption, for articles of hygiene; resistance to chemicals and flue gas, for filter materials; and long-term stability, for geotextiles [45]. 6. Fiber Properties Required by In the past, fiber production and the utiliza- tion of specific properties were optimized pri- Textiles marily. Today, fibers withdesired properties are made specifically to fulfill the requirements of Despite the fact that a large number of polymers the final product. The correlation between re- possess the basic properties required for fiber quirements and properties of the finished prod- formation, they are not all suitable for large- uct and corresponding fiber (polymer) properties scale production of fibers. In textile production is given in Table 3. and in commercial applications, polymers must fulfill a variety of requirements: 1) Chemical Stability. Polymers must be stable 6.2. Modification of Fiber Properties under the influence of heat, light, air, water, and the chemicals commonly used in textile The specific properties of the finished product finishing and care. depend directly on its end use. Since the fiber 2) Thermomechanical Stability. Polymers must itself is not the final product, changes in fiber possess the ability to be solution- or melt- structure result in changes in the property profile Fibers, 1. Survey 13

Table 3. Correlation of textile properties withfiber properties

Properties of the final product Corresponding fiber properties

Optical properties luster, fiber surface Aesthetics profile, fiber cross section Mechanical properties modulus of elasticity, tenacity, elongation Comfort Physiological properties of clothing moisture absorption, moisture transport Antistatics electrical resistance Thermal insulation heat capacity, porosity, heat conduction ∗ Hand textile structure, bending modulus Feel roughness, modulus of elasticity, fineness Ease of care and washability wetting, moisture absorption, glass transition temperature (wet and dry) [78] Dry cleaning polymer (in)solubility, swelling Soiling characteristics zeta potential, adsorption and dissolution of soil components Fastness Mechanical stability tenacity, elongation, moduli, abrasion resistance Dimensional stability melting point, glass transition point (wet and dry) Forming (e.g., pleating) thermoplasticity, glass transition temperature (T g) Lightfastness chemical structure, sensitizers, stabilizers Lightfastness of dyeing polymer – dye interaction, radical lifetime Specific properties Flame resistance chemical structure, combustion mechanism Impermeability to water moisture absorption, wetting properties Water vapor permeability surface properties, morphology, yarn structure Dyeability glass transition point during dyeing Mechanical properties (ropes, material, tire cord) modulus of elasticity, tenacity, elongation, dynamic modulus Rubber elasticity chemical structure, glass transition temperature, morphological structure, domain structure

∗ The thermal insulation of a textile is largely due to the air inside the pores, which is of low thermal conductivity. of the finished product. Matching the require- 1) introduction of a sulfonic acid group into ment profile withtheproperty profile is not al- poly(ethylene terephthalate) to bind cationic ways possible. the purpose of numerous mod- dyes (sulfoisophthalic acid as comonomer); ification procedures (e.g., of the fiber polymer, 2) introduction of a sulfonic acid group into production method, processing, and finishing) is polyacrylonitrile with the help of vinylsul- to confer special functional properties on the end fonic or styrenesulfonic acid or a similar product. Some of these procedures are described comonomer to make possible the use of in more detail in the following sections. cationic dyes; 3) introduction of flexible chain segments into Copolymers. Fibers are used predominantly poly(ethylene terephthalate) to change its as raw materials in textile manufacture. specific dyeing characteristics. Polymer modifica- fabric properties, suchas dimensional stability, tion [copolycondensation withpoly(ethyl- brightness, color, pattern, or luster, are imparted ene glycol)] in the production of carrier-free to textiles during the physical and physicochem- dyeable polyester makes use of this princi- ical processes of textile finishing. These charac- ple. teristics should remain unchanged, particularly during use and cleaning. Chemical modification Polymer Mixtures. Polymers are generally of the fiber polymer is generally employed to incompatible. If two different polymers are spun achieve this goal. Chemical treatment involves, together, fibril structures are formed (matrix fib- above all, the introduction of special structural ril fibers) that are known as biconstituent fibers. groups into the basic polymer, groups that are If two polymer streams are combined in the capable of taking part in polar and homopolar spinneret without blending, bicomponent fibers interactions with the chemicals used in textile are obtained (→ Fibers, 3. General Production finishing. Some examples are Technology). 14 Fibers, 1. Survey

Additives. Many specific fiber characteris- fiber lead to fiber shrinkage or stretching, de- tics can be achieved by use of additives in the pending on the degree of thermosetting. In other spinning solution or the melt. For example, the words, the textiles lose their shape. following effects can be obtained: Even in the dry state, dimensional stabil- ity decreases withincreasing temperature, fibers 1) Delustering: use of titanium dioxide as addi- can undergo permanent deformation at dry heat. tive in spinning Suitable fixation and textile finishing, e.g., ther- 2) Spin dyeing: use of pigments as additives in mofixation (heat setting) of polyester, felting or spinning shrink-resistant finishing of wool, and crease- 3) Antistatic properties: use of electrically con- resistant finishing of cotton, can enhance dimen- ducting additives in spinning sional stability and ease of care. Textiles that 4) Flame resistance: use of flame retardants as are still not dimensionally stable enoughto be additives in spinning washed with water must be dry-cleaned. Here, The use of additives in spinning produces a very soil release is achieved by using organic sol- broad spectrum of properties. For economic rea- vents such as perchloroethylene or fluorochloro- sons, this type of fiber modification is the method hydrocarbons; the temperature must be main- of choice, if it produces the required effect. By tained below the glass transition points of the comparison, the development of special poly- fiber – solvent system throughout the process. mers is a muchmore expensive procedure.

6.3. Comfort Properties of Textiles

Fibers used to produce clothing must possess a variety of properties. The term comfort refers to those properties responsible for the wash and wear performance of garments. Physiological studies have shown that apart from fiber sub- stance, i.e., the chemical structure of the fiber polymer, the most important factors that influ- ence textile wearability are fiber, yarn, and tex- tile construction [50]. Along withmoisture ab- sorption, moisture transport across the fiber sur- face or through textile spaces is of particular sig- nificance for the moisture balance of textiles. Textiles must retain their appearance and form during washing and dry cleaning. In this connec- tion, certain inherent fiber properties are of vital importance. The thermomechanical stability of textiles is controlled by the glass transition tem- perature (T g) of the fiber polymers. However, this temperature is not a structural property but, Figure 7. Total production of man-made fibers [2] rather, is directly related to the fiber system, e.g., the type of polymer and polymer – water interac- 7. Economic Aspects tion. Deformability generally increases within- creasing moisture absorption because the chain- The production of natural and man-made fibers segment mobility of polymers is increased. The is influenced by a number of factors, suchas de- glass transition temperature of fiber polymers mand (state of the economy), availability (pro- witha highmoisture-absorbingcapacity de- duction and trade), prices, and availability of raw creases dramatically withincreasing moisture materials. The per capita consumption varies content. The resulting structural changes in the considerably from country to country and de- Fibers, 1. Survey 15 pends on climate, supply, domestic production 8. Tabular Survey of Fibers [6], [53], versus imports, standard of living, fashion, state [54] of the economy, and degree of industrialization. The balance between the consumption of nat- A quantitative survey of the most important ural and of man-made fibers is also controlled properties of fibers based on polycondensation by these factors, although a certain “awareness and polymerization, as well as some inorganic of nature” currently tips the scales in favor of fibers, is shown in Tables 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10. Prop- natural fibers. The production of natural fibers, erties of these fibers, are compared with those of e.g., cotton or wool, is determined in terms of natural and semisynthetic fibers. The properties the profit made per area cultivated. A dramatic of all textile and industrial fibers are determined increase in production cannot be expected at by variables related to production and aftertreat- present. However, new developments in genetic ment. Hence, in general, only a range of values engineering could rapidly improve the yields ob- characteristic of individual fiber classes is given tained per given area. in this survey. In fact, only the order of magni- The economic importance of individual fiber tude is indicated for electric resistance of fibers types can be deduced from their annual world- because of considerable variations in measured wide consumption [51], and Figure 7 shows the values. No entries have been made when reliable worldwide production of man-made fibers. information was unavailable. Both the consumption and the production of The numbers in brackets are plausible fibers also depend directly on the level of devel- estimated values. Figures for tenacity and opment and on per capita income [52]. The con- modulus are based on bothfiber fineness sumption per person in individual countries dif- (1tex=1g/km) and cross-sectional area of the fers considerably for a variety of reasons. Some sample. The following relationship is applica- countries have already reached a high level of ble: consumption, and despite their high standard of
 living, the population spends only a fixed per- Fineness (tex) = 105×Density gcm−3
 centage of their available income on textiles. The ×Crosssection cm2 growthof fiber production for industrial use, on the other hand, is likely to continue. In 1984, 7 kg In general, the characteristic stress – strain curve of fiber was consumed per capita; for the year σ (ε) of fibers does not show a constant gradi- 6 2000, a total fiber production of 43×10 tisex- ent, even at low elongation. Hence, the modulus pected if per capita consumption remains at 7 kg, of elasticity is usually defined as the differential 6 or 48.6×10 t if it increases to 8 kg. The growth quotient dσ (ε)/dε. Experimental determination rate of 2.8 % achieved in the period 1968 – 1984 at low fiber elongation ε is difficult but can be is not expected to continue. Up to 1995 the aver- conducted successfully by extrapolation of the age growthrate was only 2.3 %/a. Nevertheless, function dσ (e) /de for e=0[55]. 6 a world fiber volume of about 50×10 tisex- The elastic recovery of a fiber (in percent) pected in the year 2000 [52], [79]. can be measured by standard methods [56] and The limited means of production in Eastern is shown in Table 5 as Europe also contributed to reduced consump-  e  tion. In the developing countries, lack of spend- 1− r 100 e ing power, capital, and means of production all combine to reduce growthof consumption. Re- where εr = residual elongation, ε = total elonga- gional differences in population growthwill lead tion. to an increase in fiber consumption in the devel- oping countries. 16 Fibers, 1. Survey 75 ≈ (relative), tenacity tenacity C Relative Relative ◦ H σ )at21 H σ , / H cN/tex GPa % [62], % [63], % σ C) Tenacity ( 100 36 – 75 0.5 – 1.1 100 – 106 ◦ ≈ (21 H ε ,% % b at 65 %R.H. “wet/dry,” at 65 % R.H. Wet/dry loop knot ), Elongation 3 Density ( g/cm a st/fist/fi 1.52 – 1.54st/fi 1.52st/fi 10 – 30 1.29 – 1.32st 1.29 100 – – 1.32 10 130 20 – – 40 45 20 – 1.5 45 16 – 45 170 120 – – 200 150 120 – 150 0.25 – 14 0.7 10 – – 21 15 10 – 16 10 – 15 40 – 80 0.2 0.13 – – 0.32 0.2 110 – 115 0.13 – 0.2 25 – 60 65 50 – – 70 80 32 – 48 25 – 60 50 – 80 60 70 – – 75 95 0.5 – 0.7 60 80 – – 85 90 70 – 95 80 – 90 55 – 70 45 – 50 stfi 1.14hdst 1.14 30 – 70 1.14 1.14fihd 105 – 125 20 – 45 15 – 20 30 – 60 30 – 1.14 40 1.14 105 – 125 105 – 125 105 – 125 0.35 – 0.45 40 – 60 20 – 60 40 – 90 15 – 20 35 80 – – 40 90 0.45 – 0.7 105 – 0.7 125 – 1 105 – 125 0.4 65 – – 0.45 85; 85 – 90 40 – 60 60 – 90 85 – 90 see PA 6 70 – 95 0.45 – 0.7 0.7 – 1 80 see – 90; 70 PA – 6 90 see PA 6 60 – 70 Sarille,... Bemberg Dicel Tricel Tencel,... Amilan, Anso, Caprolan, Grilon,... Cantrece, Meryl, Timbrelle, Ultron... Mechanical properties of fibers (data at break) Fiber name/polymerNatural fibers Cotton Trade namesWool Fiber type SilkHemp st st fi st 1.50 – 1.54 1.32 6 – 15 1.25 1.48 25 – 50 100 – 110 10 – 2 30 – 5 25 110 – – 50 130 120 – 200 10 – 20 0.35 – 0.7 25 – 50 100 0.15 – – 110 0.25 0.3 – 0.6 70 – 90 65 – 75 60 – 100 75 – 95 75 – 85 80 – 85 60 – 80 80 – 85 FlaxJuteRegenerate cellulose Viscose rayon, Viscose ModalCuprammonium rayonCellulose acetate Evlan, Fibro, Cellulose triacetateNMMO fibers [88] Asahi Bemberg, Arnel, Celco, Estron, Silene, st Lyocell, st 1.438 – 1.456 1.436 1 – 4 1.3 110 – 125 30 – 55 100 0.43 – 0.8 20 – 40 105 – 120 0.3 – 0.57 20 – 40 99 – 104 Protein fibersAlginate fiber (Ca-Alginate)Polycondensate fibers Nylon 6 (PA 6)Nylon 66 (PA 66) fi Perlon, Acelon, st 1.78 Nylon, Antron, 1.315 5 25 – 60 60 – 110 11 – 12 11 – 18 0.14 – 0.16 0.2 – 0.3 40 – 65 27 – 30 Table 4. Fibers, 1. Survey 17 50 ≈ 23–34 9545 80 – 85 ≈ ≈ 100 30 – 95 (relative), tenacity tenacity ≈ strength, axial [80], [81], [82] GPa 0.04 – 0.075 c C Relative Relative )/ ◦ H H ε 0.06 – 0.15 75 – 100 σ Compressive strength, axial in GPa, [80], [81], [82] + )at21 (1 H H σ σ , / H cN/tex GPa % [62], % [63], % σ 27 – 37 0.38 – 0.5330–70= 60 – 65 70 – 75 C) Tenacity ( 100 5 – 12; ◦ ≈ (21 H ε ,% % b at 65 %R.H. “wet/dry,” at 65 % R.H. Wet/dry loop knot and for fi 19–21 ), Elongation 3 Density ( g/cm a fi 1.44 3 – 4 185 – 195 2.7 – 2.8 0.35 fi/hdfi 2.8 – 3.5 1.36 – 1.41 20 – 30 100 – 105 230 – 260 40 – 60 3.5 – 3.8 0.55 – 0.85 95 – 100 70 – 98 70 – 80 fi 1.40 – 1.41 2 – 5 200 – 280 2.8 – 3.9 Compressive st 1.2 – 1.3 20 – 60 13 – 22 0.17 – 0.27 70 80 fi 1.1 – 1.3 400 – 700 ,... Kevlar 29, Twaron Kevlar 49Kevlar 149Kevlar 981, fi/anTwaron fi/anKevlar HpDacron, Diolen, st 1.45Fortrel, Grilene, fi 1.47 st/apSerene, Terylene, Trevira,.... 1.36 1.36 – – 1.41 2 1.41 – 2.5 1.2 1.44 – 1.9Trevira 813 fi/hdKodel 30 25 – – 55 50 1.36 – 1.41 3.6 st 100 100 – – 105 105 8 – 20 25 30 – – 40 55 185 150 – – 195 160 1.22 – 1.23 100 – 105 0.35 0.4 15 – 2.7 – 2.2 – 0.55 – 0.75 – 35 2.8 2.4 60 – 100 95 – 100 95 – 140 100 – 150 0.365 0.85 – 1.5 75 – 2.05 85 75 – 95 50 – 78 95 – 100 35 – 50 22 – 36 60 – 90 40 – 70 0.37 – 0.45 Vectran Novoloid Lycra -phenyleneisophthalamide) Nomex, Conex fi 1.38 15 – 30 60 – 80 -phenyleneterephthalamide) (Continued) m p Poly( Poly( Poly(butylene terephthalate) (PBT)Poly(1,4-dimethylenecyclohexane Trevira 810,terephthalate) (PDCT) [59] st/fi 1.25 35 – 40 40 – 45 0.5 – 0.56 Fiber name/polymerAramids Trade names Fiber type Polyarylate Ekonol [60], NovolakPoly(amide imide) (PAI)Poly(ether imide) (PEI)Polyurethane elastomers (spandex) Dorlastan, Kermel Kynol, Philene, st st/fi 10 – 25 16 – 38 25 – 60 15 – 27 0.2 – 0.35 Poly(etherether ketone) (PEEK)Polyimide (PI) Zyex fi P 84 1.27 – 1.298 15 – 60 st/fi 1.41 for st 30 – 38 20 – 100 0.25 – 1.3 55 – 80 65 – 68 (PPTA) Poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET) Table 4. 18 Fibers, 1. Survey 50 70 80 70 ≈ ≈ ≈ ≈ 60 ≈ (relative), tenacity tenacity C Relative Relative ◦ H σ )at21 H σ , / H cN/tex GPa % [62], % [63], % σ C) Tenacity ( 100 35 – 58 0.42 – 0.69 80 – 100 ◦ ≈ (21 H ε ,% % b at 65 %R.H. “wet/dry,” at 65 % R.H. Wet/dry loop knot ), Elongation 3 Density ( g/cm a st/fi 2.1 – 2.3 20 – 40 100 8 – 18 0.16 – 0.38 100 60 – 90 75 – 90 fi 0.95 – 0.96 10 – 45 100 30 – 70 0.3 – 0.65 100 60 – 90 70 – 90 st/fi 0.90 – 0.92st 15 – 50st/fi 100 1.3 – 1.4st 1.38 – 1.40 25 – 50fi 25 – 60 10 – 40 1.26 – 1.31 100 – 110 0.22 – 0.55 1.26 – 100 1.31 13 – 26 15 – 100 25 9 – 22 120 – 140 20 – 24 0.2 – 0.35 85 – 120 95 – 140 20 – 55 70 – 90 80 – 100 0.28 – 0.34 55 – 77 0.25 – 0.7 100 50 – 70 0.7 – 1 65 – 85 35 – 70 65 35 – – 85 40 55 – 65 35 – 40 55 – 65 fi 1.17 – 1.19 15 – 40 100 – 120 35 – 45 0.42 – 0.53 80 – 100 30 – 80 Fibers,... Hiralon, Vegon,... Spectra 1000... hd 0.97 3 – 6 100 270 – 370 2.6 – 3.6 100 Meraklon... SEF,... Rhovil,.... Kuralon, Mewlon, Solvron, Vilon,... Euroacril, Leacril,... 85 % Dolan, Dralon, st 1.17 – 1.19 20 – 60 100 – 120 18 – 32 0.2 – 0.37 75 – 95 30 – 80 75 – 80 ≥ ) hd 1.31 3 – 4 150 – 230 2 – 3 6 10 > ) (Continued) 6 r ¯ M 10 > syndiotactic [61] st 1.40 35 – 60 100 25 – 30 0.35 – 0.42 100 60 – 90 65 – 85 atactic Clevil, r ¯ Poly(phenylene sulfide) (PPS)Melamine resin fiber Procon, Rylon st/fi Basofil 1.37 – 1.38 25 – 40 1.4 – 1.5 15 – 25 28 – 47 0.4 – 0.65 15 – 40 0.2 78 – 0.6 60 – 80 Polytetrafluoro-ethylene (PTFE) Gore-Tex Polypropylene (PP)Polyacrylonitrile (PAN)Modacrylics (50 – 84 % PAN) Herculon, Poly(vinyl chloride) Dralon (PVC) T,... st/fi Kanekalon, 1.17 – 1.19(HM: 25 – 40 Fiber name/polymerPolymerizate fibers Trade names Fiber type Copolymerizates withPAN Poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) Polyethylene (HD – PE) (HM –M HD – PE: Table 4. Fibers, 1. Survey 19 (relative), tenacity tenacity Compressive strength, axial, GPa C Relative Relative ◦ 5 0.5 – 1.1 0 H σ ≈ )at21 H σ , / 100 3 250 100 2 (-4) 0.4 – 0.8 0 H cN/tex GPa % [62], % [63], % σ ≈ ≈ ≈ C) Tenacity ( effective breaking strength ◦ c (21 H ε ,% % b at 65 %R.H. “wet/dry,” at 65 % R.H. Wet/dry loop knot ), Elongation R.H. = relative humidity; b 3 Density ( g/cm 2.45 – 2.6 2 – 5 100 70 – 120 1.7 – 2.7 15 – 30 m a µ 5 – 20 2.6 – 3.13 – 3.2 1 2.8 – 3.3 0.7 30 – 60 1 – 2 Fiber diameter, 5 – 15 2.52 – 2.54 2 – 3.5 100 80 – 140 2 – 3.5 0.5 Nextel 312Nextel 440Nextel 17 480Nicalon (Nippon Carbon) FP (DuPont) 2.63 – 2.7Saffil, Saffimax 20(ICI) 3.1 3.05 1.1 0.4 65 75 1.7 2.3 1.4 – 1.5 Fiberglas Enkafort Pyrofil,Torayca,... 6 – 7 7 – 9 1.8 – 1.96 1.74 – 1.82 0.4 – 1.2 1.5 – 2.4 100 – 180 170 – 380 1.9 – 3.5 3 – 7 1.4 – 1.5 1.44 – 4 0 0 Fiber G 9 – 12 2.02 0.5 – 2 Tornel, Grafil, 6 – 9 2.0 – 2.06 0.4 (-2) 3 O 2 ) 3 O ) Silica (Akzo) 9 – 10 1.8 – 2.0 1.4 – 2.0 15 – 40 0.25 – 0.8 2 2 B · (Continued) 2 st = staple fiber, fi = filament, hd = highly drawn, an = annealed, ap = antipilling; -Silicon carbide 2 SiO Silica (SiO Fiber name/polymerInorganic fibers Trade names FiberTextile type glass Gevetex, a E glass E-Fiber, Carbon (PAN based)High-modulus types (HM) High-strength types (HS) Magnamite, High-strength types (HS) Steel (20 % Cr, 7 %Carbon Ni) (pitchbased) High-modulus types (HM) Bekinox fi 7.9 1 – 2 100 22 – 29 1.75 – 2.25 65 – 75 60 – 70 Table 4. · β Aluminum silicate (e.g., 3 Al 20 Fibers, 1. Survey 27–41 27–41 0.3 33 – 42 1 51–55 1 44–50 1 44–50 12 30–40 1 48–52 ≈ G, brittleness ≈ ≈ ≈ ≈ ≈ ≈ , 0.3 G/ ≈ N/tex GPa [66], degrees E, 0) → ε , E/ N/tex GPa ) 100 for (elongation ε / r ε 2 % (5 %) 60 8 – 25 12 – 36 0.95 1.3 – 1.4 68 = (1 – ε ≈ a hd 95–100 90–95 4–5 4.5–6 hd 95 – 100 90 – 95 4 – 5 4.5 – 5.5 0.7 0.8 st/fi 70 – 100 40 – 60 2 – 3 (6.5 – 7.5) 3 – 4.5 (4.2 – 4.9) 0.5 – 1 st/fist/fi 70 – 95 90 – 95 40 – 60 (40 – 60) 2 – 3 2 – 3.5 3 – 4.5 2.5 – 4.5 0.6 – 0.8 48 – 57 st/fi 90 – 95 55 – 70 2 – 3.5 2.5 – 4.5 0.6 – 0.8 Cantrece, Meryl, fiTimbrelle, Ultron,... 95 – 100 95 – 100 0.5 – 3 0.6 – 3.5 0.45 0.5 40 – 41 Caprolan, Grilon,... Nylon, Antron, st Sarille,.. Bemberg Dicel, Tricel,... Perlon, Acelon,Amilan, st Anso, fi 95 – 100 95 – 100 0.5 – 3 0.6 – 3.5 names type Elastomechanical properties of fibers JuteRegenerate cellulose Viscose rayon, Viscose Modal Evlan, Fibro, st 21 – 22 30 – 31 Cuprammonium rayonCellulose acetate Asahi Bemberg, Arnel, Celco, Cellulose triacetate Estron, Silene, NMMO FiberProtein fiberAlginate fiber (Ca-Alginat)Polycondensate fibers Lyocell, Tencel,.. st/fi fi st 4 26 7 6 2 12 – 13 2 – 3 1.2 0.9 Fiber name/polymerNatural fibers CottonWool Trade Fiber Elastic recovery, %: Initial Modulus st st 75 95–99 Torsion modulus [64] Torsion 60–70 45 1.5–3 3 – 6 2–4 4.5 – 9 0.8–1 1.6 2.4 53 – 56 SilkHempFlax fi st st 95 70 7 – 10 60 9 – 12.5 90 1.5 – 2.3 1.9 – 2.9 51 Nylon 66 (PA 66) Nylon 6 (PA 6) Table 5. Fibers, 1. Survey 21 50 48 ≈ ≈ G, brittleness , G/ N/tex GPa [66], degrees E, 0) → ε , 0.005 – 0.01 0.006 – 0.012 ≈ E/ N/tex GPa ) 100 for (elongation ε / r = 300 % 0.004 0.005 ε 2 % (5 %) ε = (1 – ε for a fi 93–98 fifi/an 95–100fi/hd 95 – 100ap 41–53 85fi 59–77 st 124 70 – 83 102 – 120 2.5 – 4 3.4 – 5.5 60 – 128 80 – 180 2.6 – 3.6 3.3 – 4.6 names type Kevlar 29, Twaron, Kevlar 49, Twaron, Kevlar 149,Kevlar 981, Twaron, fi/anKevlar HpDacron, Diolen, stTerylene, fiTrevira, 96Fortrel, Grilene, fiSerene,...Kodel hd 90 – 98[61] st 70 – 90Novoloid 103 85 – 95 7 – 18 2.5 – 4 150 50 50 – 60 10 – 25 3.4 – 5.5 2.5 – 4 7 – 18 72 0.65 3 – 5 10 – 25 0.9 1.1 41 – 48 30 – 49 1.5 47 – 48 49 Dorlastan, Lycra,... -phenyleneisophthalamide) Nomex, Conex, fi 8 – 14 11 – 20 -phenyleneterephthalamide) (Continued) m p Poly( Poly( Fiber name/polymerAramids Trade Fiber Elastic recovery, %: Initial Modulus Torsion modulus [64] Torsion Poly(ether ether ketone) (PEEK)Polyimide (PI)NovolakPoly(amide imide) (PAI) ZyexPoly(ether imide) (PEI) fi Kermel P84 Kynol, Philene, st st/fi st 4 – 12 5 – 15 3.5 – 7.5 3.5 – 5 2.7 – 4.2 5 – 7 3.5 – 5.1 Poly(butylene terephtalate) (PBT)Polyarylate Trevira 810...813 fi 100 99 Vectran, – Ekonol 100 4 – 5 5 – 6 (PPTA) Polyurethane elastomers (spandex) Poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET) Poly(1,4-dimethylene cyclohexane terephthalate) (PDCT) [59] Table 5. 22 Fibers, 1. Survey G, brittleness , G/ N/tex GPa [66], degrees E, 0) → ε , E/ N/tex GPa ) 100 for (elongation ε / r ε 2 % (5 %) = (1 – ε a st/fist 70 – 90 55 – 65 60–8040–60 2 – 4 3–4 3 – 5.5 4–5 0.6 – 0.7 0.9 0.8 – 1 27 – 50 1.2 st 95 – 99 85 – 98 1 – 2.5 1.3 – 3.5 fi 90–95 50–90 9–10 10–12 1 1.2 55–60 st/fi 95 – 100 85 – 95 0.5 – 5 0.5 – 5 Rhovyl,... Kuralon, Mewlon Solvron, Vilon,... fi 60 – 80 40 – 60 3 – 4.5 4 – 6 1.2 – 1.5 1.6 – 2 SEF,.. Dolan,DralonEuroacril, stLeacril,... 90 – 95 50 – 90 3 – 5 3.5 – 6 45 – 52 names type Hiralon, Vegon, fiSpectra 1000,... hdMeraklon,... 95 – 100 100 90 – 95 0.2 – 5 51 0.2 – – 165 5 50 – 160 0.05 1.5 [65] 0.05 1.5 [65] ) 85 % 6 ≥ 10 > r ¯ M ) hd 30–60 40–80 6 10 > r ¯ M (Continued) (HM–HD–PE: syndiotactic [61] st 90 – 95 75 – 80 2.5 – 3 3.5 – 4 atactic(HM: Clevyl, Poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) Modacrylics (50 – 84 % PAN) Kanekalon, Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)Poly(pheneylene sulfide) (PPS) Gore-Tex Fibers st/fi Procon, Ryton,... st/fi 0.35 – 2 2.7 – 5 0.7 – 4 3.7 – 6.8 0.2 – 0.3 0.4 – 0.7 Polyacrylonitrile (PAN) Dralon T,... st/fi 90 – 95 50 – 90 9.5 – 14 11 – 17 1.5 – 1.7 1.8 – 2 Polypropylene (PP) Herculon, Fiber name/polymerPolymerizate fibers Trade Fiber Elastic recovery, %: Initial Modulus Torsion modulus [64] Torsion Poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) Copolymerizates withPAN Polyethylene (HD – PE) Table 5. Fibers, 1. Survey 23 40 85 – 88 40 85 – 88

G, brittleness , 16 16
G/
N/tex GPa [66], degrees E, 0) → ε , E/ N/tex GPa =1% 19–25 150–200 7.9–9.5 60–70 ) 100 for (elongation ε ε / r ε 2 % (5 %) = (1 – ε a m 100 28–34 70–90 5–15 100 28–34 70–90 5 – 203 – 3.2 67 – 100 33 – 83 200 – 300 100 – 250 Fiber diameter, µ Enkafort,... Nicalon (Nippon Carbon) FP (DuPont)Saffil, Saffimax (ICI) 20 120 – 125 350 – 385 Nextel 312,Nextel 440,Nextel 480 17 [89] 5.5 – 52 73 65 15 – 140 224 200 names type Fiberglas,... ) 3 O 2 B · 2 2 SiO · 3 O ) Silica (Akzo) 9 – 10 6 – 30 12 – 56 2 2 (Continued) st = stable fiber, fi = filament, hd = highly drawn, an = annealed, ap = antipilling. (e.g. 3 Al -Silicon carbide E glass E-Fiber, Silica (SiO Steel (20 % Cr, 7 % Ni) Bekinox fi 100 for Fiber name/polymerInorganic fibers Textile glass Trade Fiber Elastic recovery, %: Gevetex, Initial Modulusa Torsion modulus [64] Torsion Carbon (pitchbased) High-modulus types (HM)High-strength types (HS)Carbon (PAN based)High-modulus types (HM)High-strength types (HS) Thornel, Grafil, 6 – 9 Fiber G Pyrofil, Magnamite Torayca,... 9 – 12 6 – 7 7 – 9 250 – 400 500 – 800 124 – 200 160 – 260 110 – 165 250 – 400 300 – 500 200 – 300 2.2 4 Aluminum silicate β Table 5. 24 Fibers, 1. Survey C ◦ t, C temperature), ◦ 215 – 220 120 255 – 260 120 20 (3.7 % 30 (3.7 % C (decomposition ◦ ≈ water) ≈ water) 1 − K 1 − 1 − K 1 − Jg 1.3 – 1.51.4 0.3 – 0.6 (175 – 190) 120 (175 – 205) 120 C, % heat capa- conductivity, temperature, temperature in air up to ◦ b b Fiber shrinkagein water of 95 drawn thermoset Specific city [67], Thermal W m Glass transition Melting Heat resistance a st/fist/fist/fi 0.5 – 10 5 – 20 5 – 20hd 0.7hd 8 – 15 1.3 – 1.5 1.5 8 – 15 0.3 0.3 1.5 – 1.8 170 – 180 [68] 0.4 300 1.5 255 90 – 95 (dry) 130 0.4 215 120 – 220 120 – 150 255 – 260 120 – 150 st/fi 0.5 – 10 Bemberg Dicel, Tricel,... Perlon, Acelon,Amilan, st Anso, fiNylon, Antron,Cantrece, Meryl, st 8 – fi 15 8 – 15 0.5 – 1.5 8 – 15 8 – 1 15 – 5 1.5 – 1.8 0.5 – 1.5 1 – 5 1.5 – 1.8 1.5 0.2 – 0.3 1.5 80 – 85 (dry) 215 0.2 – – 220 0.3 120 90 – 95 (dry) 255 – 260 120 Caprolan, Grilon,... Timbrelle, Ultron,... Sarille,... Thermal properties of fibers Cuprammonium rayonCellulose acetateCellulose triacetatePolycondensate Asahi fibers Bemberg, Arnell, Celco, Estron, Silene, Fiber name/polymer Trade namesNatural fibers Cotton Fiber type WoolSilkFlaxRegenerate cellulose Viscose rayon, Viscose, Modal Evlan, Fibro, st st fi st 1.3 1.3 – 1.6 1.4 1.4 0.3 0.2 – – 0.5 0.4 0.2 – 0.4 45 [90] 0.3 40 – 50 (400) (170 – 180) 120 120 120 Nylon 66 (PA 66) Nylon 6 (PA 6) Table 6. Fibers, 1. Survey 25 C ◦ t, 200 ≈ 370) 180 – 200 380) 250 550)550) 180 – 200 180 – 200 C ≈ > ≈ ≈ temperature), ◦ 320 – 290 180 – 260 ( 230 – 290 120 60 40 ≈− − 20 100 285 – 290 − C (decomposition ◦ 68 – 75≈ 224 120 315 260 [70] ; Polyester to 340 – 360 340 – 360 1 − K 1 − 1 − K 1 − Jg C, % heat capa- conductivity, temperature, temperature in air up to ◦ 3 – 12 0.15 Polyether: Fiber shrinkagein water of 95 drawn thermoset Specific city [67], Thermal W m Glass transition Melting Heat resistance ≈ a st/fi fi st 0 fi 1.4 0.05 340 – 360 ( fi fi/anfi/hd 0.05 340 – 360 ( ,... hd 7–8 80–110 250–260 150–160 Trevira 813 Kodel st 0.1 – 0.5 Novoloid [60] Kevlar 29, Twaron, Lycra,... Kevlar HpDacron, Diolen, stFortrel, Grilene, fi apSerene, Terylene, fiTrevira 5 – 10 0.5 0.5 – – 1 1.5 0.5 – 1 0.4 – 1.9 [70] 0.2 – 0.3 80 – 110 250 – 260 120 – 80 150 – 110 80 – 110 250 – 260 250 – 260 120 – 150 120 – 150 Kevlar 49, Kevlar 149,Twaron, Kevlar 981, Twaron, -phenyleneisophthalamide) Nomex, Conex fi 1.5 1.2 0.13 280 – 290 ( -phenyleneterephthalamide) (Continued) m p Poly( Poly( Poly(butylene terephtalate) (PBT) Trevira 810, Poly(1,4-dimethylene cyclohexane terephthalate) (PDCT) [59] Poly(ether ether ketone) (PEEK)Polyimide (PI)Novolak ZyexPoly(amide imide) (PAI) fi Kermel P84 Kynol, Philene, st st/fi 0.4 – 0.5 139 – 153 334 – 345 200 – 250 Fiber name/polymer Trade namesAramids Fiber type Polyarylate Vectran, Ekonol Poly(ether imide) (PEI)Polyurethane elastomers (spandex) Dorlastan, st/fi 4 – 8 0.7 215 – 225 160 – 170 (PPTA) Poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET) Table 6. 26 Fibers, 1. Survey C ◦ t, 120 65 120 120) 200 – 220 ≈ < ≈ 170) 250)250) 140 140 320 140 C > >  temperature), ◦ ( ( ≈ 30 124 – 138 30 124 – 138 70 – 90 − − 20 to 95 (dry) 20 to C (decomposition ◦ 75 – 130 (240 – 260) (water vapor: 50 – 60 (wet) 50 – 60 (wet) − ≈ − 1 − K 1 − [85] 1 − K 1 − Jg 1 1.2 – 1.5 0.2 85 – 95 (dry); 1 0.2 ≈ ≈ C, % heat capa- conductivity, temperature, temperature in air up to ◦ ) 0.5 – 5 1.2 – 2.5 0.2 85 – 95 (dry); c 16 85 – 95 270 – 290 190 – 200  Fiber shrinkagein water of 95 drawn thermoset Specific city [67], Thermal W m Glass transition Melting Heat resistance a st 2–3 75–90 140 fist 16–22 0.2–5 85–95 ( st/fi 0 – 5 1.6 0.2 – 0.3 160 – 175 Kuralon, Mewlon, Solvron, Vilon, fi SEF,... Euroacril, Leacril, Dolan, Dralon st (20 – 40 Meraklon 85 % ≥ ) Spectra 1000 hd 10 – 38 [84], 6 10 > r ¯ M (Continued) Depending on fiber type; st = stable fiber, fi = filament, hd = highly drawn, an = annealed, ap = antipilling; High-shrinkage (HS) fiber. atactic Clevyl, Rhovyl, st/fi 20 – 30 0.8 – 0.9 0.16 – 0.17 70 – 90 (160 – 200) syndiotactic [61] st 0 90 – 100 (160 – 200) Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)Poly(phenylene sulfide) (PPS) Gore-Tex Fibers st/fi Procon, Ryton,... st/fi 2 1.0 – 1.1 0.23 127 – 130 327 – 342 [72] 180 Melamine resin fiber Basofil st Poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) Modacrylics (50 – 84 % PAN) Kanekalon, Polypropylene (PP)Polyacrylonitrile (PAN) Herculon, Dralon T fi/st 14 – 16 (HM–HD–PE: Fiber name/polymer Trade namesPolymerizate fibers Polyethylene Fiber (HD-PE) type Hiralon, Vegon, fi 5 – 10a 1.4 – 2.0b c 0.2 – 0.4 Poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) Copolymerizates withPAN Table 6. Fibers, 1. Survey 27 cm Ω 4 15 15 − 3 3 10 –10 –10 − − × 10 12 12 10 Specific electrical resistance, > 0.7 ≈ ), g 700)700) 10 10 3 −

g g 10 T T ×

1.5 C ◦ Melting temperature (Glass transition T ≈ 60 60 3600 Fire Limiting Oxygen Index (LOI), % > > C ◦ 800 2700 Heat resistance in air up to , 1200 – 13001200 > 1800 1 − K − 0.80.8 300 – 400 300-400 (600 (600 Thermal conductivity, Wm ≈ ≈ 1 − K 1 − 0.75 0.75 [67], Jg ≈ ≈ m Specific heat capacity µ 5–20 12 Nextel 440 FP (DuPont)Saffil, Saffimax (ICI) 3 – 3.2 20 1000 900 Nextel 480 Nicalon (Nippon Carbon) Thornel, Grafil,Fiber G,... 6 – 9 9 – 12Torayca,... 7 – 9 0.7 15 300 – 20 (-500) [73] 300 (-500) 300 (-500) Bekinox filaments 0.46 15 1400 – 1450 Magnamite, Pyrofil, 6 – 7 60 – 115 [73] 300 (-500) ) 3 3 O O ) Silica (Akzo) 9-10 1000 – 1100 1750 2 2 2 B · Thermal and electrical properties of inorganic fibers 2 High-modulus High-strength High-strength High-modulus (e.g., 3 Al -Silicon carbide 2 SiO Silica (SiO types (HM) types (HS) types (HS) Steel (20 % Cr, 7 % Ni) Carbon (pitchbased) types (HM) Fiber nameTextile glass Trade nameE GlassAluminum silicate Gevetex, Nextel Fiberglas 312 Fiber diameter, 5 – 15 E-Fiber, Enkafort 17 5 – 15 Carbon (PAN based) 1200 – 1300 1800 Table 7. · β 28 Fibers, 1. Survey ), conc. H 2 2 c , Cuoxam-solution 4 4 SO SO 2 2 , conc. KOH, phenols, tetrachloroethane , conc. KOH, phenols, tetrachloroethane , conc. KOH, phenols, tetrachloroethane , conc. KOH, phenols, tetrachloroethane 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 SO SO SO SO SO SO SO SO 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 4 SO -methylmorpholine oxide (NMMO) 2 H N d , C, [74], % ◦ % 2 – 3 7 conc. H Cat21 ◦ 200 0.2 conc. H ≈ ture, 180 – 220160 – 170140 – 7 165 – 11 15 – 17 9 – 11150 – 180 40 – 50 40 – 45150 – 180 12 – 14 40 – 45180 concentrated 11 – H 12 conc.220 inorg. – 250 acids, conc. KOH 85 – 120 conc. inorg. acids, conc. KOH, 2 conc. – HCO 5 100 – 6 125 – 7 conc. inorg. acids 150 conc. inorg. acids 10 – 18 20 – 28180 – 200 3.5 – 4.5 conc. inorg. acids, conc. acetone, 3.5 – inorg. dioxane, 4.5 acids, phenols acetone, dioxane, phenols 10 – 15 10 – 15 conc. inorg. acids, phenols conc. inorg. acids, phenols 150 – 200 0.2 – 0.5 3 – 5 conc. H 8 b , 14 8 11 10 7 12 11 11 –10 –10 7 14 –10 –10 –10 –10 –10 –10 –10 cm 65 % R.H. 10 10 6 8 9 6 9 9 9 15 11 Ω ≈ ≈ Specificelectricalresistance Ironing tempera- Water absorption retention Water Solubility in selected solvents a st/fi st/fi fi/an 10 st/fi 10 Fortrel, Grilene,Terylene, Trevira,... hd fi 10 150 – 200 0.2 – 0.4 3 – 5 conc. H Kodel st Perlon, Acelon,Amilan, Anso, st fi 10 150 3.5 – 4.5 10 – 15 conc. inorg. acids, phenols Bemberg,... Tricel,... Caprolan, Grilon,...Nylon, Antron, hdCantrece, Meryl,Timbrelle, Ultron,... st hd fi 10 150 180 – 180 200 – 200 3.5 – 4.5 3.5 – 3 4.5 – 4 9 – 11 10 – 15 9 – 11 conc. inorg. acids, phenols conc. inorg. acids, phenols conc. inorg. acids, phenols Kevlar 49, Kevlar 149, Twaron Kevlar 981, TwaronKevlar Hp fi/hd fi 2 – 3 7 2 – 3 conc. 7 H conc. H Kevlar 29, Twaron, fi 2 – 3 7 conc. H Dacron, Diolen, st 150 – 200 0.3 – 0.4 3 – 5 conc. H Sarille,... -phenyleneisophthalamide) Nomex, Conex fi 4.5 – 5 12 – 17 polar org. solvents and solutes (LiCl, CaCl -phenyleneterephthalamide) Electrical resistance, ironing temperature, water absorption and solubility of fibers m p Poly( Poly( Flax st 215 – 240 8 – 10 50 – 55 concentrated H Poly(1,4-dimethylene cyclohexane terephthalate) (PDCT) [59] Wool st 10 SilkCuprammonium rayonCellulose acetateCellulose triacetateNMMO Fiber Asahi Bemberg, Arnel, Celco, Estron, Dicel Silene, st/fi Lyocell, Tencel,... fi 10 st/fi 10 150 65 – 70 Polycondensate fibers Aramids Fiber name/polymerNatural fibers Cotton Trade namesRegenerate Fiber cellulose type Viscose rayon Evlan, Fibro, st 10 Nylon 6 (PA 6) Nylon 66 (PA 66) (PPTA) Table 8. Poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET) Fibers, 1. Survey 29 c or NaSCN solutions or NaSCN solutions 2 2 , benzene, chlorinated hydrocarbons , toluene, chlorinated hydrocarbons , DMF, acetone, phenol, cyclohexanone , chlorinated hydrocarbons, dioxane, , chlorinated hydrocarbons, dioxane, 2 4 4 4 4 4 4 SO SO SO SO SO SO 2 2 2 2 2 2 cyclohexanone, DMF cyclohexanone, DMF carbonate, conc. ZnCl carbonate, conc. ZnCl inorg. acids (decomp.) d , C, [74], % ◦ 1 4 – 6 conc. inorg. acids, DMA, DMF, DMS, ethylene % 0 00.4 – 30 conc. – H 0.2 10 – 200 4 – 6 conc. H 4 – 6 conc. H conc. H ≈ 6–8 Cat21 ◦ ture, 130150 – 180 0150 – 180 1 – 1.5 0 5 – 12 conc. inorg. conc. acids, H DMA, DMF, DMS, ethylene b , 17 13 14 14 14 –10 –10 –10 –10 13 14 –10 cm 65 % R.H. 10 10 13 8 12 12 12 > ≈ Ω Specificelectricalresistance Ironing tempera- Water absorption retention Water Solubility in selected solvents a st/fi fi10 Meraklon,... Novoloid,... Spectra,... 85 % Dolan, Dralon,... st/fi 10 ≥ (Continued) syndiotactic [61] st 10 atactic Clevyl, Rhovyl st/fi 10 Copolymerizates withPAN Modacrylics (50 – 84 % PAN) Kanekalon, SEF,... st 10 Polypropylene (PP)Polyacrylonitrile (PAN)Poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) Herculon, e.g., Dralon T fi/st Fiber name/polymerPolyarylatePoly(ether ether ketone) (PEEK) Trade namesNovolak Zyex Fiber type Ekonol [60], Vectran fi fi Kynol, Philene, 0 conc. NMP H + CaCl Poly(amide imide) (PAI)Poly(ether imide) (PEI)Polyurethane elastomers (spandex)Polymerizate fibers Polyethylene Dorlastan, (HD-PE) Lycra, ... Kermel fi Hiralon, Vegon, st/fi 150 – 180 0.5 – 1.5 7 – 11 noncross-linked fibers: DMA, DMF, HMPA, conc. 3 0.25 – 1.25 dichloromethane polar org. solvents (DMA, NMP) Table 8. 30 Fibers, 1. Survey C c ◦ 300 > C no solvent ◦ 200 < -methyl pyrrolidone; N d , C, [74], % ◦ 0.6) 0.03 – 0.25 0 0 hydrofluoric acid 0 hydrofluoric acid < ≈ ( % 00.10.1≈ 0 0 perfluorinated 0 solvents hydrofluoric acid hydrofluoric acid (attacked by halogenated solvents) ≈ Cat21 ◦ ture, b , 4 15 15 − –10 –10 10 14 × cm 65 % R.H. 10 12 12 Ω Specificelectricalresistance Ironing tempera- Water absorption retention Water Solubility in selected solvents > a ) Nextel 440 st 3 O 2 B · 2 2 SiO · 3 O 2 (Continued) of fibers without additives or special finishes; R.H. = relative humidity. st = staple fiber, fi = filament, hd = highly drawn, an = annealed, ap = antipilling; DMA = dimethylacetamide, DMF = dimethylformamide, DMS = dimethyl sulfoxide, HMPA = hexamethylphosphoramide, NMP = (e.g., 3 Al Poly(phenylene sulfide) (PPS) Procon, Ryton,... st/fi Melamine resin fiberInorganic fibers Textile glass Basofil Gevetex, Fiberglas st st/fi 10 9 E glassAluminum silicate Nextel 312 E-Fiber, Enkafort st fi 10 Steel (20 % Cr, 7 % Ni) Bekinox fi 0.7 Fiber name/polymerPoly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA)Poly(tetrafluoroethylene) (PTFE) Trade names Gore-Tex Fibers,... Fiber type Kuralon, st/fi Mewlon,... st/fia b c d 3.5 – 5 25 – 35 conc. inorg. acids, phenols, DMF Table 8. Fibers, 1. Survey 31 Fire 18–19 C oxygen ◦ NaOH lower than cotton C/10 hat 100 ◦ c Chemicals 60 – 100/selectivesimilar to cotton better than CA 18 – 19 similar to cotton 60 – 100/selective 0 – 20/20 – 60 90 – 100/selective selectivecotton 25 – 28 similar to cottonsimilar to cotton 19 – 20 19 – 20 c − (+) 60 – 80/0 – 20 80 – 100/80 – 100 19 – 20 − [57], [58],[75], [76] dilute acid dilute alkali index (LOI), % Biological influence cotton − −− −− −− b tenacity, % organisms After 1000 hat 20 C Residual Micro- Insects Residual tenacity, % limiting ◦ , t Heat (air)up to Light/weather a st/fi 130 20 – 45/0 – 25 (+) st/fi 120 0 – 30/0 st/fi 120 0 – 30/0 c Perlon, Acelon,Amilan, Anso,Caprolan, Grilon,... stNylon, Antron, hd fiCantrece, Meryl,Timbrelle, Ultron,... st hd fi 120 120 – 150 120 120 120 – 150 20 120 – 30/5 – 15 20 – 30/5 – 15 (+) 20 – 30/5 20 – – 15 30/5 – 15 (+) 20 – 30/5 – 15 20 (+) – 30/5 (+) – 15 + (+) + (+) + + + + 90 – 100/90 – 100 90 – 100/90 – 100 90 – 100/90 90 – – 100 100/90 – 90 100 – 100/90 – 100 90 90 – – 20 100/90 100/90 – – – 21.5 100 90 100 – 100/90 – 100 20 – 90 21.5 – 100/90 90 – – 100 100/90 – 100 20 – 21.5 20 – 90 21.5 – 100/90 – 100 90 – 100/90 – 100 20 – 21.5 20 – 21.5 Tricel,... Bemberg Evlan, Fibro, Sarille,... Resistance of fibers NMMO FiberPolycondensate fibers Lyocell, Tencel st/fi 150 similar to Cellulose triacetate Estron, Silene, Fiber name/polymer Trade names Fiber type Natural fibers Cotton st 120 20 – 30/0 – 20 WoolSilkFlax st fi st 120 120 0 – 20/0 – 20 0 – 20/0 – 20 0 – 20/0 – 20 (+) bleached (+) (+) lower more than resistant wool than selective Cuprammonium rayon AsahiCellulose Bemberg, acetate (CA) Arnell, Celco, Dicel, st/fi 120 20 – 45/0 – 25 (+) Regenerate cellulose Viscose rayon, Viscose Modal Nylon 66 (PA 66) Nylon 6 (PA 6) Table 9. 32 Fibers, 1. Survey Fire solution C oxygen ◦ 3 CO 2 Na C/10 hat 100 ◦ c 80 (+) 36 – 38  Chemicals c [57], [58],[75], [76] dilute acid dilute alkali index (LOI), % Biological influence (+)(+) +(+) + + + + + + + + 29 – 31 29 – 31 29 – 31 (+) + + + b tenacity, % organisms After 1000 hat 20 weeks weeks weeks weeks C Residual Micro- Insects Residual tenacity, % limiting ◦ , t 200 + 70 – 80 HCl 50 – 70 Heat (air)up to Light/weather ≈ a st 200 + - 30 – 39 fi/an 180 – 200 65 – 80/ after 16 ZyexNovoloid fi 200 – 250 - 99/23-74 selective /95 30 – 35 Kevlar 981, Twaron, fi/hdKevlar HpDacron, Diolen, 180 – 200Fortrel, Grilene,Terylene, Serene, fi stTrevira,... ap 65 – 80/ afterTrewira fi 810,...813 16 st/fiKodel 180 120 – – 200 150 120 hd – 150 120 – 150 120 65 60 – – 80/ 80/5 after – 15 16 60 – 80/5 – 15 150 – 160 60 – st 80/5 – 15 (+) (+) (+) 60 – 80/5 – 15 + + (+) + + 90 – 100/90 – 100 90 – 100/90 – 100 90 – 100/90 – 100 90 – 100/90 – 100 90 – 100/90 – 20 100 90 – – 22 100/90 90 – – 100 100/90 20 – – 100 22 20 – 22 90 – 100/90 – 100 20 – 22 Nomex, ConexKevlar 29, Twaron, fi fiKevlar 49, Twaron, Kevlar 149, 180 – 200 180 – 200 65 – 80/ after 16 /50 + 80 – 100/80 – 100 90 – 100/90 – 100 26 – 30 -phenyleneiso- -phenylene- (Continued) m p Poly( Poly( PolyarylatePoly(ether ether ketone) (PEEK) Novolak Vectran, Ekonol [60] fi Kynol, Philene, 180 – 260 +/96 - 36 Polyimide (PI) P 84 st/fi 260 Poly(butylene terephtalate) (PBT) Poly(1,4-dimethylene cyclohexane terephthalate) (PDCT ) [59] Fiber name/polymer Trade names Fiber type Aramids phthalamide) Poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET) terephthalamide) (PPTA) Table 9. Fibers, 1. Survey 33 40 Fire  C oxygen ◦ 70/ 30 ≈ C/10 hat 100 ◦ c Chemicals better than nylon 20 better than nylon + 20 more resistant than polyester c (+) + + 19 – 20 (+) + + (+) + + [57], [58],[75], [76] dilute acid dilute alkali index (LOI), % Biological influence − − − b +/(+) (+) (+) better than nylon + 20 tenacity, % organisms After 1000 hat 20 C Residual Micro- Insects Residual tenacity, % limiting ◦ , t 65 60 – 90/ + + + + 37 – 46 120 0/0 < 120) 120) Heat (air)up to Light/weather ≈ 120) a st/fi 140 60 – 80/50 – 60 (+) + 90 – 100/80 – 100 90 – 100/60 – 100 18 – 20 st/fi not resistant. − Kanekalon, SEF,... stKuralon, Mewlon, 120 stSolvron, Vilon,... fi lower than 140 PAN (water vapor: + 140 (water vapor: + + + 25 – 30 Dolan, Dralon, Euroacril, Leacril,... Spectra 1000 hd 80 – 90 + Meraklon,... Gore-Tex Fibers,... st/fiProcon, Ryton,... st/fi 180 190 – 200 - + + + + + +/100 +/100 + 34 – 35 Dorlastan, Lycra,... fi 120 0/0 + + selective; polyether r ¯ M ) hd 140 (water vapor: 6 10 > (Continued) r 85 % ¯ ) M ≥ 6 no UV stabilizers added, one-year exposure in Florida; 10 st = staple fiber, fi = filament, hd = highly drawn, an = annealed ap = antipilling; + resistant, (+) moderately resistant, atacticsyndiotactic [61] Clevyl, Rhovyl,... st/fi st + + + + 37 – 46 Poly(vinyl chloride) Modacrylics (50 – 84 % PAN) (HM: Polyacrylonitrile (PAN)Copolymerizates with e.g., Dralon TPAN fi/st 140 60 – 80/50 – 60 (+) + 90 – 100/80 – 100 90 – 100/60 – 100 18 – 20 Polypropylene (PP) Herculon, Poly(tetrafluoroethylene) (PTFE) Poly(phenylene sulfide) (PPS) Melamine resin fiber Basofil st 200 – 220 0 Fiber name/polymer Trade names Fiber type Poly(amide imide) (PAI)Poly(ether imide) Kermel (PEI)Polyurethane elastomers (spandex) Polymerizate fibers stPolyethylene (HD)-PE Hiralon,> Vegon,,... st/fi 250 fi 160 – 170 70 – 90 - + + a b c + 95 – 100/ 85 – 100/ (+) 33 31 – 32 (HM–HD–PE: Poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) Table 9. 34 Fibers, 1. Survey

Table 10. Dyeing behavior of fibers

Fiber name/polymer Trade name Dyes

Natural fibers Cotton substantive Wool anionic Silk anionic, cationic, substantive, reactive, vat Regenerate cellulose Viscose rayon Evlan, Fibro,... substantive Cuprammonium rayon Asahi Bemberg,... substantive Cellulose acetate Arnel, Celco, Dicel, substantive, disperse Cellulose triacetate Estron, Silene, Tricel,... substantive, disperse NMMO fiber Lyocell, Tencel,... substantive, reactive Polycondensate fibers Nylon 6 Perlon, Capron, Grilon,... anionic, metal-complex disperse Nylon 66 Nylon, Antron, Ultron,... anionic, metal-complex, disperse Poly(m-phenyleneisophtalamide) (aramid) Nomex cationic plus carrier, high-temperature conditions Poly(ethylene therephthalate) Dacron, Diolen,... disperse plus carrier, high-temperature conditions Poly(1,4–dimethylenecyclohexane) Kodel disperse plus carrier, high-temperature conditions Poly(butylene terephthalate) Trevira 810,..813 disperse Novolak Kynol,... disperse Poly(ether imide) disperse Polyurethane elastomers Dorlastan, Lycra anionic Polymerizate fibers Polypropylene Herculon, Meraklon,... disperse Polyacrylonitrile Dralon, Dolan,... cationic, disperse Modacrylics Kanekalon, SEF,... cationic, disperse Poly(vinyl chloride) Clevyl, Rhovyl,... disperse Poly(phenylene sulfide) Procon, Ryton disperse

Figure 8. Specific tenacity (σ/) and modulus (E/) of high-performance fibers ( = density) Fibers, 1. Survey 35

Figure 9. Highest temperatures for fiber application without significant loss in tenacity

Values for fiber elongation, fiber shrinkage, (crystal) modulus. The ratio of fiber to crys- and relative properties suchas wet tenacity, loop tal modulus attains about 0.1 for textile com- tenacity and other parameters are expressed as modity fibers, 0.3 for high-performance fibers percent. If properties suchas fiber resistance to (e.g., from HM-HDPE), especially those with light, weather, chemicals, or organisms cannot extended chain structure, and as high as 0.8 for be expressed numerically, they are characterized the LC polymer Kevlar 149 with unfolded, ori- in a simplified qualitative manner in Table 9. In ented PPTA molecules. The deficit of the fiber individual cases, the respective conditions and modulus is a consequence of incompletely un- the type of attack (e.g., by certain kinds of pests coiled and disentangled macromolecules in as- [57], [58]) are suchthatwidely differing results spun and drawn fibers. The mechanical response can be expected. of fibers is controlled by the fraction of taut tie Some promising fibers that are still being de- molecules connecting neighboring crystallites. veloped have also been included, in particular, This fraction can be estimated from measure- high-performance fibers made from high molec- ments of the elastic modulus by using a simple ular mass poly(vinyl alcohol), the thermoresis- rheological model or other methods to be about tant PEEK, PAI, PI (see Fig. 9, and the polyary- 0.05 – 0.1 for drawn fibers [83]. late “ Ekonol,” an example of a thermotropic Compressibility and lateral compliance in- polymer [59]. Among the inorganic fibers, apart crease withincreasing fiber anisotropy (on draw- from carbon and glass, the properties of silicon ing) and this is undesirable for reinforcing fibers carbide, and ceramic fibers have been included. (e.g., Kevlar or carbon fibers) in composites. In Figure 8 shows the ranges of Young’s moduli and some cases thermal aftertreatment of such high- tenacities of presently known high-performance performance fibers allows a compromise to be fibers used mainly for reinforcing organic resins. found between the desired compressibility and lower tenacity (see also compressive strengthof Although fibers are highly anisotropic com- fibers in Table 4). pared with other materials and therefore espe- The applicability of industrial fibers at higher cially strong in the axial direction their Young’s temperatures (see Tables 6 and 7) is of current modulus is always inferior to the theoretical 36 Fibers, 1. Survey interest. Figure 9 reviews the thermal long-term Polymeric Substances, Interscience, New stability in air. York. This compilation of important data is by no 18. Internat. Baumwoll-Inst. (ed.): Handbuch der means complete. For further information, see Baumwollstoffe, Frankfurt 1983. → Fibers, 4. Synthetic Organic and → Fibers, 19. H. Klare: Geschichte der 5. Synthetic Inorganic. Chemiefaserforschung, Akademie Verlag, Berlin 1985. 20. P.-A. Koch, (ed.): Großes Textil-Lexikon, Deutsche Verlagsanstalt, Stuttgart 1966. 9. References 21. H. A. Krassig,¨ J. Lenz, H. F. Mark: Fiber Technology, Dekker, New York 1984. General References 22. R. Vieweg, G. W. Becker (ed.): 1. H. Batzer (ed.): Polymere Werkstoffe, Thieme Kunststoff-Handbuch, Hanser Verlag, Verlag, Stuttgart 1986. Munchen¨ 1965. 2. R. Bauer, H. J. Koslowski: 23. P. Lennox-Kerr: The World Fibres Book, The Chemiefaser-Lexikon, 10thed. Deutscher Textile Trade Press, Mancheser, 1972. Fachverlag, Frankfurt 1993. 24. M. Lewin, S. B. Sello (ed.): Handbook of Fiber 3. J. Brandrup, (ed.): Polymer Handbook , 2nd Science and Technology, Dekker, New York ed., Interscience, New York 1976. 1983. 4. R. M. Brown, (ed.): Cellulose and Other 25. W. Loy: Chemiefaserstoffe, Schiele und Natural Polymer Systems, Plenum Publishing, Schon,¨ Berlin 1978. New York 1982. 26. J. A. Maclaren, B. Milligan: Wool Science, 5. M. E. Carter: Essential Fiber Chemistry, Science Press, Marrickville 1981. Dekker, New York 1971. 27. H. F. Mark (ed.): Man-made Fibers, Science 6. J. G. Cook: Handbook of Textile Fibres, and Technology, Interscience, New York 1968. Merrow, Watford 1968. 28. R. Meredith: Elastomeric Fibres, Merrow, 7. H. Driesch: Welche Chemiefaser ist das, Watford 1971. Franckh, Stuttgart 1962. 29. B. E. Messerli (ed.): Seide, 8. A. A Dembeck: Guidebook to Man-made Textilwerkstattverlag Hannover, 1986. Textile Fibres and Textured Yarns of the World, 30. L. Miles: Cotton, Wayland, Have 1980. 3rd ed. The United Piece Dyed Works, New 31. R. Moncrieff: Man-made-Fibres, 4thed., York 1969. Heywood, London 1966. 9. H. Doehner (ed.): Wollkunde, Parey, Berlin 32. J. S. Robinson (ed.): Fiber-forming Polymers, 1964. Noyes Data Corp., Park Ridge 1980. 10. H. F. Mark (ed.): Encyclopedia of Polymer 33. J. S. Robinson (ed.): Spinning, Extruding and Science and Technology, “Plastics, resins, Processing of Fibers, Noyes Data Corp., Park rubbers, fibres,” Wiley-Interscience, New York Ridge 1980. 1967. 34. J. S. Robinson (ed.): Manufactue of Yarns and 11. B. Falkai (ed.): Synthesefasern, Verlag Fabrics from Synthetic Fibers, Noyes Data Chemie, Weinheim 1981. Corp., Park Ridge 1980. 12. F. Fourne´ (ed.): “Herstellung und 35. W. J. Roff: Fibres, Films, Plastics and Verarbeitung,” Synthetische Fasern, Rubbers, Butterworths, London 1971. Wissenschaftl. Verlags GmbH, Stuttgart 1964. 36. Z. A. Rogovin: Chemiefasern, Thieme Verlag, 13. B. C. Gaswami, J. G. Martindale, F. L. Stuttgart 1982. Scardino: Textile Yarns, Wiley-Interscience, 37. H. E. Schiecke: Wolle als textiler Rohstoff, New York 1977. Schiele und Schon,¨ Berlin 1979. 14. M. Grayson (ed.): Encyclopedia of Textiles, 38. K. A. Schmidt: Technologie textiler Fibers, and Nonwoven Fabrics, Glasfasern, Zechner, Speyer 1964. Wiley-Interscience, New York 1984. 39. Textil-Fakten: Markt- und Strukturdaten der 15. F. Happey: Applied Fibre Science, Academic Textil- und Bekleidungswirtschaft, Deutscher Press, London 1979. Fachverlag, Frankfurt 1983. 16. H. W. Haudek, E. Viti: Textilfasern, Bondi, 40. Textile Faserstoffe, Fachbuchverlag, Leipzig Wien 1980. 1967. 17. High polymers, a Series of Monographs on the 41. C. A. Tisdell: Economics of Fibre Markets, Chemistry, Physics and Technology of High Univ. New Castle, New Castle, Austr. 1977. Fibers, 1. Survey 37

42. E. Wagner: Die textilen Rohstoffe, 6thed., (1956) T 530. I. D. Owen, J. Text. Inst., Trans. Spohr, Wuppertal 1981. 56 (1965) T 329. 43. A. Ziabicki: Fundamentals of Fibre Formation, 65. C. L. Choy, W. P. Leung, J. Polym. Sci. Polym. Wiley Interscience, New York 1976. Phys. Ed. 23 (1985) 1759 – 1780. 44. A. Ziabicki: High Speed Fibre Spinning, 66. P.A. Koch, G. Feier, B. Hoffmann: Wiley Interscience, New York 1985. “Untersuchungen uber¨ die Quersprodigkeit¨ 45. F. Schultze-Gebhardt, “Survey of the Most neuer Synthesefasern,” Forschungsber. Important Properties of High-Performance Landes Nordrhein-Westf. no. 2299, Fibers and their Technical Use,” Westdeutscher Verlag, Opladen 1973. Chemiefasern/Textilind. 43 (1993) 67. W. Gotze,¨ F. Winkler, Faserforsch. Textiltech. T 194 – 196, E 135. 18 (1967) 119, 385. 68. K. E. Perepelkin, Faserforsch. Textiltech. 25 Specific References (1974) 251. 46. P.-A. Koch(ed.): Großes Textil-Lexikon, 69. G. W. Urbanczyk, G. Michalak, J. Appl. Deutsche Verlagsanstalt, Stuttgart 1966. Polym. Sci. 32 (1986) 3841 – 3846. 47. H. Batzer, (ed.): Polymere Werkstoffe, Thieme 70. H. Hespe, E. Meisert, U. Eisele, L. Morbitzer, Verlag, Stuttgart 1986. W. Goyert, Kolloid Z. Z. Polym. 250 (1972) 48. H. Staudinger et al., Phys. Chem. 126 (1927) 797. D. J. Hourston, R. Meredith, J. Appl. 3. Polym. Sci. 17 (1973) 3259. 49. G. Henrici-Olive,´ S. Olive,´ Adv. Polym. Sci. 71. G. Hinrichsen, Angew. Makromol. Chem. 20 51 (1983) 1. (1971) 121. 50. K.-H. Umbach, Chemiefasern/Textilind. 33 72. R. L. McGee, J. R. Collier, Polym. Eng. Sci. 26 (1983) 85, 136, 204. (1986) 239 – 242. 51. Chemiefasern/Textilind. 37 (1987) 182. 73. H. Boder,¨ D. Golden,¨ P. Rose, H. Wurmseher:¨ 52. J. D. Geerdes: World Fibre Production, Trends “Kohlenstoffasern – Herstellung, and Outlok, Internat. Conference on Man Eigenschaften, Verwendung,” Z. Made Fibres, Beijing, Nov. 1985. Werkstofftech. 11 (1980) 275. 53. P.-A. Koch: Faserstoff-Tabellen, 74. DIN 53 814 (1974). Konradin-Verlag Kohlhammer GmbH, 75. I. A. Ermilova, L. N. Alekseeva, I. I. Samolina,ˇ Stuttgart 1968, 1977, 1979. V.A. Chochlova, Sowj. Beitrage¨ Faserforsch. 54. E. Kleinhansl, J. Mavely: Denkendorfer Textiltech. 19 (1982) 274 – 276. Fasertafeln 1986, Textilpraxis int., 76. Y.L. Hsieh, D. A. Timm, J. Merry, Textile Res. Leinfelden-Echterdingen 1986. J. 57 (1987) 20 – 28. 55. F. Schultze-Gebhard: “Mechanische 77. G. Wu, J.-D. Jiang, P.A. Tucker, J. A. Cuculo, Eigenschaften,” in B. von Falkai (ed.): J. Polym. Sci.: B: Polym. Phys. 34 (1996) Synthesefasern, Verlag Chemie, Weinheim 2035 – 2047. 1981, p. 64. 78. F. Schultze-Gebhardt, Chemiefasern/Textilind. 56. DIN 53 835 (1975). 43 (1993) 432 – 433, E 66, E 68. 57. W. Kerner-Gang, H. Kuhne¨ in G. Schreyer 79. Chem. Fibers Int 46 (1996) 230. Econom. (ed.): Konstruieren mit Kunststoffen, Hanser Fiber Bureau, Washington: Fiber Organon, Verlag, Munchen¨ 1972. Washington 1996. 58. H. Kuhne,¨ TPI Text. Prax. Int. 29 (1974) 57; 80. T. F. N. Johnson, Chem. Fibers Int. 46 ( 1996) 30 (1975) 598,718. 280, 282 – 284, 286. 59. E. V. Martin, H. Busch, Angew. Chem. 74 81. S. R. Allen, J. Mater. Sci. 28 (1993) 853 – 859. (1962) 624. 82. G. J. Hayes, D. D. Edle, J. M. Kennedy, J. 60. Sumitomo Chem. Com., US 4 503 005, 1983 Mater. Sci. 28 (1993) 3347 – 3257. (K. Ueno, H. Sugimoto, K. Hayatsu). 83. M. Miwa et al., J. Mater. Sci. 31 (1996) 61. C. Mazzolini: The Development of a New 499 – 506. Fibre from Syndiotactic Polyvinylchloride, 84. F. Schultze-Gebhardt, Acta Polym. 41 (1990) 2nd Shirley International Seminar, Manchester 512 – 513, Chemiefasern/Textilind. 40 (1990) 1970. T 56, T 58, E 49 – E 50. 62. DIN 53 843 (1976). 85. B. Poulaert et al., Polym. Commun. 31 (1990) 63. DIN 53 842 (1976). 48 – 51. 64. R. Meredith, J. Text. Inst., Trans. 45 (1954) 86. C. L. Choy, Y. Fei, T. G. Xi, J. Appl. Polym. T 489. N. Adams, J. Text. Inst., Trans. 47 Sci. 31 (1993) 365 – 370. 38 Fibers, 1. Survey

87. D. T. Grubb, L. W. Jelinski, Macromolecules Textilber. 78 (1997) 575 – 581. 30 (1997) 2860 – 2867. 89. H. Blumberg, Chem. Fibers Int. 47 (1997) 88. W. Albrecht, M. Reintjes, B. Wulfhorst: 36 – 41. “Lyocell-Fasern, Faserstoff-Tabellen nach 90. J. M. Kure et al., Textile Res. J. 67 (1997) P.-A. Koch, 1. Ausg. 1997,” Melliand 18 – 22.