UNIT 7 CHARLES DARWIN

Lead-in 1. Think of the most influential personalities in the human history and science. Make a list of at least five of them. 2. What do you think are the top ten breakthrough discoveries? 3. What do you know about Charles Darwin and his theory of evolution?

Listening/Reading Listen to the recording and fill in the gaps using the expressions from the box below. (13 min) /Read the text and fill in the gaps with appropriate expressions from the box below. praised simpler joint scientific paper supply destroyed struggle tree with branches heredity limited resources sought naturalist finches confessing a murder headaches lifetime zoology his cousin limited resources survival of the fittest potter conflict in his mind proposed adaptations earthquake unpaid giant tortoises different beaks coastline were created evolved medical operations the strength fossil remains

Charles Darwin and Evolution Charles Darwin developed the theory of how living things develop from 1 ______organisms over long periods of time. That theory is known as evolution through natural selection. How do new kinds of life come into existence? For much of recorded history, people have believed that organisms 2______. Few people believed that living things changed. What process could make such change possible? These were some of the questions Charles Darwin asked himself over years of research in botany, 3______and geology. He was not the first person to ask them. His own grandfather, Erasmus Darwin, believed that species 4______. And others, like the French naturalist Jean-Baptiste Lamark, had 5______ways this could happen. But it was Darwin who identified and explained the process, natural selection that causes life to evolve. Charles Darwin was born in Shrewsbury, England on February twelfth, eighteen-oh-nine. His father Robert Darwin was a doctor. Charles' mother Susannah Darwin was the daughter of the famous 6______, Josiah Wedgwood. She died when Charles was only eight years old. Young Charles was intensely interested in the natural world from an early age. But his father wanted him to be a doctor. At age sixteen, Charles was sent to study medicine at the University of Edinburgh. But he did not like it. He found 7______especially horrible. He later went to Cambridge University. His father now hoped that Darwin would become a clergyman. But at Cambridge, Charles continued to follow his own interests. There, he met John Henslow, a plant scientist and clergyman. The two became friends. John Henslow suggested that Charles Darwin take the 8______position of naturalist

37 for a trip on the British ship H.M.S. Beagle. It sailed around the world from eighteen thirty-one to eighteen thirty-six. The main goal was to make maps of the 9______of South America. The British government paid for the voyage. But another purpose of the trip was to collect scientific objects from around the world. The Beagle’s first stop was one of the Cape Verde Islands near the coast of Africa. There, Darwin noted that levels of rock extending high above the sea contained 10______of shells. He thought that this was evidence that the bottom of the ocean had been lifted up by powerful geological forces over long periods of time. The Beagle continued to the coast of South America. In Valdivia, Chile, Darwin experienced an 11______. He collected examples of plants and animals. He also collected the fossil remains of animals that had disappeared from the Earth. But it was on the Galapagos Islands off the coast of Ecuador that Darwin found creatures that made him wonder about how species develop and change. There, he saw 12______and noted that the reptiles were different on each island. He collected birds, each with 13______. Later, after he had returned to England, he would be shocked to find that these very different birds were all 14______. Darwin found lizards called iguanas that lived on land and ones that fed in the sea. Darwin noted that all these species were similar to those found in South America. But, they all had differences, or 15______, that helped them survive in the environment of the Galapagos Islands. Darwin sent much of what he collected back to England on other ships the Beagle met along the way. By the time he returned to England in October of eighteen thirty-six, he was already a well known geologist and 16______. Within a few years, he would be accepted into scientific organizations like the Geological Society and the Royal Society. Darwin moved to London to be near other scientists. He wrote a new version of the book about his travels. He also edited works of others about the things he had collected on his trip. Darwin also agreed to write several books including the "Zoology of the Voyage of the H.M.S. Beagle." But in eighteen thirty-seven, the pressure of the work caused his health to suffer. He developed problems with his heart. Charles Darwin had poor health much of his life. He suffered 17______and problems with his skin and stomach. No one was able to find out what disease he may have had during his 18______. Recently, some experts have suggested that he might have become infected with a tropical disease. Others suggest Darwin’s health problems were caused by 19______over his theory. Poor health would later force him to leave London and settled at Down House near Kent, England. Darwin began work on a series of secret notebooks containing his thoughts about the evolutionary process. He began to think that animals developed from earlier, simpler organisms. As early as eighteen thirty-seven, he imagined this process as a 20______representing new species. Unsuccessful branches ended. But successful evolutionary changes continued to form new branches. Charles Darwin’s personal life was also expanding. In eighteen thirty-nine, he married Emma Wedgwood, 21______. He told her his ideas about how species evolve over time -- what he called the transmutation of species. Watercolours of Emma Darwin and Charles Darwin by George Richmond in 1840.

Emma did not agree with her husband. But the two had a strong and happy marriage. They had ten children together. Seven of them survived. Charles Darwin read widely and 22______ideas from other fields of study. He was influenced by Thomas Malthus’ work, "An Essay on the Principle of Population" written in seventeen ninety-eight. Malthus argued that populations are always limited by the food 23______. Darwin would later say that this work caused him to realize the struggle for 24______was a fact of life. He said small changes took place in individual animals. Changes that helped them survive would continue. But those that did not would be 25______. The result of this would be the formation of new species. The British philosopher Herbert Spencer

38 described this struggle as "26______." But biologists use the term “natural selection” to describe the evolutionary process. Charles Darwin developed his idea slowly over more than twenty years. He was concerned that he would lose the support of the scientific community if he revealed it. He wrote to his friend, botanist Joseph Hooker, that speaking about evolution “was like 27______.” It was not until eighteen fifty-eight that Darwin was forced to release his theory to the public. Another naturalist, Alfred Russel Wallace, had independently written a paper that contained ideas similar to Darwin's concerning evolution. Wallace had reached these ideas from his studies on islands in the western Pacific Ocean. With help from Darwin's friends, the two naturalists presented a 28______to the Linnean Society of London in July of eighteen fifty-eight. At first there was little reaction. Then, in November, eighteen fifty-nine, Darwin released the results of all his work on evolution. The book was called "On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the 29______for Life." It was an immediate success. The "Origin of Species" was 30______by many scientists. But religious leaders denounced it. For them, evolution opposed the explanation of creation found in the book of Genesis in the Bible. Today, almost all scientists accept the theory of evolution. But many non-scientists are unsure about whether humans evolved over millions of years. In the United States, public opinion studies have shown that less than half the population believes in evolution. Natural selection does not explain everything about why species evolve. Darwin did not know about Gregor Mendel’s work on 31______. And the discovery of genetics and DNA molecules took place long after his death. Yet, Darwin theorized in a world much different from the one we know. That is why scientists today wonder at the depth of his knowledge and the 32______of his arguments. Charles Darwin died on April nineteenth, eighteen eighty-two. He was buried at Westminster Abbey, in London, among other heroes of Britain. Adapted from VOA Watching the video Watch the BBC documentary on the Galapagos Islands and answer the questions. Narrated by Tilda Swinton BBC - THE GALAPAGOS

1 Did Tomas de Berlanga write to Her Majesty the islands were beautiful and adorable? 2 What happened to two members of his crew? 3 Did they find fresh water in a well they dug? 4 What did Tomas de Berlanga compare the islands to and why? 5 What do the marine iguanas do when they come ashore after diving in the sea? 6 What is so special about a cormorant living at the Galapagos? What’s its feed? 7 How old was Charles Darwin during his visit to the Galapagos? 8 What was he sent there for? 9 What was the name of the ship that brought him there? 10 What does a woodpecker finch do to get grubs out of their burrows? 11 Did Darwin come back to visit the islands once more? 12 What were the islands named after? 13 How long can a giant tortoise live without any food? 14 What do land iguanas eat? 15 Why did pirates keep coming to the Galapagos?

39

Grammar awareness

Tentative statements In mid-July 1837 Darwin started his notebook on Transmutation of Species, and on page 36 wrote “I think” above his first evolutionary tree.

Research in Science is cumulative which means that research conducted today may depend to a large extent on the work of numerous other researchers over a long period. The results of experiments are rarely conclusive and findings may later be shown to be inaccurate or based on false assumptions. For these reasons it is a good idea to be fairly tentative in your writing in the results and discussion sections.

Make tentative statements rather than direct, categorical ones. For example, rather than writing 'This experiment proves…' it is preferable to use expressions such as:  tends to…  appears to…  suggests that…  would seem to… In order to express tentative statements you can use limiting words, modal verbs, and softening or hedging verbs. Limiting words  possible or possibly, probable or probably, likely Modal verbs These change the strength of the main verb and indicate that there is room for doubt.  may or may be, might, might be or might have been, could be, could have been, would, would have been 'Softening' or 'hedging' verbs  appears, suggests, indicates

Task 1 Read the sentences below and underline tentative expressions.

1. It is possible that the use of a different model … 2. It is likely that vinculin localises in low amounts at the basement membrane … 3. The evidence seems to indicate that the flow rate of NaOH does not significantly affect … 4. The data appear to support the hypothesis, but further sampling would need to be undertaken to increase the reliability of the final result. 5. This result appears to demonstrate that the presence of flower galls at permanently-flooded sites can be accounted for by … 6. The results shown in Figure 1 suggest that stratified sampling by gender …

40 Did you know? Vice-Admiral Robert FitzRoy (5 July 1805 – 30 April 1865) achieved lasting fame as the captain of HMS Beagle and as a pioneering meteorologist who made accurate weather forecasting a reality, also proving an able surveyor and hydrographer as well as Governor-General of New Zealand. Robert FitzRoy was born into the upper classes of the British aristocracy and a tradition of public service. Robert was a fourth great-grandson of Charles II of England. Britain was in the midst of the Victorian Era and the nation was the most powerful on earth, with territorial holdings across the globe. In February 1818, 12 years old, he entered the Royal Naval College, Portsmouth, and in the following year he entered the Royal Navy. In 1828 HMS Beagle under Captain Pringle Stokes was carrying out a hydrographic survey of Tierra del Fuego. After Pringle Stokes had committed suicide (he became depressed and shot himself), the leadership of the Beagle was appointed to Robert FitzRoy (23 years old), who was ordered to finish surveying the South American coastline. When the Beagle returned to Plymouth in England she was immediately taken into dock for extensive rebuilding and refitting. The Cherokee class ships had the reputation of being "coffin brigs", which handled badly and were prone to sinking. Fitzroy had the deck raised thus giving the Beagle better handling and making her less liable to become top-heavy and capsize. FitzRoy was described as a “highly strung aristocrat” who had an inherited tendency to mental instability. The fact of FitzRoy’s family history of madness is important (his uncle cut his own throat while in government office), as it was the reason Darwin made the trip that changed his life, and science, for all time: FitzRoy, fearing that the long (it lasted five years) and difficult journey may be too much for his emotional stability, put out a request for a companion, someone educated with a scientific bent who may wish to do a survey of the flora, fauna and geology of unexplored lands. His ulterior motive was to have someone of equal intellectual and social standing to talk with, to help keep him from succumbing to depression and meeting the same end as the unfortunate Pringle Stokes. It was a matter of fate and luck that Darwin – an otherwise directionless young man – applied for, and was given, the position aboard the Beagle. The two got on well together, but FitzRoy's outbursts of violent temper which had gained him the nickname "Hot Coffee" led to occasional quarrels — "some bordering on insanity," Darwin later recalled. Soon after the Beagle's return on 2 October 1836, FitzRoy married a young woman with whom he had long been engaged. Darwin was amazed, as not once during the entire five years of the trip had FitzRoy spoken about being engaged. On 7 April 1843 FitzRoy was appointed governor of New Zealand but was dismissed in 1846 largely because he contended that Maori land claims were as valid as those of the white settlers. He believed that the Maori should be treated with fairness and justice, while European settlers should discover their new life in peace and harmony. Probably the event that gave FitzRoy the greatest personal satisfaction was his election as a fellow of the Royal Society in 1851, supported by 13 fellows, including Charles Darwin. In 1854, back at home, Fitzroy set about placing weather-observing equipment on ships in every port in England and recruiting some eighty captains to make measurements of the weather on their voyages. His nautical charts saved countless lives. He also devised the first truly scientific weather forecast, using the telegraph to transmit data from weather stations. Famously, in 1860, Fitzroy, turned up at a lecture on evolution at Oxford University and took the anti- evolutionary side in the grand debate. Fitzroy gathered the fruits of his long years of observation and experimentation in The Weather Book, published in 1862. Using his charts, the Times of London was the first publication to publish weather forecasts daily, though its editors were in the habit of blaming Fitzroy rather noisily when the forecasts were off. Indeed, Robert Fitzroy received little praise for his work in his own time, and he was obscured by the long shadow that Darwin cast. Melancholic, in poor health, and on the losing side of the evolutionary debate, he took his own life on April 30, 1865, at the age of 59. He was forgotten for years, but then happily rediscovered. Today the British government’s Meteorological Office and National Meteorological Library and Archive are located on Fitzroy Road in Exeter, England, and modern atmospheric scientists proudly acknowledge him as a pioneer of their discipline.

The Beagle was not an exceptionally large vessel by any means. Measuring only ninety feet in length, she carried a crew of 74 people, including the Captain, three officers, the crew, a doctor, an artist, and the naturalist. Darwin shared the cabin at the back of the ship with two officers. Their space was so cramped that Darwin had to remove a drawer each night so that he would have room for his feet.

During the five years of the Beagle voyage Fitzroy and Darwin survived storms, earthquakes, disease, encounters with hostile Indians, gauchos, witnessed slave-torture, and fled from military dictators. (© 2006-2011 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.), www.aboutdarwin.com Task 1 Skim the text and give a very brief summary. What information did you find to be the most interesting?

41 Vocabulary arch, n – a curved symmetrical structure spanning an opening and typically supporting the weight of a bridge, roof, or wall above it archipelago, n – small group of islands beak, n – a bird’s horny projecting jaws; a bill burrow, n – a hole or tunnel dug by a small animal, especially a rabbit, as a dwelling carapace, n – shell of tortoises and turtles cast, v –throw (something) forcefully in a specified direction; cause (a magic spell) to take effect: the witch cast a spell on her to turn her into a beast chart, n – a geographical map or plan, especially one used for navigation by sea or air, a nautical map current, n – here: a body of water or air moving in a definite direction curved, adj – having the form of a curve; bent enchanted, adj – bewitched, put under a spell equator, n – imaginary line around the middle of the Earth, half way between the North and South poles evolution, n – a gradual process during which animals and plants change some of their characteristics to cope with a different environment and sometimes develop into a new species finch, n – a seed-eating songbird that typically has a stout bill and colourful plumage. The true finches belong to the family Fringillidae (the finch family), which includes canaries, crossbills, etc. Many other finches belong to the bunting, waxbill, or sparrow families. grub, n – the larva of an insect, especially a beetle hedging, n – avoid making a definite decision, statement, or commitment highly strung, adj – here: being in a tense state HMS, n – abbreviation for His (or Her) Majesty's Ship infernal, adj – relating to or characteristic of hell or the underworld joint, adj – shared, held, or made by two or more people together lush, adj – (of vegetation, plants, grasses, etc.) luxuriant; succulent; tender and juicy mockingbird, n – a long-tailed thrush-like songbird with greyish plumage, found mainly in tropical America and noted for its mimicry of the calls and songs of other birds naturalist, n – person who studies plants, animals and other living things petrify, v – change into a stony substance plunder, v – to take things using force or wrongfully probe, v – explore or examine (something), especially with the hands or an instrument recruit – secure, to supply with new members or employees, informal persuade to do or help with something sort, v – arrange systematically in groups; separate according to type specimen, n – pl. specimens, an individual animal, plant, piece of a mineral, etc. used as an example of its species or type for scientific study or display, a sample spine, n – here: any hard, pointed defensive projection or structure, such as a prickle of a hedgehog, a spike-like projection on a sea urchin, a sharp ray in a fish’s fin, or a spike on the stem of a plant succulent, adj – juicy, (of a plant) having thick fleshy leaves or stems adapted to storing water succumb, v – fail to resist pressure, temptation, or some other negative force tentative, adj – not certain or fixed; provisional, not definite : still able to be changed twig, n – a slender woody shoot growing from a branch or stem of a tree or shrub volcano, n – a mountain with an opening through which hot molten rocks, ash and steam sometimes issue forth from inside the earth well, n – a hole drilled or bored into the earth to obtain water

42