Azerbaijan Association of Medical Historians (Aamh)

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THE AZERBAIJAN ASSOCIATION OF MEDICAL HISTORIANS (AAMH)

AZERBAIJAN

MEDIEVAL MANUSCRIPTS HISTORY OF MEDICINE MEDICINAL PLANTS

by FARID ALAKBARLI

BAKU - NURLAN - 2006 Published with the desicion of the Scientific Council of the Institute of Manuscripts of the Azerbaijan National Academy of Sciences.

Editor: Betty Blair

A 4702000000 N-098-2006

In 2005, several unique first attempt to create a gener- medieval medical manuscr- al work about this topic. ipts from Azerbaijan have be- The Institute of Manus- en included in the "Memory cripts of the Azerbaijan Natio- of the World Register" of nal Academy of Sciences has a UNESCO. Despite this achie- collection of 390 early medical vement, there is a huge defi- documents, which include 363 ciency of information concer- manuscripts dating from the ning the history of medicine 9th century. Most are written in in our country. Until now, Arabic - the literary script of the there has not been any book day. Of these, 70 are in the Ara- issued in English which is bic language, 71 in Turkic lan- devoted to the medieval med- guages (Azeri, Ottoman Tur- ical manuscripts of Azerbai- kish, Tatar, Kumyk, Uzbek), jan. The present edition is the and the remainder in Persian.

UNESCO certificate documenting the acceptance of medieval manuscripts of Azerbaijan into the Memory of the World Register. (July 29, 2005). UNESCO Director-General Koichiro Matsuura and Mrs Mehriban Aliyeva, UNESCO Goodwill Ambassador in Azerbaijan, during the nomination ceremony of Mrs Mehriban Aliyeva on 9 September 2004 at UNESCO Headquarters. The Manuscript Institu- dred years after the physi- te is fortunate to have some cian's death. Avicenna, born in unique treasures in their col- Bukhara (Uzbekistan), went lection. For example, we have on to do much of his medical one of the oldest copies of observation in Azerbaijan and "Canon of Medicine" (1030) by Iran. "Canon", an encyclopedic Ibn Sina, who was known in work in Arabic, is considered the West as Avicenna (980- to be the single, most famous 1037). The manuscript was book in medical history - both copied in 1143 about a hun- in the East and in the West. Each manuscript is popular style and intended unique. Usually, palace ru- not only for experts in the lers commissioned such field of history of medicine, manuscripts, and a few co- but for a wide range of rea- pies were issued by hand. ders. Therefore, manuscripts of The author expresses many medieval works are profound gratitude to the very rare now. Those in the Open Society Institute which Azeri Turkic language tend have provided the financial to be encyclopedic, but at support for the publication the same time, concrete and of this book, and also to brief. They also tend to be Betty Blair, editor of the more practical than theoret- Azerbaijan International Ma- ical and are drawn from a gazine, who carried out liter- variety of sources including ary editing of this work. Indian, Chinese, Arabic and Greek schools of medicine. Contact the author, Certainly one separate Dr. Farid Alakbarli at: book is not capable of cap- turing the entire range of Institute of Manuscripts of the questions related to the the- Azerbaijan National Academy of Sciences, Istiglaliyyat street 8, ory and practice of medi- Baku- Az1001, Azerbaijan. cine in ancient and medi- E-mail: [email protected] eval Azerbaijan. The goal of this work is different. I have tried to provide readers with basic and general information about the history of healing practices in Azerbai- jan. This book is written in CHAPTER 1 HISTORY OF MEDICINE IN AZERBAIJAN

§ 1. H I S T O R I C A L S U R W A Y

site in Azerbaijan have revealed a human skull with traces of trepanning, which dates back to the 4th millennium BC. Similar skulls were found also in Ukraine and some other countries. The surgical operation was performed with a stone knife. This fact proves that early Azerbaijan is a coun- doctors from Azerbaijan try at the crossroads of nu- attempted difficult surgical merous cultures, religions operations. and civilizations. Therefore, ancient Azerbaijani medicine was influenced by various healing systems, such as Turkic, Iranian, Semitic and Greek medicine. Ancient inhabitants of Azerbaijan had certain knowledge in the field of medi- A human skull with traces of cine. Archeological excava- trepanning (Bronze Age) tions at the Chalaghan-Tepe The Guti King from Azerbaijan (3rd millennium BC) Sumerian work (left). Saffron, a favorite medicinal plant of the Sumerians, is used in the traditional medicine o f Azerbaijan (center). This Sumerian tablet from the Guti Era (more than 4000 years old) contains the world's oldest-known medical handbook (right). During the 4th-1st mil- medical texts were collected in lennia BC, healing practices in temples and palaces in ancient ancient Azerbaijani tribes of Mesopotamia. [28] Who were an- Guti, Lullu (Lullubi) and Mannai cient Mesopotamians? Sume- were influenced by Sumerian, rians spoke a specific langu- Acadian, Babylonian and As- age, which slightly resembles syrian medicine. This process the Caucasian and Ural-Altaic became even more intensive languages, including modern in 2200 BC, when the warlike Azeri. [19] It is an agglutina- Guti tribe from Western tive language; in other words, Azerbaijan, conquered Meso- morphemes (word-units) are potamia and ruled it during a added (usually as suffixes) to century.[39] As a result, Gutis modify the meaning of words. became familiar with Acadian The Guti-Lullubi languages and Sumerian medicine. were very specific (non-Irani- Thousands of cuneiform an and non-Semitic), too. [24] The Guti lestine. tribes from Later, Gutis and Lullu- Azerba ijan bis created a number of little widely used kingdoms in Eastern and We- such medical stern Azerbaijan including and aromatic Mannai, Andia, Uishdish, Gi- herbs which lzan, Allabria. [9, 22] Medici- the Sumerians ne in Mannai (9th-6th cen- and Acadians turies BC) had common fea- had used such tures with Assyrian medi- as lavender, cine. According to Assyrian laden, myrrh, sources, fruits, cereals and sesame, dates, medicinal herbs were sent to saffron, onion, Nineveh from the mountains King of garlic. Some of Azerbaijan. Therefore, so- Mannai, Image massage and me Assyrian medicines were on an ancient medical oils we- created on the basis of herbs, bowl. Eastern Azerbaijan re imported by wine and oils, which were (Iran), 8th cen- the Gutis from imported from Mannai and tury BC. ancient Egypt, other small states of present- Syria and Pa- day Eastern Azerbaijan (Iran).

Mannai Silver Beaker (center) for taking drinks and medicines. An eagle's head (left) and bracelet made of gold were used in magic and magical therapy (7th century BC). Found in Hasanlu and Ziviyeh, Eastern Azerbaijan (Iran). 1 2 3 4 1, 2. Ceramic jugs with images of God and Goddess for storage of ritual drinks and liquid medicines (5th c. BC). Found in Khinisli and Karatepe archeological sites, Azerbaijan Republic. 3, 4. It was believed that pictures of ram horn on vessels protect people from diseases (4th c. BC). Found in Mingachevir, Azerbaijan Republic. Assyrian medicine had ched by new elements. Now, a great impact on the healing it was based not only on the practices in this region. Ho- Lullubi-Guti and Meso- wever, in the mountainous potamian medical traditions, areas, Guti and Lullubey but also on Iranian healing used their own folk treatment practices. This syncretism in methods applying herbs, medicine dominated in the milk products and spices Median (Mede, Mada, Ma- soaked in wine. Herbal wines dai) state, which existed in were used against indiges- Eastern Azerbaijan and Cen- tion, diarrhea, weakness and tral Iran in the 7th-6th centu- other diseases. ry BC. During the 1st millenni- During rule of the king um BC, a number of Iranian Kiaksar, Medes created the tribes from Central Asia mo- Median Empire which inclu- ved to Azerbaijan, settled ded the entire Iran and Ba- here and gradually mixed with bylonia and bordered with local population. [29] They Asia Minor in the West and introduced Arian traditions Afghanistan in the East. It of healing. As a result, medi- was the greatest state of that cine in Azerbaijan was enri- time. [20] Therefore, Media and lites and Hippocrates. [16, 17, 18] Medes are mentioned in the Acording to Mary Boy- Bible. In this period, medical ce: "Zoroastrianism is the old- theory was based on the Zo- est of the revealed world-reli- roastrian conception of four gions, and it has probably had holy elements (fire, water, more influence on mankind, earth and air). directly and indirectly, than Thus, the teaching abo- any other single faith." [13] ut the four Holy elements orig- Zoroastrianism was so inated by the Zoroastrians influential in Azerbaijan that deeply influenced the Greek almost all medieval Arabian philosopy. [25, 41] and Persian historians includ- In the period of 6th-5th ing Yakut al-Hamavi (1179- centuries BC, these scholarly 1229) and others considered doctrines were adopted and Azerbaijan as the native land developed by such great Greek of Zoroaster. [42] scholars as Empedocles, Herac-

These statues of Goddesses of Fertility (1st c. BC - 2nd c. AD) were found in Khinisli and Garibli archeological cites (Azerbaijan Rebublic). It was believed that they are able to heal infertility and reproductive disorders. 1 2 3 1.This Bronze Deer (1st century BC) was used in magical therapy as an amulet against malicious spirits (found in Mingachevir, Azerbaijan Republic). 2, 3. Zoroastrian bronze incense burners for dezinfection of houses (4th-6th centuries AD). Caucasian Albania Kingdom (Northern Azerbaijan).

Median priests recom- main treatment methods mended cleanliness and rit- included surgery, medicinal ual hygiene which played a herbs and magic ("word, great role in the prevention herbs and knife" in Avesta). of diseases. Payment often was made by In the 6th century, natural products, not by Media was conquered by money. Wealthy patients Persian Achaemenids but were obliged to pay more remained an important cen- than poor people. ter of religion, science and Greek medicine beca- medicine of the Achae- me famous during the Age menid Empire. During this of Hellenism. After the col- period, there were profes- lapse of the Achaemenid sional doctors in Azerbaijan. Empire in 4th century BC, According to legends the the territory of the pres- first physician in the world ent day Azerbaijan gained was named Tritha. The its sovereignty under the name Adarbadegan or Adur- astrians believed that phys- badegan (early version of the ical health was related to name "Azerbaijan"). The spiritual and religious puri- Greek name was Atropatena. ty. "Good thought, good [34] It was a Hellenistic state word and good deed!" is an ruled by the local Zoroast- expression from the Avesta, rian dynasty of Atropatids. the ancient religious book During this period, devel- of Zoroastrians [8]. opment of medicine in Ancient Azerbaijanis Azerbaijan was character- were concerned not only ized by two trends. On the with the health of human one hand, Greek physicians beings, but also with the like Erasistrates repeatedly "health" of Nature (air, wa- visited Media to collect ter, soil, fire). Pollution of medical information, and environment was strongly books by Hippocrates and prohibited. Galen were wide-spread in this region. On the other hand, Atropatids and local Zoroastrian priests tried to limit dissemination of Gre- ek medicine and culture in Azerbaijan. During the rule of Persian Sasanids (2nd-6th centuries AD), the King's Temple of Zoroastrians (Az- ergushnasp Temple) was Glass bottles for medicines established in Shiz (Gazaka, (1st century AD) found in Mingachevir (left) and Khinisli Ganjak) city in present day (right) archeological cites, Eastern Azerbaijan. Zoro- Azerbaijan Republic. In the north of Azerbaijan the state religion of the Cau- (Caucasian Albania or Arran) casian Albania kingdom. As a the ancient pagan cults and result, the Byzantine medi- Zoroastrianism were replac- cine became known here. A ed with Christianity in the 4th famous historian of the Cau- century AD, when teaching casian Albania, Moses of of Jesus Christ was declared Kalankatuy wrote in his

Ruins of the fortress gates of Gabala, the first capital of Caucasian Albania (1st century BC to 4th century AD), where a large pharmaceutical factory was situated.

A bronze incense burner for burning aromatic and medicinal herbs (7th century AD) discovered in Nakhchivan (Azerbaijan Republic) The image is of Javanshir (638-670 AD), king of Caucasian Albania Albanian jar graves (1st millennium BC) discovered in Mingachevir (northern part of Azerbaijan Republic). In some jars were found remains and seeds of medicinal herbs. Azerbaijan. Healers were named "Gam" (shamans) or "Otachi" (herbalists), while medicines were called "Ota" (from "ot" - herb). Later, the Turkic impact on Azerbaija- ni traditional medicine became even stronger. That is why folk medicine in medi- Manuscript from Caucasian Albania (9th century AD) con- eval Azerbaijan is often cal- taining the Albanian script led "Turkachara" (Türkəçarə - which existed from the 4th Turkic healing). century AD. During the 3rd-6th cen- "History of Albania" (7th c. turies, medical treatment AD): "One can be wise if he earnestly learns various sciences, such as mathematics, agronomy and medicine..." [21] During the first centuries of the Christian era, Turkic tribes such as Bulg- ars, Savirs, Khazars and Huns played an ever grow- ing role in the cultural and political life of the region. After the 4th century AD, Turkic folk medicine - Turkic runic Tarragon was shamanism, treatment with script (5th used to treat magic and medicinal herbs- century AD). indigestion began to spread throughout and dyspepsia. 1 2 3 1. Early man believed that ritual dances could heal various diseases (10th millennium BC, Gobustan petroglyphs, Azerbaijan Republic). 2. Bottle for medicines and perfumes (1st-3rd century AD, Mingachevir, Azerbaijan Republic). 3. Goddess of fertility patronizing healing and physicians (1st century BC to 1st century AD, Molla-Isakli, Azerbaijan Republic). related with Turkic shaman- gopuz (a stringed instru- ism was widespread among ment), and, sometimes, nar- nomadic and semi-nomadic cotic plants like henbane and tribes of Azerbaijan such as fly agaric were applied to Bulgar and Khazar. This was enhance the psychological a healing method related to effect. ritual dances and songs Turkic phytotherapy al- (“qam oyunu" in Azeri Tur- so was popular in Azerbai- kic). Shamans (qam) used jan. According to ancient special ecstatic performances Turkic beliefs, all medicinal to expel malicious spirits herbs were created by Tan- from the diseased person's gry (Tengri, Tanrı) who was body. Such procedures could the Supreme God of the Blue render a psychological or Sky. The Goddess of Grasses hypnotic effect and often and Trees, Oleng (Öləng), really relaxed the patient, was his wife. She was also removed psychological ten- considered to be the patron sion and treated some nerv- of life, trees, herbs, physi- ous diseases. Musical accom- cians, children and pregnant paniment on tambourine and women. [31] After the 7th century, writing during the 11th cen- the cult of Oleng in Azerbai- tury but contain stories that jan was replaced with the can be traced back to the 6th belief in Khidir Ilyas (Xıdır and 7th centuries: İlyas - Green Elias) - the patron saint of life, water, health Qırx incə qız yayıldı, and healing. A quotation fr- Dağ çiçəyi döşürdülər… om epic Dada Gorgud (Dədə Dağ çiçəyi ilə südü qarışdırıb Qorqud - Grandfather Gorg- Oğlanın yarasına urdular. ud) [23] says: Oğlanı həkilmərə ısmarlayıb…

Boz atlı Xıdır mənə gəldi, Forty shapely girls ran, gathered Üç kərə yaramı sığadı. flowers from the mountains, “Bu yaradan sənə ölüm mixed them with mother's milk, yoxdur” - dedi. rubbed this mixture on the wounds of the youth and left him Khidir has approached me with the healers. on a grey horse. He has stroked my wound three times. "You will not die of this wound" he said.

Mother’s milk was considered the best remedy. One scene describing how medicinal herbs with mother’s milk were used to heal a lad who had been wounded comes from the ancient Azerbaijani epic Dada Gor- A woman feeding her child gud, a compilation of leg- (Tabriz School of Miniature, 16th ends that were set down in century AD). Some other pieces of Usually, wounds were ancient Azeri folklore were treted by such herbs as devoted to medicinal plan- spearmint (nanə), water mint ts. For example, short folk (yarpız), chamomile (çoban- verses named "bayati" con- yastığı), which are known to tain information about heal- have antiseptic and healing ing properties of yarpiz properties. Bitter worm- (yarpız -water mint), uzerlik wood (acıyovşan) is a popu- (üzərlik - harmel), zoghal lar herb against indigestion, (zoğal - cornel), yemishan lack of appetite and worms. (yemişan - hawthorn), etc. Turks in ancient Azerbaijan Əzizinəm, yemişan, and Central Asia believed Yemi şirin, yemi şan, that the God of the Black Sağalmışam, durmuşam, Yaşa səni yemişan.

I am your friend, Hawthorn, Sweet food, honorable food, I have recovered, I have risen, Live long Hawthorn.

***

Üzərliksən, havasan, Min bir dərdə davasan, Balama göz dəyənin, Gözlərini ovasan.

You are [necessary like] air, Harmel, Bottle for medi- Peppermint was You cure 1001 diseases, cines (1st-3rd widely used in Prick out the eyes of the person, century AD, the treatment of Whose evil eye bewitched my child Mingachevir, dyspepsia and Azerbaijan). colic. Road (Qara Yol Tanrısı) Qaracıq çoban... çaxmaq çaxıb treated wounds and frac- od yaxdı, kəpənəyindən tures. A quotation from the qurumsu edib, yarasına basdı... early medieval "Irk Bitik" Qarajig Choban... lit a fire with flint, (Book of Fortunetelling) made a compress from his shirt [15] treatise says: and pressed upon his wound.

Qara Yol Tanrısıyam, In ancient Azerbaijan, Sınığını Birləşdirirəm, surgical disorders were Əzilmişlərini calaşdırıram. cured by physicians named Sinigchi (sınıqçı - fracture I am the God of Black Road, healers). Healing ointments I treat fractures and I put together from animal fat, including the thorn off parts [of body]. the fat of wolf, fox, cow, sheep's tail (quyruq yağı) Medical cauteriza- were used as compresses to tion was used to disinfect heal bruises and disloca- wounds and stop bleed- tions. Fresh dough was ing. Usually, this proce- applied on bruised places to dure was performed with remove tumors, pain and a burning piece of cloth. inflammation. Early medieval Dada Compresses made of Gorgud epic [23] informs cow or horse manure were how a wounded Azeri used against rheumatic hero Garajig Choban pains, while urine was con- treats his wounds with sidered one of the best anti- cauterization: septic remedies for infectious diseases of the skin. Fractures were treated Gurud (qurud - dry salted with a special diet, too. Very quark) was used to promote rich, thick and sticky soup digestion, while suzma from legs and heads of (süzmə - squeezed yogurt) sheep or cow was named was used to treat persons "bashayag" (başayaq - suffering from diseases of "heads-and-legs"), khash liver. (xaş) or kallapacha (kəllə- Early laryngologists in paça). Sinigchi in Azerbai- Azerbaijan were named jan prescribed eating basha- Chopchu (çöpçü). This word yag regularly for fractures derives from the Azeri of bones. Usually, bashayag Turkic "chop" (çöp) - a mote. was eaten with garlic, vine- These healers were special- gar and yogurt. ized in clearing the throat Turkic tribes in Azer- from remains of food and baijan widely used various little bones. It was believed dairy products such as that little pieces of food kumis (qımız - light alcoholic which stuck in the throat drink from sour milk), could cause serious diseases yogurt, ayran (yogurt mixed in all parts of the body: with water and salt) to treat heart, stomach, head, teeth, various diseases. Kumis kidney, liver. was recommended in treat- Turks attached great ment of tuberculosis, bron- importance to a healthy life chitis and asthma. Yogurt style and to physical train- was known as an excellent ing. They spent their life on remedy against indigestion horseback and constantly and diarrhea. Hot horse participated in horse racing milk was used to treat (cıdır), fencing (qılınc oynat- cough and fever. Ayran was maq), wrestling (güləş) and famous as the best remedy bow shooting (ox atmaq) against diarrhea and thirst. competitions. New era in medicine science, including medicine. began after the invasion of This facilitated understand- Arabs and the spread of ing between Azerbaijani Islam in Azerbaijan. The physicians and those from development of various sci- various eastern countries. ences, including medicine in By the 10th century, a single Azerbaijan, occurred when language linked peoples Islam was introduced (7th from Spain to India. Since century AD). then, the Arabic language The great empire creat- became for Azerbaijan what ed by Arabs and named Latin and Greek had been to Khalifat rapidly merged the West - the language of various cultures of the literature, the arts and sci- Islamic domain. Since then, ences, and the common the Azeri, Turkish, Persian, tongue of the educated. Indian, Greek, Arabic, Turkish schools of medicine deeply influenced each other. Various scientific traditions located within the boundaries of this common empire led to an unprece- dented era of mixing infusion in all branches of science. [40] Arabic, the language in which the Holy An image of a medical sieve Koran had been written, from the pharmacological manuscript "Ikhniyarati-Badii" (Baku's gradually became the offi- Institute of Manuscripts, cop. cial language of culture and 17th century AD) The blossoming of ori- author of the famous book ginal thought in Azerbaijan entitled "Adwar al- science began as the tenth Hammiyat" (The Principal century drew towards an Medicines). The book by end. Many interesting sci- Abu Abdullah contains entific concepts concerning descriptions of more than medicine we can find in "at- 500 medicines arranged in Tahsil" by the great alphabetical order. He Azerbaijan philosopher widely used books by Abu- Bahmanyar al-Azerbaijani bakir Razi, Ibn Sina and (died. 1065/6 AD). Me- other great physicians and dieval biographer Ali bin scholars. Zeyd al-Beyhaki wrote The books by Abu- about him: "Philosopher bakir Razi, including “Al- Bahmanyar, a sage and stu- Havi fit-Tibb” (Compre- dent of Abu Ali (Avicenna), hensive Book on Medici-ne) Zoroastrian, and native of and “Mansuri fi al-Tibb” Azerbaijan. He investigated (Winner in Medicine) were the most involved ques- especially popular in medi- tions of philosophy..." [7] eval Azerbaijan. In his philosophic works, Bahmanyar touched upon some questions of biology and medicine. Like Ibn Sina, he was a follower of Aristotle in science. The well-known pharmacist Abu Abdullah Mu- hammad bin Namvar Tabrizi (1194-1245 AD) was Manuscript "Mansuri fi al-Tibb" by born in Azerbaijan in the Abubakir Razi (Institute of Manu- scripts, Baku, cop. 17th AD). city of Tabriz. He is the Shamsaddin Jahan Pahlavan Kizil Arslan Abubakir Eldaniz (1136-1174) (1174-1186) (1186-1191) (1191-1210) Atabeys (Turkic kings) of Azerbaijan from Eldaniz (Ildenizid) Dynasty who substan- tially contributed to development of medicine by opening new apothecaries and hospitals in their capitals - Tabriz, Ganja and Nakhchivan - and in many other cities of Azerbaijan, Iran and Iraq, which were under the Eldaniz rule during 1136-1225 AD. During the 8th-14th c. AD, a number of clinics were established in three large historical areas of Azerbaijan: Major Dar al-Shifa medical center (13th-14th centuries) in Tabriz and about 67 large hospitals in various cities of Western Azerbaijan, Eastern Azerbaijan, Ardabil and Zanjan provinces of the present-day Iran. Pharmacy factory in Gabala (8th c. AD) and numerous public hospitals and pharmacies in the cities of Ganja, Barda, Beylagan and other settlements of ARRAN (western part of the present- day Azerbaijan Republic) Malham Medical Acad- Large medical centers of medieval emy (12th century) in the city of Azerbaijan and neighboring regions. Shamakhi and a number of (1186-1191 AD), Atabey clinics in Darband, Shabran, Abubakir (1191-1210 AD) and Baku and other cities of SHIR- Atabey Ozbek (1210-1225 VAN (Eastern part of the AD) promoted the develop- presentday Azerbaijan Rep- ment of medicine in Azerbai- ublic). jan. Southern Azerbaijan During the rule of Elda- and Arran were ruled by the nizids, numerous hospitals Turkic atabeys (kings) of the and pharmacies appeared in Eldaniz (Ildenizid, Eldigu- Tabriz. These hospitals, or zid) dynasty, while Shirvan Dar al-Shifa (House of was ruled by Shirvanshahs of Healing), bore little resem- the local Kesrani dynasty blance to European clinics of from the 6th century. those times. Thus, the Chri- Tabriz, the capital of stian church in the Medieval atabeys was one of the largest Europe taught that soul is cities in the Muslim world. more important than body Thus, in those times, the pop- and, therefore, medical treat- ulation of Tabriz was about ment was not valued much. 200,000. It must be noted that On the contrary, medieval during this period, the popu- hospitals in Azerbaijan were lation of the largest European places where the sick could be towns such as Paris, London treated and cured by physi- and Florence did not exceed cians. 20,000 to 30,000 people. Eldanizids were a Sel- juk dynasty, which represent- ed the Oguz brunch of Turkic family. Such Eldanizid rulers as Shams ad-Din Eldaniz (1136-1174 AD), Abu Jafar Muhammad Jahan Pahlavan Pharmacist mortar, Bronze, (1174-1186 AD), Kizil Arslan Seljuk, 13th century AD Physicians who wor- tal of Shirvan. The founder ked in various Dar al-Shifa and chief of hospital, Kafi- tried to heal their patients yaddin Omar was the uncle by means of natural medi- of the great Azerbaijani poet cines and their mixtures. In Khagani Shirvani (1120-1199 addition, a number of med- AD). Kafiyaddin also found- ical schools and libraries ed a special medical school were attached to the largest where he taught students to hospitals. [12, 38] treat various ailments with Azerbaijani scholars natural remedies [32]. used to write medical books In this school, students in Azeri Turkic, Arabic and learned Arabic, Persian, Persian. Manuscripts were Greek and other foreign lan- copied by calligraphers, guages. Such hospitals were bound with leather and dec- founded not only in Az- orated with colored draw- erbaijan, but also in different ings of medicinal herbs, animals and minerals. Among the scientists and physicians who lived and worked in Southern Azerbaijan during 11th-12th centuries we should emphasize the names of Abu Said Tabrizi, Abdulla al-Urmavi and Safiaddin al-Urmavi. [37] Medicine developed also in Shirvan (Northern Azerbaijan). One of the Medieval pharmacist. Miniature from "Ikhtiyarati- large hospitals was situated Badii" (Institute of in the district of Malham Manuscripts, Baku, cop. 17th nearby Shamakhi, the capi- century AD). countries of the Muslim rous technical appliances East. The Ibn Tulun Hospi- for producing medicines tal and Mansuri Hospital of was found during archeo- Egypt, the Adudi Hospital logical excavations in the of Baghdad, and the Nuri Kabala Fortress, the former Hospital of Morocco were capital of the Caucasian very famous. The shahs, Albania (southern-western khalifs and rulers paid spe- part of the present day cial attention to their organ- Azerbaijan Republic). This ization, regularly visited factory dated back to the them, and personally ins- 8th-9th century AD. Nume- pected the state of affairs in rous jars and bottles for them as well as inquired medicines and a special about the condition of pa- appliance for distillation of tients. essential oils from medici- A medieval pharmaceu- nal plants were discovered. tical factory with nume-

Appliance for distillation of herbal essential oils, which was used in Caucasian Albania (northern-western Azerbaijan) in the 8th century AD. In 1220 AD, Mongoli- where he became the court an troops captured Azerbai- physician of khalifs. jan. They destroyed a num- His major work enti- ber of towns, villages, hos- tled "Ma la Yasa' at-Tabib pitals and libraries. All Jahlahu" (Necessary Things independent states in the for a Doctor So as Not to south of Azerbaijan ceased Increase His Ignorance) to exist. Shirvan was also often referred to by its destroyed, but was able to shortened title "Jam al- preserve its statehood as a Baghdadi" (Baghdad Col- vassal of the Mongolians. lection) was written in Many scientists were killed Arabic in 1311. Several during this war but the thousand medicinal plants development of culture did are described in this com- not stop. prehensive pharmacopoeia. Among the scholars Descriptions of all medi- who lived and worked in cines are listed in alphabeti- this period we should name cal order and include names Yusif ibn Ismail Khoyi (also of plants, animals and min- known as Ibn Kabir). For a erals in Arabic, Persian, long time, he was regarded Azeri, Turkish, Greek, Hin- as one of the most popular du and other languages. scientists and pharmacists Many medieval authors of medieval Muslim World. held this book in high esteem. Khoyi was born in the mid- For example, Haji Zeynalab- dle of the 13th century in din Attar (Ali Ansari) cites the town of Khoy which Ibn Kabir’s work in his “Ik- belonged to the large eco- htiyarati-Badii” book, which nomic and cultural centers was very popular in Medi- of Azerbaijan. After the eval Azerbaijan (see photos youth spent in his home on the next page). land he left for Baghdad Pictures of medicinal plants and animals from "Ikhtiyarati-Badii" by Zeynalabdin Attar (Ali Ansari). Institute of Manuscripts, Baku, cop. 17th century AD. Muhammad Mumin Arabic into Persian is kept in (died in 1697 AD), the court the Institute of Manuscripts physician of Suleiman Shah of the Azerbaijan Academy Safavi wrote: "To compile of Sciences. the book on pharmacology, I The famous Azeri phy- have used the most informa- sician Mahmud bin Ilyas tive and reliable books, such (14th century) is the author as "Jami al-Baghdadi" by Ibn of the work titled "Kitab al- Kabir”. [27] Havi fi Ilm al-Madawi" (The Yusif bin Ismail (Ibn Comprehensive Book about Kabir) also used books writ- Medicine). This is a compre- ten by his predecessors. In hensive, 1200-page book particular, he drew up describing fundamental information from the book ideas about medicine, symp- entitled "Jam al-Adwiyya" toms and causes of specific (Collection of Medicines) by diseases, and treatments. Ibn al-Beythar al-Malagi al- Ilyas gained his experience Andalusi (13th century), the while living in Tabriz (medi- famous Arabian physician eval capital of Azerbaijan) from Andalusia. This book and Shiraz (south of Iran), was valued as Islamic medi- and while traveling to vari- cine's largest book on phar- ous countries. He wrote macology. As distinct from "Elm al-Tibb" (About Sci- the book by Ibn al-Beythar, ence of Medicine), then he the book of Ibn Kabir is compiled the following more compact and conven- books: ient for practical use. That is "Mukhtasar al-Tibb" why it was so popular in the (Abbreviated Book on Medi- medieval Muslim East. The cine"), "Inayat fi al-Tibb" handwritten translation of (Medical Service), "Ghiya- "Jam' al-Baghdadi" from siyya" (Helpful [Book]). At the beginning of the 14th ring this period the country century, a major medical, was ruled by the following scientific and educational Turkic Azeri dynasties: Ka- center named Dar as-Shifa rakoyunlu (1406-1467 AD), (House of Healing) was Akkoyunlu (1467 -1502 AD) established in Tabriz. It was and Safavi (1502-1722). The- a large complex of various se rulers contributed a great hospitals, schools and scien- deal to the foundation of tific institutions, including hospitals and development observatory. Here, physi- of medicine in Azerbaijan. cians from China, Egypt, India, Greece, Crete and other countries worked side by side with Azerbaijani scientists. Every year, 6,000 -7,000 students from various countries studied the medicine and other sciences at this university. However, it was not the only large hospital in our country. During the 13-14th centuries, there were 67 large hospitals and numerous apothecaries in the southern part of Azerbaijan. In the 14th-16th cen- Picture of an apothecary in turies, Azerbaijan rid itself medieval medical manu- of the Mongolian yoke. Du- script. Shirvani. This book was written in Shirvan and devoted to pharmacology. The author described a number of medicines with complex composi- tion (murakkabat). Another famous physician, Murtuza Gulu Khan Shamlu, was the ruler (amir) of the city of Ardabil, which Sultan Yakub Akkoyunlu (1478- 1490), founder of a hospital for was a large cultural center 1000 patients in Tabriz. and the former capital of Azerbaijan. He wrote the Thus, Sultan Yakub Akk- book titled "Khirga" (Clothes oyunlu (1478-1490 AD) built of Dervish) in 1678 AD which a large hospital nearby his was devoted to sexology and "Yeddi Jannat" (Seven gynecology. Heavens) palace in Tabriz. A famous book on About 1,000 patients could be pharmacology was written in treated in this hospital at any the 18th century by Haji given time. He also estab- Suleyman bin Salman Qajar lished an apothecary where Iravani. This scholar was patients could buy different born in the town of Iravan medicines, including exotic (modern Yerevan), the center plants brought from India of Chukhur-Saad province of and China. Safavid state. This town pop- Among the valuable ulated mainly by Azerbaija- books written during this nis was known as a large cen- period, we should point out ter of culture and science. "Siraj at-Tibb" (Light of Two manuscripts of "Favaid Medicine) by Hasan bin Riza al-Hikmat" (Benefit of Wis- tains terminological glossary on pharmacology. "Favaid al-Hikmat" was well-known as a serious and informative book on pharmacy and medicine. The universal medical book named "Mualijat-i "Favaid al-Hukmat" by Haji Munfarida" (Exceptional Suleyman Iravani (Institute of Manuscripts, Baku, cop.18th Treatment, 1775/6 AD) was century). written by Abu al-Hasan al- dom) by Haji Suleyman Maragi. This author was Iravani are kept in the born in the town of Maraga Institute of Manuscripts in in the Southern Azerbaijan. Baku. In addition, hand- The observatory and scien- written copies of this book tific center founded in are treasured in various for- Maraga in the 13th century eign countries, including were well known through- Iran. out the whole Muslim East. "Favaid al-Hikmat" by Haji Suleyman Iravani is devoted to description of simple medicines (mufra- dat). The book contains two parts: the first part describes simple medicines that are arranged in alphabetical "Mualijati-Munfarida" (1775- 1776 AD) by Abu al-Hasan al- order. The second part con- Maragi (Institute of Manuscripts, Baku). During the 17-18th 18th AD), "Tibbi-Jalinus" centuries, a number of med- (Medicine of Galen, 18th ical books in Azeri Turkic AD). Tibbname was copied were written. Among them and supplied with commen- are such books as the taries by the physician anonymous "Tibbname" Muhammad Yusif Shirvani (Book of Medicine, 17th in 1711-1712. AD), "Nuskhajat" (Recipes,

§ 2. FAMOUS PHYSICIANS OF MEDIEVAL AND POST-MEDIEVAL AZERBAIJAN

BAHMANYAR AL- ersity in Shamakhi. Kafiad- AZERBAIJANI (died in din was born approximately 1065/1066 AD). A follower in 1080. He was uncle of the of Aristotle in science and a famous poet Khagani Shir- student of Abu Ali Ibn Sina. vani (1120-1199 AD). He was the author of "Al- ABU ABDULLAH MU- Tahsil" (Knowledge) and HAMMAD BIN NAMVAR other important works in TABRIZI (1194-1245 AD). which he touched upon so- Author of many medical me problems of medicine. and pharmacological trea- ISA AL-RAGI TIFLISI tises, including "Adwar al- (11th AD). Author of com- Hammiyat" (The Principal mentaries and explanations Medicines). to Canon by Ibn Sina. ABDUL-MAJID TABIB KAFIADDIN OMAR (13th AD). Author by "Kitab IBN OSMAN (11th-12th al-Mudavat" ("Book About AD). Founder and chief of Medicines", approximately the Malham Medical Univ- 1275-1280. NAJMADDIN AHMAD bic in 1311. NAKHCHIVANI. (died in MAHMUD IBN MU- 1253). Author of numerous HAMMAD DILSHAD SHIR- commentaries to works by VANI (15th AD).This physi- Abu Ali Ibn Sina. cian from Shamakhi was the MAHMUD IBN ILYAS author of such works as (13th-14th AD). Worked in "Kamalname" (Book of Tabriz and Shiraz. Author Perfection) and "Mukhtasar of the works entitled "Giya- Tibb" (Abbreviated medi- siyya" (Comparison), "Elm cine, 1437-1438). at-Tibb" (About Science of MIRZA MUHAMMAD Medicine), "Mukhtasar at- TABRIZI (15th AD). This Tibb" (Shortened Book on famous Azerbaijani physi- Medicine), "Inayat fi at-Ti- can was nicknamed "Fakh- bb" (Medical Service), "Ki- rul-Attiba" (Pride of Physi- tab al-Havi fi Ilm al- cians) in Tabriz. His son Madawi" (The Comprehen- Ala'addin was a physician sive Book About Medicine). of Shah Ismail Safavi. YUSIF IBN ISMAYIL ABULFATH HAKIM KHOYI (13th - 14th AD). TABRIZI (16th AD). Court His major work titled "Ma la physician of Ismail Mirza Yasa' at-Tabib Jahlahu" (The Safavi (died in 1557). He Necessary Thing for a Doc- was famous for being an tor So as Not to Increase His extremely skilful doctor. Ignorance) often referred to Abulfath was a small per- by its shortened title "Jam son and people nicknamed al-Baghdadi" (Baghdad Col- him "Kichik Hakim" (Small lection) was written in Ara- Doctor). After the death of Ismail Karabakh, Azerbaijan, but Mirza, he worked as a doc- emigrated to Samarkand tor in the court of Amir (present day Uzbekistan) khan, governor of Tabriz. during the Safavid-Otto- ALAADDIN HAKIM man wars. Karabaghi was TABRIZI (15th-16th AD). the author of commentaries He was one of physicians of to Ibn Sina's works on med- Shah Ismail Safavi and the icine and philosophy. author of the glossary of ABU TALIB TABRIZI medical terms entitled (died in 1606). He was the "Kamili-Alai". head of a large hospital in IMADADDIN MAH- Qazvin. He worked in Tab- MUD (16th AD). The court riz, Qazvin and Istanbul. physician of Abdulla khan HEYDAR HAKIM (16th Ustajlu, the Beylerbey (gov- - 17th AD). A physican from ernor) of Shirvan in 1549. Azerbaijan,who worked at SHUKRULLAH SHIR- the court of Sultan Akbar VANI (SHIRVANZADE the Great in Agra (India). SHUKRI - 16th AD). This He also wrote verses in physician from Shamakhi, Azeri Turkic. Azerbaijan, studied medi- IBRAHIM ZEYNAL- cine in Cairo and worked in ABDIN OGLU NAKHCHI- Turkey. He treated poor VANI (died in 1649 AD). people for free and was This doctor from Nakhchivan famous as the "Poor peo- city (southern-western part of ple's physician". the present-day Azerbaijan YUSIF IBN MUHAM- Republic) lived and worked MADJAN KARABAGHI (di- in Damask (Syria) as a head ed in 1591). He was born in physician of this city. MUHAMMAD TAGI Jahangir from the dynasty TUFARGANLI (died in of Great Mugals. He is the 1682). He was the author of author of the book "Zabitat several books on medicine al-Alaj" (Treatment Rules). and philosophy including MURTUZA GULU SHA- "Hashiyat al-Idda" (Com- MLU (17th - 18th AD). Mur- mentary to the book named tuza Gulu Khan Shamlu Idda) and "Kashkul" (The was the ruler (amir) of the Dervish Bag). town of Ardabil, which was MUHAMMAD HAKIM a large cultural center and ARDABILI (17th AD).This the former capital of Azer- famous physician from baijan. He wote the book Ardabil and is mentioned in titled "Khirga" (Mantle of many old chronicles. Dervish, 1678 AD) devoted RUKNADDIN MA- to sexology and gynecolo- SUD MASIHI (1579 -1655). gy. The famous physician, sc- HAJI SULEYMAN IBN holar and author of poems SALMAN QAJAR IRAVANI in Azeri Turkic. Masihi's (18th AD). The author of father was a doctor from "Fawaid al-Hikmat" which Tabriz, Azerbaijan. Ruk- was well-known as a seri- naddin was a court physi- ous and informative book cian of Shah Abbas Safavi in on pharmacology. Isfahan. Then, they quar- HASAN IBN RIZA SHIR- reled and Ruknaddin mo- VANI (18th AD). Author of ved to Agra (India), where "Siraj at-Tibb" ("Light of he spent 20 years as the Medicine"). The book was court physician of Sultan written in Shirvan and de- Akbar the Great and Sultan voted to pharmacology. MIRZA HASAN SHIR- atment, 1775-1776 AD). VANI (18th AD). Famous AGHA SEYID ALI TA- physician and head of clinic BIB TABRIZI (1787-1898). in Shamakhi. The author of "Qanun al- MUHAMMAD YUSIF Alaj" (Canon of Treatment), SHIRVANI (17th -18th AD). "Zad al-Musafirin" (Suppli- The court physician in Shir- es for Travelers), "Risaleyi- van. In 1712, he copied "Tib- Jizri" (Treatise About Medi- bname" (Book of Medicine) cines), "Jami al-Ilal" (Collec- manuscript supplying it with tion of Diseases). his own commentaries. MIRZA MUHAMMAD- ABU AL-HASAN AL- GULU KARABAGHI (1818- MARAGI (18th AD). The 1878). Physician of former author of the universal me- khans (princes) of Kara- dical book named "Mualijat-i bakh from Javanshir dynas- Munfarida" (Exceptional Tre- ty.

Books in Azeri and Russian languages about medieval medical texts of Azerbaijan. CHAPTER 2 MEDICAL MANUSCRIPTS

§ 1. BAKU'S INSTITUTE OF MANUSCRIPTS guages that include Azeri, Turkish, Uzbek, Persian, Arabic, Georgian, Russian, Hebrew, Armenian and Aramaic. These texts help us understand what scholars from the Middle Ages thought about medicine, astronomy, mathematics, poetry, philosophy, law, history and geography [6]. The basis for the Insti- The Institute of Ma- tute was laid in 1924, when nuscripts of the Azerbaijan the first all-Azerbaijan Regi- Academy of Sciences is a onal Congress was held in center for collecting, sys- Baku. The Congress decid- tematizing, storing and ed to organize a scientific li- publishing medieval manu- brary with a special depar- scripts. It currently inclu- tment dedicated to ancient des about 12 000 medieval manuscripts and rare boo- handwritten books in lan- ks. At first, this library was manuscripts found at the Institute came from the pri- vate collections of Azerbai- jan's most prominent 19th- and early 20th-century thin- kers, including Abbasgulu agha Bakikhanov, Mirza Fatali Akhundzade, Abdul- gani Afandi Khalisagariza- de, Husein Afandi Gaibov, Bahman Mirza Qajar and Mir Mohsun Navvab. It continues to collect Researching medieval medical manuscripts, rare books and texts at the Institute of Manuscripts of the Azerbaijan historical documents from National Academy of Sciences all over Azerbaijan. The part of the Investigation So- Institute is located in the for- ciety of Azerbaijan; then it mer Muslim Female Boar- became attached to the Ni- ding School, which was zami Institute of Literature. built by Haji Zeynalabdin In 1950 the Manuscript De- Taghiyev between 1898 and partment of the Institute Of 1901. This was the first secu- Literature became the Ma- lar girl's school in the nuscript Fund, the inde- Muslim East. In 1918, when pendent center of scientific Azerbaijan became inde- research. In 1986, its name pendent, Taghiyev gave the was changed to the Institute building to the government of Manuscripts. of Azerbaijan to be used for Many of the ancient ministers' offices. In the Soviet period , it housed the to the Institute of Manusc- Presidium of the Supreme ripts by Dr. K. Matsuura, Soviet of the Azerbaijan So- the head of UNESCO. viet Socialist Republic (the The Memory of the governing body of Parli- World Program is carried ament). Since 1978, the out by UNESCO to discover building has housed what is and protect the most impor- now called the Institute of tant, rare and unique writ- Manuscripts. ten documents which are crucial and irreplaceable § 2. MEMORY OF THE not only for separate regi- WORLD PROGRAM ons, states or nations, but OF UNESCO for the humankind in the whole. Now several medie- In 29 July 2005, val manuscripts from Azer- UNESCO officially included baijan have been added to three medieval medical this list. manuscripts from the Insti- tute of Manuscripts of the CANON BY IBN SINA Azerbaijan National Acade- my of Sciences into the reg- The Manuscript Insti- ister of the Memory of the tute is fortunate to have World Program, which in- some real treasures in their cludes the most unique and collection. For example, it irreplaceable written monu- preserves one of the oldest ments of the humankind. copies of the second vol- The Certificate confirming ume of "Canon of Medi- this decision was presented cine" (1030) by Ibn Sina, textbook in European universities. The book was held in such reverence that Michelangelo was recorded as saying: "It is better to be mistaken following Avicen- na than to be true following known in the West as Avi- others." [11] cenna (980-1037). It was copied in 1143 about a hun- "ZAKHIRAI- dred years after his death. NIZAMSHAHI" BY RUS- Avicenna's manuscript is TAM JURJANI considered to be the most reliable in the world. This book was written Avicenna, born in the in the 13th century and imi- town of Afshana nearby tates the famous medical Bukhara (Uzbekistan), did book by Zeynaddin Jurjani. much of his medical obser- Rustam Jurjani's manu- vation later on in Persia and script is unique, because it Azerbaijan. "Canon," an en- is the only manuscript of cyclopedic work in Arabic, this book in the world. is considered to be the single, most famous book in medical history - both in the East and in the West. In the 12th century, the Canon was translated from Arabic to Latin by Gerard of Cremona (1140- 1187) and used as a medical AL-MAQALATUN (Spain) when this country SALASUN (THIRTIETH was under the Arab rule. TREATISE) BY ABULKA- During many centuries Zak- SIM ZAKHRAVI hravi's book was the most authoritative textbook on surgery both in East and West. The book gives description of different types of surgical treatment and pro- vides drawings of hundreds of surgical instruments which were used 700 years ago.

§ 3. UNIQUE MEDICAL MANUSCRIPTS

Important medical manuscript found at the Insti- The Institute of Man- tute is "Souls of Bodies" (Ar- uscript preserves the manu- vah al-Ajsad) by Shamsad- script of one of volumes by din ibn Kamaladdin Kasha- the "Book On Surgery and ni. This medical encyclope- Instruments" by Abulkasim dia was copied at the end of Zakhravi (died in 1013 AD), the 17th century on high- the Arabian physician which quality European paper wi- was known in medieval Eu- th filigree. In his volume, rope as Abulcasis (the Lati- Kashani gives an exhaustive nized form of "Abulkasim"). explanation of all kinds of He was born in Andalusia medicine and diseases, from the simplest to the most complex. Before writing the book, Kashani carefully studied the works of his predecessors, including ancient and medieval physicians like Hippocrates, Galen, Za- karia Razi, Ismayil Gurgani and Ibn Baitar. His encyclopedic work is of great importance because it lists manuscripts that are not regis- A page from "Kifayati-Mansuri" tered in any known and (Institute of Manuscripts, Baku, published catalogues or ref- copied in 1653 AD). erence books in the world manuscript depositories. Mahmud Ibn Ilyas' The Institute houses 14th century work, entitled the 17th century manuscript "Comprehensive Book On of “Kifayati-Mansuri” (“Su- Medicine” ("Kitab al-Havi fi fficient from Mansur”) writ- Elm al- Madavi”), is a com- ten by Mansur ibn Muham- prehensive, 1200-page book mad ibn Yusif in 1423. The describing fundamental id- manuscript contains anato- eas about medicine, symp- mic images of the human toms and causes of specific body. diseases, and treatments. Ily- Some of the most fun- as gained his experience whi- damental Azerbaijani wor- le living in Tabriz and Shiraz, ks in the Institute's medical and traveling to many differ- collection include: ent Eastern countries. Azerbaijani scholar be collected, other regions Yusif ibn Ismayil Khoyi (al- where it is available, and its so known as Ibn Kabir) wo- names in other languages, rked as a doctor in the pala- such as in Chinese or Hindi ces of the Arabian caliphs in dialects. The Institution ow- Baghdad. He is known for ns 33 complete manuscripts his comprehensive pharma- and 4 fragmentary copies of cology written in Arabic in this work. 1311. Several thousand me- Anonymous "Tibbna- dicinal herbs are identified me" ("Book of Medicine") in "The Necessary Things was written in Azeri in 17th For a Doctor So As Not To century. We have a manu- Increase His Ignorance" ("Ma script which was copied by la Yasa al-Tabib Jahlahu"), Muhammed Yusif Shirva- often referred to by its short- ni's - a palace physician for ened title "Baghdad Collecti- the governors of Shirvan in on" ("Jami al-Bagdadi"). 1711/2. “Tibbname” recom- Mir Muhammad Mu- mends using natural materi- min (died in 1697), a palace als to treat symptoms, such physician for Suleyman Sa- as rubbing a piece of lemon favi, wrote many informa- peel against your neck when tive works in Persian includ- tired. “Tibbname” also des- ing "Tuhfat al-Muminin" cribes more complicated (1669). This encyclopedic drugs, as well as uses for work includes the names of "non-indigenous" plants in more than 4,000 herbs, ani- the region such as potatoes mals, minerals and other and sunflowers. ingredients used in medi- In the 13th century, cine. Mumin describes the Nasiraddin Tusi wrote an name of each herb, its spe- extremely enlightening bo- cific features, where it can ok entitled "Mineral Cures" ("Tansukh Name") which lanations on Treatment of the identifies the symptoms of a Human Body) by Saleh bin disease and possible treat- Nasrullah Rais al-Atibba. No ments via minerals. These 255 /3563 (III). Copied in the 18th are identified by color, as AD. well as region [11]. Ghayat al-Mutaraggi be The list of the principal Tadbiri-Kulli Maraz (Modern medical manuscripts from Methods of Treatment of All the Baku collection is given Diseases) by Hasan Afandi. below. No: B-2788/20827. Copied in 1294 H/1877 AD. § 4. LIST OF PRINCI- Islam Medeniyyetin- PAL MEDICAL TEXT de Tibb ve Tebibler (al-Ti- bb wa al-Atibba fi Asna al- (INSTITUTE OF MANSCRIPTS, BAKU) Tamaddun al-Islami) (Me- dicine and Physicians in the TURKIC TEXTS Islamic Civilization). No B-2444 (AZERBAIJANI AND OTTOMAN) /18462. Copied in 1910’s AD. Kitab al-Tibb (Book on Anmuzaj al-Tibb (Ex- Medicine) by Muhammad amples of Medicine) by Sayid bin Ahmad Efendi al-Bar- Muhammad Rais al-Atibba. gushadi. Written in 1239 H/1823 No C-456/21962 (I). Copied in AD. (Autograph) the 17th AD. Kitabi-Mualijat (Book Daqaiq al-Alaj (Nice- on Medical Treatment). No ties of Treatment) by Karim 6918/8543. khan Kirmani. No B-2443/18463 Lisan al-Avam (Com- Davajat (Medicines). mon People's Language) by No B-2490/18481 (VI) Nasrulla (Nasir) bin Zair. Ghayat al-Bayan fi Ta- No: B-2706/8040. Copied in 1266 dbiri-Badan al-Insan (Exp- H/1849 AD. Majmueyi-Kabir (Lar- Aghdashi. No: B-1626/11685 ge Collection) by Nusrat Afa- Qarabadin (Pharmacy ndi. No: B-25898/19522 (III) Book) by Nuh Efendi. No C- Makhzan al-Adwiyya 529/22584 (VII). Copied in the (Treasury of Medicines) by 18th century AD. Seyyid Muhammad Huse- Rasail al-Mushfiyya fi yn. No: B-2445/18461 Amraz al-Mushkulat (Treatises Manafe al-Nas (Bene- about Cure of Serious Diseases) by fit for the People) by Darvish Mustafa Feyzi. No C-529/22584 Nidai. No: (I). Copied in the 18th c. AD. 1. B-2835/20811 Risalat al-Vafaiyya(Reli- 2. A-674/22900 able Treatise) No B-5712/28799. Manafe al-Nas (Bene- Copied in 1208 H/1794 AD fit for the People) by Muham- Risaleyi-Jadvar (Tre- mad Attar Salyani. No B-274 atise about Jadvar) by Ali /115 11. Copied in 1253 H/1838 AD Brusavi. No C-529/22584 (VIII) Mualijat al-Abdan (Tre- Copied in the 18th c. AD. atment of the Body). No A- Risaleyi-Khulasat al- 520/ 16181 Abdan (Abbreviated Medi- Nuskhajat (Recipes) No: cal Treatise) by Ali Bru- 1. A-449/16978. Copied in savi. No C-529/22584 (XIV) Co- the 19th c. AD. pied in the 18th c. AD. 2. B-1484/7265 (I). Copied Risaleyi-Padzahr (Tre- in the 19th c. AD atise on Antidotes) by Ali 3. A-655/22643. Copied in Tabib. No C-529/22584 (V) Co- 1275 H/1859 AD. pied in the 18th c. AD. Qanun (Canon) by Abu Risaleyi-Ravand (Tre- Ali Ibn Sina. Chapter about atise on Rhubarb) by Ahmad Fever from Canon. Trans- Sani bin Huseyn. No C- lated from Arabic into Azeri 529/22584 (XII) Copied in the by Mukhtar Ismayil oglu 18th c. AD. A chapter from “Rasail al-Mushfiyya fi Amraz al- Mushkulat” (18th century AD, Turkish) with recipes of medicines against diseases of stomach. Baku, Institute of Manuscripts. Risaleyi-Tibb (Medical Tibbi Meslehetler ve Treatise) No: Elaj Dualari (Medical Recom- 1. B-2384/4078 (II) mendations and Curative Pra- 2. A-468/19333 yers) No A-747/24017. Copied in Tabibname (Book of Phy- the 19th c. AD. sicians) No: D-711/28787. Copied in Tibbi Mualija Usullari 1299 H/1882 AD. (Medical Treatment Methods) Tibb Elmine aid Risa- No 1. B-3105/21575 le (Treatise on Medicine) No Tibbi Mualicelere aid A-1096/30059 Sheirler (Poems Related to Tibb Kitabi (Book of Medical Treatment) No A- Medicine) No B-7282/30 635 151/2798 (II) Tibb Risalasi (Medical Tibbi-Jalinus (Galen’s Treatise) No C-209/16070 (II) Medicine) No B-2891/ 20800 (II) Tibbe aid Kitab (Book on Copied in 1273 H/1858 AD Medicine) No B-7343/11005 Tibbi-Mansuri (Winner Tibbe aid Lughat (Me- in Medicine) by Abubakir Ra- dical Glossary) No C-456/21962 zi. Translation into Azeri. No (II). Copied in the 17th AD. B-2443/18464. Copied in 1936 AD. Tibbe aid Nuskheler, Tibbi-Nabiden Parcha- Dualar ve Qeyri Qeydler (Re- lar (Extracts from ‘Tibbi-Nabi’ - cipes, Prayers and Other Notes Prophet’s Medicine) No B- on Medicine) No C-4329/24023 6835/33557 (XXX) (II). Copied in the 19th AD. Tibbi Risala (Medical Tibbe aid Risale (Trea- Treatise) No A 862/31424. tise in Medicine) No: Tibbname (Book of Me- 1. A-1018/28474 (I) dicine) No C-541. Copied in 1124 2. A-857/23650 (II) H/1712 AD. A page from Risaleyi-Khulasat al-Abdan (Abbreviated Medical Treatise) by Ali Brusavi. (18th AD). Baku’s Institute of Manuscripts. ARABIC TEXTS H/1816 AD. Kamil al-Sinaat al-Tib- Al-Maqalatun Salasun biyat (Perfect [book] About He- (Thirtieth Treatise) by Abu al- aling Art) by Ali Ibn Abbas Qasim Zakhrawi. No: M-64/ Majusi Arjani. No: B-5416/ 27151 543. Copied in the 13 th century AD. (1). Copied in 1028 H/1612 AD Al-Mughni fi Sharhi Kitab al-Hawi fi Ilm al- Mujiz (Convincing and Brief Tadawi (Comprehensive Book Commentary) No B-5494 /27353. on Medical Science) by Naj- Copied in the 16th -17th AD maddin Mahmud bin She- Al-Mujallad al-Sani min ikh Sainaddin Ilyas Shirazi. al-Qanun fi al-Tibb (Second No: D-98/17028 Volume of Canon of Medicine) Kitab Sharh al-Asbab by Abu Ali Ibn Sina. No M- wa al-Alamat fi al-Tibb (The 148/17024. Copied in 657 H/1262 Book about Causes and Symp- AD. toms in Medicine) by Nafis Al-Tassrih fi Sharh al- bin Avaz bin Hakim. No: Tasrih al-Lihya (Explanation 1. C-819/30034 on Looking after One’s Beard) 2. C-35/11390 by Molla Ali Al-Gari. No A- Kitabun fi Ilm al- 100/3057 (III) Copied in 1130 Abdan (Book On Medical Sci- H/1718 AD. ence) by Burhanaddin Nafis Bara al-Saat (Quick bin Awaz bin Hakim Kirma- [treatment]) by Abu Bakr bin ni. No: C-163/11047 Zakariyya Razi. No: Kitabun Muntakha- 1. B-615/2317 (II) Copied in bun min Tibbi al-Nabi (The 1233 H/1818 AD). Book with Quotations from 2. B-2466/18440 ‘Tibb al-Nabi’ - Medicine of 3. C-355/18472 Prophet) No 385/17121 (I) Dasturi-Jalali (Jalali Majallat al-Tibb (Medi- Handbook) by Jamaladdin cal Issues) by Giyas al-Man- Muhammad Tabib Isfahani. suri. No A-135/4115 No B-5417/27150. Copied in 1231 Masabih al-Saniyya fi Qanun fi al-Tibb (Ca- al-Tibb al-Bariyya (Supreme non of Medicine) by Abu Ali Lights in True Medicine) by Ibn Sina. 1st Book. No D-332/ Sheikh Shahabaddin Galyubi 17028. Copied in 1268 H/1852 AD. Shafai. No A-957/27156. Copied in Qanun fi al-Tibb (Ca- 1218 H/1803 AD. non of Medicine) by Abu Ali Minhajul-Bayan fi ma Ibn Sina. 2nd Book. No M-136/ Yastamalah al-Insan (Clear 17026. Copied in 537 H/1143 AD Explanations on Remedies Used Qanun (Canon) by Abu by People) by Ibn Yahya bin Isa Ali Ibn Sina. (al-Fann al- Katib al-Tabib. No B-230/3365 Awwal min al-Kitab al-Salis Mualijat (Treatment). min al-Qanun - First chapter No B-6014/29544 (II) Copied in from the third book of the the 16th c. AD. Canon). No M-219/ 2986. Copied Mujamiat (Sexual Rela- in 1269 H/1852 AD. tions). No A-496/ 20530 (II) Qanun (Canon) by Abu Copied in 1190 H/1777 AD. Ali Ibn Sina. No C-70/ 1989. Co- Mujiz al-Qanun fi al- pied in 1229 H/1814 AD. Tibb (Abbreviated Canon of Rahmat fi al-Tibb wa Medicine) by Ala ad-Din Ali al-Hikmat (Mercy in Medi- bin Abu al-Hazm al-Gure- cine and Wisdom) by Sheikh shi. Copied in 1257 H/1842 AD Mehdi bin Ali bin Ibrahim. Mukhtasar (Abbrevia- No: tion). No 615/2317 (II). Copi- 1. B-3496/22774 ed in 1233 H/1818 AD. 2. B-5296/26636 Mukhtasar min Sanaat 3. B-660/9105 (II). Copied al-Tibb (Abbreviated version of in 1240 H/1825 AD. "Sanaa at-Tibb") NoB5380/ 4. B-5945/29412. Copied in 270 57 (I). Copied in 1247 H/1832 1251 H/1836 AD. AD. Risalat al-Manzuma- 17030. Copied in 1269 H/1853 AD. tun fi al-Tibb (Poetic Treati- Sharh Sanaat al-Tibbi- se on Medicine). No B-2217/ ya (Commentaries to 'Sana-at 15763. Copied in 1226 H/1811 AD. al-Tibbiya'). No C-819/30034 (III) Risalatun fi al-Tibb (Me- Sharhi-Qanunja (Com- dical Treatise). No.A-496 /20530. mentaries to 'Qanunja') by Copied in 1190 H/1777 AD. Sheikh Yusif. No B-700/2130. Risalatun fi al-Tibb (Me- Copied in 1299 H/ 1852 AD. dical Treatise) by Ishaq bin Sharhi-Juzi Awwal min Husein. Press-mark: B-5409 Kitab al-Qanun (Commenta- /27157 ries to First Volume of 'Canon') Risaleyi-Qanunja (Qa- by Gutbaddin Shirazi. No B-2328 nunja Treatise). No B-754/2212 /17024. Copied in 1067 H/1657 AD. (III) Sharhi Mualijat (Com- Risaleyi-Tibb (Medi- mentaries to 'Mualijat')by Bur- cal Treatise) by Nasir ad-Din hanaddin Nafis bin Awaz bin Tusi. No B-5380/27057 (II). Copied Hakim Kirmani. No C- 324/ in 1209 H/1796 AD 18439. Copied in 1244 H/1829 AD. Risaleyi-Tibb (Medi- Sharhi-Nafisi (Commen- cal Treatise). No: taries by Nafisi) by Ala ad- 1. B-2642/19929 (IV) Din Nafisi. No: Saqi al-Samum (Anti- 1. 5765/87658. Copied in 1047 dotes). No: B-5389/27120 (II). Copi- H/1638 AD. ed in 1342 H/1924 AD. 2. 5032/26021. Copied in 841 Sharh al-Fusul (Com- H/1438 AD. mentaries to Chapters). Nafis 3. M-174/2386 (II) bin Awaz bin Hakim al- Sharhu Kitabi-Qanun Tabib. No C-163/11074. Copied (Commentaries to Book of Ca- in 1229 H/1814 AD. non) by Muhammad bin Mah- Sharh al-Ganun (Com- mud Amili. No D-320/ 17031. mentaries to 'Canon'). No D-333/ Copied in 753 H/1353 AD. Sharh Kulliyat al-Qa- nun (Commentaries to Entire 'Canon') by Gutbaddin Mah- mud bin Masud Sharizi. No B-187/18406 Sharhu Mujiz (Brief Commentary) by Nafis Ibn Awaz. No C-221/17128. Copied in 1245 H/1830 AD. Siraj al-Wahhaj (Bril- liant Lamp). No 4547/24351 (1) Tibb al-Abdan min Akhbari (Prophet’s Say- ings about Medicine) by Marwi Ali an-Nabi. No 2891 Mualijat al-Abdan (18th AD). /20800 (1) Copied in 1272 Baku, Institute of Manuscripts. H/1857 AD. Tibbi-Nabawi (Prophet's Medicine). No B- 1484/7265. Copied in 1246 H/1831 Uyun al-Haqayiq wa Izah al-Tarayiq (Exact Tru- th and Explanation of [Treat- ment] Ways) by Sabiraddin Abu al-Gasim Ahmad bin Muhammad Iraqi. No A-375 /1501 (II). Copied in 1011 H/1603 AD.

Lisan al-Avam by Nasrulla bin Zair. Copied in 1266 H/1849 AD. PERSIAN TEXTS Davasazi (Pharmacy) by Shlimeran. No B-667/10000 (I). Adwiyya (Medicines). No Copied in 1299 H/1882 AD. B-2490/18431 (IX) Davasazi (Pharmacy). Alaj al-Asqam (Surgi- Press-mark: B-63/3238 (III) cal Treatment) by Mirza Mu- Farasname (Book Abo- hammad Huseyn Afshar. No: ut [treatment of] Horses). Pre- 1. B-1168/19964. Copied in ss-mark: B-192 /2541 1323 H/1906 AD. Farrukhnameyi-Jalali 2..B-674/3203 (I) (Jalali's Joy Book) by Ramazan Anatomi (Anatomy). No bin Sheikh Ali. No M-42/5304. 215/11721. Copied in 1109 H/1698 AD. Arwah al-Ajsad (Souls Fawaid al-Hikmat (Be- of Bodies) by Shamsaddin bin nefit of Wisdom) by Haji Su- Kamaladdin Kashani. No D- leyman bin Salman Iravani. 373/18437. Copied in the 17th c. No B-39/19955. Copied in 1249 AD, restored in 1298 H/1881 AD. H/1834 AD. Az Mujarrabat (From Fihristi-Daftari-Qara- Tried [Remedies]) by Mirza badin (Contents of Treatise on Muhammad Ali. No B-1976/ Pharmacy). No: D-117/1253 (II) 13345 (II) Fihristi-Qarabadin (Co- Dastur (Handbook). No: ntents of Pharmacy). No B-4678 B-5538/27440 (III) /24561 (II) Dastur al-Alaj (Treat- Fihristi-Kitabi-Amraz ment Manual) by Sultan Ali al-Sibyan (Contents of the Tabib Khorasani. No: Book about Children Diseases). 1. C-768/29534. Copied in No B-1866/13331 (II) 983 H/1576 AD Formulyar (Recipes). No: 2. D-299/18438 (II). A-264/8635. Copied in 1202 H /1788 3.B-5417/27150. Copied in 1232 AD. H/1816 AD. Ghiyasiyya fi al-Tibb 1. B-246/18447. Copied in (Helpful Book in Medicine) by 1220 H/1806 AD. Mahmud bin Ilyas Shirazi. 2. B-1153/5319 (I). Copied in No: B-1231/3257 1226 H/1811 AD. Gulshan al-Alaj (Gar- Jami al-Hikmat va Maj- den of Treatment) by Mu- ma al-Tabibin (Collection of hammad Tahir bin Muizad- Wisdom and Physicians) by din. No B-4678 /24561 (IV) Abdullah. No C-635/27065 Copied in 1255 H/1840 AD. Jami al-Mutafarriga (Ex- Hifz al-Sahhat (Heath clusive Collection) by Muh- Protection) by Ibn Muhammad ammad Huseyn bin Muh- Mahmud. No: B-1205/ 17519 (I) ammad Ali Ganjeyi. No B - Copied in 1293 H/1876 AD. 2532/18144 (II) Copied in 1270 Ikhtiyarati-Badii (Pro- /1854 AD. perty of the [princess] Badii) by Khafi-Alayi (Top Sec- Ali bin Huseyn Ansari. No D- rets [of Medicine]) No A-576 6/1136. Copied in 1097 H/1686 AD. /20963 Ilmi-Tashrih (Anato- Khasseyi-Davaha (Co- my) No: mpounds of Medicines) No M- 1. A-499/205742. 66/11601 (V) Copied in 1267 H 2. B-2642/19929 (II). Copied /1851 AD. in 1301 H/1884 AD. Khirqa (Dervish's 3. B-4219/9999 Garments) by Murtaza Gulu 4. B-2672/19929 (VII) Shamlu Ardabili. No: 5. B-5377/27061 (I) 1. B-3637/ 22781. Copied 6. B-754/9212 (I) in 1307 H/1890 AD. Jami al-Fawaid (Collec- 2. B-3137/21585 (V) Cop- tion of Benefits) or Tibbi-Yusifi ed in 1201 H/1787 AD. (Medicine of Yusifi) by Yu- 3. B-812/11734. Copied in sifi Yusif bin Muhammad 1260 H/ 1844 AD. bin Yusif Harawi. No: Khulasat al-Tajarub (Sum of Wisdom) or Lughat al-Tibb mary of Experiences) by Ba- (Medical Glossary) by Haji haaddin Nurbakhsh. No: Molla Suleyman Iravani. 1. D - 187/11515. Copied No: in 1265 H/1849 AD. 1. M-66/11601 (I) Copied in 2. C 688/27148 1267 H/1851 AD. 3. A-1079/29729 2. M-174/2386 (IV) Copied Khulasat al-Tibb (Abbre- in 1278 H/1861 AD. viated Medicine) No: Kitabi-Rovshanai (En- 1. B-4292/23853 lightening Book) No: 2. A-1079/29729 1. B-4678/24561 (III) Copi- Kifayat al-Mujahida ed in the 19th c. AD. (Sufficient Efforts) or Kifaye- 2. B-5678/24561 (II) Copi- yi-Mansuriyya (Sufficient ed in 1252 H/1837 AD. from Mansur) by Mansur bin Kitabi-Tibb (Medical Bo- Muhammad bin Yusif Ibn ok) by Mahmud bin Ilyas Shi- Ilyas. No: razi. No: 1. B-858/11502. Copied in 1063 1. B-70/2161 (I) Copied in H/1653 AD. 1229 H/1814 AD. 2. D-75/19935 (II) Copied in 2. M-23/2309. Copied in 968 1254 H/1839 AD. H/1560 AD. 3. B-1119/19934. Copied in Kitabi-Tibb (Medical 1261 H/1845 AD Book) by Mirza Baba bin Kar- 4. C-817/35053 balayi Abu al-Qasim. No B- 5. B-749/3531 5121/26200. Copied in 1231 H/ 6. B- 5462/27243 1816 AD. Kitabi-Baytari (Book on Kitabi-Tibb (Medical Bo- Veterinary) by Arastu (Aristotle) No ok). No B-5389/27126 (I) Copied B-6219/29729 (II) Copied in 1190 in 1343 H/1925 AD. H/1775 AD. Kitabi-Tibb (Medical Kitabi-Hikmat (Book Book) No B-2441/18426. Kitabu Tibb al-Hayat Abu al-Hasan al-Maragi. No (Book about Life Medicine) by B-2490/18431 Muhammad Hayat bin Fath Mujarrabat (Tried Reme- Muhammad bin Nurmuham- dies) by Muhammad Mehdi mad Tabib. No D-299/18433 (I) bin Ali Nagi. No B-1976/13345. Lazzat al-Eyshi-Nasir- Mujarrabati-Akbari (Ak- shahi (Sexual Joy of Nasir Sh- bar's Tried Remedies) by Mu- ah) by Muhammad Tabib. No: hammad bin Pir Muhammad. 1. B - 737/9106 (II) No: C-336/20546 (I) Copied in 1249 2. A- 235/11504 H/1834 AD. Majma al-Bayani-Tibb Mujarrabati-Mirza Mu- (Collection of Medical Expla- hammad Huseyn Tabib Ha- nations). No M-74/2386 (III) kimbashi (Tried Remedies of Makhzan al-Fawaid Mirza Muhammad Huseyn (Treasure of Benefits) by Mirza Tabib Hakimbashi) by Mu- Muhammad Huseyn Afshar. hammad Huseyn bin Mu- No B-674/3203 (II) hammad Ali Ganjavi. No Man la Yahdar al-Ta- 2532/18144 (III) bib (Things that Have Not Been Mukhtasar dar Mualijat Said by Physicians Yet) by Abu (Abbreviated [Book] on Medi- Bakr bin Zakariyya Razi. No B- cine) No B-1942/17132 468/4083 (1) Mukhtasar Tibb (Ab- Mualijaname (Book breviated Medicine) by Ismail about Treatment) by Muha- bin Ahmad Jurjani. No A- mmad Ashraf bin Sham- 467/17141 (II). Copied in the 17th saddin Muhammad Tabib. c. AD. No D-75/19935 (I) Mukhtasar Tibb (Ab- Mualijati-Mukhtalife breviated Medicine) No: 3331 (Various Treatments). No M-66/ /21561. Copied in the 19th c. AD. 11601. Copied in 1287 H/1851 AD. Nuskhajat (Recipes) by Mualijati-Munfarida Shlimer Ferengi. No: B-5382 (Exceptional Treatment) by /2705 Nuskhajat (Recipes) No: 1. C-790/29723. Copied in 1. B-2602/19929 (I) Copied 1220 H/1806 AD in 1209 H/1795 AD. 2. B-4742/23609 2. B-2642/19929 (I) Rahat al-Insan (Man's 3. B-2602/19954 (I) Relief) by Seyfaddin bin Gu- 4. B-2642/19929 (III) Copi- tbaddin. No B-1153/5319 (II) ed in 1300 H/1883 AD. Copied in 1225 H/1811 AD. 5. A-985/27394 Risala dar Marifati-Na- 5. A-322/12095 bz va Qarura (Treatise About 6. B-74/16993 Urine and Pulse Diagnostics) 7. D-482/22453 (I) No: C-370/18162 (II) Copied in 8. A-533/15597 (II) 1087 H/1677 AD. 9. 7. B-2632/20469 Risaleyi-Jarrahi (Su- Qarabadin (Pharma- rgical Treatise) No B-6219 /29731 cology) by Muzaffar bin Mu- (I). Copied in 1190 H/1777 AD. hammad Shafai. No: Risaleyi-Kahhali (Tre- 1. B-2678/24561 (I) atise on Ophthalmology) by 2. B-351/3334 Mirza-Riza. No B-674/3283 (III). 3. B-2432/18143 (II) Copied in 1343 H/1925 AD. 4. B-4693/24574 Risaleyi-Tibb (Medical 5. M-174/2386 (I) Treatise) by Ismail bin Ahmad 6. B-2432/18143 (III) Copied bin Huseyn Jurjani. No A- in 1258 H/1843 AD. 467/17141 (I). Copied in the 17th AD. 7. B-5413/27143. Copied in Risaleyi-Tibb (Medical 1282 H/1866 AD. Treatise) by Ibn Muhammad 8. B-2419/18427 (I) Copied Huseyn Ahmad Tankabini. in 1290 H/1874 AD. No B-5410/27145 (II). Copied in Qarabadin (Pharmaco- 1263 AD/1847 AD. logy) No B-3125/21642. Copied in Risaleyi-Tibb (Medi- 1233 H/1818 AD. cal Treatise) No: Qarabadini-Qadiri (Ef- 1. C-370/18162 (I). Copied fective Pharmacology) by Mu- in 1089 H/ 1679 AD. hammad Akbar Arzani. No: 2. B-2642/19929 (V) 3. C-234/18164 Tarigi-Sakhtani-Bazi 4. B-3821/23324 (III) Az Jowhariyyat (Preparation 5. C-441/2144 Methods of Some Medicines). 6. A-495/20513. Copied in No B-674/3203 (IV) 1113 H/1702 AD. Tiryaqati-Samum (An- 7. B-3137/21583 (I). Copied tidotes). No: B-674/3220 (VI) in 1201 H/1787 AD Tuhfat al-Muminin (Gi- 8. B-812/11734 (I). Copied ft of True Believers) by Se- in 1260 H/1844 AD yyid Mir Muhammad Mu- 9. B-319/11442 min. No: 10. B-1157/3566 B-2017/15078 11. B-4586/24364 B-2490/18431 (IV) 12. B-1699/11703 B-2490/18431 (III) 13. B-2474/10424 B-295/9089 14. B-5884/29132 B-4776/24361 (I) 15. B-2439/18445 C-364/18446. Copied in 16. B-6203/29732 1125H/1713 AD 17. B-2952/21160 D-254/3602 18. A-515/20512 D-482/22453 (II). Copied in 1221 19. B-3898/23744 (II) H/1807 AD. Risaleyi-Tibb va Zira- D-97/2179 at (Treatise On Medicine and C-5/3867. Copied in 1190 Agriculture). No A-770/24410 (I) H/1777 AD. Rovshanainame (Enli- D-312/13269. Copied in ghtening Book). No M-66/11601 1219 H/1805 AD. (III). Cop. 1267 H/1251 AD. C-482/22388 (I). Copied in Sharhi-Zahabiyya (Gol- 1222 H/1807 AD. den Commentaries). No B-3226 M-243/3747. Copied in 1245 /21898 H/1830 AD. Siraj al-Tibb (Light of D-190/374 (1). Copied in Medicine) by Hasan bin Riza 1254 H/1839 AD. Shirvani. No: B-1625/14449 1. B-559/2394 (II) D-5/8252. Copied in 1190 2. C-14/3192 (II) H/1777 AD. C-3/10275. Copied in 1197 Ibrahim al-Jurjani. No: H/1783 AD. 1.D-176/8197 C-261/10515. Copied in 2.B-5538/27440 (I) 1293 H/1876 AD. Zakhireyi-Nizamshahi D-539/23909. Copied in the (Nizamshah's Supplies) by 19th century AD. Rustam Jurjani. No: M-220/ B-4776/24361. Copied in 5305. Copied in 954 H/1546 AD. 1284H/1869 AD. Ziynat al-Abdan (Body's Zad al-Musafirin (Tra- Wealth) by Ibn Muhammad velers' Supplies) by Mu-ham- Hashim al-Ansari Muham- mad Mehdi bin Ali Na-gi. mad Tagi Kashani. No B- No: 1168/19964 (IV). Copied in 1303 1. A-470/17124 H/1886 AD. 2. B-274/11511 (1) Ziynat al-Abdan (Body's 3. B-3253/21984 Wealth) by Shlimer Fele- 4. B-4677/24562 mengi. No: 5. B-538/3299 1. B-5381/27066 (II) Copied in 6. B-660/9105 (III) 1306 H/1889 AD. 7. D-110/5314 2. B-5411/27155. Copied in 8. A-151/2785. Copied in 1296/1879 AD. 1781 AD. 3. B-5375/27058. Copied in 1298 9. B-517/3050-3052 (III). H/1881 AD. Copied in 1819 AD. 4. B- 1816 /13331 (I). Copied in 10. B-3706/24564 1305 H/1888 AD. 11. B-137/ 5307. Copied in 5. C-14/3192 (I). Copied in 1312 1820 AD. H/1895 AD. 12. B-4676/24563 (II) Zubdat al-Hikmat (Cream 13.B-5410/27145(I). Copied of Wisdom) by Ali Nagi bin in 1846 AD. Muhammad Ismail. No: 14.B-2464/16817. Copied in 1. B-674/3203 (V). Copied in 1868 AD. 1343 H/1925 AD. Zakhireyi-Kharazm- 2. B-5387/27117. Copied in 1292 shahi (Kharazm-shah's Sup- H/1875 AD. plies) by Zeynaddin bin Abu CHAPTER 3

MEDICINE IN MEDIEVAL AZERBAIJAN

§ 1. PROFESSIONAL AND FOLK MEDICINE It's very important to those times were educated make the distinction bet- and wealthy. They usually ween Folk Medicine and lived in cities. Some became ancient professional medi- famous as court physicians cine. Folk medicine is treat- in palaces of kings and gov- ment that is carried out by ernors. folk practitioners, not doctors or professional healers. Secrets of folk medicine are passed down from generation to generation, from parents to children and then to their grandchildren. Folk healers have their own special knowledge and skills in treating disease; they aren't graduates from universities and they don't rely on text- books or other written sources. Murals in the Apothecary Professional doctors in Museum (Baku). In contrast, common Muslim World. Their ideas people of the Middle East, were rooted in scientific especially illiterate peasants observations based on an- in villages, had no idea cient Greek medicine set about Avicenna and Hip- forth by Hippocrates and pocrates. Despite the fact Galen. Medicine of medie- that there were major hos- val Azerbaijan was similar pitals in Tabriz, Ganja, to the Greek-Arabic or Isla- Shamakhi and other medi- mic medicine. eval cities of Azerbaijan, The basic theoretical professional medical care conceptions of the medieval was not available in vil- Azerbaijan medicine are as lages. Therefore, people follows: teachings about fo- tried to benefit from the ur elements of Nature (fire, knowledge of folk medi- earth, water and air), four cine, which was both wide- qualities of these elements spread and inexpensive. (humidity, dryness, warmth and coldness), four § 2. MEDICAL THEORY basic humours of organism (blood, bile, black bile and The professional med- mucus) and four tempera- icine of medieval Azerbai- ments (sanguine, phlegmat- jan was a scholarly system ic, choleric and melan- that was studied in me- cholic). dieval universities (madra- The teaching about sa) and based upon treatises Four Holy elements was by such erudite physicians created by Zoroastrians in as Avicenna (Ibn Sina, 980- ancient Azerbaijan, Persia 1037) and other prominent and the Central Asia. medieval doctors of the It made a great influ- lites and Hippocrates. As evi- ence on the development of dent from medieval sources, science in ancient Greece. In during the Middle Ages these the 6th-5th centuries BC, theories deeply influenced these scientific doctrines were the traditional medicine in developed by such Greek sci- the Muslim East including entists as Empedocles, Herac- Azerbaijan.

Principal Humours and Temperaments (According to medieval medical sources)

ELEMENTS HUMOR PROPERTIES SIMPLE COMPLEX AND TEMPERA- TEMPERAMENTS SEASON MENTS

Air Blood Warmth Hot Temperament with Spring Humidity temperament, prevalence of blood Humid (sanguine tempera- temperament ment)

Fire Bile Warmth Hot Temperament with Summer Dryness temperament, prevalence of bile Dry temperament (choleric temperament)

Water Mucus Coldness Cold Temperament with Autumn Humidity temperament, prevalence of mucus Humid temperament (phlegmatic temperament)

Earth Black bile Coldness Cold Temperament with Winter Dryness temperament, prevalence of black bile Dry temperament (melancholic temperament) According to scholars it is cold. of those times, all sub- The medieval Azeri stances consist of four ele- authors emphasized that ments of Nature. Each ele- each season was associated ment has two of the existing with a relevant humour. four properties (humidity, For example, in summer, dryness, warmth, coldness). the total amount of bile in Ancient scholars consid- the organism increases, ered that each living being while the amount of mucus was made of four humours increases in winter. The (blood, bile, black bile and anonymous author of mucus). Physicians of those "Risala-i Tibb" (17th centu- times believed that a defi- ry) writes: "First comes ciency or surplus of any of spring which consists of these substances would three months. Its nature is cause disease. hot and humid. During Every medicine also these days, the total amount has its own nature - cold or of blood rises in the organ- hot, dry or humid. For ism. The patient should be example, if you suffer treated in line with the excess cold in the organism, nature of this season." [30] you must take hot medi- "The second season is cine, while a patient with summer which is hot and dry hot nature must balance it by nature increasing the with a cold medicine. amount of bile in organism. Foods also were considered The third season is autumn, to be cold, hot, dry or with its cold and humid humid. For example, pep- nature increasing the mucus per is hot, while potato is amount. The fourth season is cold. It was recommended winter with its cold and dry to eat cold when an organ- nature increasing the amount ism is hot, and eat hot when of black bile." [30] Of course, this is only dicine and recommend he- a brief survey of the ancient althy mode of life. Herbs medical ideas spread in Az- and aromatherapy were erbaijan and other Muslim considered to be an impor- countries during that time tant part of staying healthy. “Tibbname” recommen- § 3. HEALTHY WAY OF ded that insane, tired and LIFE high-strung nervous types be treated with Azerbaijani Generally, medieval me- mugam music. "Such a dicine focuses on three areas - patient should be made to (1) prevention, (2) treatment lie down in a comfortable place, preferably near a flower garden next to a fountain of running water. If someone sits next to him and performs tender me- lodies on a stringed instru- ment, the effect is even stronger. Eventually, the patient will relax and fall asleep." [33] Medieval doctors ca- A musician. Azerbaijani miniature (Tabriz school of utioned people not to get miniature, 16th century AD). tired. Working to exhaus- tion and then trying to and (3) pharmacology. compensate by sleeping Medieval medical texts longer was viewed as emphasize preventative me- harmful. Instead, frequent short breaks were recom- fats should be avoided. mended. Emphasis was He went on to list the placed on a balanced har- consequences of eating ani- mony between work and mal fats including stupefac- rest. It is a citation from Tib- tion, poor memory, heart dis- bname [33]: ease, weak eyesight and epilepsy. In order to counter the- Щякимляр бюйля рявайят se effects, sour substances етмишляр ки, чох йухула- should be incorporated into маг бядяни зяиф едир, meals to help breakdown me- мядяни аьыр едир, бялья- at more effectively during ит чох, бядяни аьыр едир.

Doctors say that sleeping too long weakens the body, weighs upon stomach, increases mucus, lies heavy upon body.

Many physicians strongly warned about the overuse of animal fats. In the 14th century, Yusif ibn Ismayil Khoyi wrote that Pomegranates, pears and apples animal fats are bad to digest being served during a feast at the Shah's Palace. A 17th century mi- and may cause sickness and niature illustrating a poem by Niza- vomiting. So, whenever po- mi Ganjavi (1141-1209), famous ssible, overuse of animal poet from the city of Ganja (present-day Azerbaijan Republic). digestion. ular include weightlifting, Khoyi ecommends vi- horse riding and national negar, lemon, pomegranate, wrestling (güləş). Horse rid- unripened grapes and vari- ing was used in the treat- ous spices such as fennel, ment of arthritis, atrophy of saffron, cardamom, cloves muscles, heart diseases, and and cinnamon, which have nerve disorders. the ability of stimulating the Also taking baths was gastric juices and making considered to be very effec- digestion more rapid and tive for prevention of dis- complete. eases. Traditionally, Azer- In Azerbaijan, various baijanis visited the national folk sports are used to pro- bath, the "hamam" several mote health. The most pop- times each week. In the "hamam", services were available from a barber, mas- seur and pharmacist - perfumer.

§ 4. PROFESSIONAL TREATMENT METHODS

Herbs and aromatherapy were considered to be an important part of staying healthy. Unfortunately, much of the knowledge found in these texts has Bathing queen Shirin. A17th been lost or forgotten. For century miniature illustrating a poem by Nizami Ganjavi (1141- instance, out of the 726 1209), famous poet from the medicinal herbs mentioned city of Ganja (present-day in medieval sources, only Azerbaijan Republic). 466 are known to grow in odletting. The practice was Azerbaijan today. Of these, only rarely performed in 252 are not being used for summer under dire, emer- any modern medicinal pur- gency situations. pose. Medieval physicians Even today, when Azer- used 115 kinds of minerals baijanis are in a bad mood, and 150 species of animals. they often say: mənim qanım [5] qaradır (my blood is black). Not only were dis- In old days, black blood eases treated by natural re- was considered the reason medies (herbs, animals and why people experienced minerals), but they were bad moods (melancholy). also treated by such meth- Specialists identified ods as medical bloodletting scores of veins, each (exsanguination), leeches and massage. Bloodletting or "hajamat" (həcamət) was carried out to let out "the bad blood", stimulate the formation of new blood and lower blood pressure. Ho- wever, it was forbidden to carry out bloodletting on Early surgical instruments in trea- small children or any per- tise on surgery by Abulkasim Zakhravi (died in 1013 AD). son who had no appetite or The manuscript was copied in the who was physically exh- 13th c. AD. Institute of austed. Spring was consid- Manuscripts, Baku. ered the best time for blo- of which they thought was music or to birds singing, responsible for specific dis- especially the nightingale. eases. Even listening to someone In addition to doctors, recite poetry was viewed as barbers were also involved curative. in medical practices. Not Even color entered in- only did they cut and shave to the treatment of some hair, but they performed physicians. The 18th centu- medical practices such as ry text "Tibbname" suggests bloodletting, extracting of that one's place of rest be teeth and use of leeches. decorated in flowers and Early physicians were painted in pale blue, green also familiar with aroma- or white tones. therapy, which is becoming more and more popular in § 5. FOLK TREATMENT the West today. The smell of METHODS quince, for example, was believed to strengthen the Folk medicine treat- natural energy of the body. ment in Azerbaijan was Citron was used to tone the called Turkahara (Turkic nervous system, and apples, treatment). This procedure to stimulate the brain. was well known among Music was also recog- Turkic tribes living in the nized as another form of region of Azerbaijan. It con- therapy because of its abili- sisted of various methods ty to affect emotions. Posi- including magic, medicinal tive effects were observed plants, folk surgery and when people listened to massage. Evidence for Turka- The Azerbaijan folk chara treatment in medi- poetry genre known as eval Azerbaijani folklore "bayati" describes medicinal exists in various sources herbs that were used by such as Kitabi Dada Gor- people in their daily lives. gud (Book of My Grand- One of the poems mentions father Gorgud). This oral a person who can't find epic predates its written "yarpыz" (pennyroyal, water form of the 11th century and mint). preserves traces of ancient This leads us to con- Turkic folk medicine. clude that in earlier times these species of mint were H e r b s i n F o l k used in folk medicine to m e d i c i n e treat wounds. Modern field research also confirms that villagers still use yarpiz as an analgesic, antiinflamma- tory and antiseptic remedy. In addition, this herb promotes digestion and is good for the stomach. It also has the ability to draw pus from wounds. Indeed, yarpыz was one of the most famous herbs of Azerbaijani folk medicine. Elm Tree. Miniature from Mirza Fatali Akhundov, “Ikhtiyarati-Badii”. Coped in founder of Azerbaijani dra- the 17th century. Institute of ma (19th century), refers to manuscripts, Baku. . yarpiz in his famous play, “The Story of Monsieur Jordan, a Doctor, and Dar- vish Mastali-Shah, a Famo- us Magician”. One of the characters, the French bota- nist Monsieur Jordan visits the Karabakh region to study local flora. He discov- ers that yarpiz is very popular among the local popula- Aromatic melon. Miniature tion. The Azerbaijan Film from “Ikhtiyarati-Badii”. Institute of manuscripts, Baku, Studio produced a film coped in the 17th century AD. based on this play, "Darvish Explodes Paris" (Darvish ern field research shows Parisi Daghidir) where the that at least 800 species of famous Russian actor Ser- herbs were used in folk gey Yursky played Jordan. medicine [2]. Today, pennyroyal is The most commonly used both in folk medicine, used herb is thyme. The en- as well as in cuisine. tire upper part of this plant "Dovga", made from yogurt (stem, flowers and leaves) is and greens such as penny- widely used in both folk royal, is considered to be medicine and cuisine. Dried good for digestion and for thyme is sold in bazaars, alleviating intestinal colic. markets and pharmacy sho- Similar to peppermint, it is ps. People add it to their tea also eaten as a fresh table to treat intestinal colic or green. Of course, not only is indigestion. One tablespo- pennyroyal used in Azer- on is infused in a glass of baijani folk medicine, mod- hot water. People drink it three times a day prior to influenza. People pour jov- meals to cure infectious dis- harnana into a spoon and eases of stomach and intes- heat it and inhale the extract tines and to stimulate the as it evaporates. It clears out appetite. Thyme is used to stuffed noses and eases flavor meat as well, especial- breathing. ly kababs. It adds aroma and People frequently use aids digestion. It is also used the peel of pomegranates for in the preparation of shar- dyspepsia and indigestion. bats (fruit and herbal non- It is a very strong remedy. alcoholic refreshing drink), The skin - either fresh or which are good for digestion dried - can be boiled in and to promote secretion of water and sipped through- gastric juices. out the day. The taste is Since ancient times pe- quite bitter so some people ople have used the alcoholic add sugar. Unlike antibi- extraction of peppermint for otics, pomegranate skin has external application. This no side effects and may be extraction is called cövhər- used in the treatment of lit- nanə (sometimes, nanəcövhər tle children. as well) (peppermint essen- Other frequently used ce). Jovharnana is used to herbs include chamomile massage the belly when (çobanyastığı), which is used someone is experiencing for infectious diseases, intestinal colic. After the peppermint (nanə) used for massage, the person covers abdominal colic and colds, up with blankets. This reme- and juniper cones (ardıc dy is applied to treat neural- qozaları) for urinary infec- gia. It is used to ease breath- tions. ing of those with colds and F o l k S u r g e r y sues vital for repairing dam- aged joints. Another group of Folk doctors called folk healers was called çöpçü. sınıqçı (fracture doctors) spe- They were skillful in remov- cialized in the treatment of ing any bones that got dislocations and fractures. To lodged in the throat. alleviate severe pain in the extremities, compresses ma- C H I L D A G H - F O L K de of the fat of sheep's tail R E F L E X O T H E R A P Y were placed on the injured part. Usually, these com- On the Absheron pe- presses were kept on ninsula, there are still folk throughout the night and healers named childagchi removed the next morning. (spot burners) who treat As a result, pain and inflam- nervous diseases and re- mation decrea-sed and the move tiredness by applying diseased joint had more flex- heat to certain spots on the ibility. forehead, arms and legs. In addition, fat from Childagh is still practiced in both the badger and fox was Mashtagha, one of the vil- valued as a potent remedy. lages in the suburbs of Baku. Ointments from these fats Many people still seek out were applied to painful joints this treatment [1]. and bones. Sometimes, pepper, ginger or other spices were added to the fat. For rapid recovery of broken bones, folk healers recommended such food as xaş, kəlləpaça or başayaq. These are soups made from hooves and heads of sheep and cows and are rich in nutrients as they contain connective tis- Cigarette for cauterization The art of Childagh is quite physician of the 15th centu- unique although it has not ry, also describes this treat- been thoroughly investigat- ment in his book of surgery, ed. It is not known when which is now preserved in Childagh was introduced the Topkapi Museum in into this region or from Istanbul. This book pro- where it originated. It seems vides color miniatires show- to be a modified form of ing this treatment. We see a Chinese reflexology replac- physician burning the ing needles with cauteriza- points on a patient's fore- tion (burning). Perhaps this head with a metallic stick - art came to Azerbaijan from like implement. Some Azeri China during the Mongo- Turkic verses by Muham- lian invasion of the 13th mad Fuzuli (1494-1562) also century when many fea- provide information about tures of Chinese culture and medicine were brought to early cauterization practice. Azerbaijan. The Mongolian rulers of the Elkhanid Dy- nasty who ruled in Azerbai- jan favored such Chinese traditions. Childagh has not been found to be documented in the ancient medical manuscripts of Azerbaijan or sur- rounding Muslim regions. However, Ibn Sina does mention in his Canon that some nervous diseases were treated by burning three points on the forehead. Sha- Childagchi at work rafaddin Hakim, a Turkish In childagh as prac- For example, some ticed in Azerbaijan today, people believe that if a the healer uses a cigar made childless woman eats fried of wormwood or plain cot- rooster genitals, she will ton wool. Chinese also use become pregnant. Accor- this same type of cigarette. ding to another folk belief, the eyes of an owl work well § 6. MEDICINE AND for both inability to sleep, as MAGIC well as an excessive desire to sleep. This folk idea is Healing by magic was described in the medieval also an essential part of folk book, Tibbname (Book of medicine in Azerbaijan. Medicine) of 1712: "It is nec- Beginning in ancient times, essary to remove both eyes shamans (qam in ancient of an owl and put them in a Turkic) from Oguz tribes bowl with water. A heavy who inhabited Azerbaijan eye will sink, a light eye will used various magical songs, float on the water's surface. music and verbal formulas If a person suffering from to stave off evil spirits. They insomnia swallows the used various parts of ani- heavy eye, he will fall into a mals in this process. Ves- sound sleep. However, if he tiges of these practices are consumes the lighter eye, he evident in Azerbaijan even will not sleep all night" [33]. today, even though Islam Some healing practices severely criticizes such be- are related to Islam as well as liefs and considers them to folk magic. For example, accor- be superstitious [10]. ding to the Tibbname, if one reads the Sura of Fatiha cribe such a courageous from the Koran every morn- person. They say: "Did you ing and then trims his eye- eat a lion's heart?" (“Şir brows with a comb, he ne- ürəyi yemisən?”). It's impos- ver will die of plague. Ano- sible to find any lions' ther belief advises that bad hearts in Azerbaijan today memory can be treated by because they all became writing down the Fatiha on extinct in the 16th century. a big piece of sugar and However, there have then eating it on an empty been occasions when people stomach. All such recom- have gone to the Baku Zoo mendations are held in dis- and tried to persuade per- dain by Islam and have sonnel to sell various ani- nothing to do with religion mal parts: snake skins, wolf nor with traditional medi- paws, camel fur, rhinoceros cine of medieval Azerbai- excrement, and even ele- jan. However, such beliefs phant urine. continue to persist.

R H I N O C E R O S H O R N A n d L i o n ’ s H e a r t

It is believed that if one eats the heart of a lion that he will be brave and recover from such condi- tions such as depression, It is still believed that this bad mood and nervousness. statue of Camel in Sofi Hamid Sanctuary nearby Even today, Azerbaijanis Baku treats infertility in have an expression to des- women and other diseases. Such a situation is that the fried meat of hedge- described in Magsud Ibra- hog cures female infertility. himbeyov's short story, So many hedgehogs have "The Horn of Rhinoceros". become victims of this The protagonist of the story, superstition. an elderly person decides to The wolf is considered marry a young girl. He dis- a sacred ancestor or totem covers an ancient book with of Turkic tribes. Many a folk recipe describing how beliefs are associated with to make himself appear this animal. All of them date younger and healthier. One to Pre-Islamic times though of magical ingredients was they still live on in folk powder from the horn of belief today despite the neg- rhinoceros. So he goes to the ative attitude of Islam zoo at night with the inten- towards such "pagan ideas". tion to saw off a horn of a rhinoceros. However, he is suddenly attacked by a small kiwi bird, which made such a noisy racket that the perpetrator gets arrested by the police.

H E D G E H O G S A N D W O L F C L A W S

Hedgehogs are extre- Room for treatment of insane mely popular in Azerbaijani persons in Sofi Hamid folk medicine. It is believed Sanctuary nearby Baku. All parts of the wolf that they make a diagnosis are believed to produce based randomly selecting positive medical effects. For texts in the Koran along example, the wolf's claws with amulets and magical are considered the best formulas. One of Azerai- medicine against male jan's most famous extrasen- impotence. It was recom- sors Tofig Dadashov clai- mended to carry claws to ms to be able to treat dis- increase potency. Another eases by drawing upon his belief advised soaking the telepathic skills. claws in oil for a long time There are also for- and then using this oil as an tunetellers and magicians ointment. who claim to have the ability to remove evil eye with E X T R A S E N S O R S the help of black and white A N D F O R TU N E magic. T E L L E R S Therapy with massage and chiropractics is less Azerbaijan has its sha- widespread now in com- re of extrasensors who are parison to a few decades convinced that they have ago, but they continue to be the ability to treat others practiced. Throughout Az- with the help of words, sug- erbaijan there are centers gestions or bioenergy. Ma- where Tibetan, Indian and ny extrasensors are folk Chinese folk medicine is healers and have no med- used to treat those in need ical diploma. Sometimes of medical assistance and they mix their practice with cures. Islam and magic, meaning CHAPTER 4 MEDIEVAL PHARMACOLOGY

In spite of this rich her- § 1. INTRODUCTION itage, the traditional phy- topharmocology of Azer- Azerbaijani people ha- baijan has not been satisfac- ve a rich and ancient tradi- torily investigated. Until tion in the field of pharma- quite recently, we had no cology. Physicians of those information about the quan- days widely used medicinal titative and qualitative com- plants, minerals and sub- position of plant species stances of animal origin described in medieval Azer- (milk, honey, oil, meat, gall, baijan sources. These plants bones, feathers, skin, etc.). had not been identified and There are numerous medici- classified into taxonomic nal plants described in and therapeutic groups. medieval Azerbaijan manu- Since 1987, the author scripts on medicine and of the present book has been pharmacology that date engaged in identifying and back to the 9th-l8th cen- analyzing the medicines turies AD. Phitotherapy described in these manu- was very popular. Traditi- scripts. As a result of this onally, no part of a medici- work, numerous medicinal nal plant was wasted; all plants used in Azerbaijan parts were used - seeds, flo- during the Middle Ages ha- wers, leaves, stems and ve been identified. [5] roots. § 2. STUDIED MANU- Namvar Tabrizi (1194- SCRIPTS 1245). 2."Kitab al-Hawi fi Ilm For studying tradi- al-Madawi" by Mahmud tional phototherapy of Azer- bin Ilyas (13th-l4th cen- baijan, a wide range of the turies). medieval sources on medi- 3."Jam al-Baghdadi" cine and pharmacognosy (written in 1311) by Yusif have been analyzed. The bin Ismail Khoyi (Ibn main attention was paid to Kabir) studying the primary 4."Siraj al-Tibb" by sources from the collection Hasan bin Riza Shirvani of the Institute of Manus- (18th century). cripts of the Azerbaijan 5."Fawaid al-Hikmat" Academy of Sciences in by Haji Suleyman bin Baku. About 40 medieval Salman Qajar Iravani (18th sources of the 10th to the century). 18th centuries including 17 6."Khirga" written in manuscripts have been 1678 by Murtaza Qulu selected as the objects of the Khan Shamlu al-Ardabili. recent study. The list of the 7."'Tbbnama". Ano- manuscripts studied is nymoys. Copied and edit- given below. ed in 1711/2 by Muham- mad Yusif Shirvani. Works of Medieval 8."Mualijat-i- Azerbaijani Authors Munfarida" (1775/6 ) by Abulhasan al-Maraghi. 1."Adwar al-Hammi- yat" by Muhammad bin 1628/9). Works of Persian, 8."Tuhfat aI-Muminin" Central Asian and Arabic (1669) by Sayyid Mir Mu- Authors Widely Used in hammad Mu'min (d. 1697). the Medieval Azerbaijan 9."Arwah al-Ajsad" by Shamsaddin bin Kamalad- 1."Kamil al-Sina'at al- din Kashani (17th century). Tibbiyat" by All bin Abbas 10."Kitab-i-Ruju al-She- Majusi Arjani (d. 994 AD). ykh" by Sheykh Ajal al- 2."Zahira-i-Kharazm- Sharif (l7th century). shahi" by Zeynaddin bin 11."Zad al-Musafirin" Ahu Ibrahim Jurjani (1045- (1729) by Muhammad Ma- 1137). hdi bin All al-Nagi. 3."Zakhira-i-Nizam- 12."Karabadin-i-Kabir" shahi" by Rustam Jurjani (1777) by Muhammad Hu- supposedly in the 13th cen- seyn Khan Alavi Samar- tury. kandi. 4."Ikhtiyarat-i-Badi'i" (1369) by Abu bin Huseyn al-Ansari (1329-1404). 5."Kifayat al-Mujahi- da" (1423) by Mansur bin Muhammad. 6."Jam' al-Fawaid" (1511) by Yusif bin Muhammad al- Ilarawi. 7."Karabadin" by Mu- Modern edition of Tibbname” and “Tuhfat al-Muminin” in zaffar bin Muhammad Russian (Sankt-Peterburg, Hluseyn Shafai (1586/7- 2002). Translation by F. Alakbarli and A.Farzaliyev. All these manuscripts range of sources written by have been collected from Indian, Chinese, Arabic and various regions of the Azer- Greek scholars. Consequ- baijan Republic. They were ently, the same concepts copied in our country and were often identified by nu- belonged to Azerbaijani merous foreign terms. owners. The above men- Physicians of those tioned books were widely times used more than 2000 used by medieval Azerbai- names to designate hun- jani physicians and these dreds of species of medici- writings may be considered nal plants in 27 languages as the most popular books and dialects including Aze- of Medieval Azerbaijan. ri, Turkish, Arabic, Persian, Ancient Greek, Latin, An- § 3. RESEARCH METHODS cient Hebrew, Chinese, Hi- ndi, Sanskrit, Aramaic, Studying the medi- Coptic, Berber, Ancient eval sources on medicine Turkic, Uigur, Andalus and pharmacy is fraught (dialect of Arabic), lsfahan with numerous difficulties (dialect of Persian), Gilan and involved various sci- and Mazàndaran (Iranian ences. Medieval sources languages) [4]. were handwritten in the The scientific terminolo- Arabic script employing gy of such modern languages medieval special terminolo- as Azeri, Arabic and Persian gy and medieval ideas on is not the same as that used medicine. Medieval Azeri during the medieval period. authors collected medical Other languages (Coptic, information from a wide Ancient Greek, Latin, ve also been analyzed to Aramaic) ceased to exist identify plant species. The many centuries ago and old scientific books were consequently hamper the widely applied. Modern sci- correct translation of many entific literature was ana- medieval terms. In this lyzed as well. Reference bo- chapter, the facts and meth- oks on flora helped the aut- ods of both the social (histo- hor in various stages of this ry, philology, philosophy, work. etc.) and the natural (bota- Information on the me- ny, zoology, mineralogy, dicinal plants of medieval chemistry, medicine, phar- Azerbaijan is scattered in macology, etc.) sciences ha- various sources that were ve been used to try to solve written in different lan- these difficulties. guages. It must be noted Translation of the me- that various dictionaries can dieval terms has been car- give us unlike or contradic- ried out according to mod- tory translations of the same ern and medieval dictionar- terms. Work with these ies. However, sometimes sources requires great cau- special dictionaries do not tion and a critical approach contain the necessary infor- to the material, and a thor- mation or offer various in- ough comparison with the terpretations of the same other data obtained on the terms. Fortunately, the me- basis of morphological, eco- dieval manuscripts on phar- logical and bio-geographical macy contain detailed bio- analyses of the plant species logic descriptions of botani- described in medieval sour- cals. These descriptions ha- ces. § 4. SYSTEMATICAL species of mushrooms also ANALYSES OF THE were used: Polyporus offici- IDENTIFIED SPECIES nalis Fries., Tuber album Sow., Tuber meianasporum As a result, 724 species Vitt., Morchelia esculenta of plants described in medi- Pers. eval sources on medicine Of the 724 species of and pharmacognosy have plants described in the me- been identified. These plan- dieval sources on medicine ts belong to four sections and pharmacognosy, 422 (Equisetophyta, Polypodioph- species (58.3%) belong to yta, Gymnospermae, Angiosper- indigenous plants and mae), to six classes (Equise- occur in the territory of topsida, Polypodiopsida, Gne- modern Azerbaijan Repub- topsida, Pinopsida, Monocoty- lic. Comparative analysis ledones, Dicotyledones) and shows that only 166 of them 143 families. are currently being used in It turned out that 16 modern phytotherapy of families contain about 54% Azerbaijan. It must be noted of identified plants. The that 60 of mentioned species remaining 121 families in- are known as plants of folk clude 45% of the medicinal medicine, whereas the 106 plants. Physicians of those species are currently being times used a number of used in scientific medicine species of lichens belonging of Azerbaijan. to three genera: Lecanora, The fundamental stu- Roccella and Usnea. Some dies and reference books on medicinal plants of Azer- has diuretic qualities. It baijan do not contain any strengthens heart and nerv- information about other ous system. Warm quince 256 indigenous species that salve can be applied to irri- are described in the me- tated skin. Sour fruit is rec- dieval manuscripts on ommended to person with medicine and pharmacog- an accelerated heartbeat. It nosy. Therefore, these 256 stimulates the appetite. species (60.7%) are no lon- Fruit and juice are good ger used in the modern against liver diseases, hep- Azerbaijan phytotherapy. atitis, rhinitis, pneumonia The identified medicinal and nausea. Juice can be plants may have therapeu- used to stop bleeding, blo- tic value once they have be- od spitting, ulcers and in- en experimentally and clin- juries of the urethra, vomit- ically tested. ing and hang-over. Besides, it quenches thirst well. Qu- § 5. DESCRIPTION OF ince pulp (especially of PLANT SPECIES IN sour fruit) acts as an opiate; MEDIEVAL SOURCES therefore it should be taken in small quantities, prefer- While describing the ably with honey, stewed or species of plants, medieval in the form of jam. authors gave wide informa- Excessive consumption on their therapeutic tion of fresh fruit might properties. For example, cause cough or colitis. The Muhammad Mumin (d. fluff of skin is strong opiate 1697) wrote: and helps to slop bleeding, "QUINCE (Cydonia but is bad for the larynx vulgaris Pers.). Ripe fruit and vocal cords. can be used as a tonic and The seeds are strong styptic. ent parts of plants have dif- The infusion is good against ferent healing properties. angina, cough and irritation Modern pharmaceutic use of the mouth. Seed's com- only some parts of plants, presses are applied to fire while medieval physicians and sun burns. Core of used roots, stems, leaves, seeds intensifies libido, acts flowers, fruits and seeds, as a purgative and stimu- with each part used in an lates breathing. It is used adequate way. Traditional- against ulcer, cough and the ly, no part of a medicinal vocal cords' inflammation. plant was wasted; all parts The moisture around the were used. seeds is good against dry As a rule, the medieval cough as well as burns." [27] manuscripts on medicine From the above quota- contain numerous chapters tion, it appears that medi- devoted to treatment of var- eval physicians applied the ious diseases using reme- same plant against a num- dies of natural origin. For ber of different diseases. instance, the title of the first Individual plants or their chapter of "Tibbnama" (1712) mixtures were used to pre- is as follows: "The First Cha- pare different medical pter. Narrates About Treat- forms such as unguents, ment of Headache And powders, tablets, pills, infu- Migraine." [33] sions, syrups, different mix- The following chap- tures, etc. ters of the mentioned book Physicians of the Mid- are devoted to healing such dle Ages knew that differ- diseases as melancholy, leaves. Besides, take so- epilepsy, meningitis, poor called mastic (the resinous memory, nasal bleeding, exudate from Pistacia len- toothache, extraction of tiscus L.), add twice as much teeth, week gums, and so sugar and eat during sever- on. Some examples of these al days recommendations are given Cough. "Take 20 g of below (the manuscript of basil's (Ocirnum basilicum "Tibbnama," Code: C 541, L.) leaves and flowers, mix pp. 41-77). The medieval with 20 g of thyme (Thymus weight units are converted sp.) leaves, and infuse in I into grams, scientific names liter of water for l5 minutes. of plants and comments are Then, add to infusion two given in parenthesis. spoons of honey and stir it. Colic in Stomach. "Ta- The diseased person has to ke dried leaves of pepper- take one spoon of this med- mint (Mentha piperita L.), icine in every half an hour " mix with some vinegar and Headaches. "To heal massage the belly. The oint- chronic headaches (migrai- ment from cinnamon (the ne), take 5-10 g of basil's dried bark of Cinnamonum (Ocimum basilicum L.) lea- cassia (Nees) Nees ex Blume) ves, boil in a cup of water, is also useful, if it is ap- titter, add some honey or plied externally on the sto- sugar and drink. Repeat mach". this treatment every day Colitis. "Root of althea during two weeks. If head- (Althaea officinalis L.) is the ache is associated with cold, best remedy against colitis. you have to drink dec- To remove the acute pain oction of thyme (Thymus one should eat 3 g of its sp.) or add its leaves into common tea. Ginger (the Hemorrhoids. "Grind dried rhizome of Zingiber 15 g of the oleander (Nerium officinale Rosc.) is used for oleander L.) leaves. Put preparation of analgesic threshed leaves into a pot ointment against headache. filled with 100 g of olive oil You should take the ginger's and carefully boil them. juice, stir with sesame Then, decoction should be (Sesamum orientale L.) oil or filtered to obtain pure oil. rose (Rosa damascena Mill., R. 1'ake a bit of cotton, sub- centiJblia I ., R. gailica L.) oil merge into oil and prepare and spread on the head" suppository to apply on the Heart Diseases. "De- hemorrhoids. If diseased is a coction of balm-mint (Me- child, you should prepare lissa officinalis L.) leaves decoction from pomegran- with rose water is good ate's (fruits of Punica grana- against excessive heartbeat tum L.) skin. Then the child (tachycardia). The pome- should take a bath with this granate (fruits of Punica decoction". granatum L.) syrup is also Indigestion. "For a day used to heal this disorder. a diseased person should Make a mixture of juice of avoid any food and follow plantain (Plantago major L.) to a rigorous diet. Then, he leaves, rose water, purslane should eat fresh leaves of (Portulaca oleracea L.) juice, balm-mint (Melissa officinalis and drink it. Apples (Pirus L.). To improve the poor di- malus I .) and their decoction gestion, it is good to sprin- are good in prophylaxis and kle dried powder of pepper- treatment of heartbeat as mint (leaves of Meniha pipe- well". rita L.) on the dishes. Such orous should take 1 g of this seasonings as cinnamon and remedy. To remove bad mastic also are good for spirit you have to carefully digestion. Besides, it is rec- and slowly chew and swal- ommended to eat various low one or two cloves (dried dishes with fresh herb of tar- flower buds of Eugenia ragon (Artemisia dracuncu- caryophyllus (Spreng.) Bull. lus L.)" et Harr.)" Kidney Diseases. "Co- Pains in Ear. "Pomeg- nes of cypress (Cupressus ranate (fruits of Punica sempervirens L.) and juniper granatum L.) should be (Juninerus sabina L.) are good cleaned from seeds, stuffed against inflammation of with rose oil and heated. kid-ney and urinary blad- Then you have to prepare der. The green cones of the ear drops from this oil cypress should be boiled in and to use it against ear two glasses of water. Then, pain. Besides, you may boil the diseased person should the sour pomegranate's take half a glass of this juice, mix it with equal decoction three times per amount of honey and drop day during one-two weeks. into ears". Cones are good diuretics Pains in Joints. "There and remove inflammation is a good analgesic ointment from urinary organs" against rheumatism. Take Melancholy. "Saffron some garlic (Allium salivum (Crocus sativus L.) is called L.), chop it, mix with equal 'the medicine cheering amount of camphor and heart' because it removes massage the joint. The the had spirit. Those who chamomile (flower heads of want to be cheerful and vig- Matricaria chamomilla L.) oil § 6. THERAPEUTIC also removes rheumatic APPLICATION OF HERBS pains. A person with ill joints should also take a Most of species (150 bath with decoction of spp. or 36.4%) was used thyme (Thymus sp.) leaves. externally as antiseptics for He has to take 500 g. of ulcers, furuncles, scabies, thyme, chop it and put in mange and other skin dis- the little bag which should eases. This group includes be placed in boiling water such drugs as leaves of ole- for 15 m. Then, he should ander (Nerium oleander L.), ju- empty this decoction into ices of onion (Allium cepa L.), bath". ramsons (AIlium ursinum L., Quinsy. "Gargles with A. victoriale L.) and garlic decoction of the black (Allium sativum L.). The mentioned plants were plum-tree (Punus domestica used for preparing ungu- L.) leaves are good against ents, powders and different this disease. Gargle remo- medical forms that were ves inflammation and applied externally. The sec- strengthens muscles of a ond group contains plants throat. Infusion of aloe species applied to diseases (leaves of Aloe vera L.) is of kidney and urinary blad- also used against quinsy. der (92 spp. or 23%). This Take one sour and one group contains the follow- sweet pomegranate (Punica ing herbal medicines: flow- granatum L) and boil them ers of corn camomile with skin. Use this decoc- (Anthemis arvensis L.), fruits tion for gargling". of dog-rose (Rosa canina L.), leaves of blackberry (Rubus (Raphanus salivus L.) etc. fruticosus L), bark of willow Many plants were used ag- (Salix sp.), etc. These reme- ainst other ailments. dies were given mainly in Azerbaijani physicians decoction or infusion form. of the Middle Ages widely The plants of third group used botanicals which are were used against various similar to our present arma- diseases of liver and bile mentarium. For example, duct. In medieval sources Matricaria chamomilla L. was most of them were desig- applied against inflammato- nated as cholagogues. ry diseases and nervous- Scholars of the Middle Ages ness, and Valeriana officinalis point out that there are two L. in treatment of cardiovas- kinds of bile in a human's cular diseases. Botanicals of organism: the so-called "bla- modern phytotherapy were ck bile" (qara юd in Old Az- used by medieval physi- eri and sawda in Arabic) and cians more widely than we the "yellow bile" (sarы юd in use them today. For exam- Old Azeri and safra in ple, Valeriana officiinalis L. Arabic). The following pla- was applied not only to nts were considered by treat nervousness and heart medieval authors as chola- diseases, but also as a gogues: spearmint (Mentha diuretic and haemostatic spicata L.), dandelion (Tara- medicine. These properties xacum officinale Wigg.), saf- of valerian are confirmed by fron (Crocus sativus L.), bar- the modern studies as well. berries (Berberis vulgarLy L.), Muhammad Mumin, fumitory (Furnaria officinalis the author of the 17th centu- L.), celandine (Chelidoiniurn ry, recommended to treat majus L.), chicory (Cichorium cancer of skin with the help intybus L.), black radish plied. Presently, saffron's infusion is successfully used by some traditional healers in Azerbaijan for treatment of diseases of liver.

§ 4. SOME “FORGOTTEN" BOTANICALS OF The 17th century picture of cabbage. Baku’s Institute of THE MIDDLE AGES Manuscripts of cabbage's (Brassica oler- These plants are not acea L.) leaves. It was recom- included in the list of mended to apply the fresh species recommended for threashed leaves or their medical application by Mi- juice on the patient's skin. nistry of Health. Besides, The future experimental they are not used even in studies have to cheek this the folk medicine of modern medieval recommendation. Azerbaijan. Some examples Despite the wide ap- of them are cited below. plication of saffron (Crocus Amaranthus retroflexus sativus L.) in medieval phy- L. This well-known decora- totherapy, nowadays this tive plant is not used by sci- plant is almost forgotten by entific medicine in Azer- modern scientific medicine. baijan. According to the Most of authors of the Mid- modern literature it may dle Ages recommended to cause allergia. However, it use saffron in treatment of may be supposed that this diseases of liver, heart and herb has the antimicrobial as a tonic. For these por- and anti-inflammatory pro- poises, the homeopathic perties. doses of saffron were ap- For example, the medieval plied against herpes. It was sources inform that decoc- believed that the decoction tion of leaves was used of root crushes stones in uri- against tumors and diseases nary bladder. of skin. Besides, juice of Microlophus behen (L) leaves was applied to heal Taht. The herb was used as a wounds. To treat ulcers in tonic andmedicine against mouth and inflammation of tiredness and arrhythmia. gums, it was recommended Myosotis arvensis L. to rinse it with decoction of Flowers, leaves and roots dried amaranth's leaves. were used as antiseptics and Anacyclus ciliatus Tra- sedative medicines. Recent- utv. It was considered that ly, this plant is widely culti- seeds of this plant strength- vated in Azerbaijan for dec- en an organism, and has the orative porpoises. diuretic, antipyretic, anti- Onopordon acanthium L. inflammatory, sudorific, Seeds and root were used lactogenic and expectorant against spasms,blood-spit- properties. ting and as antidote against Doronicum macrophyl- the scorpion's bites. It was lurn Fish. The root of this believed that the bandage herb was used as a tonic. It with seeds stops bleeding. was believed that it streng- Salsola dendroides Pall. thens liver, heart, digestion Decoction of stem or leaves and organs of senses. was used as cholagogus. Decoction of the root was The juice was applied on prescribed against arrhyth- burns and irritated skin. mia. The future scientific Gypsophyla elegans studies have to check effec- M.B. Root was used as tiveness of the plants descri- diuretic, styptic and chola- bed in the medieval sources. gogus. Externally was ap- CHAPTER 5 AROMATHERAPY IN MEDIEVAL AZERBAIJAN

known to bathe regularly § 1. WHAT IS ARO- with rose petals. MATHERAPY? In Azerbaijan as well, aromatherapy was once Aromatherapy is a considered to be part of type of alternative medicine mainstream medicine. Me- that is gaining popularity in dieval Azerbaijani doctors the United States and regularly prescribed essen- Europe. Specialists in this tial oils and other fragrances field believe that flowers for their patients. For exam- and herbs have value ple, a bath that smelled of beyond their wonderful roses - such as Cleopatra smells - perhaps these used to take - would have plants even have the power been prescribed for some- to heal. one who was feeling melan- The practice of aro- cholic or who had a matherapy is believed to headache. Today, this term date back several millennia usually refers to treatment to the Egyptians and Ba- with essential oils. These bylonians, who often took fragrant extracts come from baths with aromatic herbs flowers, fruits and herbs - and other substances for such as rose, violet, thyme, hygienic and medicinal pur- lavender and marjoram - poses. For instance, Egyp- and are usually breathed in tian queen Cleopatra was or applied to the skin. Although the term needles, was known as the "aromatherapy" was only tree of the prophet Zarath- coined in 1937 by Ren- ustra (Zoroaster). The dis- Mauric Gattefoss, a French persion of oils was also cosmetic chemist, the tech- thought to purify the air and nique itself is thousands of provide protection from evil years old. spirits. According to ancient §2. ANCIENT BELIEFS Turkic beliefs, all fragrant flowers were created by In the ancient king- Tangry, the Supreme God of doms of Mannai (9th-7th the Blue Sky. The Goddess centuries BC) and Atropa- of Grasses and Trees, Oleng, tena (4th-1st centuries BC) - was his wife. Oleng was also now situated in the pro- considered to be the patro- vinces of Eastern and Wes- ness of physicians. Each tern Azerbaijan (Iran) - peo- year, at the beginning of ple believed that they had to spring, the Turkic peoples be clean and beautiful in held solemn festivals in order to attain a higher spir- honor of this goddess and ituality. For these purposes, burned fragrant herbs such ancient Azerbaijanis used as wormwood. aromatic oils such as frank- Ancient Turkic leg- incense, myrrh, galbanum, ends tell that the souls of all rosemary, hyssop, cassia, children arise inside flowers cinnamon and spikenard. and are then moved to their Some fragrant herbs mothers' bodies. In a 7th- and trees served a religious century legend, the elder purpose. For example, the named Gorgud says: cypress, with its fragrant "I was created inside a § 3. ESSENTIAL OILS flower... moved to my mother's body, and born After Islamic invaders with the assistance of the conquered the region in the gray-eyed Angel." [31] 7th century, Azerbaijanis Azerbaijanis treated began studying the chemi- diseases and injuries with cal properties of essential aromatic substances. One oils. They learned from the scene describing such an experience of Muslim alche- occasion comes from the mist Jabir ibn Hayyan (702- ancient Azerbaijani epic 765) and other scholars who "Dada Gorgud" (Grandfa- had helped to develop and ther Gorgud), a compilation refine the distillation pro- of legends that were set cess. down in writing during the In those times, Azer- 11th century but contain baijanis could easily have stories that can be traced extracted rose oil and pre- back to the 6th and 7th cen- pared rose water, substan- turies. [23] ces that were very popular Aromatic plants were- throughout the entire East. n't just for healing. For Other essential oils used by instance, as far back as the medieval Azerbaijanis were 4th century AD, the people fennel, melissa (lemon in Caucasian Albania (now balm), spearmint, nutmeg, northern Azerbaijan) used dill, chamomile, cinnamon, the herb thyme as both a lime, orange, bergamot, le- tonic and an aphrodisiac. mon, myrrh, coriander, black cumin, tarragon, bi- rch, cedarwood, cypress and Muhammad Fuzuli and myrtle. According to (1494-1556), rose oil was us- existing Azerbaijani manu- ed as a remedy for head- scripts, at least 60 plant spe- aches and as a topical anti- cies were used in aro- septic. Mahammad Yusif matherapy at the time. Unl- Shirvani (18th century) rec- ike today, even aromatic ommended an unguent of animal species were used. cumin for sword wounds. Our documents identify Though the concept of anti- eight of them. biotics was not known at the By studying essential time, physicians did use oils, medieval Azerbaijani ointments of cumin, honey doctors were able to expand and raw onion juice as topi- their understanding of aro- cal antiseptics. matherapy and its ability to We know that juniper cure disease. Specific oils oil was also used as an anti- were used to treat certain septic because Haji Suley- ailments. For instance, basil man Iravani, a 17th-century oil was believed to relax the Azerbaijani physician, rec- muscles and have a calming ommends using ointment effect. As an ointment, it from juniper cones to heal could heal wounds, cuts wounds. Cypress was used and sores. Basil and cam- as a strong diuretic for treat- phor mixed with flour was ing urinary disease. And for used against scorpion bites, a person with a cold or a and bergamot root was stuffy nose, doctors recom- known to alleviate insect mended inhaling the vapors bites and act as a repellent. from an infusion of thyme, According to the poets peppermint or spearmint. Nizami Ganjavi (1141-1209) § 4. LUXURY matic ointments with pride, TREATMENTS then closed them again, explaining: "I can't bring Not everyone could myself to touch these treas- afford these treatments. ures." [36] While substances like violet Animal substances li- oil and rose water were fair- ke musk, castor and amber- ly inexpensive, imported gris were particularly ex- essential oils were quite pensive, as they had to be costly and only available to imported from China, Rus- the wealthy. Rich people sia, the Persian Gulf and liked to dab themselves India. Not only were these with aromatic ointments, fragrances supposed to substances that also func- attract the female sex; they tioned as a form of curren- were also believed to have cy. Kings would barter and therapeutic properties. buy land, gold, slaves and A dab of ambergris - a wives with their crudely gray, waxy substance from extracted oils. the intestinal canals of Tenth-century writer sperm whales - would Abu Ali Tanuhi observes strengthen the brain and that shahs and sultans pos- heart, believed 17th-century sessed hundreds of jars of physician Hasan ibn Riza rare aromatic ointments in Shirvani. This substance is their treasure houses. Some often found floating in trop- of the ointments - which ical seas; to reach Azerbai- were worth their weight in jan, it had to be imported gold - were brought from from the coastal regions of India, Egypt and Byzan- the Indian and Pacific oce- tium. Tanuhi writes of a ans. miserly ruler who opened The scent of musk, it his jars, looked at his aro- was believed, would strengthen the heart and nerves a small pouch filled with and help to get rid of dried medicinal plants. (3) melancholy. To alleviate a Inhale the boiling decoc- headache, musk was mixed tions of medicinal herbs. (4) with saffron; a single drop Inhale the scent of flowers on one nostril would be suf- in special gardens. (5) Hang ficient. bunches of healing grasses Castor, a substance inside the house. (6) Breathe secreted by male beavers to the odor of burned medici- attract mates, often served nal plants. (7) Use an aro- as a substitute for musk. matic ointment. (8) Take an One or two drops of castor aromatic bath. applied to the face and arms would make a person more § 5. AROMATIC HERBAL ap-pealing, it was believed. BATHS In 1311, Kabir Khoyi wrote that a bandage with a few From ancient times drops of castor was good through the Middle Ages, for treating headaches. different nations of the Beverages containing castor Mediterranean and Near and vinegar were also used East used aromatic herbal to treat abdominal pain. baths widely for medical Fourteenth-century Azer- purposes. Over time this baijani scholar Yusif ibn Is- practice, which began in mail Khoyi describes eight Ancient Egypt and Babylon different methods for admi- and was further developed nistering aromatherapy: (1) by famous Greek scholars Use a pillow filled with and practitioners, spread medicinal plants. (2) Carry throughout Southern Euro- pe and the Near East and, la- taining various herbs and ter, influenced medical prac- other plant-derived aromat- tices in Western Europe. ic substances are now wide- Herbal baths, which ly available for bathing or were highly valued by the hand washing. ancients, are not completely However, volatile oils forgotten today. Modern are not the only agents science proves that bathing working in an aromatic can relieve muscle tension, bath. Fragrant plants con- dilate blood vessels, and tain numerous other con- slow the heart rate. stituents (tannins, flavono- Herbs can contribute ids, alkaloids, etc.) that are to these benefits. Bathing also therapeutic in an herbal with infusions of fragrant bath. The infusion of a herbs is used traditionally to whole fragrant herb is often treat many diseases, may considered to be more effec- eliminate physical and men- tive than its pure volatile oil. tal tiredness, and is benefi- Despite the number of cial for the skin and hair. modern works on phy- Since the late 1960s, totherapy, compared with owing to the widespread the ancient medical manu- use of phytotherapy in the scripts, they contain limited United States and Europe, informaion about aromatic herbal baths have become baths. Many ancient recipes even more popular. Many have been forgotten. To unique methods of applica- revive them, one must refer tion of herbs in our daily life to the ancient books on have been developed, and medicine and pharmacy. today a number of medici- These sources contain nu- nal preparations and cos- merous recommendations metics are produced with that might be of interest to herbs and sold throughout modern physicians and co- the world. Soaps, sham- uld enrich modern herbal poos, and shower gels con- medicine. § 6. HISTORY OF uses served as both beauty AROMATIC BATHS parlors and health clinics. Medieval Middle Eastern During the Middle bathhouses usually offered Ages, a cult of bathing was services such as bathing and formed in Azerbaijan, Persia massage with the applica- and Turkey. Contemporary tion of aromatic oils. Many sources attribute great heal- large public bathhouses had ing properties to bathing. a staff of masseurs for this An 11th century Iranian purpose, because it was writer, Keykavus Ziyari, believed that massage alle- wrote, "Since architects viates physical and mental began to raise buildings, tiredness, and improves cir- they created nothing better culation. than a bathhouse." [43] Aromatic oils were al- In order to maintain so used to treat various dis- health, it was recommended eases. For example, thyme that a person visit a bath- ointment (Thymus spp., house at least two or three Lamiaceae) was applied for times each week. Bathho- rheumatism, and an ointment with henna (Lawsonia inermis L., Lythraceae) or onion (Allium cepa L., Liliaceae & Alliaceae) was used for herpes. The staff of many bathhouses included a barber who cut hair and shaved the customers, and then applied henna (Lawso- nia inermis L., Lythraceae), Bathing queen Shirin (the 16th dyer's woad (Isatis tinctoria L., century Tabriz miniature). tomers could also order sweets, dinner, or a pipe. Stays in the bathhouse were so pleasant that some people would spend all their free time there; some even slept there. As a rule, after a visit to the bathhouse, people felt rejuvenated, attrac- tive, healthy, strong, and Barber in a bathouse energetic. (17th century miniature). The Azerbaijani aut- Brassicaceae), or other dyes hors of the Middle Ages to their hair. suggest numerous plants to After a bath and a use in one's bath, including massage, visitors to the grape leaves (Vitis vinifera bathhouse could rest and L., Vitaceae), chamomile relax in a special room (Matricaria recutita L., where they would drink Asteraceae), pomegranate coffee or tea with fragrant (Punica granatum L., Lyth- herbs that included pepper- raceae & Punicaceae), basil mint, thyme, sweet marjo- (Ocimum basilicum L., Lamia- ram, rose petals, cardamom ceae), anise (Pimpinella anis- (Elettaria cardamomum (L.) um L., Apiaceae), violet (Vio- Maton var. cardamomum, la sororia Willd., Violaceae), Zingiberaceae) or cloves (Sy- almond oil, garlic (Allium zygium aromaticum (L.) sativum L., Liliaceae & Allia- Merr. & L.M. Perry, Myrta- ceae), and barley (Hordeum ceae). In Azerbaijan, cus- vulgare L., Poaceae) [3]. Ancient manuscripts hing. For example, it was provide evidence that dur- recommended to massage a ing the 9th-14th centuries patient's body with the oint- the aromatic oils of about 50 ment of pine pitch, euphor- species of herbs and flowers bium juice (from Euphorbia were used for treatment spp., Euphorbiaceae) and gug- through bathing and exter- gul (resin of Commiphora nal application. Medieval wightii (Arn.) Bhandari, Bur- sources provide informa- seraceae), which was consid- tion about methods of ered a good cure for stones preparation and the cura- in the bladder if applied tive properties of these after bathing with a special baths. decoction. Some caution Azerbaijani bathhous- must be taken when using es used fragrant substances euphorbium juice, which is in several ways, including: caustic. 1. Aromatic decoctions 3. Usually, fragrant fr- or infusions were added to uits or perfumes were pla- the water in a bath. For ced near a bathing person. It example, Mumin (d. 1697) was believed that aromatic wrote that bathing in a substances strengthen the decoction of pine needles heart and have a sedative (Pinus spp., Pinaceae) is good effect. "[Hot] water in a bath against diseases of the ute- should not cover the pati- rus and rectum. ent's breast and heart," 2. Ointments contain- wrote Ibn Sina. It was rec- ing aromatic herbal oils ommended to bathe as long were applied to patients' as the skin continues to red- bodies after or before bat- den and swell. Bathing queen Shirin. A 17th century miniature illustrating a poem by Nizami Ganjavi (1141-1209), famous poet from the city of Ganja (present-day Azerbaijan Republic). However, one was Liliaceae & Amaryllidaceae), advised to stop bathing or violet aromatic oil to the after the skin began to pale. face and body. Women According to the folk especially liked these oils medicine of Azerbaijan, since they make the skin after a hot bath or nap, one tender and silky when was advised to apply rose, applied after bathing. narcissus (Narcissus spp., § 7. BATHHOUSES ed by hot steam circulated in pipes under floor and The medieval Azerbaijan walls. Several large medi- bathhouse was a very beau- eval bathhouses are still pre- tiful architectural object, served in Baku, including usually a stone building wi- the Haji Gayib Bathhouse th arches, domes, and beau- (built during the 15th centu- tiful gates. In Azerbaijan, ry C.E.) and the Gasim bey the inner part of the public Bathhouse (built during the bathhouse consisted of the 17th century C.E.), which entrance hall and one or sev- now houses a museum of eral large bathing halls with medieval pharmacy. In me- pools. There was also a dieval times, the bathhouses cloakroom and rooms for would serve men one day, rest. Bathhouses were heat- and women the next.

HAJI GAYIB BATHHOUSE IN BAKU (BUILT DURING THE 15TH CENTURY C.E.) The Shirvanshah Pala- ce within the perimeters of the "Inner City" (Ichari Shahar) also had a large bathhouse dating from the 15th century, but it lies in ruins now. Medieval Azeri sources attribute great healing properties to bathing. A In order to maintain good health, it was recommended that a person visit a bathhouse at least two or three times each week. Medieval authors suggested several Medieval bathouse (16th cen- plants to use in one's bath, tury miniature). includ-ing grape leaves, chamomile, pomegranate, basil, anise, violet, almond, garlic and barley. All public bathhouses had masseurs who applied healing and aromatic oils on the visitors' bodies. It was also possible to get meals, drinks and medicine, and you could even rest or Bathhouse in Shamakhi city sleep in the bathhouse. (Azerbaijan Republic ). The 17th century picture. To treat a cold, the let essential oils to the face bathhouse would offer a and body. Eastern women formula like the following: especially liked these oils "Take 20g of basil leaves because they made the skin and flowers, mix with 20g silky and soft. of thyme leaves, and infuse in 1 liter of hot water for 15 PINE NEEDLES minutes. Add two spoons of honey to the infusion and Some Azerbaijanis use stir. The diseased person has pine branches to prepare an to take one spoon of this med- extraction for bathing, a icine every half hour." [33] substance that is supposed Gasim bey's bathho- to strengthen the nervous use doesn't look like mod- system. The essential oil ern bathhouses or saunas from pine is condensed to a because it was based on the thick syrup, then dried and Oriental style of architec- pressed into tablets. ture, which uses domes and arches. It has several large pools and a number of separate rooms for individual bathing.

§ 8. THE FRAGRANT BATH

According to Azerbai- jani folk medicine, after a The 17th century bathhouse in Ganja (Azerbaijan Republic). hot bath or nap, one should apply rose, narcissus or vio- ROSEMARY MARJORAM

In Azerbaijan, people Taking a bath with a with low blood pressure are marjoram decoction is good advised to take a bath with for flatulence and nervous- rosemary. It is believed that ness and has a diuretic effect, this fragrant plant stimulates Azerbaijani folk healers say. the circulation and serves as a tonic. The recipe has even MELISSA been documented. To prepare the solution, pour 4 According to Azerbai- cups of boiling water into a jani folk medicine, bathing in pot containing 5 tablespoons a melissa (lemon balm) of rosemary leaves, cover, decoction is good for heart and let steep for 30 minutes. disease, relief of tachycar-dia Strain the infusion and add and lowering of the blood to warm bathwater. The pressure. The bathwater optimal duration for such a must be warm, but not hot. procedure is half an hour.

LAVENDER

According to Azerbai- jani folk medicine, bathing in a laven-der decoction has anti-spasmodic and calming effects and is used for neurasthenia and tachycardia (rapid heartbeat). Naftalan Health Resort. Azerbaijan Republic, 1950s. § 9. THE POWER OF SMELL how to use frankincense and myrrh as natural anti- Medieval Azerbaijani septics. Herbs like physicians believed that the spearmint and chamomile smells of these aromatic were also known to have substances could help cure antiseptic and healing prop- ailments. Scholars pro- erties. Today, scientists posed a type of therapy that know that these fragrant may be called "therapeutic herbs contain essential oils use of flower gardens." that are able to kill microbes Medieval Eastern rulers and and clean and heal wounds. nobility were advised to spend their leisure time in flowering gardens, for their own treatment and relax- ation. If they inhaled the fragrances of flowers, it was be-lieved that they would relax and be cured. Considering that medieval Azerbaijani doctors were working without the advances of modern scientific medicine, aromatherapy was a fairly ingenious way to treat patients with natural substances that were readily Cover of a medieval available. For instance, Azerbaijani manuscript. physicians had figured out CHAPTER 6 MEDICINE AND NUTRITION

§ 1. NUTRITION FOR ians eat in Azerbaijan? Does LONGEVITY their diet correlate with what modern science kno- Longevity is the cher- ws about health and longe- ished dream of every vity? human being. What, one Contemporary dieti- may ask, is the actual age tians would cry out: "They limitation for human eat too much animal fat!" beings? Are there limits? Is Indeed, many Azerbaijanis it possible to secure an are fond of lamb, mutton active, creative life for 100 and sheep fat, but in rural years? Of course. But what areas where most of these about 150 years? Again, the long-lived people reside, answer is "yes". meat is eaten no more often Azerbaijan has one of than once or twice a week. the highest rates of longevi- The main source of animal ty in the world. In the 1981 fat in rural diets is not census, Azerbaijan recorded derived from meat but 14,486 people aged 100 or rather from dairy products. older. In other words, 48.3 The typical diet of people per 100,000 inhabi- Azerbaijani villagers con- tants. sists primarily of eggs, che- Even though longevi- ese, butter, yogurt, milk, ty is mostly determined by curds (shor), sour cream, heredity, diet definitely bread, various vegetables, plays a role in achieving fruits and herbs. They are this goal. What do centenar- used to eating soup made of yogurt and greens (dovgha) such thing as completely along with various soups healthy or unhealthy food- made with beans, peas and stuffs. Rather, these proper- grains. In the olden days, ties are determined a great people who enjoyed longe- deal by the quantity that is vity did not eat very much consumed and the way fo- bread or products made of od is combined. For exam- flour. ple, according to the "Book of Medicine" (Tibbnama, § 2. ANIMAL FAT 1712) you can consume ani- CONSUMPTION mal fat, but you shouldn't overdo it, and you must Historically, Azerbai- counter the effects of fat by janis eat fairly large amo- eating fresh vegetables and unts of animal fat, which is greens like spinach, celery, considered by modern sci- dill, onions, spring onions, entists to be the "No. 1 coriander, mint, basil, tar- Killer." Why then has this ragon and parsley. [33] slayer not visited upon the centenarians from villages of the Lerik district in Azerbaijan, whe-re quite a number of residents live beyond 120 years old? Animal fat is fairly harmless to Azerbaijanis because they follow nutritional guidelines set forth by the physicians of me- Piti, the rich soup from lamb is a favorite dish of dieval Azerbaijan who Azerbaijanis. Usually, piti is insisted that there is no served with fresh greens. Modern scientists con- baijani physicians proposed firm that the food fibers con- the same approach: Don't tained in green vegetables eat just meat. Don't eat just and herbs decrease the vegetables. Eat both and assimilation of fats in the combine them correctly! As stomach. According to mod- opposed to one-sided theo- ern scientific medicine, ani- ries of the modern day, such mal fat, in fact, must be con- as vegetarianism, the me- sumed (though in modera- dieval approach is based on tion), as it is necessary for their observation of the bio- creating hormones and pro- logical nature of the human moting the normal function- being. ing of the liver, heart and brain. If we examine the teeth of a human being, we notice that they contain features typical to both carniv- orous and herbivorous beings. This fact proves that our early ancestors ate meat, and that the human organism is historically adapted to the consumption of ani- Parcha Doshama Plov mal fat. However, along (rice with roasted meat) with meat, early humans ate is served with onion, large amounts of vegetables mint and other greens. and fruits. Medieval Azer- A high level of animal meat in the first place, and fat consumption is not just they habitually consume limited to longevity in Azer- large amounts of yogurt as baijan. Fifteen years ago, well as vegetables and fruits correspondents from the to neutralize the negative Russian magazine "Vokrug effects of animal fat. Sveta" (Around the World) In addition to yogurt interviewed elderly people and garlic, it is also possible in Abkhazia and questioned to counter the negative ef- them about their diet. It fect of fats with liberal amo- turned out that most of the unts of raw onion, lemon centenarians enjoyed fatty juice, pomegranate juice meat, preferably lamb. As and with the traditional bur- distinct from Azerbaijanis, gundy - colored, sour spice Georgians drank wine every known as sumag. These all day even at the age of 100. work to promote digestion However, most people who and break up the fat. enjoy longevity in the Cau- casus don't eat very much

Jug for wine (1st century BC). Gurza (meat dumplings) is Found in Torpagkala archeolog- served with garlic, greens, ical site (Azerbaijan Republic). yogurt and spicy seasonings. ms and sweets with honey. Modern science has established that honey contains vitamins, ferments and is considerably healthier than sugar. According to Profes- sor M. Sultanov, the regular use of honey and the avoid- ance of sugar contribute to health and long life. Professor John Yudkin of London University poi- Conversation at Shah’s Palace. nts out: "Not fat, but sugar Pomegranates and drinks are served. Medieval miniature to leads to coronary heart dis- “Khamsa” by Nizami Ganjavi ease - the sugar that you (1141-1209) pour in coffee or tea, or eat with cakes, sweets or choco- § 3. HONEY OR SUGAR? late." [35] Sugar, if used exces- Even though Azerbaij- sively, turns to fat and cho- ani cuisine is rich in sweets, lesterol in the organism. traditionally, Azerbaijanis Previously, poor people in didn't overuse them. When the rural areas of Azerbai- preparing national sweets jan considered sugar as a like pakhlava, shakarbura delicacy and used it only on and halva, they preferred rare occasions. The stan- honey over sugar. For dard fare for peasants example, the Azerbaijani included dairy products scientist Yusif Khoyi in his and herbs, not sweets. As "Baghdad's Collection" (1311) for rich people, they pre- recommends preparing ja- ferred honey. substitute sugar that is much cheaper?" Unfortunately, most of the national desserts in modern Azerbaijan are based on sugar now. But in the long run, such economics are injurious to human health. Muhammad Husein- khan (18th century) also points out that the regular consumption of honey diluted with water prolongs human life. Nevertheless, even though honey is better Pakhlava A-la Shaki (Shaki than sugar, it should not be pakhlavasi) is prepared in Shaki overused. city (Azerbaijan Republic) on the basis of honey. Then it is sprin- § 4. YOGURT AND kled with the saffron water. LONGEVITY According to recipes from the "Tibbnama", all Since antiquity it was kinds of Azerbaijani halva believed that regular con- should be prepared on the sumption of yogurt is the basis of honey. Therefore, secret to longevity, as it pro- the harmful influence of motes digestion and rejuve- "the white killer" that we nates the organism. The struggle against in modern "Tibbnama" recommends society was avoided. adding yogurt to cooked Modern man might dishes. To promote diges- think: "Why buy expensive tion of meat, it was suggest- honey, when it's possible to ed to serve it with yogurt The medical effect of yogurt is explained by the fact that it contains useful micro- organisms such as lactobac- teria. Since the ac-cumula- tion of waste substances in the in inflammation of the bowels is harmful to all organs of an organism, normal digestion of food con- tributes to a he-althy and long life. Modern scientists in Japan have also established that regular con- A black slave roasts game for sumption of yogurt protects his master. Medieval Azerbai- the organism from the inju- jan miniature (Tabriz school). rious influence of radioac- sprinkled with mint. If you tive rays and prevents the eat yogurt on its own, add development of cancer. chopped garlic. In Azer-baijan, a popular drink (ayran) § 5. GARLIC - ELIXIR OF is made by diluting salted YOUTH yogurt with water. This drink is known to lower blo- The healing properties od pressure and treat diar- of garlic are often menti- rhea. The word "yogurt" oned in books by numerous itself is of Turkic (Azerbai- ancient authors throughout jani and Turkish) origin and the region - in Azerbaijan, derived from the verb Arabia, Persia, Tibet and "yogurmak" - "to knead." China. According to the "Tib- bined these two foods - gar- bnama", regular consump- lic and yogurt - which are tion of garlic prevents gray typical to diets of people hair, strengthens memory who enjoy the benefits of and eyesight and is good for long life. They chop garlic the heart. In Tibet, an herbal and add it to yogurt in a potion of garlic and spirits dish called "sarimsagli ga- was known as an "elixir of tig" (yogurt with garlic). The youth." In Azerbaijan, phy- "Tibbnama" also suggests sicians used infusions of mixing garlic with yogurt. garlic and saffron in their This combination is used as spirits. a condiment with dishes Modern scientists con- made of flour or meat, such firm that the regular con- as dolma of grape leaves sumption of garlic lowers (stuffed grape leaves), kha- the level of cholesterol in the sh, khingal and others. organism and improves the circulation of blood. As a § 6. LIMIT BREAD result, all organs are well supplied with blood. For The excessive use of example, a proper supply of bread so typical to modern blood to the head prevents Azerbaijan cuisine can be hair from graying, refreshes traced to the influence of the face and improves mem- Russian cuisine. In the past ory. When blood is able to Azerbaijanis did not overuse circulate well in the heart bread and flour products. vessels, it prevents myocar- They never had what might dial infarction. be called a cult of bread. Pilaf Azerbaijanis have com- was never eaten along with creation of cholesterol in the organism and leads to coronary disease and obesity. They concluded that overuse of bread is more dan- gerous than the regular consumption of animal fat. Note that the national Azerbaijani bread (chorak) does not resemble Russian A feast at Shah’s Palace. bread: it is a thin, flat bread, Pomegranates, wine, sherbet not a round loaf. Another and sweatmeats are served. national substitution for Medieval miniature from bread is lavash, a paperthin “Khamsa” by Nizami bread - neither of these two Ganjavi (1141-1209) types is very heavy to digest when eaten in moderation. bread because rice was considered to be a substitute for § 7. USE OF HERBS wheat. But these days, many people eat pilaf with bre- Since antiquity, Azer- ad, and also with national baijanis have been convin- dishes made with dough, ced that saffron and licorice such as khingal, gurza, prolong life, refresh the skin arishta, dushbara, umaj and and face, and promote he- others. alth for the liver, heart and Physicians of medie- kidneys. In addition, per- val Azerbaijan didn't rec- sons of longevity tradition- ommend eating much bre- ally consume large amounts ad, especially on hot sum- of vegetables and fruits, mer days. Modern investi- including apples. gations prove that overuse The Azerbaijani physi- of bread, desserts and car- cian Yusif Ibn Ismayil Khoyi bohydrates promotes the (1311) wrote that if eaten wines, dried fruits and spices - all play an important role in Azerbaijan's national cuisine. In particular, hot dishes are combined with various vegetables, fruits, greens and spices. Modern investigations show that vegetables and fruits contain many micro- elements, vitamins and fibers that neutralize choles- In modern Azerbaijan, roasted terol. Of course, scientists in meat is served with greens, the Middle Ages had no vegetables and sour fruits. knowledge about these substances, but based on close regularly, apples rejuvenate observation, they drew simi- the organism, strengthening lar conclusions that are being the heart, stomach, liver, confirmed by modern scien- intestine and stimulating the tific research. appetite. Regular use of apples prevents heavy § 8. TEA, NOT COFFEE breathing and excessive- heart-beat in elderly persons. Regular consumption Apples refresh the brain and of tea is another main char- strengthen its ef-ficiency. acteristic of people who en- Fruits, vegetables, vari- joy long life in Azerbaijan. ous wild medicinal plants According to Muhammad and products prepared from Husein-khan (18th century), them - jams, juices, sharbats, tea is a healthier beverage phylline, which enlarges blood vessels, eliminates spasms and improves the function of the heart. It also contains tannins, which strengthen blood vessels and prevent bleeding. As distinct from coffee, tea not only does not increase the

Tea is a favorite drink in risk of the myocardial Azerbaijan, Iran and Central Asia. infarction but even lowers it, because theophylline than coffee. He points out enlarges the blood vessels that: "Tea is a diuretic. It of the heart. alleviates headaches caused However, one should by spasms and cold. In avoid drinking tea on an addition, tea cleanses the empty stomach and should blood, stomach and brain not drink it very hot. Milk and refreshes the face. If neutralizes the negative used moderately, it can effects of caffeine. Even treat rapid heartbeat, facili- though tea mixed with milk tate regular breathing and is is considered to be healthi- good for the heart. This er, it is not popular in drink eases melancholy, Azerbaijan. Tea is histori- sorrow and bad spirits." [26] cally cultivated in the Modern investigations Lankaran district of Azer- prove that tea promotes baijan, which curiously longevity. It contains caf- enough, is a region known feine, which stimulates the for its longevity. nervous system, and theo- §9. CHEAP, HEALTHY tion (Novruz), Muslim FOOD religious festivals (such as Gurban Bayram) and wed- Although the famous ding celebrations. During Azerbaijani Oil Baron Haji the 19th century, even Zeynalabdin Taghiyev (1823 - wealthy landowners didn't 1924) enjoyed a very long eat sweets and meat every life span, most elderly peo- day because it was consid- ple in Azerbaijan are not so ered to be harmful. well off. When analyzing Most people in Azer- their diet, we see that they baijan who enjoy the bene- eat relatively cheap foods: fits of longevity actually eggs, yogurt, vegetables, know nothing about choles- fruits and beans. In addi- terol, carbohydrates or veg- tion, most of them don't etarianism. They simply overeat. Nor are they over- maintain the nutritional weight because they are practices of their fathers involved with hard physical and grandfathers, who labor. lived to be more than 100 In the past, those who years old. This reality wo- enjoyed long life in our uld seem to prove that country rarely consumed Azerbaijan's traditional the expensive dishes of our diet, which has been tried national cuisine, except on and tested over centuries special occasions. Baked and millennia, is at least goods, kababs, pilaf sea- soned with meat and dried equal to modern theories of fruits were usually reserved healthy nutrition, and may for the New Year celebra- even be superior. REFERENCES

1. Alakbarli, Farid. Childagh. How to Cure a Bad Case of Nerves. Azerbaijan International Magazine, No. 12.4, 2004, pp. 68-70 2. Alakbarli, Farid. Cures through the Ages. Lion Hearts, Rhinoceros Horn and Wolf Paws. Azerbaijan International Magazine, No. 12.4, 2004, pp. 66-68 3. Alakbarov F.U. Aromatic Baths of Ancients. HerbalGram. The Journal of the American Botanical Council and the Herb Research Foundation. No. 57, 2003, pp.23-32. 4. Alakbarov F.U. Glossary of Medieval Pharmaceutical Terms. Baku, Mutarjim, 2002, 50 P. 5. Alakbarov F.U. Medicinal Plants Used in Medieval Azerbaijan Phytotherapy. Journal of Herbal Pharmacotherapy. Vol. 1 (3), 2001, pp. 35-49 6. Alakbarov, Farid. The Institute of Manuscripts. Early Scripts in Azerbaijan. Azerbaijan International Magazine. No. 8.1, Spring 2000, p. 32-34 7. al-Baihaki, Zaid. Tatimma Siwan al-Hikma (Supplement to Treasure of Wisdom). Fasciculus, Arabic Text. L'ahore, 1925 (in Arabic) 8. Avesta. Translated by James Darmesteter. From Sacred Books of the East, American Edition, New York, The Christian Literature Company, 1898. 9. Belck J. Das Reich die Mann?er. VBAG, 1884 10. Blair, Betty and Alakbarli, Farid. Sofi Hamid: Life Mirrored in Pastel Colors. Azerbaijan International Magazine, No. 13.1, 2005, pp. 40-63 11. Blair, Betty. The Medical Manuscripts of Azerbaijan. Azerbaijan International Magazine. No. 5.2, Summer 1997, page 51-53 12. Booth, AJ. The Discovery and Decipherment of the Trilingual Cuneiform Inscriptions, London, 1902; 13. Boyce, Mary, Zoroastrians: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1979 14. Chardin J. Voyages en Perse et autres lieux de l'Orient. Vol.2, Amsterdam, 1735 15. Collection of Old Turkic Written Monuments. Ed. A.A. Guliyev. Baku, The Baku State University Press, 1994, p. 77 (in Azeri) 16. Duchesne-Guillemin J. Heraclitus and Iran. History of religions, No 3 (1), 1963 17. Duchesne-Guillemin J. The Western Response to Zoroaster. Oxford, 1958 18. Duchesne-Guillemin J. D'Anaximandre a Empedocle: contacts greco-iraniens. La Persia e il mondo greco-romano. Roma, 1966 19. Erdi, Miklos. The Sumerian, Ural Altaic, Magyar Relationship. Budapest, Gilgamesh, 1974 20. Herodotus. History in Nine Books. Translated by F.G.Mishenko. Vol.1-2, Moscow, 1888 (in Russian) 21. Kalankatuaci, Moses. The History of the Caucasian Albanians, translated by C.J.F. Dowsett. London: Oxford University Press, 1961 22. Kashkay S.M. General Outlines of the Material Culture of the Nakhichevan Zone and Iranian Azerbaijan (end of the second - beginnings of the first Millenium BC) Acta Antiqua Scientiarum Hungaricae, XXII, 1974, fasc. 164 23. Kitabi-Dada Gorgud (The Book of my Grandfather Gorgud). Ed. Hamid Arasli. Baku, Ganjlik, 1977, p.27 (in Azeri) 24. Klengel H. Lullu(bum). Reallexikon der Assyrologie. Bd.7 (1988), p.164-168 25. Koster W. Le mythe de Platon, de Zarathustra et des chaldeens. Leiden, 1971 26. Muhammad Huseyn khan Alavi. Makhzan al-Adwiyya (Treasure of Medicines). Karachi, 1895 (in Persian). 27. Muhammad Mumin. Tuhfat al-Muminin (Gift of True Believers). The manuscript from the collection of Baku's Institute of Manuscripts. No. M 243/3747, p.3 (in Persian). 28. Oppenheim, Leo. Ancient Mesopotamia. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1968 29. Parpola, Asko. The coming of the Aryans to Iran and India and the cultural and ethnic identity of the Dasas. Studia Orientalia, vol.64, Helsinki 1988, p.212-215 30. Risalayi-Tibb (Medical Treatise). In the book: Muhammad Yusif Shirvani. Tibbname (The Book of Medicine). Baku, Ishig, 1990, c. 157-158 (in Azeri) 31. Seyidov, Mirali. Origins of the Azerbaijani Mythological Thought. Baku, Azerneshr, 1988, pp.14-46 32. Shirvani, Khagani. Tohfat al-Iraqeyn (Gift of Two Iraqs). Baku, Azernashr, 1982 (in Azeri) 33. Shirvani, Muhammad Yusif. Tibbname (The Book of Medicine). The manuscript from the collection of Baku's Institute of Manuscripts. No. C 541, p. 43 (in Azeri) 34. Strabo. Geography. Translated by Strtotanovsky. Moscow, Nauka, 1964 (in Russian) 35. Sultanov S. Azerbaijan - the Land of Centenarians. Baku, Azerneshr, 1979 36. Tanuhi, Abu Ali. Stories. S-Petreburg, Nauka, 1980, c.80 (in Russian) 37. Tarbiyyat, Muhammad Ali. Danishmandani-Azerbaijan (Scholars of Azerbaijan). Baku, Azernashr, 1987 (in Azeri). 38. Tavernier J.B. Six Voyages en Turquie, en Perse et aux Indes, Paris, 1676 39. Thureau-Dangin. La fin de la domination Gutienne. RA, IX, 1912. 40. von Grunebaum, G.E. Classical Islam: A History 600-1258, George Allen & Unwin Limited, 1970 41. West M.L. Early Greek Philosophy and the Orient. Oxford, 1971 42. Yakut al-Hamawi. Mujam al-Buldan (Alphabetical List of Countries). Cairo, 1906 (in Arabic) 43. Ziyari, Keykavus. Gabusname (Wise Advices). The manuscript from the collection of Baku's Institute of Manuscripts. No B 7865 (in Persian) CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION ------3

CHAPTER 1. HISTORY OF MEDICINE IN AZERBAIJAN

§ 1. Historical Survey ------6 § 2. Famous Physicians of Medieval and Post-Medieval Azerbaijan ------32

CHAPTER 2. MEDICAL MANUSCRIPTS

§ 1. Baku's Institute of Manuscripts ------37 § 2. Memory of the World Program of UNESCO ------39 § 3. Unique Medical Manuscripts ------41 § 4. List of Principal Medical Texts ------44 Turkic Texts ------44 Arabic Texts ------49 Persian texts ------53

CHAPTER 3. MEDICINE IN MEDIEVAL AZERBAIJAN

§ 1. Professional and Folk Medicine ------60 § 2. Medical Theory ------61 § 3. Healthy Way of Life ------64 § 4. Professional Treatment Methods ------66 § 5. Folk Treatment Methods ------68 § 6. Medicine and Magic ------74

CHAPTER 4. MEDIEVAL PHARMACOLOGY

§ 1. Introduction ------78 § 2. Studied manuscripts ------79 § 3. Research Methods ------81 § 4. Systematical Analyses of Identified Species ------83 § 5. Description of Plants in Medieval Sources ------84 § 6. Therapeutic Application of Herbs ------89 § 7. Some Forgotten Botanicals of the Middle Ages ------91

CHAPTER 5. AROMATHERAPY IN MEDIEVAL AZERBAIJAN

§ 1. What is aromatherapy? ------93 § 2. Ancient Beliefs ------94 § 3. Essential Oils ------95 § 4. Luxury Treatments ------97 § 5. Aromatic Herbal Bath ------98 § 6. History of Aromatic Baths ------100 § 7. Bathhouses ------104 § 8. The Fragrant Bath ------106 § 9. The Power of Smell ------108

CHAPTER 6. MEDICINE AND NUTRITION

§ 1. Nutrition for Longevity ------109 § 2. Animal Fat Consumption ------110 § 3. Honey of Sugar ------113 § 4. Yogurt and Longevity ------114 § 5. Garlic - Elixir of Youth ------115 § 6. Limit Bread ------116 § 7. Use of Herbs ------117 § 8. Tea, not Coffee ------118 §9. Cheap Food, Healthy Food ------120

REFERENCES------121 FARID URKHAN OGLU ALAKBARLI (1964). Doctor of historical sciences, Head of Department of Translation and Information of the M.Fuzuli Institute of Manuscripts of the Azerbaijan National Academy of Sciences.

President of the Azerbaijan Association of Medical Historians (AAMH). National Delegate from Azerbaijan to International Society For the History of Medicine (ISHM), author of more than 150 scientific and educational works including 12 books and booklets in Azeri Turkish, Russian and English.