The Illawarra Rainforests: an Historical, Floristic and Environmental Study of Their Distribution and Ecology Kevin Gibson Mills University of Wollongong

University of Wollongong Research Online

University of Wollongong Thesis Collection University of Wollongong Thesis Collections

1986 The Illawarra rainforests: an historical, floristic and environmental study of their distribution and ecology Kevin Gibson Mills University of Wollongong

Recommended Citation Mills, Kevin Gibson, The Illawarra rainforests: an historical, floristic and environmental study of their distribution and ecology, Doctor of Philosophy thesis, Department of Geography, University of Wollongong, 1986. http://ro.uow.edu.au/theses/1389

Research Online is the open access institutional repository for the University of Wollongong. For further information contact the UOW Library: [email protected]

THE ILLAWARRA RAINFORESTS

AN HISTORICAL, FLORISTIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL STUDY

OF THEIR DISTRIBUTION AND ECOLOGY

A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the dearee of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

from

THE UNIVERSITY OF WOLLONGONG

by

KEVIN GIBSON MILLS

B.A.CHons.) Wollonqona

DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY

1986 For my Parents

Cas and Val Mills

who took • me into the bush at an early age i.

ABSTRACT

This study presents a detailed analysis of the structure, floristic pattern and environment of the Illawarra rainforests and also evaluates their relationships with rainforests elsewhere in Australia. The results presented here illustrate the fact that the district's rainforests can be viewed as a part of a continuum of rainforest vegetation throughout eastern Australia, with links to those well to the north and to the south. This research contributes to a national effort, over recent years, to more fully understand Australian rainforests.

The rainforest vegetation found in the Illawarra district represents one of five major areas of rainforest in New South Wales, The original extent of the Illawarra rainforests is shown to have been largely in the form of three major rainforest concentrations: the "Illawarra Brush' of 12.000 ha: the 'Yarrawa Brush' of 2450 ha: and the 'Berkeley Brush' of

1600 ha. The present area of rainforest in the district is only 5700 ha following an estimated reduction of 75 percent since European settlement.

Several 'distributional nodes' for rainforest plant species dis­ tribution, of which the Illawarra district is one, have been identified in southern New South Wales. At each of these nodes between 15 and 13 percent of the total species of trees, shrubs and vines reach their southern limit of distribution.

The major environmental factors determining rainforest distribution are identified as: soil nutrient status, mean temperature as indicated by altitude and location, moisture availability and probably the influence of ii.

fire, however, these are not listed in their order of significance. Soils

supporting rainforest are found to differ significantly, particularly

in relation to the amounts of available calcium and aluminium. Soils

supporting subtropical rainforest (Complex Notophyll Vine Forest. CNVF)

are high in Ca and other nutrients such as Mn. K and Na. Soils

associated with warm temperate rainforest (Simple Notophyll Vine Fern

Forest. SNVFF). dominated by Ceratcpetalum apetalum. are very high in

Al (an element accumulated by Capetalum ) but lower in other nutrients.

Mixed subtropical-warm temperate rainforest (Mixed Notophyll Vine Fern

Forest, MNVFF) are found on soils intermediate between these two.

Numerical classification is used to elucidate patterns in the varia­

tion of rainforest structural and floristic characteristics. Analysis of

structural-physiognomic attributes of 50 rainforest stands identified

three main groups, largely determined by soil type and altitude: 1)

a mainly SNVFF group which occurs on sedimentary soils. 2) a group

composed of CNVF and MNVF which largely occurs on volcanic soils, and

3) a group of simple, but each different, rainforest stands which occur

on all soil types and altitudes.

Similar techniques are used to investigate patterns in the canopy.

understorey, ground cover and vine species. Analysis of the canopy species produced two major groups: 1) high altitude sites on sedimentary soils and Tertiary volcanic soils are largely SNVFF (warm temperate) and dominated by Capetalum. and 2) lower altitude sites on Permian voicanics or sedimentary soils, which are either CNVF or MNVFF (subtropical).

The understorey data also produced two main groups: 1) a group on sedimentary soils at higher altitudes, and 2) a group occurring on iii.

Permian volcanics at lower altitudes. There is a group of understorey species, including the tree ferns, which distinguishes these site groups from those identified using the canopy species data.

Classification of ground cover data identified three main groups:

1) a group at higher, moister sites containing a well developed ground cover. 2) a group of sites on steeper topography which are drier and have a less well developed ground cover, and 3) a group which is largely on volcanic soils with well developed ground cover.

Analysis of the presence/absence of vine species identifies three species groups: 1) a group of widespread and common species, 2) species which are common at lower altitudes, particularly on volcanic soils, and

3) a group of species found mainly at higher altitudes.

An ecological model is developed to explain and describe the occurrence of rainforest in the Illawarra. This model is based on the structural and floristic character of these rainforests and their distribution in relation to major environmental factors operating.

Regional studies of this kind are important for developing a wider understanding of the Australian rainforests. IV.

CONTENTS

Abstract

Contents

Acknowledgements

List of Tables

List of Figures

List of Plates

CHAPTER ONE : INTRODUCTION

1.1 The Thesis

1.2 The Thesis in Perspective

1.3 The Illawarra District

1.4 Thesis Organisation

PART ONE:

CHAPTER TWO : THE REGIONAL ENVIRONMENT

2.1 Geology, Geomorphology and Soils

2.1.1 Geology

2.1.2 Geomorphology

2.1.3 Soil Types

2.2 Climatic Patterns

2.2,1 General Climatic Setting

2.2.2 Rainfall Distribution

2.2.3 Temperature Regime

2.2.4 Wind Patterns

2.3 Man Made and Modified Environments

2.4 Conclusions v.

CHAPTER THREE : ILLAWARRA RAINFOREST STUDIES - A CRITICAL REVIEW

3.1 Introduction ...51

3,2 Early Descriptions of the Rainforests ...52

3.3 The Beginnings of Ecological Investigation ...53

3.4 Recent Detailed Research in the Illawarra ...63

3.5 Conclusions ...69

CHAPTER FOUR : RAINFOREST AND SETTLEMENT

4.1 An Historical Overview ...72

4.2 Extent of the Rainforests - Past and Present

4.2.1 Pre-European Distribution and Extent ...86

4.2.2 Estimates of Contemporary Rainforest Occurrence ... 102

4.3 Conclusions ... 104

CHAPTER FIVE : THE ILLAWARRA RAINFOREST FLORA

5,1 Rainforest Plant Species Inventory ... 107

5.2 Floristic Elements ...111

5.3 Species at Their Southern Limit ...116

5.4 Naturalised Introduced Species ... 124

5.5 Conclusions ... 131

PART TWO:

CHAPTER SIX : SAMPLING METHODS AND TREATMENT OF DATA

6.1 Data Collection ...133

6.2 The Data ...139

6.3 Numerical Classification Techniaues ... 141 vi.

CHAPTER SEVEN : STRUCTURAL AND FLORISTIC VARIATION IN THE

ILLAWARRA RAINFORESTS

7.1 Introduction ... 146

7.2 Stand Structure ...147

7.3 Species Assemblages

7.3.1 The Canopy ...160

7,3.2 The Understorey ... 168

7.3.3 Ground Cover ...175

7.3,4 Vine Species ... 181

7.4 Conclusions ... 186

CHAPTER EIGHT : ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS INFLUENCING THE

DISTRIBUTION AND CHARACTER OF THE ILLAWARRA RAINFOREST

8.1 Introduction ...190

8.2 Rainforest - Environment Interactions

8.2.1 Soil Fertility ...191

8,2.2 Moisture Availability ...202

8.2.3 Altitude ...206

8.2.4 The Role of Fire ...212

8.3 Conclusions ...215

CHAPTER NINE : ILLAWARRA RAINFOREST COMMUNITY TYPES

AND THEIR DISTRIBUTION

9.1 Introduction ...218 vii.

9,2 The Woronora Plateau ...219

9.2.1 The Narrabeen Group ...224

9,2.2 The Tertiary Volcanics ...232 9.2.3 The Hawkesbury Sandstone ...238

9.3 The Escarpments ...243

9.3.1 The Upper Slopes ...244

9.3,2 The Topographic Benches ...251

9.3.3 The Tertiary Volcanics ...259

9,4 The Permian Volcanics ...263

9.5 Littoral Rainforest ...272

9.6 Inland Vine Thickets ...282

9.7 Conclusions ...289

CHAPTER TEN : CONCLUSIONS ...301

CHAPTER ELEVEN : REFERENCES ...316

CHAPTER TWELVE : APPENDICES

12.1 Rainfall Data - Illawarra Climatic District ...338

12.2 Monthly Rainfall Data - Illawarra Climatic District ...343 12.3 Average Monthly and Annual Maximum and Minimum

Temperatures - Sydney & Illawarra Climatic Districts ...345

12.4 Monthly and Annual Hours of Fog and Fog-Days -

F6 Freeway, Bulli to Waterfall ...348

12.5 Plant Species List for the Illawarra Rainforests ...349

12.6 Soil Attributes Data Set ...359 viii.

12.7 Structural-Physiognomic Attributes Data Set ...361

12.8 Soil Moisture Measurements and Rainfall -

Mt.Keira and Goondarrin Creek ...363

12.9 Summary of Rainforest Survey Sites.

Illawarra District ...364 ix.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I wish to thank the following people and organisations for their assistance during work for this thesis:

Gerald Nanson. Wollongong University, my supervisor, for his assistance in getting the thesis from draft form into its present state:

Ted Bryant, Murray Wilson and Bob Young. Wollongong University, for their useful comments on draft versions:

Barbara Jakeman. formerly of the Bureau of Mineral Resources, Canberra, for her substantial help with programming for the computer analysis and for commenting on other aspects of the thesis work:

Richard Miller and Robin Johnston. Wollongong University, for their advice on cartographic and photographic problems:

Hilde Shaw. Wollongong University, for her interest in and advice on historical subjects:

David and Marion Walsh, formerly of the Mt.Keira Scout Camp, for rainfall records and historical information:

Betty Burke, of Woodhill. Rachel Roxburgh and Janet Cosh, of Moss Vale. for their encouragement and interest. Gwen Harden. National Herbarium.

Sydney, for information freely given on the rainforest flora of New

South Wales, and also to other staff of the Herbarium who have given assistance:

The staff of Wollongong City Library, particularly Jan Keith and Jan

Richards, who were always helpful in locating historical material:

The staff of the Department of Environment and Planning. Wollongong. for their continuing help in providing maps, aerial photographs and other material:

The Town Planning Department. Wollongong City Council, for allowing me X.

to use their colour aerial photographs:

The Resources Section. National Parks & Wildlife Service of N.S.W.. who

provided unpublished internal reports:

The Department of Main Roads, Waterfall, who provided fog records from

the Driver Aid System on the F6 Freeway.

The following organisations allowed my access to lands under their

control, for which I am grateful:

Bulli Pass Scenic Reserve Trust

Illawarra Escarpment State Recreation Area Trust

Kiama Municipal Council (Minnamurra Falls Reserve)

National Parks &. Wildlife Service of N.S.W.

Metropolitan Water Sewerage & Drainage Board

The Scout Association of N.S.W. (Illawarra)

The following people are thanked for their continuing interest and

companionship in the bush: Leon Fuller. Ann Young. Ros Muston. Caryll

Sefton and Jim Sligar.

Finally, I would like to thank Jacqueline Jakeman for her help with editing and checking the manuscript, as well as her support during preparation of the thesis. XX.

LIST OF TABLES

2.1 Summary of Main Soil Types in the Illawarra District ...27

2.2 Average Seasonal Rainfall Data. Selected Stations. Illawarra Climatic

Region ...33

2.3 Comparison of Average Maximum and Minimum Temperatures (°C). Selected

Stations. Illawarra District ...37

2.4a Frequency of Light and Severe Frosts (days/month). Available Data for the Illawarra District ...41

2.4b Fog Frequency (days/month), Available Data for the Illawarra District ...41

2.5 Average Seasonal Fog Frequency (1975-1983). F6 Freeway ...43

2.6 Fog-Day Frequency Data - Illawarra District ...44

3.1 Rainforest Plant Species mentioned by Alan Cunningham during a Visit to Illawarra in 1818. ...54

3.2 Rainforest Types Identified by Floyd (1983) as Occurring in the

Illawarra District ...67

4.1 Estimated Area and Ownership of the Illawarra Rainforests (1984) ... 103

5.1 Number of Illawarra Rainforest Species Based on Lifeform ... 109

5.2 Comparison of Numbers of Rainforest Species for Locations in South­ eastern Australia ...110

5.3 Plant Genera found in the Illawarra Rainforests ...112 XI1.

5.4 Major Locations for the Southern Limits of Rainforest Flora. Southern

New South Wales ...117

5.5 Rainforest Species Numbers on the Main Areas of Volcanic Soils in

Southern New South Wales ...120

5,6 Seed Dispersal Mechanisms of the Illawarra Rainforest Flora ...121

5.7 Rainforest Plant Species Reaching their Known Southern Limit of

Distribution in the Illawarra District ... 123

5.8 Introduced Plant Species Associated with the Illawarra Rainforests ...125

5.9 Bird Species Recorded as Dispersal Agents for Selected Introduced

Plant Species ...130

7.1 Summary of Structural/Physiognomic Attributes of Fifty Rainforest

Stands in Illawarra ... 148

7.2 Numbers of Large Epiphytes on Rainforest Trees at Minnamurra Falls

Reserve ...152

7,3 Inter-group Significance of each Structural-Phvsiocmomic Attribute ...154

7.4 Characteristics of Groups Generated by Classification of Fifty

Rainforest Stands Based on the Structure/Physiocmomic Attributes ...155

7.5 Attribute characteristics of Groups Generated by Classification of Fifty Rainforest Stands Based on the Structure/Physiognomic

Attributes ... 158 xiii.

7.6 Characteristics of Groups Generated by Classification of Fifty

Rainforest Stands Based on Tree Importance Values ^

7.7 Characteristic Species of Groups Generated by Classification of

Fifty Rainforest Stands Based on Tree Importance Values m # ^ ^3

7.8 Main Tree Species with Significantly Different Importance Values

Between Groups (Difference of Means test) ...164

7.9 Soil Characteristics of Groups Generated by Classification of Stands

Based on Tree Importance Values ... 167

7.10 Characteristics of Groups Generated by Classification of Fifty

Rainforest Stands Based on Shrub/Sapling Densities ... 170

7.11 Characteristic Species of Groups Generated by Classification of

Fifty Rainforest Stands Based on Shrub/Sapling Densities ...172

7.12 Main Shrub/Sapling Species with Significantly Different Densities

Between Groups (Difference of Means test) ...173

7,13 Characteristics of Groups Generated by Classification of Fifty

Rainforest Stands Based on Ground Cover Values ...177

7.14 Characteristic Species of Groups Generated by Classification of

Fifty Rainforest Stands Based on Ground Cover Values ...179

7.15 Main Ground Cover Species with Significantly Different Estimated

Cover Between Groups (Difference of Means test) ...180 XIV.

7.16 Characteristics of Groups Generated by Classification of Fifty

Rainforest Stands Based on the Presence/Absence of Vine Species ...183

7.17 Characteristic Species of Groups Generated by Classification of

Fifty Rainforest Stands Based on the Presence/Absence of Vine

Species ...184

8.1 Inter-group Significance of each Soil Attribute ...195

8.2 Characteristics of Groups Generated by Classification of Fifty

Rainforest Stands Based on Soil Attributes ... 196

8.3 Mean Values and Ranges of Soil Attributes for Groups Generated by Classification of Fifty Rainforest Stands Based on the Soil

Attributes ... 198

8.4 Significance of Soil Moisture Differences Between Survey Sites in

Rainforest and Tall Eucalypt Forest ...205

9.1 Size Distribution of Rainforest Patches on the Woronora Plateau ...220

9.2 Summary of Survey Data for Selected Rainforest Stands on the

Woronora Plateau ...222

9.3 Basal Area and Stems per hectare. Main Tree Species, for Selected

Stands on Narrabeen Group. Woronora Plateau ...227

9.4 Frequency of Main Shrub/Sapling Species per hectare for Selected

Stands. Narrabeen Group. Woronora Plateau ...229 XV.

9.5 Estimated Percent Cover for Ground Cover Species for Selected Stands.

Narrabeen group, Woronora Plateau ...231

9.6 Basal Area and Stems per hectare. Main Tree Species, for Selected

Stands, Tertiary Volcanics, Woronora Plateau ...233

9.7 Frequency of Main Shrub/Sapling Species per hectare. Selected Stands.

Tertiary Volcanics. Woronora Plateau ..235

9.8 Estimated Percent Cover of Ground Cover Species for Selected Stands.

Tertiary Volcanics. Woronora Plateau ...237

9.9 Tree and Shrub species in Rainforest Stands on Hawkesbury Sandstone.

Woronora Plateau ...239

9.10 Ground Cover and Epiphyte Species in Rainforest Stands on Hawkesbury

Sandstone. Woronora Plateau ...241

9.11 Tree and Shrub Species Data, Little River Site. Woronora Plateau ...242

9.12 Summary of Survey Data from Selected Rainforest Stands on the

Illawarra Escarpment ...245

9.13 Basal Area and Stems per hectare. Main Tree Species, for Selected

Stands. Upper Slopes, Illawarra Escarpment ...248

9.14 Frequency of Main Shrub/Sapling Species per hectare, for Selected

Stands. Upper Slopes. Illawarra Escarpment ...250

9.15 Estimated Percent Cover of Ground Cover Species for Selected Stands.

Upper Slopes. Illawarra Escarpment ...252 XVI.

9.16 Basal Area and Stems per hectare. Main Tree Species, for Selected

Stands, Topographic Benches. Illawarra Escarpment ...254

9,17 Frequency of Main Shrub/Sapling Species per hectare, for Selected

Stands, Topographic Benches. Illawarra Escarpment ...257

9.18 Estimated Percent Cover of Ground Cover Species for Selected Stands.

Topographic Benches. Illawarra Escarpment ...258

9.19 Basal Area and Stems per hectare. Main Tree Species, for Selected

Stands, Tertiary Volcanics. Illawarra Escarpment ...260

9.20 Frequency of Main Shrub/Sapling Species per hectare, for Selected

Stands, Tertiary Volcanics. Illawarra Escarpmant ...261

9.21 Estimated Percent Cover of Ground Cover Species for Selected Stands.

Tertiary Volcanics. Illawarra Escarpment ...262

9.22 Summary of Survey Data from Selected Rainforest Stands on the

Permian Volcanics ...264

9.23 Basal Area and Stems per hectare. Main Tree Species, for Selected

Stands. Permian Volcanics ...270

9.24 Frequency of Main Shrub/Sapling Species per hectare, for Selected

Stands. Permian Volcanics ...271

9.25 Estimated Percent Cover of Ground Cover Species for Selected Stands.

Permian Volcanics ...273 xvii.

9.26 Numbers of Rainforest Plant Species for Littoral Rainforest Sites in Southern New South Wales ... 276

9.27 Summary of Survey Data for Littoral Rainforest Stands, Illawarra ...279

9.28 Tree and Shrub Species Data. Littoral Rainforest Stands. Illawarra ...281

9,29 Summarv of Attributes. Rainforest Thickets. Shoalhaven Gorge ...285

9.30 Tree and Shrub Species. Rainforest Thickets. Shoalhaven Gorge ...287

9.31 Ground Cover and Epiphyte Species. Rainforest Thickets. Shoalhaven

Gorge ...288

9.32 Summary of Illawarra Rainforest Community Types - Sedimentary Soils ...291

9.33 Summary of Illawarra Rainforest Community Types - Volcanic Soils ...294 XVX11.

LIST OF FIGURES

1.1 Location of the Illawarra District ...6

1.2 Illawarra District - Locations ...7

2.1 Illawarra District - Generalised Geology ... 14

2.2 Geological Cross-Sections ... 15

2.3 Illawarra District - Altitude ...21

2.4 Illawarra District - Rainfall ...30

2.5 Average Monthly Rainfall, Selected Stations. Illawarra District ...32

2.6 Average Monthly Max. and Min, Temperatures. Selected Stations • • .38

2.7 Average Annual Max. and Min. Temperatures Vs Altitude. Sydney and

Illawarra Climatic Regions ...39

2.8 Wind Roses - Wollongong University ...46

4.1 Distribution of the Yarrawa Brush ...95

4.2 Distribution of the Illawarra Brush ...98

4,3 Distribution of the Berkeley Brush ...100

6.1 Location of Rainforest Survey Sites ... 134

7.1 Rainforest Stand Structural Characteristics ...150

7.2 Distribution of Stem Diameters : Selected Sites ...151 1XX.

7.3 Classification of Fifty Rainforest Stands Based on Structural/Physiognomic

Attributes ... 155

7.4 Classification of Fifty Rainforest Stands Based on Tree Importance

Values _162

7.5 Classification of Fifty Rainforest Stands Based on Shrub/Sapling

Density _169

7.6 Classification of Fifty Rainforest Stands Based on the Ground Cover

Values ...176

7.7 Classification of Fifty Rainforest Stands Based on the Presence/Absence of Vine Species ...182

8,1 Environmental Influences on Rainforest Develooment and Maintenance ...192

8.2 Classification of Fifty Rainforest Stands Based on the Soil Attributes ...194

8.3a Relationship Between CeratopetaJim aoetalum and Soil Aluminium ...200

8.3b Relationship Between Soil Aluminium and Calcium Concentrations ...200

8.4 Soil Moisture Variation : Rainforest Vs Tall Eucalypt Forest...204

8.5 Rainforest tree and Shrub Species Vs Altitude ...207

8.6 Relationship Between a Number of CanoDV SDecies and Altitude ...208

8.7 Relationship Between a Number of Understorev SDecies and Altitude ...209

8.8 Relationship Between Estimated Percent Cover of Gymnostachys anceps and Altitude ...210 XX.

9.1 Numbers of Rainforest Species vs Altitude. Woronora Plateau ...223

9.2 Vegetation Profile - Upper Cataract River Valley, Woronora Plateau ...225

9.3 Vegetation Transects on Permian Volcanics ...266

9.4 Vegetation Transect - Gooseberry Island, Lake Illawarra ...267

9.5 Littoral Rainforest Sites. Illawarra and South Coast ...277

10.1 Generalised Distribution of Structural Rainforest Types in Illawarra ...309

10.2 Relationships within Ceratooetalum Tvoe Rainforests - Illawarra ...312

10.3 Relationships within Subtropical Type Rainforests - Illawarra ...313 XXI.

LIST OF PLATES

1 "Lake Illawarra. New South Wales". by Eugene von Guerard

2 "Cabbage-tree Forest, American Creek. New South Wales' by Eugene von Guerard

3 Early cedar cutting in the Illawarra

4 Fig trees at Dunmore

5 Illawarra Escarpment at Barren Grounds

6 Rainforest remnants at Robertson

7 Aerial view of area south of Lake Illawarra

8 Rainforest growing on latite at Curramore

9 Gerringong Creek gorge, Kangaroo Valley 1.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 The Thesis

This thesis is a biogeographical and ecological study of the rainforest vegetation found in the Illawarra district of New South

Wales. The research was prompted by the considerable deficiencies in the current body of knowledge regarding the history and ecology of the rainforests of the Illawarra region. The underlying objective has been to provide detailed data on and interpretations of the distribution. species composition and physical environment of the Illawarra rainforests.

Geology, geomorphology. soil type, climate and the effects of European settlement are comprehensively examined in order to assess their role in influencing the character and distribution of rainforest in this region.

The historical investigation of the distribution of rainforest in the district and the reconstruction of the pre-European 'brushes' (extensive concentrations of rainforest) are seen as being fundamental to later investigations of rainforest ecology. By identifying the original areas covered by rainforest, it can be shown that the distribution of survey sites represents nearly all areas of this rainforest. These sites therefore provide a valid set of data upon which statements can be made regarding the Illawarra's rainforests.

The specific objectives of the thesis are to: 2.

1) critically review the existing literature on the

Illawarra rainforests:

2) provide an inventory of the Illawarra rainforest

flora in terms of floristic elements, the occurrence of

species at their limits of distribution, and naturalised

plant species:

3) delineate the pre-European extent of the Illawarra

rainforests, while providing an historical framework

upon which the investigation of the present distribution

of the rainforest can be based:

4) identify, in detail, rainforest community types.

defining their occurrence and distribution:

5) investigate the role of environmental factors in

determining the floristic and structural variation of

the Illawarra rainforests: and

6) relate the Illawarra rainforests to those occurring

elsewhere, with a view to placing them within the

Australian national context.

1.2 The Thesis in Perspective

Research into Australian rainforest vegetation is beginning a phase of detailed regional investigation of rainforest occurrence, community types and ecology. Broad scale studies of rainforest in New South 3.

Wales (eg.Baur 1957) and Australia in general (eg.Webb 1959.1968) have been available for some time. More recently Webb & Tracey (1981b) and Webb et aJ. (1984) have provided more detail on the broad patterns in Australian rainforests. Earlier localised studies, particularly in New South Wales

(eg. Davis 1936,1941a,1941b: Fraser & Vickery 1937.1938.1939: and Brough et aJ. 1924). are also available. Recently, regionally based work has been carried out. for example, on the South Coast of New South Wales by

Helman (1983) and in the upper Hunter Valley by Fisher (1980). and much work is still continuing.

A decade of field work by Alex Floyd (National Parks &. Wildlife

Service. Coffs Harbour) has resulted in the preparation of numerous regionally based reports on the rainforests of New South Wales (eg,

Floyd 1982,1983). The rainforest species present, their taxonomy and distribution are also becoming better understood (eg. Floyd's N.S.W.

Rainforest Trees series and Williams et al. 1984).

The research required at the present point in time is that which will lead to a detailed synthesis of the rainforests of New South Wales as a whole. Floyd's regional reports, because of their nature, could not provide the very detailed information required for a complete synthesis.

However, Floyd's reports, although unpublished, provide the most recent and detailed treatment of New South Wales rainforests yet assembled.

Because of the magnitude of the task and the scarcity of research workers, detailed regional ecologically-based rainforest studies have to date been lacking. Yet the recent upsurge in interest both in environmental studies generally and in rainforest in particular, has resulted in a dramatic increase in rainforest research over the last 4.

decade. Much of this work is being done at the postgraduate level. providing the detailed regional data bases upon which a detailed but

much broader overview of Australian rainforests can be built in future.

In part, this thesis is such a regional study. It provides

original insights into the rainforests of the region, both past and

present. However, it also provides detailed information on the role

of environmental factors in determining the floristic and structural

variations present in the rainforests which have a wider application to

the understanding of rainforests in general. A firm basis is provided

for comparative studies with rainforests occurring elsewhere and for

research on the ecology of individual plant species and local community

dynamics, two important aspects not within the scope of this thesis.

1.3 The Illawarra District

The rainforests of Eastern Australia are far from contiguous and

are generally characterised by a patchy distribution within a more

widespread sclerophyll vegetation, generally dominated by Eucalyptus

species. Even before clearing by Europeans began, extensive areas

of rainforest vegetation were exceptional. The distribution of the

rainforest patches, from Cape York to Tasmania, is more fragmented than

is generally indicated on rainforest distribution maps (eg.Hitchcock

1977), for rainforest covers only a small fraction of the total area

within its latitudinal range. This is nowhere more evident than in

southern New South Wales where most rainforest occurrences are 'narrow

gully strips' (Pople &. Cowley 1981). 5.

Before European settlement there were five major rainforest areas in New South Wales (Baur 1957). as shown in Fig. 1.1. The southern-most of these was in Illawarra which contained, and still does, the only extensive area of rainforest in New South Wales south of Barrington Tops in the Hunter Valley. 300 kilometres to the north (Fig. 1,1). Like the other four major rainforest areas, the Illawarra district experiences, in relation to south-eastern Australia in general, an exceptionally high rainfall and also has extensive areas of high-nutrient soils derived from Permian and Tertiary volcanics.

The Illawarra district is a poorly defined area, the extent of which has a number of historic and modern interpretations. The boundary of the district established in this work (Fig. 1.2) includes all the areas of rainforest north of Shoalhaven River and south of Port Hacking.

The Illawarra district forms an ecologically distinct region of New

South Wales, characterised by high annual rainfalls, iarge variations in local relief, extensive areas of high-nutrient volcanic soils and close proximity to the coast. The combination of these characteristics, and the resultant extensive development of rainforest, distinguishes the

Illawarra district from much of the rest of south-eastern Australia.

The Illawarra district, which is centred on 34°30'S and covers approximately 3400 square kilometres, holds a position of some interest in the overall distribution of Australian rainforests. The latitude of the Illawarra is within an area of significant overlap of Australian rainforest types. The district is generally regarded as the southern limit of sub-tropical rainforest, there being only minor occurrences further south (eg. Mount Dromedarv). Within the Illawarra. the northern 6. 7.

ILLAWARRA DISTRI LOCATIONS PORT Limit of District HACKING

CAMPBELLTOWN

PICTON

CATARACT V? DAM .* Vtl

.* *

NEPEAN tDAM_^ 'WOLLONGONG

/r

MITTAGONG, LAKE ILLAWARRA

."ALBION PARK* BASS POINT MacqUarie Pass ___'A>>

*'<» t MOSS VALE »H. 1 ROBERTSON ' JAMBEROO>

>b KIAMA' ->". *7» /h,Grounds'ic

FITZROY FALLS..

BUNDANOON'

& *V v_ ^ ____»_r .,* * >

/"ol^"*^ ><=_^y TALLOWA //\ COMERONG ISLAND DAM

NOWRA ..j^V 0 km 30 i i */te Escarpment 8.

limit of Eucryphia moorei cool-temperate rainforest is found. The district is also the southern limit of the extensive stands of Ceratopetalum apetalum . which dominate the warm-temperate rainforests of New South

Wales, although this species does persist as far south as Batemans

Bay (Fig. 1.1).

The Illawarra district occurs within eco-floristic Region A of

Webb &. Tracey (1981a,1981b) and Webb. Tracey &. Williams (1984). who have provided 'the first comprehensive floristic classification of Australian rainforests' (Webb et aL_ 1984). Region A, subtropical/temperate in character, is divided into three eco-floristic provinces. A^ A2.and.A3.

The A-, and A2 are dominant in New South Wales and also in Illawarra. (see Fig.1.1) although the latter also contains elements from the A3 which occurs in eastern Victoria and Tasmania. The Illawarra is not a part of any recognised province "core area', but occurs in an overlap zone between the A^and A2 provinces.

Although not extensive, the development of littoral rainforest in the district is also of interest because of its occurrence at such a high latitude. Well developed littoral rainforest stands do not

extend further south than the Jervis Bay area, immediately south of

the present study area.

At the western limit of rainforest occurrence in the district. approximately 45 kilometres inland, semi-deciduous vine thickets have developed. These stands aire similar to the vine thickets described

by Webb (1959.1968) for more northern areas, but have apparently not

previously been recognised at this latitude. 9.

1.4 Thesis Organisation

The thesis is organised into two parts. The first provides detailed background information on the regional environment, rainforest flora and an historical overview with evidence for the pre-European distribution of rainforest within the district. The second part contains specific

investigations of the rainforest environment and details variation in the pattern of the structure and floristics of the district's rainforests.

Part 1 begins with Chapter 2 which provides information concerning

the important environmental variables which influence the distribution and character of the rainforest. This treatment of environmental

factors is particularly comprehensive, drawing together observations

from many sources, as well as making new interpretations from this body of existing information.

The existing information and research findings related to the district's rainforest vegetation are critically examined in a literature review in Chapter 3. Because much of this work has been founded upon inaccurate observation and ill-informed interpretations, it requires careful reevaluation so that the resulting false conclusions are not perpetuated.

An historical framework within which this and later research can be placed is established in Chapter 4. The extent of the pre-European rainforest is dealt with in considerable detail, as this has been the subject of many inaccuracies and exaggerations in the past. The historical reconstruction of the major concentrations of rainforest is 10.

also seen as fundamental to the validity of the selection and sampling of survey sites later in the thesis.

The present areas of rainforest are also documented, to provide a background upon which research can proceed, and to provide essential information for planning conservation management of rainforest. The existing information and research findings relating to the district's rainforest vegetation are critically examined in a literature review in

Chapter 4.

Chapter 5 provides a comprehensive inventory of the district's rainforest flora and an analysis of the species present based on

'floristic elements' and species at their limit of distribution. This is an important part of the thesis, forming a basis for investigations of rainforest floristics. both in the present work and in future.

Chapter 6 introduces Part 2. providing an outline of the methodology employed in the collection and analysis of the data used in the following chapters. Numerical classification techniques have been used in Chapter 7 to investigate the broad patterns in rainforest occurrence and floristic and structural characteristics of the district's rainforests.Investigations into the important environmental factors in the development of rainforests in the Illawarra are presented in Chapter

8, Using computer analysis of soil nutrient and other characteristics. particular attention is given to the role played by soil types. The identification of rainforest communities is undertaken in Chapter 9. where detailed descriptions of the distribution and character of the community types are provided. Chapter 10, the concluding chapter, provides a model

for the occurrence and character of the Illawarra rainforest vegetation and the relationships between these and Australian rainforests in general. PART ONE

THE ILLAWARRA REGION AND ITS RAINFORESTS

AN OVERVIEW 12.

CHAPTER TWO

THE REGIONAL ENVIRONMENT

2.1 Geology, Geomorphology and Soils

Soil type differences are a major influence on the distribution of all vegetation types. Since these differences are related primarily to geology, geomorphology and climate, an appreciation of these factors is essential in understanding the vegetation patterns present. As far as rainforest is concerned, geology is of fundamental importance to the distribution of rainforest and the development of differing structural and floristic types. This section provides an overview of the geology and geomorphology and soils of the Illawarra district, with particular reference to those features which are significant to the occurrence of rainforest vegetation.

2.1.1 Geology

The Illawarra is situated in the southern half of the Sydney Basin. itself a part of the larger Sydney-Bowen Basin, a major structural basin extending from Batemans Bay in the south to Central Queensland in the north (Bembrick et al_. 1980). That part of the Sydney Basin with which the present work is concerned is made up of two topographic sub-divisions

: the Illawarra Plateau in the south and the Woronora Plateau in the north. Due to its persistent northerly dip and geographic location the latter has also been termed the Nepean Ramp. 13.

The Sydney Basin in this district contains extensive, almost horizontal, sedimentary rocks of Permian and Triassic age. In the

south a basement of Devonian sequences is exposed. Interbedded Permian

volcanic sequences cover significant areas in the vicinity of Kiama in

the south-east. Tertiary basalts and other volcanic features occur

sporadically in the southern half of the district. Significant areas

of Quaternary sediment occur, not only on the coast but also on the

plateau.

A generalised geological map of the district is shown in Figure

2.1, and two generalised geological cross-sections are given in Figure

2.2. demonstrating the very different nature of the surface geology at

Wollongong and Kiama.

Within the study area the outcrop of the folded and metamorphosed

Devonian basement rocks is restricted to the deeper valley floors of

the Shoalhaven River system. Minor exposures of granite of probable

Carboniferous age also occur in the valleys, however these geological

units are only of minimal concern here because of their limited exposure

on the edge of the study area and because they are not associated

with rainforest occurrence.

The Permian sediments and volcanic facies cover a significant part of the study area in the east and south, primarily at lower

elevations. Most of the coastal plain and the floor and slopes of the

Kangaroo Valley are composed of Permian sequences. The sediments include

siltstones, shales and sandstones, and near the top of the Permian the

Illawarra Coal Measures contain significant coal seams interbedded with sandstones and shales (Bowman 1974). The volcanic facies. termed the 14.

ILLAWARRA DISTRICT

__/

QUATERNARY ALLUVIUM

TERTIARY BASALT

TRIASSIC W IAN AM ATTA GROUP SEOIM ENTS

TRIASSIC HAWKESBURY SANDSTONE

[_""*__] TRIASSIC NARRABEEN GROUP SEDIMENTS

PERMIAN SEDIMENTS (SHALES. S'STONES & COAL SEAMS)

PERMIAN VOLCANICS (LATITES & SANDSTONES)

|» *[ DEVONIAN SEDIMENTS

2 Geological Cross-Sections

WOLLONGONG

Lake Illawarra

0 km 15 1 Source: Geological Sheet Wollongong 1:250000 15.

CM - o c o o cvi ro O 3 QUI - § § ^ 1 ^ S U . p w S _ §_.§§»_> •_ _J ' _ _3 c -n ._ S t roS —c at> 3_^ —- o old a i _ _ . i _ _ _ U ffl BS - .. E £ S* _ _> Q. OL 0- CL CL o LU fij ___,<.,_:_ ueiouad g my at-a_pcpcp: o •" fur ' AjBiuai ' OISSBIJJ. 5 _> r- CO o i i i 3O ' I r ' CN to 1 4- _ / i ( VI / _i CO to to UJ to 0. XI (O £ (o. /<_ P1 / / / a. \ f V / / ._ .:= n / CD r _ / °_ iy / / _ a./ / _ i / cr _ i / u _= 1,—1 — V / !D /] J oc— V _! / % (1 c /\ c \ \ / to «> / 1 P \ 1 •c y -t o /\ a. I I J 1 _jf c 2 \ 1 S I \ / / -— I f O PM \ / ) (

1 1Q

_> j ° HI [ / _ \l 1 1 K * U 1 1 i_ _ \ / / c / D) oc / I \ V) C ^1 > // / o to A-ft. ° I \ 1 1 _ > a> < JD .C _l P= 0.1 \ c / \ 3 /\ _J- _. ^_ I \ c AJ^— 3 ^~._. O ra / O V _! |\ 2 «/ "^ „ /T a. — _/1 o \ _: v, / to y t_o (\ "•-a N\ T~~, 5 \ c/) a [ i£ 5/ \ E tN-l J: "-. E P \ —; \ °1 E °- 1 1 _: >_ 1 A'A ir V J x _ \ i CO (= — K * m fc 1 16.

Gerringong Volcanics, consist of basic volcanics (latites) interleaved with sandstones (Budgong Sandstone) derived primarily from local volcanic source rocks. Strat.graphically, the Gerringong Volcanics occur in the upper part of the Permian Shoalhaven Group and the lower-most Illawarra

Coal Measures. These volcanic sequences cover significant areas near

Kiama and Jamberoo in the south-east of the district, where large areas of rainforest once existed (Chapter 4). and to a lesser extent north to Wollongong and west to the Kangaroo Valley.

The Narrabeen Group shales and sandstones, of early Triassic to

Middle Triassic age. overlie the Illawarra Coal Measures. The Narrabeen

Group consists of "up to 800 metres of lithic conglomerate, quartz-lithic sandstone, and red green and grey shales" (Herbert 1980). Within the study area, which is an area near the southern margin of the Sydney

Basin, the Narrabeen Group is much thinner, reaching no more than 20 metres thick, and consists of alternating sandstones and mudstones (silt and claystones). With regard to the development of rainforest vegetation the Bald Hill claystone. which is the upper member of the Narrabeen

Group, is important. These "chocolate shales" consist mainly of red and mottled claystones. with minor sandstones of similar composition

(Bowman 1974). There are widespread exposures of this shale on the plateau in the north of the district associated with the deeper valleys where the overlying sandstone has been removed by erosion (see below).

Directly overlying the Narrabeen Group is the Hawkesbury Sandstone. a massive quartz-rich sandstone which dominates both the scenic and geomorphological environment of a large part of the Sydney Basin. This sandstone is generally very coarse although small mudrock lenses are 17.

not uncommon (Bowman 1974). The thick and erosion-resistant Hawkesbury

Sandstone forms the main base of the Woronora and the Illawarra Plateau.

The vegetation of the sandstone is generally composed of woodland and heath, with little rainforest development, except in exceptional

circumstances (eg. very moist gullies).

The Wianamatta Group, comprising shales and minor sandstones.

conformably overlies the Hawkesbury Sandstone. The main development

of the Wianamatta Group occurs in the Cumberland Basin, a structural

depression to the west of Sydney. However, erosional remnants of the

Wianamatta Group outcrop in the study area, particularly in the vicinity

of Robertson and Moss Vale, although even there the thickness only

reaches a maximum of 15 metres (Bowman 1974). The dominant lithology

in this area is dark grey shale (claystones and siltstones). with

minor sandstones. Th^se erosional remnants contrast strongly with the

surrounding quartz-rich, coarse grained sandstone of the underlying

Hawkesbury Sandstone, and the overlying Robertson Basalt (see below).

Exposures of a number of volcanic intrusives and flows of Late

Triassic and Tertiary age occur throughout the district. The more

significant of these are described briefly, in order from north to south

(see Fig. 2.1). Most of these volcanics occur in the high rainfall zone

and support at least some rainforest vegetation.

A small unmapped area of soil of volcanic origin (possibly a sill)

occurs at Cataract Creek (34° 18' S 150° 02' E). It weathers to produce

a deep orange-red soil which contrasts sharply with soils on the

surrounding shales and sandstone. The unit appears to be thin and is apparently within the Triassic Narrabeen Group. 18.

The Cordeaux Crinanite. structurally termed a lopolith by Bowman

(1974). with an exposure of some 7.5 square kilometres, is located on the plateau west of Wollongong. The extent of the exposure is greater than that shown on the geological sheets.

The most widespread volcanic unit is a flow of Tertiary age. the

Robertson Basalt, which occurs largely as erosional remnants from

Macquarie Pass in the east to Penrose in the west. The main occurrence is in the vicinity of Robertson. The Bong Bong Basalt, a Late Triassic

sill, outcrops as a narrow band within the Illawarra Coal Measures between Jamberoo Pass and Woodhill. and also occurs at Saddleback

Mountain. The sill attains a maximum thickness of about 30 metres (Bowman

1974). Similarly, the Kangaroo Mountain Basanite is a Late Triassic

sill overlying the Illawarra Coal Measures along the Cambewarra Range,

Exposed at Broughton Head (Berry Mountain) and Tapitalee Mountain.

this sill produces a soil of a rich red colour. Saddleback Mountain

south-west of Kiama is formed from a volcanic neck, the Saddleback

Mountain Agglomerate, of Late Triassic age (Bowman 1974). The neck intrudes the Permian sediments and volcanic sequences, and the Bong

Bong Basalt, and outcrops on the summit of Saddleback Mountain only.

All of these Tertiary volcanic soils support rainforest vegetation. usually of unique character.

Overlying the Permian sequences below the Hawkesbury Sandstone escarpments are deposits of talus which occur discontinuously along the escarpments (Young 1977.1978). Considerable areas of this talus. on a scale of several square kilometres, occur at Mt Kembla and at

Macquarie Pass, 19.

There are also considerable sediment accumulations on the Hawkesbury

Sandstone plateau where suitable topographic situations exist. The geomorphology of these areas, generally known as upland swamps (or dells), was recently investigated by Young (1983).

2.1.2 Geomorphology

Visually and geomorphologically the Illawarra district is dominated by the Illawarra Escarpment, which ranges in elevation from 200 metres at Garie in the north to over 600 metres at Barren Grounds in the south. The cliffline of the escarpment, formed of Hawkesbury Sandstone up to 130 metres thick, runs almost the entire length of the district.

In the east the escarpment is generally sub-parallel to the coast.

It ranges from a sea-cliff at Royal National Park to a maximum of 20 kilometres inland at Albion Park, in the vicinity of Lake Illawarra. where the Macquarie Rivulet has eroded the escarpment further inland than elsewhere (see Fig.1.1). The escarpment exhibits a more complicated pattern in the Kiama - Berry area, probably due to the extensive resistant volcanic rocks in this area. Inland of Berry it forms a series of scarps on each side of the Kangaroo River Valley. This river, part of the Shoalhaven River system, flows westward from behind

Jamberoo on the plateau. In most cases, particularly in relation to the coastal escarpments, the scarp acts as a watershed between small easterly flowing streams and the major river systems which flow west

(eg. Nepean and Shoalhaven). The northerly flowing Woronora and Hacking

Rivers are associated with a localised variation in the dip of the sandstone in this area (Young _ Johnson 1977). 20.

Discussion of the Illawarra landscape is often approached, as it is here, by dividing it into three broad geomorphic zones: the coastal plain. the escarpment and its foothills and the plateau. The three zones are distinctive in terms of geology, topography and climate, as well as in their altitudinal and coastal influences. These differences, and the way in which they interact, produce suitable conditions for the development of a number of characteristic vegetation communities. Rainforests are found in disjunct communities across the whole topographic - geological

- climatic spectrum exhibited by the district. The altitudinal zones. with which the geomorphic zones are associated are shown in Fig. 2.3.

The Coastal Plain

This plain can be defined as the area to the east of the coastal escarpments below the arbitrary altitude of 100 metres (Mills 1983). It varies considerably in geology with resultant variations in landform. and is of greatest width in the Shoalhaven area south of Berry and adjacent to Lake Illawarra (see Fig. 2,3). These areas are dominated by

Quaternary alluvium and Recent marine sediments at low elevations, with

Permian sediments and volcanic rocks at higher elevations (see above).

Quaternary alluvial deposits form extensive floodplains along the major streams and adjacent to lagoons. Permian volcanics. including latites and tuffaceous sandstones, form the higher topography of rolling to hilly terrain, mainly in the Albion Park to Kiama area. Alternating layers of the sandstones and latites form hilly terrain, which in places forms the escarpment foothills, often resulting in small but steep gorges and headwall valleys. Latite outcrops are generally characterised by steep and extremely rocky slopes between benches formed on the interbedded

Budgong Sandstone (see Fig.2.2). The Berkeley Hills to the north of Lake 21. 22.

Illawarra rise about 100 metres above the coastal plain and are formed of an outlier of the Permian volcanics. Similarly, further north in the city of Wollongong. Mangerton Hill is composed of the tuffaceous

Budgong Sandstone.

The streams rising on the eastern side of the escarpment are generally short with very small catchments. The largest of these streams is Macquarie Rivulet (102 km2 basin), which enters Lake Illawarra: the

Minnamurra River (117 km ). which enters the sea in a small estuarine system north of Kiama: Broughton Creek (163 knr). a tributary of the lower Shoalhaven River near Nowra: and the Kangaroo River (890 knr). which flows into the Shoalhaven River further inland.

The floor of the Kangaroo Valley forms an inland plain which attains a maximum width of three kilometres. It is composed of alluvial flats and outcrops of Permian sediments, the Berry Siltstone and Nowra Sandstone,

The sides of this valley, to the north, south and east, represent the continuation of the coastal escarpment and contain most of the rainforest in this part of the district.

The Escarpment and Foothills

The extent of the escarpment and associated slopes is indicated in

Fig. 2.3. In the north and south-west, nearly all the slopes are composed of Permian or Triassic sediments while most of the parent material in the south-east is Permian Gerringong Volcanics. The iandforms of these two areas are quite different. On the volcanics deep headwall gorges and steep rocky slopes at the base of the escarpment have developed. while the sedimentary sequences support a generally more gentle terrain. 23.

except where resistant sandstone units form structurally controlled benches. These benches are up to 200 metres wide and several kilometres long: they parallel the escarpment and are particularly important to the development of rainforest.

The Plateau

The plateau is formed by the resistant Hawkesbury Sandstone, The higher areas around Robertson are composed of an overlying cover of

Robertson Basalt and Wianamatta Group Shales, forming undulating to rolling terrain which, unlike the surrounding sandstone, lacks deeply incised valleys. Elsewhere on the plateau the Wianamatta Group occurs only as minor erosional remnants and there are only minor occurrences of volcanic soils. The topography of the Robertson Basalt differs greatly from the coastal volcanics which, as will be seen, have had significant implications for the extent of the natural vegetation which remains in each area today.

The plateau rises from near sea level at Port Hacking in the north to just over 800 metres on the Robertson Basalt in the south, a distance of about 77 kilometres. Except for small outliers of sandstone along the Cambewarra Range on the southern side of the Kangaroo Valley. the plateau is continuous. Considerable dissection of the sandstone occurs in the Kangaroo Valley, where deep, generally narrow gorges have been cut by most tributaries of the Kangaroo River. Most of these tributaries have major waterfalls towards their headwaters.

To the north, on the Woronora Plateau, the main tributaries of the

Nepean River (Avon. Cordeaux. and Cataract Rivers), the Woronora River 24.

and the Hacking River systems have cut valleys below the Hawkesbury

Sandstone, exposing the Narrabeen Group, an important factor influencing the distribution of rainforest across its surface. Most of the plateau surface is composed of the sandstone, which generally exhibits a topography made up of complex ridge and valley systems associated with the main drainage lines. Interfluves consist of undulating to rolling terrain of varying extent (eg. Maddens Plains), where suitable locations support upland swamps on alluvial and colluvial deposits (Young 1983).

2.1.3 Soil Types

There is little detailed information on the soil types or their distribution in the Illawarra and the southern Sydney Basin, Only broad scale soil patterns are presented on soils maps such as that in Stace et aJL (1972). which embraces the entire Australian continent, or those for New South Wales available from CSIRO (1965) and N.S.W, Department of

Decentralisation and Development (undat.). A general description of the soils of the Sydney area was carried out by Corbett (1972). following and expanding the earlier soil survey of Walker (1961).

Within Illawarra there are still only a few studies available on soils. In a series of papers Walker (1962a. 1962b. 1963) described the soils and their formation in the south of the area and along the escarpment.

The characteristics and origin of the talus along the escarpment in the Wollongong area have been described by Young (1977.1978) and a general account of the soils in the Wollongong area has been given by

Young (1982). In a study of the Hawkesbury River catchment. Hamilton

(1976) provided a general description of the soils found on the plateau 25.

areas of the district. More recently some detailed descriptions of the soils along a transect across the Woronora Plateau have been made available in Dames and Moore (1983). mainly on the Hawkesbury sandstone to the north-west of Wollongong. and by Young (1983). for Quaternary sedimentary deposits (upland swamps) also on the sandstone plateau.

Other detailed descriptions of the soils at particular locations have been given by Parbery (1947). for 'black headland' soils developed on coastal volcanic headlands in the Gerringong area. Norwood (1975) for acid sulphate soils of the low-lying areas of the Shoalhaven River floodplain, and by Young (1976) for talus slopes in the Wollongong area.

Bywater (1978.1985) has described some of the differences between the shale and Permian volcanic soils of the district, suggesting that major differences in nutrient status occur which are particularly significant in determining the types of rainforest found on each.

The soils of northern Illawarra were dealt with in a description. based on geological units, of the Wollongong and Port Hacking 1 : 100

000 topographic sheets (Tille et al_ 1983). This work identified 19 soil units, each closely related to landform/geological units and containing a number of soil types (based on the classification of Stace et al.

1972).

Soils of the district are nearly always acidic (pH range generally

4 - 6), the result of the consistently high rainfall over most of the district (Young 1982). Although soil types are generally related to lithology it should be noted that there are normally a number of soils developed on any one geological unit. 26.

Table 2.1 provides a summary of the soil types of the Illawarra district. In general terms, these fall into three broad categories:

Hawkesbury Sandstone soils (and to a much lesser extent the Nowra

Sandstone in the south-west of the district) which are sandy with low organic content «5% wt.) and of low nutrient status: finer grained sedimentary soils (eg.shales) which are usually sandy loams with moderate organic content (15% wt.) and of moderate nutrient status: and those soils developed on volcanic lithologies which are generally finer grained

(higher clay content) with high organic content (up to 30% wt.) and of high nutrient status.

2.2 Climatic Patterns

Climate is known to be of fundamental importance in determining the character of Australian rainforests (eg. Webb et al_. 1981a). The interactions of soils and climate are the main determining factors in the distribution of rainforest in New South Wales. For the Illawarra.

Bywater (1985) has suggested that, after soil type, climate is the main determining factor for rainforest community type. Climate is thus a fundamental variable in determining rainforest occurrence and characteristics.

2J2.1 General Climatic Setting

The Illawarra district lies in a transition zone between the trade winds in the north and the migratory anti-cyclone belt to the south

(Commonwealth Bureau of Meteorology 1975). In an annual cvcle the 27.

CO T3 CO * G T3 ^ - cn 4-1 rd co cn G P P p 4-1 XI cn H P T3 T3 rd CO CO CO CO G cu T3 CO C C H CU cu cu CU rd M SH 0 CU rd rd T3 CO SH SH SH S4 <-i CO 0 0 SH i-H H H 0 TJ 0 0 0 0 V cu 4H 5 0 H •P TS -_ 0 G 44 44 4H 4H 0 4-1 rd CO 0 0 S rd 0 >c1? 4-> •. G 4J CU 2 o H 4-1 P P +J & EH ft X •H > S k. CU ft ft ft ft K u >1 rd 0 +J C" ^Ti K >i >i >i * G t-H 4-> 2 S4 P 4H * * CO T3 H G P r-t r-iP rH 44 P 0 rd co CJ CO T3 T) CU CU rd rd CO rd rd CO rd cn CO G -H 0 CU CO ^ CU +J G G SH cn U H cu CJ U CU 0 cu "_ CU -P 3 SH CO u ft rd rd 0 3 Ti SH 3 3 S4 3 SH G G c_ CD 0 xs P 0 >i H H 44 T3 (U 0 0 0) CU 0 CU 0 rd •H 4-» 4H cu CO 44 H XI X QJ 0 44 4H 4H rH g - H cn CU G rd 4-> 4-1 G co rH G H rH G H G T3 0 0"i H •cH 0 •H U rd rd CU 0 H s •H H H •H H -H 0 S4 EH M u fe & CU o U EH 4-> (X EH EH IH EH >H O U 0 u 0 CJ u •H u •H -H •rH •H 0 O U •rH •H •H •S •£ X X3 •H •H •H xft X U ft ft ft ft X _5 X 0 xft 4-> + £ft 0 ft •H 0 0 0 0 ft ft ft •H 0 G •• 0 u 0 X u u SH SH 0 0 0 SH cu cn VJ +J u ft 4-1 4J 4-1 4-1 SH SH S4 xft p T1 3 4- 0 4-> 0 o O 0 0 4-1 4-1 P 0 0 U +J 0 0i 0 SH Cn cr« Cn Cn 0 0 0 SH C" +J cd cn •H CO P •H -H •H •H en CO CO 4J •H 2 ±> cu H CU 3 H H H H cu cu CU rj H 3 co g O g l-l o o O O g g g W O * 5 Q i cn H 4-> co PQ UJ U3 Q Q U us CO CO CO •H -H EH U % « 35 35 S3 H H 0 G ^s CO D Si Si

CO 13 r. p CU G rd rd r. CO D G ft rd CU >i M CU P _• p •• CO CO 0 +J rd •H B •~tO G rMd 0H) G CO cu B G rd H rH ft CO •rH rH u 0 CD c rd 0 rH ft H SH rd 4H rd •H •H ft 3 CU SH ft 3 rd p H 0 > U 4-> 0 -_ P. 0 C Cn CJ G ft cn 3 H 4-1 rd 0 cn cu H X! 0 P Xl CO H CO s 3 SH co 3 cu H H 4-1 0 •H rd >1 rd 0 P rd fte rd -H 3 U CO M CO 4-1 S4 H CU G SH CU SH S4 P rG 0 rd •H 4-> 3 CO 0 G 4-) 0

P (ferricrete ) •w ca G H W an d soil s c eta l rd •H ,

UJ CO H CO CP 0 [5 3 abov e •H Xi CO _ H U Ul 0 0 CO CO CO H >J -H CO 0 SH SH i _ cn g en o rd 4-1 0 CO B CO B N 4-1 E-i *' oN 3 H CU H -rH W rd N X) CO >i T3 0 rd N 0 4J CU T) •rul cNu •uH Ncu 0 U c En 0 CU •H 0 CO -H S ft 0 H 0 rH 0 ft rd CM o > 0 M 0 ft 0 G 0 G rH •H H •H 3 aN ,_! _ H T3 N SH N N >i -H rd •H TJ H H rd 4J 4-> H •H 13 T3 CU TJ rd CU g 0 H sfl ft U ft W c_> cn 4-1 0 CO >i 4-1 CU U G G Is CU 0 —' rd i<*__n* 4-> —* 3 •eH cn ft ft ft co Xi 4-> T- 3 ft 3 '- 3 ^ CU H G 0 3 H **^ 0 XI 0 CO CO rd rd SH 0 rd H r4 ft rH ft cn w _J SH 0 ft CJ <- _) ~ CJ U >, fflrd >i rd G co G co M SH P G rd LO CU 0 CU 4J •• CO J* 3 P CU SH CU > -rH > c CN >i c M fl rd 0) SH SH rd G rd CU Cn u rd cn E rd 3 X! (0 X e _ 0 cu •H cu *- ro fl S cn H CJ rH -H H H 4- • P G S4 rd rd rd H rd T_ 0 CO >H %% rd SH H cu 0 0 0 CU •s CD 3 '3 CU rd ^ •H rd H g XI > X CO EH _> cy EH a s a H CO CO 28.

anti-cyclones move northward in autumn and southward in spring. The climate is closely associated with this oscillation and the incursion of tropical air masses southward over the area, usually with rain-bearing depressions.

The region has a generally mild climate (Cfb). extremes in tempera­ tures being moderated by coastal effects. Further inland and at higher altitudes temperature differences are more pronounced. There is no marked seasonal variation in rainfall, although somewhat lower rainfalls are typical of winter.

There are considerable variations in all climatic attributes throughout the district. These differences are principally controlled by altitude, proximity to the sea and. topographic orientation. The main climatic influences are temperature, rainfall and wind and these are dealt with in some detail below, as they determine not only the distribution of the vegetation communities but also, on a finer scale, the distribution of individual species.

2.2.2 Rainfall Distribution

The distinctly high rainfall over much of the Illawarra district is a feature of the New South Wales Average Annual Rainfall map

(Commonwealth Bureau of Meteorology undat.X Rainfall maps for areas within the Illawarra region have been provided in Young &. Johnson (1977) and Fuller and Mills (1985). 29.

Within Climatic District Number 68 (Illawarra) data are available for 180 rainfall stations (Commonwealth Bureau of Meteorology 1966,1969) and these data were used to prepare the rainfall distribution map presented in Fig.2.4. The rainfall statistics for these stations are given in Appendix 1.

Rainfall in the district is very high compared to much of New

South Wales, ranging from just under 1000 mm per annum in the west. at approximately 15 kilometres inland in the north and 50 kilometres inland in the south, to over 1800 mm in the vicinity of the high point of the plateau and escarpment in the south-east corner of the area at Barren Grounds. An area of low average rainfall also occurs in the vicinity of Lake Illawarra. where a wide coastal plain, devoid of any significantly elevated topography, receives an average of about 1000 mm per annum.

The distribution of the district's rainfall is strongly governed by elevation and distance from the coast (compare Fig.2.3 and Fig.2.4).

Orographic effects cause maximum rainfall (1500 - 1800 mm) to occur in the vicinity of the high coastal escarpments, and to a lesser degree the inland escarpments, dropping appreciably on either side of these escarpments (Fig.2.4). Localised topographic highs induce higher rainfall than on surrounding country and also cause rainfall shadows to the leeward side. For example. Saddleback Mountain and the adjacent escarpments of the Barren Grounds cause much of the rainfall associated with the southerly winds to fall on the southern aspects. To the north. other ridges capture further rainfall, resulting in the exceedingly low rainfall experienced in the area around Lake Illawarra (Fuller _ Mills 30.

ILLAWARRA DISTRICT RAINFALL (mm)

0 km 15 t t Based on Bureau of Meteorology Data 31.

1985). The northern aspects of these ridges (eg.Stockyard Mountain) are very dry and have a considerable effect on the distribution of the natural vegetation (see Fuller S. Mills. 1985). High rainfall zones also parallel the escarpment to the north, south (Cambewarra Range) and to the west (Kangaroo Valley) (Fig. 2,4). This effect diminishes with increasing distance from the coast. There is some evidence that at the western end of the Kangaroo Valley, and within the Shoalhaven Gorge. moist air is channelled along these escarpments causing an abnormally high rainfall in the gorge compared with the surrounding country.

Exceptionally high zones of localised rainfall occur where projections of the escarpment cause funnelling of the southerly air-streams and the resulting dumping of a high rainfall over limited areas. This phenomenon occurs at Mt Keira, Mt Kembla and • Macquarie Pass, in addition to the major effect caused bySaddleback Mountain mentioned above. The high rainfall experienced at Maddens Creek seems to be related to the proximity to the coastline of the high profile of the escarpment, which there is 400 metres in elevation.

The distribution of the rainfall throughout the year is fairly even, although there is a tendency for higher averages during autumn and lower averages during late winter and spring (Fig.2.5 and Table

2.2). The average monthly rainfall for all available stations is given in Appendix 2. The lower rainfall received at most stations in spring is related to the decrease in the frequency of southerly winds at this time of the year and an increase in non rain-bearing westerly winds

(see Section 2.2.4). This lower spring rainfall is particularly noticeable at Mt Keira (station at Mt Keira Scout Camp) and Brogers Creek which 32.

AVERAGE MONTHLY RAINFALL SELECTED STATIONS

ILLAWARRA DISTRICT 200-1

mi 100-.J.: cS

mm _!§___ £___ WATERFALL 1189mm 200-I

200 -i

100-

ROBERTSON ALBION PARK 1648mm 1110mm

200-1 200-

# 100: 100-S, Safe. .SSS.S

mm ______mm __£__ 0 **__!___ 15km NOWRA J BROGERS CREEK ° _i 1179mm 1966mm Source '. Bureau of Meteorology 33.

*> A" (*> of *> <*> o o o O O O CO o O o O O O CD rH T-i rH H rH H Hcn S4 cn 1 CU o CTl cn co CD m >< H H H rH H s 0cn CO H G 0 0 SH •H 0 of oY> 0\° oV oV> p cu 00 r> o r> cn r- rd p Cn H H CN rH rH H P CO cu G a O ro cn CN rH T) MH •H a o ro o cn (N CN CU O rH O CN P CN ro CN CN ro u 3 OH CO rd CO Hcu CU CU SH o\° o\° oV 0\« <#> *> CO 3 CD cn CO CN cn cn PQ SH CN CN CN CN CN CN _ ^^. • « cu g cu P co o ro rH KD g 0 —* SH G oo r» CN O r- r- 3 •H CN m «* ro rd 0 P CO s 01 '—' *> d? HP o¥> *o oV> a H H r~ ro O cn r4 G ro ro CN ro ro CN H 0 rd •H 4H CT> "3< rH r- r- o rH G CU ro o CD cn cn 00 •H « ro CD CN m *_ ro rd PS •uH H P rd rd oV i*° <*> (*> o\° G g in ro in CO CN cn 0 •H SH CN CN CN CN CN CN CD H rd cu CU u g fa t> O CD cn r- CN CO rd CD LO <* o CD CN S4 g b CN "SJ1 (U S4 CN in ro ro (71 rd 3 Q rd * SH rd CO (U H > H < H

X CU X CU U SH rd U _ rd G rH • « (-, H SH n H G cn rd •H cn m 0 C SH > cu 4-> 4H •H 0 cu W u SH 4J •H cn cn cu CU rd X 0 cn • X P P H n n P o rd CO < PQ a a PC S 34.

are both situated in valleys with a generally southerly aspect and which, for the rest of the year, receive exceptionally high rainfalls

(see Fig.2.5).

Maximum 24 hour rainfall figures for the district have been recorded at Cordeaux Dam. 574 mm (1898): Mt Pleasant. 510mm (1925): Mt Kembla. 463 mm (1911) and the Mt Keira Scout Camp. 494 mm (1975). More recently, an exceptional storm event dropped over 800 mm. mostly in the space of

12 hours, on the escarpment west of Dapto in February 1984 (Nanson &

Hean 1984.1985). As a result, numerous minor landslides occurred along this length of escarpment and on some slopes forests were destroyed by rock and mudslides.

The average number of rain-days follows a similar pattern to the average monthly rainfall. The highest average maximum number of rain-days per year is 133 days, recorded at Cordeaux Dam while the lowest is 79 days per year at Dapto. The average intensity of rainfall. in millimetres of rain per rain-day. ranges from 8 to 19.

Of significance for the development of vegetation communities is the difference in potential evaporation. The excess of precipitation over evaporation clearly has implications for the occurrence of a number of plant communities. Both sedgelands (upland swamps) of the plateau

(see Young 1983) and rainforest require a high positive water budget.

Detailed evaporation data for the district are generally lacking. Eliot et aL (197C) and Young (1983) provide data for a number of sites in the

Wollongong area, showing evaporation to be inversely proportional to altitude. Accordingly, at higher altitudes precipitation over evaporation is positive for all months of the year, and at lower altitudes, where 35.

rainfall is lower also, there is a net negative water budget. Figures given by Young (1983) indicate that there is a considerable difference between precipitation minus evaporation at Wollongong (altitude 10m) and Mt Keira (altitude 310m). The estimated annual effective rainfall at Wollongong is 44 mm. but at Mt Keira. with an average rainfall 688 mm higher than Wollongong. the value is 887 mm per year. At a more localised scale, aspect plays an important part in determining moisture reception, retention and loss.

Drought conditions, which may be recognised as a period of some months or years with a significant deficiency of rainfall (Commonwealth

Bureau of Meteorology 1979), do occur in the district, and a number of severe droughts have been recorded. An example of one dry year is

1968, the driest on record, when only 45 percent of the average rainfall fell at Wollongong. In the same year the worst bushfires on record occurred in the region.

Cook (1982) has analysed rainfall data from stations in the Kiama

- Jamberoo area and found that the area experiences distinct runs of wet and dry years, and that a change from one to the other can be expected every 6 to 8 years. Her results are similar to those of Dury

(1980) who suggested that the rainfall received at Sydney followed a step-functional pattern. The very high rainfalls of this part of the district were also confirmed, where an average of 20 percent of months during a wet period can be expected to record more than 250mm. 36.

2.2.3 Temperature Regime

Average temperatures vary considerably over the district, and are closely related to altitude and proximity to coastal influences. There is little detailed data on temperature variation in the district, as few stations maintain temperature records. However, isotherm maps have been produced by the Commonwealth Bureau of Meteorology (1979) for the

Sydney Region which included the Illawarra district.

Coastal areas are cooler in summer and warmer in winter than inland locations. Lower temperatures are associated with the higher altitudes.

A comparison of temperature records (°C) from selected stations is given in Table 2.3. The average monthly maximum and minimum temperatures for these stations are shown in Fig. 2.6. Monthly temperature averages for all stations with records in the Illawarra and Sydney districts are given in Appendix 3.

The coldest month is July which consistently shows the lowest average monthly temperature throughout the district. The warmest months are generally December. January or February. These trends are persistent at all altitudes. The highest maximum temperatures recorded were at Wollongong on the coast. 46.0°C. and at Moss Vale on the highlands, 38.3°C, The lowest minimum temperatures were recorded at Moss Vale (-5.6°C) and at Picton (-10.0°C).

Average monthly maximum and minimum temperatures are clearly related to altitude, as Fig.2.7 illustrates. The average temperature drop with increasing altitude is approximately 6°C per 1000 metres.

This trend is not consistent at all locations for reasons including 37.

-_ cu p _*-N G . CO CN cn CD u cn G G . cu r- •H CD CO CN H cn ". CU H > a H CO < s - >i ^-> cn . 0 C •*r ro CD cD 0u H X • ^-* 0 ^ rd ro SH • Hcn CN CN en 0 > a CN cu cu < S4 P 3 P cu rd a SH 4H CN CO CO cu 0 3 G ft CO rH f> 3 fO -H g rd EcHu CU SH g 3 3 PQ g •H • • G CU G » CO CO m cn •H 0 rd X • • . S4 h3 rd H m cn m a 3 • CN CN CN CN T3 0 > a G CO < rd >—" g . 3 p g u cn •H •H rH • O r- cn in X SH rd in <. r> rd P CU CuU ro cn >H PS a •H 0) Q tn rd rd SH SH -_ g | g cu U G 1 > rd •P rd oX o m iXn < S cn H * • • • rd •H G in r^ CN o MH H Q H •^ H ro 0 H H G 0 * cn cn •H G . g g g g SH 0 4-1 CN cn O CO rd •H rH r- o r~ H ft P < AD H H g rd 0 P U CO

tn ro G CN G rd G O cu 0 > •H cn 0 cn H P P cn G 4_ rd CJ o rd P •H £ EH CO PM 38.

LU • >» DC o o D _ h o _> < **- in o n o 3 LU _ z CoN 3 a 0 ca E __ 5 / / _ o o / / _- UJ (X / / - o CD a • u I * / 2 LU h / r o < • < < / o J • o D J • / rv • 4 /:- ? 2 /• 2 o cu > u O •D < 111 CO 3 Z 1 •J LU < / o D . o 0 >• < tn / in c_ / UJ / i o . o > / < o « / - o co

o / -4 . o < / • / 4 / • o / 03 >• _>/ • : 2 LU • / 11^ < >.- ** N-<_\ , XI •i • c ••• CO 1 i i 7 II _ , -IT, , , , , , CO CO ^t CN O CO CD

_a E co

C/) E oc LU o >

c_> _: y O 03 a. a LU __ DC o 3 -r h o o o a < CO CN n CN LU >. s _o a o 2_> 10 o UJ (0 a cu i _• 2 CO • _ I— 0 OQ cu 3r o O-J _ (0 _ > o D C/J J LU I h h U 2 LU -o -o J 0 LU _> E CN E in co LU CD (3 O < < < > <- LU CO CO O > 2 < O

"T- a o a a ro CN co a CNJ 40.

variable exposure to winds, the accumulation of cold air in topographic depressions and the effects of coastal influences. This is particularly true of lower altitudes where coastal locations are warmer than inland

sites at the same altitude (note the spread of points at lower elevations

in Fig. 2,7). A local example of this effect is the enclosed inland valley

of the Kangaroo River which maintains considerably lower temperatures

than the coastal areas on the opposite side of the escarpment. Fogs

are common in the valley and thick fog can persist well into the morning

at any time of the year.

Cold air drainage from adjacent high ground may also cause localised

temperature differences. This phenomenon occurs within the valleys of

the Woronora Plateau and the upper reaches of the Kangaroo Valley,

Cold air. including fogs and frosts, is closely associated with the

highlands in the Robertson - Moss Vale area. Cold air drains from

the edge of the plateau into the Kangaroo Valley to the south and

down the face of the escarpment to the east, towards the coast. On a more limited scale, cold air moves down the many small gullies running

off the escarpment. This phenomenon has particular relevance to the vegetation found in such locations, and is a major influence around the highlands to the south.

Few data are available on the occurrence of frosts in the district.

Frosts are most common inland and at higher altitudes (Table 2.4a) and coastal occurrences are rare.

Snow falls are rare in the district, although they have been recorded at a number of locations. Moss Vale (altitude 672 m) has a 41

SH <. CD S4 o ro in rd rd H cn m CU co CN oo cu CO CO X rH

CN rH CO « o d d

m H ro ro o d d d

o r- CN in ro rH o o

ro in CN CN m CO CO CO CO ooo cu rG 4J ro CO o O rH ro < S4 O ro in P H H CN 0 H rH CJ 4H •H in cn H SH \D >D r- rd • a • P P o 00 H w O CN O rd H CN •H Q Q ro CD "sT ro CN cu • * 1 rd H O CN ^r S4 O rH • CN rQ rH rH S4 rd ^-s rd H cn CO o 3 CN v vo m •H r» P • rd rd cn CO r- _. i H H rH > H rU H •k o r^ ro co ro •» >i . « cu ^—N cn CN rH X H H O .G 0 p 44 H G 0 CO H S4 co m 0 S4 • • 0 g 0 . o O CH HO O -»s cu cn •p rd >i cu P rd EH rd &4 Xi a Q o *-^ 44 0 QJ _ cn H cn ro co CN P 3 rQ r- cn rd rd cn ooo 0 CO H rH u rH •rH to 3 rd v PQ cn .. > X cn •• CU SH * o O CO rtj cn S4 • o O CO SH • • rd CJ rH H 0 H rH CU CU CU cu *. H rd O . > CJ X PS -—* 0 cu cu CU S4 X SH X Pi CO 3 P 0 0 G cu Xi CO 0 p G *•_>* Xi g g g cu Xi g g g rd G 1 \ • G r* 4J rd o oX m cn a O in P +J cn r-\ * • • >i 4H P rd o •H CN I m CN ,G u G cn in rd 0 cn H cn •H Q H <* ro Xi cn ro •H SH —' 3 •H G h4 P rd Q H cn X CU 144 •H 0 SH 0 Q g g C 3 g g p p' cn CN £ CU PQ m CN >1 rd H in r- r- 3 H r> o S4 rtj rH co H CT1 »• m t~- G SH CU CU CU rd SH CJ H CO E"H u & rd 3 cu H cn 0 u rH 0 CO pH H CM •—'

cn cn P P ,c rG rd cn rd cn <. •H CU <. •H CU • » cu H cu rH CN G HI rd CN G rd 0 > G 0 a > G CU H cn 0 CU •H cn 0 r-t P rd cn P H P rd cn P X rd CJ cn CJ rQ rd 0 cn u P 3 0 •H rd P 3 0 •H rd CO rH PM CO rH PU EH EH a a 42.

recorded average of 0,7 snow-days per year over a ten year period of records. This falls either in July or August.

Fog is a common phenomenon in the district, mainly associated with the escarpment (advection fogs) or with the higher tablelands (stratus fogs). Although fog records for most of the district are non-existent. some detailed data are available for the Waterfall - Bulli area (see below). Elsewhere, fog frequency data are scarce (Table 2.4b). One must be careful in interpreting these records as these stations are not manned at night.

The number of hours of fog over a nine year period is available from an analysis of the records kept by the Department of Main Roads'

Driver Aid System Statistics for the Waterfall - Bulli Pass Tollway (F6

Freeway). These data show that the higher altitude section (>320m) of this area (see Table 2.5) receives an average of 73.3 fog days per year. a figure surpassed in the Sydney region only at Mt Victoria (altitude

1064m) with 93.1 fog days per year. At lower altitudes «320m) an average of only 11.1 fog-days occurs each year. This lower fog frequency is related to factors other than the lower altitude. The more dissected nature of the topography allows dispersal of the cold air whereas greater distance from the coast and escarpment lessens orographic effects (Young 1983). Details of the fog data for the Waterfall - Bulli area are given in Appendix 4.

A comparison of the percentage of fog-days on a seasonal basis is given in Table 2.6. The variations exhibited by these locations are related to different topographic settings and hence different fog types.

For example, along the escarpment fogs occur at a similar frequency 43.

cn I tfP ro dP cn O . O r~ o ro O ro H r- H El CN *> H *» i O . O x H o rH O CO

00 dP • dP o CD CN CN rH CN o cn S3 cn H cn ft Pi 1 dP 0 CM ro CO o u CO ro EH CN ro ro •H •H H P H cn 1 3 X PQ •H rd P S 0 rd CU P &P 00 dP p cu o O ro •cPn r* cn cn Eun CU PS cu X CO SH w CO EH CJ EH # Xi ,_^ H 2 CO ro •H ro H H dP CN < CO i P •rl CO SH in D r- • cn rQ cn H in •0 w CO dP dp rd O CO cn r- 0 X H CN ^ H CN PS G0 CU G CU rH D •rH & U EH rd CU H • dP cn d? a H • CD M r- co 44 EH CU CN CN 3 H CN 0 cn G P 0 rd PH P G CO CU H rd 0 _i G P CN rd 0 CN ft cn H ro dP dP CU rd H ^1" CO r- CO Q cu rd ro CO 44 CN ro rH cu cu CU cn -p CJ rd rd O SH 5 dP m dP u cu CO CD CN • rd ro 3 > H CN ro < rd 0 CO

CO X .. < CO PS ai D CJ O o &H a EH 44.

u a) crud ro in ro H cn X o rd "v. CO CN CD ro H SH cn H H a) X r-> > rd < a

P u •H U P cn •H Q rd U U rd H3 rd rd P rd Q X D p cn CN o o o G r-H m r- r- in m 0) sC H CO H ro CN G 4H CU •P cn 0 •H SH H rd rd cn P H CU rQ 0 CJ cn CJ H P 0 3 0 •H 3 rd rd h4 PH PQ !2 EH A a 45.

throughout the year (Bulli and Waterfall), although winter values are lower than during other seasons. Elsewhere (eg. on the highlands at

Moss Vale), different fog-types occur, and most fog-days are recorded for autumn and winter. Temperature inversions are responsible for thick and persistent fogs which often occur in the inland valleys such as in the Kangaroo Valley.

2.2.4 Wind Patterns

Wind is clearly an important aspect of the climatic environment.

Regional variations in the wind regime strongly influence the broad climatic pattern of the Illawarra district. On a local scale, the wind regime, and hence the local climate, is influenced by topography in several ways. These include funnelling effects at the heads of valleys. creation of wind-free niches protected from the prevailing winds, and the effects on exposed coastal headlands. Localised winds also move cold and warm air under differing climatic and topographic conditions.

Bryant (1982) has given an account of these influences of localised wind patterns in the Wollongong area.

Detailed wind statistics for the years 1972 - 1982 are available for the Wollongong University Climatological Station (Boyd et a_L 1982).

Elsewhere in the district, there is generally little data available.

Estimated wind directions and speed for the Moss Vale area have been given in Bureau of Meteorology (1979), The general wind pattern varies little throughout the district, and the Wollongong data are similar to those for Sydney (Boyd et al. 1982). 46.

WIND ROSES - WOLLONGONG UNIVERSITY

Outer Octagon Represents 12.5 % 0 10 20 30 40 50 _i_ _J • • • Percent Frequehcey a. Monthly wind rose (daily maximum gusts) 1972-1980 (After Boyd et al. 1982)

showing direction of maximum wind gust and associated NE 2« hr. rainfall to 9a.m.

> 10mm rain - 0-10 mm rain ,.- no raln^^ 5 —7-5W '0% of all winds

b. Wind rose with associated rainfall 1972-1978 (Courtesy Dr.A.Young). 47.

A monthly wind rose for daily maximum gusts at Wollongong University is given in Fig.?,8a. Two prominent features of the wind regime are the dominant westerly component during winter and the dominant southerly component in spring and summer. A significant proportion of winds also come from the NE to E sectors during spring. Average wind speeds from the Wollongong University Climatological Station range from 7 - 8 km per hour in autumn to 11 - 12 km per hour in late winter and spring.

Maximum wind gusts of up to 130 km per hour have been recorded at this station.

A second wind rose for the Wollongong University Station (compiled by A.Young) showing the direction of maximum wind gusts and associated

24 hour rainfall is given in Fig.2.8b. The marked westerly and southerly components of the wind regime are again clearly evident. The general rainfall/wind pattern is one of dry westerly winds during winter and moisture-laden southerly and north-easterly winds during summer.

2.3 Man Made and Modified Environments

In addition to the natural components of the regional environment, influences on the natural systems of the district since European settlement has been great. This impact is continuing, and has become a fundamental variable in the functioning of most ecosystems in the area.

These influences take the form of complete dominance of the landscape. for example the Wollongong - Port Kembla industrial area, to the more subtle long-term changes imposed upon the natural landscape by the practice of 'hazard-reduction' burning. 48.

The following chapter will demonstrate that one of the greatest changes resulting from white settlement, dating from 1815. was the destruction of the rainforests. Although this destruction was not restricted to the rainforest vegetation, this forest type was preferen­ tially removed because of its occurrence on the higher nutrient soils where the promise of agricultural returns was greatest. These soils now

support intensive agricultural pursuits such as dairying and potato growing, although there is increasing pressure in these areas for urban

and semi-urban development.

The removal of the natural vegetation cover has been most complete

on the better soils, both on the coastal plain and on the highlands in

the Moss Vale - Robertson area. These areas are now largely cleared.

the Wollongong - Kiama area to such an extent that only some eight

percent of the land area below 100 metres elevation could in any way be

termed naturally vegetated (Mills 1983b). Wollongong and its adjacent

settlements have amalgamated to form a conurbation situated between the coast and the escarpment stretching from Stanwell Park in the north to Kiama in the south, a distance of about 53 kilometres. On the highlands and in the south on the Shoalhaven lowlands, small towns are dispersed over expansive agricultural and grazing areas. Rural areas are becoming increasingly popular for the establishment of 'hobby

farms' and other expressions of the rural retreat such as the one-acre block.

The only extensive areas remaining largely uncleared are associated with the infertile soils of the Hawkesbury Sandstone. These areas 49.

are largely contained in water catchments, national parks and other reserves.

2.4 Conclusions

- The Illawarra district contains an unusual combination of

high rainfall (one of the highest in the state) and extensive

areas of volcanic soils. These facts and its proximity to

the coast distinguish the area from most other regions in

south-eastern Australia.

- The district is situated on the southern edge of the Sydney

Basin, a major geological structural feature. The Illawarra

is dominated by Triassic and Permian sandstones and shales.

with extensive areas of volcanics of both Tertiary and

Permian age. The resulting soils have a profound impact on

the vegetation patterns exhibited by the region.

- Altitude, which ranges from sea level to 800 metres.

greatly influences the climate of the district. A fall of

approximately 6°C in average temperature can be expected

for an increase in elevation of 1000m in the Sydney and

Illawarra regions. In addition, inland valleys experience

lower temperatures than coastal areas of similar elevation.

- Average annual rainfall ranges from approximately 900mm

at inland locations to over 2000mm in the vicinity of the 50.

higher parts of the coastal escarpment, greatly influencing vegetation patterns within the district.

- Fogs are common on the higher parts of the plateau and along the escarpments. Frosts are common on the higher plateau and inland, while a few locations experience snow in some years.

- Wind patterns are dominated by a strong westerly component during winter and a strong southerly component during spring and summer. The former are generally dry winds, the latter moist, rain-bearing winds, which are associated with the lower rainfall of winter and higher rainfalls of summer respectively.

- The impact of European settlement on the natural landscape has been considerable. Man's activities play a fundamental part in the functioning of the district's ecosystems and can not be divorced from ecological studies of the vegetation of the district. 51.

CHAPTER THREE

ILLAWARRA RAINFOREST STUDIES - A CRITICAL REVIEW

3.1 Introduction

This chapter comprises a critical review of the existing literature on the Illawarra rainforest vegetation. A review of previous studies reveals a great deal of inaccuracy and exaggeration, particularly in relation to the extent and distribution of Illawarra rainforests. These inaccuracies have been fostered, until recently, by the lack of systematic and detailed research, with previous work generally being fragmented. cursory and based on a few accessible and well known study sites.

Little would be gained, for the purposes of this study, from a detailed review of Australian rainforest literature and this has not been undertaken. Recent reviews can be found in Webb & Tracey (1981a).

Werren & Alworth (1982) and Helman (1983).

As suggested in Chapter One. the present study is viewed as one of a number of regional rainforest studies which have either recently been completed or are presently being undertaken. Rainforest research is at a stage, at least in south-eastern Australia, where such detailed rainforest studies are required to provide the basis for a complete synthesis of the rainforests in New South Wales, and ultimately Australia. in the future. The purpose of this chapter is to place the present study into context with previous work which has been undertaken on the 52.

rainforests of the district, and its relationship to other New South

Wales studies in general.

3.2 Early Descriptions of the Illawarra Rainforests

The rainforest vegetation of the Illawarra attracted interest soon after European settlement (see Chapter 4). although there was no ecologically based investigation until much later. Early descriptions of the rainforests are plentiful, most being provided by explorers and other observers with an interest in natural history. These accounts provide information on the extent and type of vegetation which was present and are of great value to the modern ecologist. However, as many of these were made by observers with only a limited knowledge of natural history, these accounts should be carefully evaluated.

The rainforest vegetation which impressed early visitors, and contrasted so dramatically with the surrounding sandstone vegetation. also attracted the attention of the early botanists. Allan Cunningham visited the Illawarra on many occasions, and had his staff collect for him there also. The high number of species associated with the rainforest, particularly the tree species, and their contrast with all other vegetation in the vicinity of Sydney, made the Illawarra a favourite location for Cunningham and others to carry out botanical work. On more than one occasion, living seedlings were brought up the escarpment and carefully planted out into boxes for transport to

Cunningham's nursery at Parramatta (McMinn 1970). No doubt many of the first descriptions of rainforest plants made by the early botanists were based on specimens collected from the Illawarra brushes. The rainforest 53.

plants mentioned by Cunningham on his first visit to Illawarra in 1818 are listed in Table 3.1 .

A number of early general accounts of the rainforest is available. including Moore & Betches (1893). Cambage (1923), Cheel (1912). Hamilton (1914) and Hamilton (1928). Knowledge of the rainforest of the Illawarra increased only marginally during the following years, and many misconceptions were perpetuated, particularly in relation to the original extent of the forests (see Chanter 4).

3.3 The Beginnings of Ecological Investigation

During the 1930's and 40's a number of ecologically based studies of

New South Wales rainforest appeared. These included Brought. McLuckie _

Petrie (1924) in the Mount Wilson. Blue Mountains area; Fraser and Vickery

(1938) in the Barrington Tops area: Davis (1936.1941a.l941b) in the Bulli area near Wollongong: and in the Wauchope. northern Mew South Wales area. Burgess and Johnston (1953), Cameron (1935) identified rainforest as one of the four major vegetation regions of New South Wales. However. no detailed information was provided and no rainforest areas, other than on a rough map, were identified.

In a general discussion of the types of forest in Central New

South Wales. Pigeon (1937) referred to the sub-tropical rainforests of the Illawarra but greatly over estimated their extent and paid little attention to their floristic composition, commenting only on the prevalence of the cabbage palm. As recognised by Bywater (1978) her 54.

Table 3.1 : Rainforest plant pecies mentioned by Alan Cunningham during a visit to Illawarra in 1818. Name used by Presently accepted Cunningham: Name: Acalypha nemora Acalypha nemora Eugenia elliptica Acmena smithii Ornithope Alectryon subcinereus Rhamnus sp. Alphitonia excelsa (described only) Aphanopetalum resinosum Seaforthia elegans Archontophoenix cunninghamiana Buettneriaceae Brachychiton acerifolius Sterculia heterophyllus Brachychiton populneus Celastrus (small tree) Cassine australis Cissus sp. Cissus antarctica Clerodendrum tomentosum Clerodendrum tomentosum Croton sp. Croton verreauxii Cryptocarya glaucescens Cryptocarya glaucescens (described only) Cryptocarya microneura (described only) Cryptocarya rigida Alsophila australis Cyathea australis Cynoglossum latifolium Cynoglossum latifolium Davallia caudata Davallia pyxidata Deeringia celosioides Deeringia amaranthoides (described only) Dendrocnide excelsa Dicksonia davalloides Dicksonia antarctica Cargillia australis Diospyros australis Duboisia Duboisia myoporoides (described only) Euodia micrococca Anonaceae Eupomatia laurina Eustrephus latifolius Eustrephus latifolius (described only) Ficus coronata Ficus rubiginosa Ficus rubiginosa Gymnostachys anceps Gymnostachys anceps Hibiscus heterophyllus Hibiscus heterophyllus (described only) Legnephora moorei Corypha australis Livistona australis Marsdenia rostrata Marsdenia rostrata Polypodium sp. Microsorium scandens Myoporum Myoporum acuminatum Tetranthera dealbata Neolitsea dealbata Aster argophyllus Olearia argophylla Bignonia australis Pandorea pandorana Lyonsia straminea Parsonsia straminea Passiflora sp. Passiflora herbertiana Pteris falcata Pellaea falcata Piper sp. Piper novaehollandiae Pittosporum fulvum Pittosporum revolutum Podocarpus sp. Podocarpus elatus Ansilema crispatum Pollia crispata (described only) Polyosma cunninghamii Pteris unbrosa Pteris umbrosa . Mysine (small tree) Rapanea sp. Myrtus trinerva Rhodamnia rubescens Ripogonum album Ripogonum album Rubus sp. Rubus sp. Sarcochilus falcatus Sarcochilus falcatus Smilax australis Smilax australis (described only) Streblus brunonianus Red cedar Toona australis TrochocarpTylophora abarbat a TylophorTrochocarpa abarbat laurina a 55.

contention that the distribution of this species indicated the past extent of rainforest in the area was not strictly accurate.

In a series of three papers Davis (1936.1941a.1941b) described the vegetation of the Bulli area (13 km north of Wollongong). Using the nomenclature of the time she described the 'brush' as a 'physiographic post climax' and a relict feature (Davis 1936). She provided a brief species list and general observations of the rainforest but provided little further information. Observations were based on the occurrence of rainforest on the escarpment slopes and plateau gullies, either on the Narrabeen Group shales or the Illawarra Coal Measures. The author concluded that three main factors contributed to the development of rainforest: physiographic shelter, supply of moisture and soil type

(parent rock). However, she failed to recognise the importance of wildfire in delineating the rainforest boundary, suggesting only that fire influenced soil humus content in sheltered locations. Of course, at that time there was little if any appreciation of the fundamental role played by fire in vegetation ecology,

A study of the vegetation associated with the Wianamatta Group soils (Phillips 1947) included an investigation of the rainforest in the vicinity of Robertson. Phillips classified these stands as a Doryphora sassafras - Acacia melancxylonassociation. These areas, which are highly degraded regrowth remnants, do not exhibit their original floristic and structural composition and it is difficult to determine precisely the rainforest types which occurred there. Phillips (1947) recognised the importance of soil type and moisture availability in the development of rainforest, although her assertion that rainforest once covered all of 56.

the Robertson Basalt (except for a small area at Myravale) is clearly an over estimate of its original extent. She also commented on the effect of temperature on the occurrence of certain species, noting that some species which were absent at Robertson occurred at lower elevations.

The sharp boundary between the eucalypt forest on the sandstone soils and the rainforest on the basalt was noted.

The designation of a D. sassafras-A. melanoxylon association for the 'Yarrawa Brush' remnants has been used by later authors (e.g.Baur

1957 and Beadle 1981). Although descriptive of the rainforest found there today, this term is not an adequate description of the original forest. The floristic composition of this rainforest is a subject for speculation because of the almost complete removal of the forest during the 19th century (see Chapter 4).

Beadle (1954.1962) linked soil nutrient status to the various forest types developed on the shales and sandstones of the Sydney region. The author (1954) argued that decreasing soil fertility resulted in a change from rainforest to 'depauperate rainforest' to sclerophyll forest. He concluded that "the higher the phosphate content of the soil, the more mesic and taller is the vegetation." The migration (expansion) of rainforest was attributed to changes in microclimate and/or soil fertility brought about by the rainforest itself. Fire was not mentioned as being significant.

In the later paper Beadle (1962) again argued the importance of soil phosphate in delineating the rainforest, wet sclerophyll forest and other sclerophyllus forests and scrubs of the Sydney district. The author cited Bulli and Bola Creek in Royal National Park as locations 57.

which demonstrate a sifting of rainforest species corresponding to decreasing soil nutrient status and moisture content. He also proposed that rainforest species could be classified according to their phosphate. nitrogen and water requirements.

Webb (1959.1968) pioneered a physiographic - structural classification system for Australian rainforests which was based on the presence of structural features and special life forms rather than species composition. This classification system relates rainforest type to latitude. The rainforests occurring at the latitude of Illawarra were designated as Simple Notophyll Vine Forest and Complex Notophyll Vine

Forest.

Baur (1954.1957) was the first researcher to examine in detail the rainforests of New South Wales as a whole. He investigated a number of sites in Illawarra and reported that the Illawarra rainforest was the most southerly of five major rainforest occurrences in Mew South

Wales. These he related primarily to high rainfall. His reference to the rainforest patches of the escarpment as being 'remnant' is misleading. as they do occur naturally in a mosaic of other forest types.

Baur (1957) described the rainforest of the Illawarra escarpment as sub-tropical . classifying it within his Ceratopetalum - Diologlottls

Association and retaining the D. sassafras - A. melanoxylon Association of Phillips (1947) for the Robertson plateau remnants. This is a very generalised account of the Illawarra rainforests, which are far more complex in character than is suggested by this description. 58.

In the Forestry Commission's 'Forest Types of New South Wales'. Baur

(1965) recognised 19 different rainforest types (Associations) occurring within the state which were grouped under major rainforest Leagues,

Seven Associations from four Leagues were recorded for the Illawarra:

Sub-Tropical League

1. Crabapple - Sassafras - Corkwood - Silver Sycamore

"formerly widespread in the Illawarra district where, however it has been mostly destroyed":

2. Sassafras - Giant Stinger

"depauperate form of sub-tropical rainforest":

3. Palm

found as stands of limited extent amongst rainforest. Warm and Cool Temperate League

4. Coachwood - Sassafras

5. Pink wood (Eucryphia moorei ) Dry and Depauperate League

6. Myrtle (Backhousla myrtifolla ) : and

7. Viney Scrub,

These rainforest types, which were identified as occurring in

Illawarra. were general categories present throughout the state and were not detailed enough to provide an adequate description of the rainforests of the district. This is a weakness of general classification schemes based on species associations, as regional and local variations in rainforest types are not taken into account. More information was required to classify the rainforests of the Illawarra than was 59.

available at that time, the only studies available being those of Davis

(1936,1941a,1941b) and Baur (1957).

In a study of changing land use and the natural vegetation in

Illawarra. Tozer (1967) provided a general account of the vegetation.

However, his account provided little detailed information and contained several misleading statements and inaccuracies. For example, in preparing a list of common species for the area. Tozer included Orltes excelsa.

Sloanea woollsil and Dysoxylum fraseranum. species which do not occur in Illawarra.

Hume (1969) gave a general description of the vegetation of two locations in the Illawarra. Bulli and Minnamurra Falls. The author's inclusion of a number of sclerophyllus species, for example Syncarpia glomulifera and Acacia spp. as typical rainforest trees makes her definition of 'rainforest' questionable, a point noted by Bywater (1978).

Further, some of her observations were inaccurate, including the notion that 'fire is not an important factor in rainforest development' (Hume

1969,p.38).

In a study of New South Wales plant communities. Hayden (1971) provided a brief description of the Illawarra rainforests. However, her description of the sub-tropical forest appears to be based on very limited field work, as some observations are mistaken. The suggestion that

Ceratopetalum apetalum. Doryphora sassafras and Syncarpla crlomullfera form the dominant stratum of sub-tropical rainforest is inaccurate, as is the inclusion of Dendrocnlde excelsa and Toona australis as understorey trees. These trees are major canopy species of sub-tropical rainforest. and C apetalum is rare in sub-tropical types but dominates the warm 60.

temperate stands. Hayden's descriptions suggest that she made her observations in warm temperate rainforest along the escarpment.

The map produced by Hayden (1971) was later reproduced as the vegetation sheet in the Resources of New South Wales series by the

Department of Decentralisation and Development (undat.).

In a study of the vegetation of the southern portion of the

Royal National Park, Woods (1976) used multivariate analysis techniques to identify the communities present. He delineated a closed forest community on the shales of the deeper valleys where Ceratopetalum apetalum was found to be "the most representative tree species." The most important environmental factor contributing to the development of rainforest was identified as a very low evaporation rate. Although the rainforests were clearly identified as a distinctive community. Wood's sampling intensity was not high enough to distinguish the various types of rainforest present. The author's suggestion that Pteridium esculentum is a common species of the closed forests ignores the high diversity of fern species found in these stands, where the species identified almost never occurs.

Investigations by Spencer (1977) were concerned with secondary succession in the Minnamurra Falls area, west of Jamberoo. This study involved the application of multivariate analysis techniques to species data collected along a transect of 450 metres. The work was concerned with the testing of two methods for application to successional studies. but provided little information on the local rainforests. 61.

Spencer's identification of the western limit of rainforest in the

Illawarra is far to the east of the actual western limit, which is in the vicinity of Bundanoon and the Shoalheven Gorge. His description

of the rainforest which included eucalypts. angophoras and turpentine

iSyncarpia grlomulifera ) as canopy trees leads to confusion over his

definition of rainforest. In addition, the rainforest tree species listed

as canopy trees, with the exception of Red Cedar iToona australis).

seldom occur in the canopy of the rainforest, at least in the Minnamurra

Falls area. While Spencer suggests that 1500 mm average rainfall per

year is the lower limit of rainforest development, rainforest does occur

in areas of rainfall well below this figure.

Strom (1977) wrote a popular account of the history of the Illawarra

rainforests since European settlement but continued the exaggerated

notion of the extent of the original rainforests (see map p.14).

Webb (1978). in a comparative study of a number of rainforest

stands in Australia and New Zealand, showed that the Illawarra 'cool

sub-tropical' rainforests (on the higher parts of the Cambewarra Range)

and 'sub-montane' rainforests (the remnants around Robertson) had

affinities, based on structural characteristics, with the New Zealand

rainforests. His evidence supported the opinion that the rainforest of

the north of the North Island was of a sub-tropical type. The latitude.

on which Webb's classification depends, is the same for Illawarra and

the Auckland area of the North Island.

In a general account of the rainforests of Australia. Beadle (1981). described the rainforests of the South Coast of New South Wales using the classification system of Baur (1965). His account, largely using the 62.

descriptions of previous authors, provided no new information on the nature of the Illawarra rainforests.

Turner (1981) emphasised the significance of the Illawarra rainforests. which contained a high number of 'southern limit' species and commented on the need for research and a detailed inventory of these rainforests.

As a southern limit of rainforest species the Illawarra has now been shown not to be as significant as once thought (see Chapter 5).

More recently, brief comments on the Illawarra rainforests were included in a review of Australian rainforests by Werren & Alworth

(1982).

Webb et al_(1984) produced a detailed floristic analysis of Australian rainforest vegetation, which amplified the earlier work of Webb & Tracey

(1981a,1981b). Although Webb et a___ (1984) did not attempt to establish a rainforest classification, the study involved the analysis of rainforest tree species data from 561 sites in northern and eastern Australia. Using species presence data, the authors identified three floristic regions which were divided into eight provinces. The floristic regions, labelled A,

B and C, correspond to temperate/subtropical (microtherm/mesotherm) humid evergreen rainforests: tropical (megatherm) humid evergreen grading to highly seasonal raingreen (monsoon) forests: and subtropical (mesotherm) moderately humid/subtropical raingreen forests respectively (Webb et e___ 1984). It should be noted that this floristic analysis is based on

"...floristic data from specific habitats and community-types, and not as in classical floristic geography from the boundaries of combinations with approximately similar ranges" (Webb & Tracey 1981b). The ecofloristic 63.

regions and provinces in which the Illawarra occurs are discussed in

Chapter 1.

Webb & Tracey (1981a) also gave examples of 'disjunct, relict and

narrow species' for each province. Those occurring in Illawarra were

Doryphora sassafras and Cryptocarya glaucescens. which were 'relict'

in the A^ and 'widespread' in the A2. and Hymenanthera dentata which

was recorded as being relict in the Ao and widespread in the AT.

Until recently much of the published information on the rainforests

of the Illawarra district was of a general nature. These studies were

substantially founded on brief visits to the area and concentrated

on particular, well known, sites: none of these studies attempted a

systematic investigation of the rainforests on a regional basis. This

led to the formulation of a number of misconceptions about the district's

rainforests, some of which have been perpetuated by lack of detailed

field investigation.

3.4 Recent Detailed Research in the Illawarra

Recent research, although still falling short of a detailed regional

study, has shown that the floristic composition and distribution of

the rainforests are more complex than previously demonstrated. These

investigations have also led to a more realistic estimation of the

original extent of the rainforests in the district.

Bywater (1978) was the first researcher to attempt a quantitative description and classification of the district's rainforest vegetation. 64.

Using quantitative tree species data and qualitative forest structural parameters. Bywater defined rainforest types based on the physiographic- structural classification system for Australian rainforests developed by Webb (1959,1968).

The term Mixed Notophyll Vine-Fern Forest was assigned to the rainforests of the escarpment near Wollongong, while remnant patches of rainforest in the Jamberoo Valley to the south were classified as

Complex Notophyll Vine Forest. These structural types, which developed under markedly different environmental conditions, contrasted in terms of their structural characteristics and species composition. Vine-fern forest on sedimentary parent material of the escarpment developed in areas under higher rainfall and lower soil nutrient status than did the Vine Forests of the Jamberoo area which developed under conditions of lower rainfall and on volcanic parent rock high in soil nutrients.

Later, Bywater (1979) delineated another rainforest type. Simple

Notophyll Vine Forest (identified by Webb 1959. for this latitude), which developed in plateau gullies behind the escarpment. These forests generally occur on the relatively steep slopes of the incised gullies where the Narrabeen Group is exposed. The stands are not restricted to

"sandy soils along the bottom of gullies" as suggested by Bywater, but occur most commonly on clay soils derived from the Narrabeen Group, and are on the side slopes of valleys. The differing rainforest associations present were attributed by Bywater (1979) to variations in soil nutrient status with the possibility of fire being an additional important factor. particularly in relation to the apparently more fire-prone environment of the Simple Vine Forests. 65.

Powrie (1981) investigated the regeneration of rainforest in the

Illawarra. His examination of a number of disturbed and 'mature'

(undisturbed) rainforest sites near Wollongong led to the identification of two types of regeneration which were operating. The regeneration processes described depended upon the degree of disturbance to which the original forest was subjected.

Sites with light disturbances - where seeds, stumps and root stocks were retained - were shown to regenerate a similar species composition to the adjacent undisturbed forest. On the other hand. heavy disturbances - where little or no reproducing material survived from the original forest - resulted in initial regeneration by species not occurring in the adjacent undisturbed forest and. consequently, a much longer successional pathway back to the original rainforest composition. depending on the vagaries of micro-climate and soil conditions.

Powrie (1981) also suggested that the exotic species Lantana camara inhibited the regeneration of rainforest species, supporting the similar findings of Williams et al*. (1969) and Webb et al_ (1972), However, this is contradictory to the view that such weed species act as a 'nursery' for rainforest seedlings (eg. Home 1981).

Powrie's work provides a general framework for further investigation of the regeneration processes in the district's rainforests. The process of rainforest regeneration is highly complex and requires further investigation to clarify the detailed mechanisms of 'succession'. Fo>- example. Powrie's sites were located in two different temperature regimes.

The cooler temperatures of the plateau, unlike the escarpment slopes. exclude Lantana camara and most other exotics, which play an important 66.

part in local rainforest regeneration in warmer locations. In addition. the presence of lantana greatly increases the vulnerability of the site to fire, thereby complicating the operative successional mechanisms.

As part of his survey of New South Wales rainforests for the

National Parks and Wildlife Service. Floyd (1982) visited a number of sites in Illawarra, preparing descriptions and extensive species lists for each. The rainforests were classified as sub-tropical and warm temperate, along the lines used by Baur (1965). Floyd supported a more conservative estimate of the original extent of the rainforest. suggesting that "patches of sclerophyll forest and woodland" were mixed with the rainforest on the coastal plain.

Floyd (1983) later identified a number of rainforest Alliances and

Sub-Alliances occurring in the Illawarra district. These floristic groupings are given in Table 3.2. Floyd's surveys, perhaps for the first time, placed the Illawarra rainforests into a broader perspective.

Although other Sub-Alliances can be identified, this work established the relationships of these stands within the wider context of the distribution of rainforest in New South Wales.

Erskine (1984) studied a rainforest site near Mt Keira. west of

Wollongong. and the role played by fire in determining vegetation patterns in the rainforest and adjacent tall eucalypt forest. He concluded, based on measurements of litter characteristics and vegetation structure and floristics, that fire was the most significant factor in determining the rainforest - eucalypt forest boundary. 67.

Table 3.2 : Rainforest Types Identified by Floyd (1983) as Occurring in the Illawarra District.

Alliance: Suballiance: 3 A. Subtropical IV. Dendrocnide excelsa 14. Doryphora - Daphnandra micrantha - - Ficus spp. D. excelsa - Ficus spp. B. Dry Rainforest V. Drypetes australasica 19. Ficus rubiginosa - Streblus brunoriianus - - Araucaria Dendrocnide spp. VIII. Cupaniopsis 30. Acmena smithii - Ficus spp. - anacardioides - Acmena Livistona - Podocarpus elatus spp. C. Warm Temperate Rainforest IX. Ceratopetalum 33. C.apetalum - Diploglottis australis - apetalum Acmena smithii 36. C.apetalum - Acmena smithii - Doryphora sassafras 37. C.apetalum - Eucryphia moorei - Doryphora - Acmena smithii X. Doryphora sassafras 39. D.sassafras - Quintinia sieberi XI. Acmena smithii 43. A.smithii - D.sassafras/Daphnandra micrantha - D.excelsa - Ficus spp. 68.

Additional descriptions of the rainforests and other vegetation. with particular reference to the distribution of tree species, have been provided by Fuller (1980.1982) for the Wollongong area, and by Fuller

& Mills (1985) for the Shellharbour-Kiama area.

Broad descriptions of the vegetation of coastal Illawarra. including the rainforest, have been given by Mills (1983b), and Mills (1983a) has provided a popular account of the rainforest in Illawarra. The most recent description of the 'character, distribution and conservation status' of these rainforests is found in Mills (1984b).

Two recent vegetation surveys have provided information on the rainforest vegetation at Macquarie Pass (Benson & Fallding 1980: Fallding

& Benson 1985) and the Hacking River valley (Mills 1984a).

The Macquarie Pass study provided a general description of the rainforest communities of the area and assessed the impact of European settlement on the vegetation of the area (Fallding & Benson. 1985). The authors have taken a cautious line in identifying the extent of the original rainforest area.

In the upper Hacking River valley Mills (1984a) provided detailed descriptions of the rainforest in the area and discussed the considerable variation in stand types in relation to environmental variables.

Bywater (1985) investigated the environmental conditions under which his three rainforest types (Bywater 1978) occurred, suggesting that their differences "mostly reflect major differences in soil nutrient status."

Bywater (1985,p.i) also recognised that "local drainage, exposure to 69.

...desiccating winds, and damage by intense wildfire....overshadow nutrient

conditions in determining the actual position of abrupt boundaries

between rainforest and wet sclerophyll." He also observed that (1985 p.i)

"at the highest elevations on the plateau, high nutrient volcanic soils

are not sufficient to overcome the limitations of a severe climate.,„for

only simple rainforests establish at these sites."

Bywater (1985) identified calcium as a major soil nutrient, higher

concentrations being associated with the more complex rainforest types.

with other nutrients such as potasium, sodium, magnesium and phosphate

also being of importance. He did not include aluminium in his analysis and.

therefore, did not recognise the major differences in the concentrations

of aluminium among rainforest types (see Chapter 9). However from

observations by Webb (1954) he did comment upon the possibility of high

Al in simple rainforest types dominated by Ceratopetalum apetalum .

Bywater tended to underestimate the major importance of altitude

in determining rainforest type (a point which is dealt with in detail in

Chapter 8 and elsewhere), suggesting only that "at the extreme end of

the climatic range within the Illawarra Region, temperature appears to

be more influential than soil nutrients." There is. in fact, a distinct

altitudinal gradient in rainforest types which is partly negated by

soils of increased nutrient status.

3.5 Conclusions

- Due to its proximity to early European settlement and

its distinctive character against the ubiauitous sandstone 70.

landscape of the Sydney region, the rainforests of the

Illawarra district attracted early botanical interest. Early general descriptions of the vegetation of the area are common, with ecological studies being undertaken, as they were elsewhere, during the 1930's and 40's. However, until the last decade little detailed work had been carried out.

- Much of the literature relating to the rainforests of the Illawarra is inaccurate. The major deficiency of these studies was the inadequate field work which led to numerous errors and exaggerations, particularly in relation to the types of rainforest present and the original area covered by rainforests in the district.

- The environmental processes involved in rainforest develop­ ment and maintenance remained unstudied in detail and thus were misunderstood, particularly in regard to the role of fire.

- Recent research has led to a more realistic estimate of the extent of the original rainforest area and has provided some detailed descriptions of rainforest community types in the district. Additionally, the dynamics of the rainforest have begun to be investigated, albeit without an appreciation of the regional variation in the rainforests.

- Previous studies of the Illawarra rainforests are deficient in the following ways: 71.

- The original extent of the pre-European rainforests has not been studied in detail, and no accurate boundaries have been placed on these rainforests.

- No detailed, regional description of the rainforests has been made.

- The environmental variables which are the most important for the district's rainforest development have not been identified or assessed in detail, although recent work by Bywater (1985) has provided a framework upon which this work can be based. 72.

CHAPTER FOUR

RAINFOREST AND SETTLEMENT

4.1 An Historical Overview

"The surf was too great to permit us with a single boat and that so small to attempt to land, so we were obligd [sic] to content ourselves with gazing from the boat at the productions of nature which we so much wished to enjoy a nearer acquaintance with. The trees were not very large and stood separate from each other without the least underwood. among them we could discern many cabbage trees, but nothing else which we could call by name." Joseph Banks. 27 April 1770. (Beaglehole 1962)

Banks was probably the first European to comment on the vegetation

in the region of New South Wales that was to become known as the

Illawarra. Between 25 and 28 April 1770 the 'Endeavour', captained by

Lieutenant James Cook, sailed along the Illawarra coast. Because of

the rough seas. Cook's party did not land, but continued north to make

history by landing at what Cook called Botany Bay.

Following the settlement of Sydney in 1788, several decades elapsed before the Illawarra region was explored and more was known of its landscape. This was probably due to the barriers presented by the

Georges and Hacking River systems and the Illawarra escarpment between this area and Sydney. Additionally, expansion of settlement was directed away from the south because of the infertile sandstone soils in this area. 73.

Among early records of the area is that of the surviving sailors

of the shipwrecked 'Sydney Cove' which ran aground in Bass Strait in

1797. The sailors began an eight week walk northwards from near Ninety

Mile Beach in Victoria, passing through the Illawarra district. Little

information is available about their epic journey except that it was

exceedingly rough and those few who survived were rescued at Wattamolla

by a fishing boat.

While investigating a coal seam discovered near Wattamolla by these

sailors, George Bass commented on the landscape and some peculiarities

of the vegetation in his journal :

"You will be surprised to see how different the vegetation is to that about Sydney, or any other place we have ever before seen. Upon the sloping land in front of the high bold I observed there several cabbage trees nearly in resemblance of plantain but yet a true cabbage ... there were many trees I am certain have never before been known in this country, one the most remarkably new, was about twelve feet in height, its leaves large, broad and hairy ... and the smaller branches of it covered most thickly with long sharp prickles CDendrocnide excelsa]. Well I remember them, for in the blindness of my eyes I siezed one of the branches and was handsomly repaid for my hasty curiosity by a handful of thorns." (Macdonald 1966)

In 1812. G.W.Evans travelled along the coast and climbed part of the Cambewarra Range near Berry and the escarpment near Mt Keira on his way to Appin from Jervis Bay (Macdonald 1966). The thick bush and steep escarpments made the journey difficult and prompted Evans, after his descent from the Cambewarra Range near Berry, to record:

"I am at a loss for words to describe what we have gone through, we are all blood from the bites of Leiches [sic], the vines and Bous [sic] has almost striped [sic] us Naked." (Macdonald 1966) 74.

He continued:

"...the land we passed over is very poor, yet bears exceeding [sic] lofty trees and cedars, not a blade of Grass is to be seen, the Brush prevents the rays of the sun reaching the Ground, which is quite thick with Rotten leaves, sticks and Trees auite decaved. I altered [sic] for the night on a point of Ground full of Cabbage Trees and free from underwood." t , , , „__.. (Macdonald 1966)

The cabbage tree palm, Livistona australis. is common throughout

Illawarra and is referred to repeatedly in the early accounts of the district. No doubt this is due to its prevalence and its characteristic form, making it one of the few plants which was easily recognised.

The beginnings of European settlement came to the Illawarra in 1815. twenty-seven years after the First Fleet arrived at Botany Bay. only 50 kilometres to the north. This was the year Dr Charles Throsby. seeking pasture for drought stricken stock, marked a track from Appin to the

Illawarra escarpment near Bulli and then further south to Wollongong,

The first land grants were made on 2 December 1816 and involved parcels of land adjacent to the northern and western shores of Lake

Illawarra (Beale 1983). Other settlers followed and additional land grants were made, and the first major modifications to the vegetation occurred since the arrival of the Aborigines perhaps 30 000 years previously,

Allan Cunningham was appointed as Botanist to New South Wales in

1816 and visited "The Five Islands", as the area was often called, not long after the first land grants were allocated. He made extensive plant collections and kept detailed notes on the plants found in the area, which later became one of his favourite locations for collecting. 75.

PLATE 1 "Lake Illawarra, New South Wales". A sketch by the painter Eugene von Guerard in the 1850's. Compliments of the Environmental Heritage Committee, Wollongong.

-

PLATE 2 "Cabbage-Tree Forest, American Creek, New South Wales". A sketch by the painter Eugene von Guerard in the 1850's, Compliments of the Environmental Heritage Committee, Wollongong. 76.

PLATE 3

Early cedar cutting in the Illawarra rainforests, probably in the Kiama area early last century. From the collections of the Wollongong City Library and Illawarra Historical Society. 77.

In the early afternoon of 21 October 1818 Cunningham's party had reached the edge of the escarpment, probably on Throsby's track above

Bulli. He described the dramatic contrast between the escarpment slopes below and the surrounding eucalypt forests:

"A sudden change takes place, for in an instant upon leaving the morass [sandstone plateau] with its stunted small Eucalypt we entered as it were, within the dark shades of a tropical forest, composed of very lofty timber of the red cedar...Turpentine Tree, large Eucalypt. of the species called Blue Gum. and many other trees only existing in such situations. Epacridae [ Trochocarpa laurina']. with large specimens of Corypha australis iLivistona australis ] and Alsophila iCyatAea) a tree-fern of New South Wales, the whole thing being strongly bound together with immense scandent and volubious plants, that can not fail to arrest the attention and admiration of the most indifferent observer." (Lee 1925)

Later in his journal he described the giant stinging tree, dendrocnide

excelsa. a species which was mentioned regularly by early observers:

"A robust habited tree (in stature) having a very soft woody stem, large leaves, and densely covered with stinging spines or soft herbaceous aculeae. evidently allied to Urtica. forms thick and dangerous woods to attempt a passage through..."

This tree's ability to inflict a painful sting and its large soft leaves

rendered it a prominent and unmistakable inhabitant of the area's

rainforests.

Early in 1822 Governor Macquarie visited the Illawarra and was

impressed with the forests he observed :

"The whole face of this mountain is clothed with the largest and finest forest trees I have ever seen in the colony. They consist chiefly of the black-butted gum. string-bark. turpentine, mountain ash. fig, peppermint, box-wood, sassafras and red cedar, but the later is now very scarce, most of it having been already cut down and carried away to Sydney. There was also vast quantities of the cabbage palm, and fern trees growing in the face of the mountain..." (Macdonald 1966) 78.

Thus, only seven years after the first settlers reached the district

most of the cedar trees. Toona australis. had apparently been removed

from the northern Illawarra forests. However, it does appear that

there was little red cedar in the Wollongong ar^a originally, most being

taken out of the Kiama - Shoalhaven area to the south (Jervis 1939). The

first cedar logs left the Shoalhaven River bound for Sydney in December

1811. some years before permanent settlement was established. It is

also likely that some logging took place near Wollongong and in other

parts of the district prior to settlement, with logs being transported

via a sea route to Sydney. Jervis (1939) reports an exploratory visit

to the Shoalhaven area as early as 1805,

By 1819. cedar cutting had reached such proportions that the

government published a general order that 'any person or persons found

in possession of cedar, or cutting or removing it from the districts

of Appin and Illawarra. would be prosecuted' (Jervis 1939). A further

order in 1826 recalled permits to cut cedar and those wishing to take

cedar from Crown Lands had to apply to the Colonial Secretary for

permission. Although permits were issued when applied for. some illegal cutting occurred (Bayley 1953).

Most of the cedar extracted from the district was taken from

the Kiama - Jamberoo area, although considerable amounts were removed from around Berry and the Kangaroo Valley, where "..much red cedar was

carried out by man-power.." by the 1830's (Jervis 1939). As there were no roads into the Valley the cedar was hauled up the escarpment on bridle tracks. In one case the timber was man-handled up the cliffs below the Fitzroy Falls (Jervis 1950). Timber was also floated down the 79.

Kangaroo River where it was taken up a steep track and through Caoura and then to Goulburn (Jervis 1950). Although the cedar trade lasted for a number of years in the valley and adjacent gorges, it eventually petered out as all the accessible trees were removed.

By 1850. the cutting of cedar in the Illawarra had almost ceased.

Within the space of only 30 years red cedar as a timber resource had been destroyed and. although cedar is a common tree in the district today, the reportedly huge specimens which once occurred no longer exist. This was only the fore-runner of the destruction of the forests which followed.

During the first half of the nineteenth century, at the same time as the prosperous, but short-lived, enterprise of cedar-getting was running its course and expanding the ports of Wollongong. Gerringong and Kiama. increasing numbers of farms were established. Of necessity, these were founded at the expense of the indigenous vegetation.

This vegetation was far from homogeneous despite popular opinion that the district was completely covered in luxuriant rainforest (see

Section 4.2). For example, there is one account of the vegetation around

Lake Illawarra being described as "pen grassy forest" (Backhouse 1843).

Further south, near Jamberoo, which had become a "thriving, hustling village" by 1836 (Bayley 1976). there were fine stands of sub-tropical rainforest. Bayley (1959) has quoted from Professor Huxley's account of his trip from Wollongong to Jamberoo in 1843:

"...the road was a mere dray track through a forest of tropical foliage, gum trees 200 feet or more in height. gigantic Indian rubber trees [Ficus macrophylla} with broad 80.

shiny dark green leaves, lofty cabbage palms and many another kind of tree towered above us so that their tops made a twilight canopy impenetrable to the sunlight, save for an infrequent clearing in the forest made by the settlers axe. Huge lianas, some as thick as a man's arm. hung down snake-like from the trees. Magnificent ferns, clinging to the fork or trunk and branches were pointed out to me..."

During his visit in 1857, W.S. Jevons reported that the land between

Wollongong and Dapto was ..lightly timbered and much cleared and

cultivated" (Black & Konekamp 1972). Remnants of this eucalypt woodland

still exist to the west of Lake Illawarra, providing a major contrast

with the luxuriant rainforest nearby.

Jevons also visited the escarpment forests and commented on the

uniqueness of the rainforest found there. His comments were typical

of those of early observers of the rainforests in the Illawarra area:

"I found myself as it were...in the midst of a scene of nature which surpassed all I had seen before in luxuriant beauty and wildness and the almost tropical novelty of the forms of the plants." (Black & Konekamn 1972)

The removal of the forests continued, but few contemporaries commented on their disappearance or regretted their loss. One who did was a visiting German painter, Eugene von Guerard. who produced several paintings and sketches of the clearing of forest at American

Creek near Wollongong.

"With the lofty bangalow palm, cabbage palm and gigantic wild fig-tree, and the fire tree...with its vividly "scarlet blossoms, are inter-mingled the nettle-tree, the rosewood, the sassafras, the white-wood, the wild rose, numerous varieties of the fern tree and parasites inumerable: the whole thing being bound together into a dense and almost impenetrable mass of foliage. Unfortunately the progress of settlement is necessitating the destruction of these magnificent forests. which in many instances clothe a rich chocolate soil of especial value to the farmer. At the time this view was 81.

sketched ['Cabbage-tree Forest. American Creek. Wollongong'] numerous fires had been kindled by the wood-cutters, and the stately giants were rapidly falling before the pitiless axe of the hardy pioneers of civilisation." (From Eugene von Guerard's Australian Landscapes. 1867) (quoted from Environmental Heritage Committee 1983)

The dense forests which covered the Berkeley Hills north of Lake

Illawarra were some of the first to be cleared for the establishment of farms. On 19 August 1890 the Illawarra Mercury recalled part of the history of the 'Berkeley Estate', granted to Robert Jenkins in 1817.

Describing the house first built by Jenkins the report continued:

"The bricks were made in the district (if not on Berkeley) as were those used to raise the walls and the cedar fittings and other timber were obtained on the estate. The brushes abounded with cedar trees in those days. Mr.Jenkins let the estate on clearing leases (as it was covered with timber) to assigned servants and others, and by degrees he laid it into farms, which he surveyed himself, reserving belts of brush here and there, which have been preserved to this day, and which add to the picturesqueness of the estate. It is to be hoped the present possessors will preserve these ancient landmarks for their natural beauty, if not as valuable shelter for stock."

These remnants, apart from a few very small and now highly degraded sites, did not survive the industrial and urban expansion of Wollongong.

Here and there, tall figs tower above the surrounding houses or nestle between industrial factories as reminders of the forests that once existed.

Similar increases in settlement and subsequent clearing of the forest cover occurred around Kiama and Gerringong. at 'Coolangatta' in the Shoalhaven district and in the Kangaroo Valley.

The plan for the government town of Kiama was published in the

Government Gazette on 16 February 1839. although settlement was well 82.

underway by that time. Bayley (1976) reported that the first land sale

was held in 1840. claiming that the town site

"...was still covered with tall timber and tangling vines. the vegetation being so dense that purchasers could not trace the streets which were described as a jungle,"

As detailed later in this chapter, this area was covered in sub­

tropical rainforest which reached from the sea to the ridge tops, and

no doubt presented the buyers of this land with an awesome task in

bringing the land into use.

Settlement of the Kangaroo Valley was slow, despite its good pastoral

qualities and there was no proper road into the valley until the 1870's,

mainly because of the difficult terrain. The first recorded European

encounter with the Kangaroo Valley (originally called the 'Kangaroo

Ground') was in 1818 by a party led by government surveyor Meehan. which

had been sent by the Governor to find a land route from Jervis Bay to

Sydney (Bayley 1953). The original party split into two. one under Meehan

attempting to find a route to the south-west near Bungonia. the other

under Charles Throsby to seek a way through the sheer escarpments

near Bundanoon. Throsby's party eventually descended through Meryla

Pass, south of Moss Vale, and proceeded across Yurunga Creek and on

to the Kangaroo Valley (Roxburgh 1981).

The suitability of the area for pastoral use was revealed and

cattle were present by 1820. although it is likely that cedar-getters

entered the valley from the Shoalhaven River area at the eastern end

much earlier. 83.

James Backhouse visited the 'Kangaroo Ground' during his journey to Illawarra in 1836 (Backhouse 1843) and recorded:

"In passing through some of the more open forest on the Kangaroo River and contiguous plain. Buttercups. Violets and" Geraniums, resembling those of English fields, but not identified with them, reminded us pleasantly of our native land..."

The grassy plain of the central valley floor contrasted with the thick rainforest and tall eucalypt forests of the valley sides to the north. south and east. As Backhouse's account recorded.

"The ascent of the mountain toward Bong Bong was steep and covered with cedar. Swamp Mahogany. Sassafras. Cabbage Palm and large climbers."

The contrast between the valley floor vegetation around the township of Kangaroo Valley and the surrounding escarpment slopes can still clearly be seen today.

Kemp (1920's?) described the clearing of the 'brush country' at

Foxground. west of Gerringong, and revealed some of the contemporary attitudes to the forests and the method of clearing,

"It is a hard matter to describe the Foxground Valley bush. as it existed when the first settlers came here 65 years ago. Clothed in its original splendour, thickly studded with tall bush [sic] wood trees, viz, pine, sassafras, sycamore. coachwood. and cedar, whose giant heads were thrust above the entangled scrub. These splendid trees, although so valuable, could not be preserved. All the timber had to be felled at the one time. It is useless to attempt to save any of them for future use. The running fire which was started about 6 months after the bush was felled, often made a clean sweep of the dead timber and scorched and killed green trees left standing."

Settlement in the Berry district was not extensive until "Sir John

Robertson's Free Selection Act came into force in the year 1861: thereafter 84.

selections were being taken on Crown Lands in every conceivable corner from 40 acres to hundreds of acres" (Jacques 1920's). Jacques, a

Government Surveyor, claimed to be:

"...the first white boy that ever penetrated into the wild timbered table lands of the Kangaroo Mountain [Cambewarra Range]. I think there was thousands of acres of the finest belts of coachwood that the world ever produced it stood so thick and close in its growth that it looked almost like a giant white wall as all the bark was white..."

During clearing, some elements of the rainforest were retained by the early settlers. Some of the cabbage palm and large figs of the original forests still dot the Illawarra landscape. One reason was cited in a letter of Alexander Berry of 'Coolangatta' in 1827. in which he mentioned the clearing of forest in front of the homestead to give a view of the river, but directed that the cabbage palms be retained to

'...preserve the tropical scenery...' (R.Roxburgh. Moss Vale, pers. comm.).

No doubt many large fig trees escaped being cut down because of their impressive size. In fact, fig trees, mainly the Moreton Bay Fig ( Ficus macrophylla ). were planted by farmers around their buildings and many of these still exist, adding to the characteristic Illawarra landscape.

By 1860. settlement had progressed steadily both on the tablelands in the Moss Vale district and along the Illawarra coast. Between the two districts, on the plateau near Robertson, existed what the Empire on 16th January 1856 called 'the thickest jungle in the colony' (Jervis

1962). This area of reputedly impenetrable brush country occurred on the rich red soil derived from the Robertson Basalt and was surrounded by eucalypts of 'gigantic' proportions. An account of the clearing and settlement of this area, known as the 'Yarrawa Brush', has been provided by Jervis (1962). 85.

Because of the impenetrability of the forest, the area was avoided

by prospective settlers in the earlier years. The delay in clearing

the Yarrawa Brush lands was also probably due to the absence of red

cedar there, which had hastened the progress of settlement into the

coastal forests.

Surveyor Robert Hoddle cut a track in 1830. probably the first

through the brush, from Wingecarribee Swamp to the Barren Grounds and

Kiama. Part of this track still exists beneath the escarpment east of

Barren Grounds. Hoddle. like those before him. did not find the task

easy:

"Having crossed the Wingecarribee Swamp, and ascertained the most southern part of it. I commenced to encounter the most formidable brush I have ever met with, for so great a distance since I have been in the Colony, It abounded with every species of Prickly brush, brambles and nettles. The Native Vines were so thickly entwined around the trees, as to render the sun obscure at the time it shone with great brilliancey." E.Beale. Wollongong. pers.comm.)

The passage of John Robertson's 'Free Selection Acts' (Crown Lands

Alienation Act and Crown Lands Occupation Act, Baker 1958) in 1861 made possible the occupation of the Yarrawa Brush area and selections were soon taken up, Campbell, a Government surveyor who surveyed the district and established the Parishes over the area, reported in 1863 that:

"...clearings of considerable extent had been made and cultivation of wheat, maize, potatoes and rye grass had proved, not only that they could be grown there." but also that the growth could not be ecrualled in anv other part of the district." (Jervis 1962) 86.

Jervis (1962) commented that by 1865 about 30 000 acres (12 000 ha) had been taken up in the area and the population of the area was

1200 residents. Today, the Yarrawa Brush has been reduced to a few small regrowth remnants, with little evidence of its past grandeur and botanical complexity.

The rapid and thorough clearing which took place following settlement of the Illawarra district resulted in the removal of most of the rainforest within 50 years. Much of the rainforest which did remain, mostly small remnants, became degraded through logging, burning and the effects of domestic stock. Foi the next century these remnants were generally disregarded, surviving largely because of their occurrence on steep and often rocky ground. Only in recent times has any interest been shown in preserving the rainforests which remain.

The remnant rainforests of the Illawarra have an important historical value. Not only has the rainforest been strongly identified with the

Illawarra's landscape since its earliest exploration, but settlement of the area was closely associated with the presence of the rainforest timber resource, and the soil upon which the rainforest grew,

4.2 Extent of the Rainforests : Past and Present

4J2.1 Pre-European Distribution and Extent

"Rode to Shoalhaven, thirty-six miles still further south [from Wollongong], six or seven of which were through a mass of vegetation, requiring pioneers to penetrate it. The vines or lianas wreathed the trees, like the boa constrictor, and festooned the way...or hung tangling like the rones in a belfry." 87.

Monday 20th. October. 1823. Geographical Memoirs of NSW. Baron Field. 1825.

It is commonly believed and asserted, both in popular opinion and in the literature, that the Illawarra was almost entirely covered in rainforest vegetation prior to European settlement. These notions are clearly exaggerated and inaccurate, and appear to have been based more on fertile imagination and enthusiastic speculation than on substantiated facts. Such exaggerated claims were founded on a number of misconceptions, usually resulting from a lack of detailed inspection of the present distribution of rainforest and other vegetation and an ignorance of the requirements for local rainforest development.

The widespread occurrence of the species Ficus macrophylla and

Livistona australis, is often used as evidence of the past existence of rainforest. However, neither species is necessarily indicative of past rainforest occurrence. The cabbage palm. L. australis . although most commonly encountered in rainforest, is not restricted to it and also occurs in many other locations. The Moreton Bay fig. F.macrophylla . a relatively common rainforest tree in the district, was planted adjacent to farm buildings last century and, similarly, does not necessarily indicate the former presence of rainforest. The low-branched, spreading habit of these specimens which have grown in the open contrast markedly with those trees which have grown in a forest environment,

Tozer (1967) suggested that the cabbage palm's distribution "..gives the best indication of the former extensive distribution of the rainforest.." and that "..on the better soils ..relict specimens of giant fig trees bear witness to former rainforest distribution." While 88.

^4H*S

****>" . _. • .. 2S5M___£«li_: ^* ... .^ _ . .

vfT^*i_W •___££.->-.

PLATE 4 Fig trees at Dunmore. The large fig in front (Ficus obliqua) is a remnant of the original rainforest; those at rear (F.macrophylla) have been planted by early settlers. Note the difference in growth habit. 89.

the author quoted considerable evidence from early accounts that the

rainforest did not cover the major proportion of the district, he still

maintained "..that rainforest originally covered all the basaltic soils

throughout the region as well as the loams derived from Narrabeen

Shales and Illawarra Coal Measures."

Superficial readings of early accounts of the area's vegetation

sometimes support the contention that rainforest covered a larger part

of the district than was actually the case. This was partly due to

the confusion over the terms 'brush' and 'jungle' which were applied

indiscriminately to any area of thick forest and did not necessarily

apply to rainforest in an ecological sense.

Historical documents can. however, provide valuable insights into

the types and extent of the original vegetation cover, and a more

realistic picture of the district's vegetation communities can be gained

from a critical analysis of the accounts of the early settlers and

travellers. Such an approach must also be supplemented by detailed

field investigation.

Several historical accounts confirm that the Illawarra contained a

diversity of vegetation communities, of which rainforest was only one.

In 1818, when Allan Cunningham visited the district, only three years after the first cattle were brought to Illawarra. he travelled over the plain just west of Lake Illawarra and found ".many head of large well-bodied cattle grazing..." His observation that "..nothing can exceed the rich luxuriance of the grasses of fine grazing land we passed over

.." alluded to the natural grasslands which existed in this area. 90.

During a visit in 1836. Backhouse (1843) commented on a walk "..to the top of a conical, basaltic hill [probably Marshall Mount] and had a view

of Illawarra Lake, the sea, the mountains in the western back-ground.

topped by sandstone crags, emerging from the boundless forest, and

at the intervening plain, some parts of which are naturally clear."

Later, while travelling in the vicinity of the western margins of Lake

Illawarra he wrote, that "..the open, grassy forest is covered with

a species of indigo. Tndigofera australis ", the latter being a shrub

found in the drier forests of the district.

Clearly, this area supported a cover of eucalypt woodland with

some intervening grasslands. The isolated patches of forest remaining today confirm this fact and that the lower, wetter sites supported stands of Melaleuca spp. and Casuarina glauca ,

These drier grassy woodlands also occurred elsewhere in the district.

Kangaroo Valley was "an open, grassy plain, inaccessible to carriages, and surrounded by mountains" (Backhouse 1843). From Mt Coolangatta. near Shoalhaven Heads, in 1823 one could see "to Black Head or Bass

Point of Captain Flinders, a fine point of grazing land some of it naturally clear" (Field 1825).

The close proximity of these 'grassy forests' to the 'brushes of tropical character' is explained by the changes, over a short distance. in geology and rainfall. For example, the Berkeley Hills, on the northern side of Lake Illawarra. composed of soils of volcanic origin, were once covered in rainforest, while most of the surrounding forests were either dry eucalypt types or C glauca forests on the saturated soils of the floodplains. Today there are only a few tiny remnants of rainforest 91.

on these hills. However, in 1823 on 'Illawarra Farm' on the eastern end of the Berkeley Hills. Field (1825) reported that

"the creek ravines still presented a tropical luxuriance of vegetation - palms, ferns and vines, or parasitical trees ['strangler figs'], the last festooning and twining their branches in all directions, and greatly relieving the tall leafless monotony of the gum trees."

The belief that rainforest in the Illawarra was extremely widespread has been commonplace until recently. Pigeon (1937) asserted that "..these forests [subtropical rainforests] ..once covered the slopes and valleys of the Illawarra from Bulli to Berry..." However, she also stated that ".patches of relatively undisturbed forest..and isolated trees occurring throughout the plains [were] sufficient indication of the original vegetation", failing to recognise that nearly all these indicated sclerophyll type vegetation rather than rainforest. Baur (1957) repeated

Pigeon's statement suggesting that the rainforest "..originally covered most of the Illawarra Plain from Bulli to the Shoalhaven River."

Spencer (1977) perpetuated the exaggerated claims relating to the distribution of the past and present Illawarra rainforests, suggesting that it covered all of the coastal plain from Bulli to Shoalhaven River.

Ironically, he overlooked the extensive stands of rainforest in the

Kangaroo Valley and on the Woronora Plateau when describing the extent of the rainforests. Similar comments are encountered throughout, the literature until more recent publications (see Strom 1977. p.14).

A more realistic interpretation of the extent of the pre-European

Illawarra rainforest has been suggested by Bywater (1978) and Floyd

(1982). Both authors suggested that the rainforest was more restricted 92.

in distribution than previous writers claimed, although neither looked at the area in detail. Hunter (1974) also cautioned against speculation

on the original extent of rainforest. Commenting on the Jamberoo

Valley's original vegetation, she suggested that the most common forest

was a mix of eucalypts and rainforest, and that rainforest certainly

did not cover the whole valley. She did not. however, attempt any

detailed mapping of the original forest cover.

Major Rainforest Concentrations

Although historical accounts are not invariably reliable indicators

of the original vegetation cover, they are of value to the researcher and

should not be dismissed. However, a number of approaches is available

to aid in determining the boundaries between the rainforests and the

adjacent sclerophyll vegetation and thereby in delineating areas of

pre-European rainforest.

One approach involves the utilisation of information from early

Land Surveys. The reconstruction of vegetation community patterns

using original portion survey information contained in the surveyors'

notebooks has been used successfully in northern New South Wales (eg.

Jeans 1978: and Henderson 1980). Hunter (1974) used a similar method. albeit unsuccessfully, in an attempt to establish the boundaries of the original rainforest vegetation in the Jamberoo Valley in the Illawarra.

Unfortunately, the Illawarra was settled much earlier than the north coast of New South Wales (where the studies of Jeans and Henderson were undertaken). As a result, the district was largely surveyed before instructions were issued to surveyors in 1864 to show more detailed 93.

information on portion surveys than was previously required. Thus, the

use of early survey notebooks has not proved successful in Illawarra.

Although rainforest communities were widespread there were only a

few locations where extensive areas of contiguous rainforest developed.

These rainforest concentrations were located on the high altitude

Robertson Basalt and on the coastal Permian volcanics. The term 'brush'

is used here to denote a large area of contiguous rainforest, and

follows early use of the word, at least in New South Wales, for such

areas.

The boundaries of the original brush areas identified have been

determined using the following methods:

- the use of historical accounts which give a general picture

of the natural vegetation in the district:

- consideration of the present distribution of rainforest

and other vegetation in the district:

- and, using a detailed knowledge of the environmental

requirements for the development of rainforest in the region

gained during other parts of this study.

The resulting maps provide the first estimate of these original rainforest areas based on systematic and detailed investigation: they are therefore considered to represent a fairly accurate delineation of the 'brush' areas. 94.

The "Yarrawa Brush"

The area of basalt around what is now the town of Robertson was covered in a rainforest which was considered to be extremely dense and almost impenetrable. This was known as the Yarrawa Brush (Jervis

1962).

My estimation of the distribution of the Yarrawa Brush is shown in

Fig.4.1. The original extent of this rainforest concentration, estimated from the map in this figure, is 2450 hectares. Except for small regrowth remnants there is little left of this forest. A small area which has maintained some of the forest's original complexity is contained within the five hectares of Robertson Nature Reserve at Robertson.

Although the floristic composition of this forest is a matter of some speculation, the vegetation remnants of both rainforest and eucalypt forest which remain, much of the latter being original stands. allow a fairly accurate delineation of its extent, as the distribution of these forest types show little overlap (see Fig. 4,1). Indeed, there is little intermixing of the species from each forest type and there appears to be little if any eucalypt regeneration occurring within the area previously covered by the Yarrawa Brush. Investigation of this curious fact would shed more light on the factors determining the distribution patterns of the two forest types in the area.

The occurrence of rainforest on the Robertson Plateau was restricted to the Roberston Basalt and was not developed on the underlying

Wianamatta Group sediments as suggested by Phillips (1947). Some areas supporting rainforest in Fig 4.1 are soils derived from the Basalt but 95. 96.

these were not mapped as basalt on the geology map used to obtain the boundary of this unit. The Wianamatta Group, and the Roberston

Basalt in the west, adjacent to the Yarrawa Brush, consisted of open

eucalypt forests dominated by species such as Eucalyptus fastigata.

E oJbliqua , E viminalis and E radiata.

The limits of the Yarrawa Brush in the east (see Fig.4.1) related

to the basalt-sedimentary boundary, where some basalt soil on the

lower sites is colluvial. Two outliers from the main forest occurred.

one at Knight's Hill and the other north of Macquarie Pass. To the

west and north-west, the rainforest-eucalypt boundary is associated

with a decrease in rainfall. There rainforest does not occur under a

rainfall of less than an estimated 1550 mm per year, which is somewhat

higher than the 1200 to 1300 mm usually associated with the limits of

rainforest in the district. The basalt soils west of this point (directly

west of Robertson. Fig.4.1) supported tall eucalypt forest, principally

Eucalyptus fastigata: and further west woodlands of various species.

including tableland species such as E pauciflora and E stellulata. On the west side of the Yarrawa Brush the 'fingers' of rainforest were associated with ridge lines (see Fig.4.1).

The location of the eucalypt-rainforest boundary in the west can not only be due to a decrease in rainfall. This appears to be the result of a combination of factors such as soil type, rainfall, lower temperatures and associated frosts and possibly fire, each playing a role. Lower temperatures may affect the regeneration success of rainforest species and may be partly responsible for the absence of 97.

rainforest towards Burrawang. as temperatures are more extreme

away from coastal influences.

The absence of rainforest directly north-west of Robertson is

interesting (see Fig.4.1). One plausible explanation could be the presence

of the Wingecarribee Swamp directly westward. Strong westerly winds

fanning a wildfire would travel more freely across dry grasses and

rushes than through moist forest, which was on the surrounding ridges

and slopes. Therefore, the forest directly east of the swamp was

maintained as eucalypt forest, although rainfall and soil type are

suitable for rainforest occurence. Of course, it remains to be explained

as to why there is still such a demarcation in the distribution of

eucalypts and rainforest today.

The "Illawarra Brush"

A very large area of rainforest, one of the five largest concentra­

tions of rainforest in New South Wales, occurred on the coastal Permian volcanics. The rainforest concentration which occurred in this area. between Jamberoo and Gerringong. I have termed the Illawarra Brush

(Fig.4.2). Unlike the distinct boundaries exhibited by the Yarrawa Brush. this area with its varied underlying geology and associated changes in topography, soil type and rainfall, probably had a more fragmented distribution. The topographical variations resulted in the survival of significant rainforest remnants, which occur in deep ravines and on steep rocky slopes. This contrasts with the undulating nature of the 98.

DISTRIBUTION OF THE ILLAWARRA BRUSH

I Rainforest Remnants

I' 'I Illawarra Brush

Albion Park SHELLHARBOUR

Bass Point

Minnamurra River

'; Werri Beach

Gerringong

Gerroa 0 2 4/cm

Seven Mile Beach 99.

Robertson Basalt and the latite around Gerringong. where nearly all of the forest cover has been removed.

The original extent of the Illawarra Brush is estimated to be 12 000 ha. In the Kiama-Jamberoo-Gerringong area I suggest that rainforest originally occurred on all areas of latite. The rainforest remnants remaining and the absence of eucalypt forest on latite soils clearly support this contention. In addition, some sedimentary soils (Permian and Triassic) on the escarpment slopes where rainfall is very high, above

1800 mm per year, in the Barren Grounds area, also supports rainforest

(note large area of existing rainforest on Fig.4.2). The sedimentary soils found here are of higher inherent nutrient status than those of the Wianamatta Group on the plateau on which rainforest did not grow

(see above).

The "Berkeley Brush"

To the north of Lake Illawarra on the Berkeley Hills, composed of an outlier of the main volcanic soil supporting the Illawarra Brush, a smaller concentration of rainforest occurred (Fig.4.3). This rainforest

I have called the Berkeley Brush. The area of this rainforest was about 1600 hectares, and the boundary corresponded to the limits of the Dapto Latite. Only a few small patches and the occasional tall fig tree remain in the area today, including the small areas of rainforest on the Berkeley Islands in Lake Illawarra. 100.

I (fl 3 LU Da3 KI >- LL LU 0 LJU oJ * LaU CO

CO CD CD < OO O

•.._;•..••.•.-..•• ..•'•j«-«i«V!4 *i \\#\\#\V:V_ 1 >/' :V.\«V.«,W LU/ _l 5^3 LU t* ^ .i««»iit»»v UcJc \\ CD \ Hr* l

CD 101.

Soils around the latite. largely Quaternary alluvium, supported open forests, as the remaining forest fragments indicate. These were dominated by Casuarina glauca on the moister soils and Melaleuca styphelioides. Eucalyptus tereticornis and other species on drier sites.

These alluvial soils apparently supported little rainforest, either here or elsewhere in the district.

Original Extent of The Rainforest

I have estimated the original extent of the Illawarra rainforests to be nearly 23 000 hectares, composed of the following:

Yarrawa Brush 2450 ha (10,7%)

Berkeley Brush 1600 ha (7.0%)

Illawarra Brush 12 000 ha (52,5%)

Elsewhere 6800 ha (29.7%)

Total Estimated Area: 22 850 ha (100%)

The area of rainforest occurring outside the 'brush' areas identified was estimated to be double the area of rainforest existing there today

(see Section 4.2.2) assuming that about 50 percent of the rainforest in these areas has been destroyed. This assumption is based on field observations which suggest that about half of the rainforest along the escarpment occurs on the benches and about half on the slopes. Most bench areas have been cleared, while most slopes have retained their forest cover. No attempt has been made to map the possible extent of rainforest in these areas as reconstruction of the forest pattern 102.

along the escarpment is far more speculative than in the brush areas.

However, the present extent of the rainforests here has been mapped

(see below).

Although a 'rough and ready' figure, the estimate of 23 000 ha does provide a minimum estimate of the Illawarra rainforest before settlement. Approximately 70% of the rainforest was contained within the three large "brush' areas identified.

4.2.2 Estimates of Contemporary Rainforest Occurrence

Detailed rainforest mapping in Illawarra has not previously been carried out. Pople & Cowley (1981) mapped the state's rainforest and reported their results in the Forestry Commission's Rainforest Inventory. giving estimates of the area of rainforest within Forestry Regions and

Districts.

These estimates are impossible to apply to the Illawarra area as presently defined because of the boundaries used for the Forestry

Districts. Their maps, at a scale of 1 : 125 000 . are not detailed enough for an accurate estimate to be made of the area of rainforest in the Illawarra district, particularly as some areas of rainforest were omitted.

In this study, rainforest mapping of the Illawarra was undertaken using the 1 : 50 000 planning maps prepared by the N.S.W. Department of

Environment and Planning as composites of the 1 : 25 000 topographic sheets of the Central Mapping Authority of NSW. 103.

Table 4.1 : Estimated Area and Ownership of the Illawarra Rainforests (1984)

Percent Percent Area (ha) : Publicly Total Owned: Area:

Publicly Owned

Metropolitan Water Sewerage and Drainage Board: 1200 (38.4) 20.8

National Parks & Wildlife Service: 1150 (36.8) 19.9

Crown Lands Office: 620 (19.8) 10.8

Forestry Commission: 100 (3.2) 1.7

Local Government: 55 (1.8) 0.9

Total Publicly Owned: 3125 (100) 54.1

Freehold 2640 45.9

Total Illawarra Rainforest: 5765 100.00 104.

The area from Port Hacking to Shellharbour and the coastal lowlands have vertical colour aerial photographic coverage while the rest of the district is well covered by black &. white photography. Field work was extensive and in some areas where black and white photography is poor rainforest areas were mapped directly onto the 1 : 25 000 sheets in the field. Only areas of intact rainforest were included in the survey.

Because of the problems of reproduction, the set of maps compiled have not been reproduced here, but are housed in the cartographic section of the Department of Geography. The University of Wollongong,

Estimates of the area of existing rainforest and of its ownership were based on the maps, the results of which are presented in Table

4.1. This resulted in an estimate of 5765 hectares of rainforest of all types in Illawarra. representing approximately 25 percent of the district's pre-European rainforests. The Illawarra rainforests are. thus, equivalent to about three percent of the 192.800 ha of intact rainforest remaining in the state (based on Pople & Cowley 1981).

4.3 Conclusions

- Europeans first settled in Illawarra in 1815. which was early in their settlement of the Australian continent at

Sydney, immediately north of the Illawarra. The search for pasture for stock and good agricultural land prompted the settlement of Illawarra. where cedar-getting hastened settlement by opening up much of the district. 105.

- Within 50 years the cedar had been exhausted and by 1870 most forest clearing had been completed, resulting in about

75 percent of the district's rainforest being destroyed,

- An historical framework has been presented which forms an important part of the later detailed delineation of rainforest areas.

- Until very recently, the statements made on the extent of the Illawarra rainforest before European settlement were characterised by exaggeration. Historical accounts and the patterns of existing vegetation clearly indicate a more conservative view of the extent of the rainforest than is often suggested.

- Based largely on the present occurrence of rainforest and other vegetation and a detailed knowledge of the environ­ mental requirements for local rainforest development, three major concentrations of rainforest have been delineated.

Termed the Illawarra. Yarrawa and Berkeley Brushes, these areas covered 12,000 ha, 2.450 ha and 1.600 ha respectively. and represented about 70 percent of the original rainforest area in the district. These Brushes were associated with the Tertiary Robertson Basalt on the plateau and the low altitude coastal Permian volcanic (latite) soils.

- The original area of the rainforest is estimated to have been a minimum of 22,850 ha. of which an estimated 5.765 ha. or 25 percent, remains todav. This rainforest approximates 106.

3 percent of the intact rainforest remaining in New South

Wales.

- The knowledge of the previous occurrence of the rain­ forest is seen as critical to the reliability of the rep­ resentativeness of the sampling of rainforest for detailed ecological analysis later in the thesis. 107.

CHAPTER FIVE

THE ILLAWARRA RAINFOREST FLORA

5.1 Rainforest Plant Species Inventory

Because of the relatively early settlement of Europeans in the

Illawarra and its proximity to the first botanical collectors from

Sydney. Illawarra rainforest plants were collected and recorded from a period very soon after settlement in 1815 (see Chapter 4).

Not surprisingly, no undescribed rainforest plant species were located by the present study and. in general, there are few taxonomic problems associated with the rainforest flora found in the district.

However, two major extensions of range were recorded during the study period, and the presence of one other species was confirmed after not being recorded for many years. These species are Aiyxia ruscifoiia

(Apocynaceae). previously known only as far south as the Williams River. north of Newcastle: this species was located in a few patches of rainforest on the Woronora Plateau west of Wollongong. The second species is Mallotus philippensis (Euphorbiaceae). which was recorded at

Mt Keira as a few plants in disturbed rainforest (A. Bofeldt, pers. comm. 1985. confirmed K.Mills). The species Hibiscus splendens (Malvaceae). which was known only from an early record from Bulli, was relocated at the foot of the escarpment in disturbed forest at Towradgi. north of

Wollongong. Here a small but healthy population exists. It is likely that these species, and perhaps others now lost, from the district. 108.

have suffered from earlier clearing and now occur less frequently in the district than previously.

A species of Cryptocarya, probably C rigida, previously recorded by Allan Cunningham in 1818. could not be found and appears no longer to exist in the area. It has been recorded as far south as Wyong. north of Sydney (Williams et al. 1984). No herbarium specimens collected from the Illawarra exist and it has probably been eliminated from the district during extensive forest clearance,

A rainforest plant species list for the area, excluding mosses. fungi and liverworts, has been prepared and appears in Appendix 5.

With the exception of some Orchidaceae. where the paper by Cady (1960) was consulted, a few fern species, listed in Royal Botanic Gardens (1981). and one other species, the presence of all species was confirmed during the study. The unconfirmed species is Acalypha nemorum (Euphorbiaceae) which has been collected from the Kiama area, but now may not occur in the Illawarra following the early clearing of this area.

A total of 303 species has been listed in Appendix 5 as being associated with the Illawarra rainforest vegetation. Plant species introduced from other parts of the world and now established in the district have been included because of the important part they now play in the ecology of most rainforest communities.

The numbers of rainforest plants in the district, based on lifeform, are given in Table 5,1. The total number of species is slightly lower than the 303 identified above as several non-rainforest species have been excluded from the table. 109.

Table 5.1 : Numbers of Illawarra Rainforest Species Based on Lifeform

Lifeform Native ]_xoti c Total

No % No % No %

Trees Palms 2 (0.8) _ _ 2 (0.7) Deciduous 4 (1.6) - - 4 (1.4) Others . 70 (27.1) 3_ (9.0) _____ (25.1) Ail trees 76 (29.5) 3 (9.0) 79 (27.2) Shrubs 34 (13.2) 10 (30.3) 44 (15.1) Vines & Climbers 40 (15.5) 12 (36.4) 52 (17.9)

Ferns Tree ferns 4 (1.6) - ):i — 4 (1.4) Terrestrial 46 (17.8) - - 46 (15.8) Epiphytic 31 (12.0) - 31 (10.7) — All ferns 81 (31.4) - 81 (27.9) Orchids Terrestrial 2 (0.8) - - 2 (0.7) Epiphytic 15 (5.8) - - 15 (5.1)

All orchids 17 (6.6) - - 17 (5.8) Herbs Terrestrial 8 (3.1) 8 (24.2) 16 (5.5) Epiphytic 2 (0.8) - 2 (0.7) All herbs 10 (3.9) 8 (24.2) 18 (6.2) All Species 258 (100) 33 (100) 291 (100) (88.6%) (11.3%) (100%) 110.

CO tn • H O H cn CN CN CD LT1 vO vO CTl CN in CD H H H ^^ id C VD H CN ro LO CN ro H H H rH H H ro •cH •H -. H ro CO B > m CU cn rH Ei c s—* 0 0 cn •H S +J CO to rd CO 3 rd u "§ CU r0H rH rC 0 u c/3. U . Xcu 0 ro 0"! «tf *. ro r^ r» CN r- rH -3 O o CN ro ID VO VO TJ IH U3 vO O CTl CN CN ro CN CN CN CU Icsu ro "* rH •>* o 0 W cn H fc T33 Htn OJ a) H cu •H cu • • O 0 SH *tf 0) E-I •cH CaU ft •^ > co CU •H ro rH p CO id to _. cu o 0 w • • cn • I cn II in • • cn •« CO • • H 4-1 CD • • cn cu • < cn (U .. CO cu • ( en cu • • cn CU »• CO X rd C •H id cu •H cd * ro —», ,—, ^-* ,-N •^ ^-^ £ M P & n co CO P CO CO ^~.C O *—* ^-^ S 0 P e 0 » I *—* - u - ,—.- m - U3 cN p 4H -H 0 co o ro LO •H o •^ o —- o - CO _: cn e u <- CO ^—* «tf U m »—' CM m o CTl 0 cu to 0 s 0 - 0 P 0 0 xi0 * i - LT> 0 a)- .. 0 - U m •H - •H - •H W rH g r-t Q) > •H i O cn 0 o rd «* in CJ o - r-\ rC (d 0) P X H ft rH S o a CM CN rcd o •H rpd c0 P rG H rd P 0 c rC 0 rd 0 0 •P 0 B ro b rQ O s-i CO cnu cn G\ H "tf cu _) cn r- cn 0 s ! 1 1. 0 0 CN M-t CN H Tj ro rd rd CTl • I - > ro ro .« EH rH a —' -* ._ *-" H W —' W •-' EH ro rH CD •X + 111.

A comparison of the numbers of rainforest species based on three plant-type classes for south-eastern Australia is shown in Table 5.2.

Although the figures are not directly comparable, particularly for the

Washpool area which is inland and smaller than the other locations. the figures clearly demonstrate the loss of species with increasing latitude. This pattern is most striking for the tree, shrub and vine species and less marked for the ferns. It is significant that more species are lost with higher latitude than are gained in the cool temperate forests of southern Australia. The trend from more complex vine forests in the north to simpler fern forests in the south can also be recognised.

5.2 Floristic Elements

Three 'floristic elements' . based on climatic types, can be identified in the Illawarra : sub-tropical, warm temperate and cool temperate.

The use of these broad climatic types is the most often used method typing the New South Wales rainforests (eg.Baur 1957 and Poole & Cowley

1981). This climatic classification system, which is the most common way of labelling rainforests, does not correspond strictly to the recent floristic framework for Australian rainforests developed by Webb &

Tracey (1981a,1981b) and Webb et al. (1984). The traditionally subtropical and warm temperate types overlap both the A^ and A2 floristic provinces of these authors, and cool temperate rainforests of New South Wales, both

Eucryphia and Nothofagus types, are within the A2 province. Locally. climatic types are readily distinguishable and are understood by other workers, and the system is retained in this thesis to connote broad 112. e 3 H rd P rd CU •H ft •rcH * 0 P CU P C P rd •H rd SH 3 SH to (U 3 ex CU rd rd rd Ur d ft *. ft •H SH SH rd rd Xi CO 0 rd 0 CU B rud cu rC •H £ SH P 0 U E c ft SH ft 0 cn XI cj 0 0 0 0 rd >i V rd •H CU >i 3 O SH to H CD C H H rd rH H 0 >1 H 0 rd rH i •a rd H IW X CU 0 U W 0 O ca >i p rH rH B H fc Xi rd 3 CO rfl >1 to rd i C rd •H CJ CU SH 0 Tf 03 p O O >i U X) •a>i Xi0 X -S "1 O >1 cn ft 0 5 •rl tn a -P tn . CJ tn rd rH r-i u0 rcd ft P rd .rH rH rd rd rd 0 P S3 0 Q fc o 0 c 3 a) rd X U H u to fc •H P -H cu a a ft CU Q W EH < u u rd rd 0 c •H VH rH CO C 0 cu •H rd p •H 10 rd rd rd rd rd U •H U « •rl SH I CU cn > 0 rd tn 0 CU C >1 •H N rH •a C rd c H rH •H •H P •a >i 0 0 0 X cn X •rl O SH H to fc to CJ § * 0 C/3E . CO H SH to c rd rd H rd Q 3 rd cn rd >1 •rl CU U H cn •h cu U PH Xi H X0! rd 3 rfl cn rd rd U tn rd in •H § ft ft X CU 3 u SH 0 •H Xi P 0 ft SH P •rl C rd rd P C CU SH O cn a cn rd •H P H CU rd s ft >I •B rd c0 T3 0 c rH c TS cn a 0 ft u tn X X 03 X p >1 •H P •H 0 C 03 0 0 ft cj >H ft tn I rH o H SH 0 rd 0 (U c >1 (U rd rd rd X! CU rH CU U < P •rl •H rd 3 CJ H 3 cu 3 a CO Q rH 0 CO W a cu fc fc Q. U I rd CU C to CU CN _> •rcuH P CJ ,_, cu —., *—> ^~ c fta> ^ *-% ro rd H ,—s "tf ro rd H H cu ***' H _ W rH cn H H ro < N rH i C u c - rd cj ft rd 0 C •H HH P X •rl CJ CJ •rl H cu H rd rd >i r0d) •H rd 0) p SH 0 cn •H 03 p c rd 0 SH H H •H M U CJ u H U rH CU CU C rd SH rd 3 0 C cu CJ rd X) rd rd 0 rd rd tu CJ p X tn p ft H CJ c CU rd id CJ red P C ft SH M cn cn P •H 0 rd

* pcu rd id P p CU rd cu & X rd B •H P cu • X rd C >i p ft -H rd P >1 TS p rd H p H to 0 u CU 0 CJ 0 3 •H p >i U W fc fc xi

rd rH CU X id p •H to 3 rcd rcd X p X rd P to .ft >i 0 CU P crd p p id * H fc C/l u cu rd >i B fc. fc. TJ p O tn E cu rd 3 rd 3 fc. X H P rd P & rd CU 0 •H G rd P rd H rd P rd rd CJ CD •H % rd >i -H rd •H P 0 E ft P CU cu X C E T3 P p 3 0 CU to C 0 >i 0 rH CJ ft 0 CJ E 3 rd P rd CU ft CU cu >i C P rH 0 ft rd rH P 3 •H H p >i rd rd •H rd S2 u m W fc fc u to Cfl fc fc fc rd CU to fc.•rp l id" *• rd H 3e •H to >i 0 rH *. 3 rd P _ rd •rcnl rd X •rl rd S3 rd •P rd CD P P 0 C CU H fc. C 0 fc. 0 ft rd Pa rd rcd rd P id 0 0 rd 0 -rl 0c H C ft (U EH CJ CU a X fi p rd C >i to p •H fc* CJ >i 0 E CU P p .. rd 0c X rd H CD p O fc U •rl _j CO p rH P ril P to IH _J Xi •H 3 rd PQ o fc. rd •n 3 fc. 0 fc. IS H fc. fc.C •H rd X fc. rd cu 0 u rd •> 0 rd P •H P 3B rd f*a1 P cd Xi fc. rd •rl H rd 0a •rl to •H rd rd H C E P 03 to 0 •H •H rd to ft •H -H H T3 3 P •H H CU rd 0 •a 3 X X -rl a 3 rd >i •H P rd ft H C P CJ fc. ft rcd 0 p •_ H CD 0 Xft Xtn X X 0 E 0 _ 0 P rEd rcd to rd cu X P CD tn p (D 0 0 CJ H 0 H cn p CJ C •rl •rl •H C ft id E 3 •8 rad P H rd 0 H ft 0 rd p cu C Xi X H cn CD p H CJ p ft p CJ rd H H rd 3 CJ H •rl H •rl C •H CU cu P rd rd •rl p rd I < m U CJ a W w fc u fc U W « a hH CO fc fc fc w « X 3 CO

to •cHu CJ CD ft —. ro 03 H ' •* m CD cu m rd __ CN CD r-s CO CN 0 CD ru rd rd rd rd cu CD CN VD CN ro rd CD CD • CU CD rd cu cu cn CU 0 U 1 ft •H P P p C cu CD ft cj rd H >i P CD •rl CJ CJ rd (U P rd cu to rd C •H P •B rd CJ CJ u rd rd •H 0 U cn tcn rd •H 03 •rl e 0 rd rd > •H E rd rd 3 E g rd cu CJ •rl CO fc X fc fc CJ H P rd H a •H p w 0 CJ I p ft 3 CU cu C ft u rd a •H 0 i cd rH a a IT a a 114.

•H to CU to H •H ft 03 0 ft c 0 o rd * p •H •H fl cu CU C CJ •rl p rd p cn fc. rd P E 0 P 3 tn 3 03 3 P •H H a CU X 0 rd cu P •H rd X ft ft p EH CU to E X C 0 p 0 01 co id CD p p 3 o 0 tn p 0 rH 0 E CJ 3 •H X P •rl u p W fc ft E u id < s 0 CO co CJ rd •H E P 3 E P to to 0 •H 3 •H 3 X to H CO P ft •H CJ fc.0 X CD 0 >1 rd •H 0 H ft CO •H C 0 rd tn rd CJ c to fc He 3 p P 0 0 Xi CD 0 cn rd c P X •rl CO p P id r* •rl P E •H P CJ EH rd •. 3 to P CD •0H3 u cu rd •H g rH rd CO rd PQ 3 r-i P rd fc3 & fc.ft C3J 0 •H p rd •H >1 0 •H p & rd E 3E rd CU X H X cu fc. X E •a rd rd a P rd •H u rd 0 ft VM 0 E CJ X C cn •H H P O •r| P CD X CJ to CU >i p CU Xi to CD to >1 rd rd E X P 0 0 3 0 H P E N 0 p H to ft o c •H •H rd >iX 0 c 3 rd CD •H c

E •H E rd fc. 3 in 3 rd cu p CU cn •rl •XH H 0 C1U ft •H co ft ft 0 to *. C o to ft0 to 3 03 •> u ft tn rd rd TaJ ?H c 0 ft 0 rd -H 0 -H •H xi C -H 0 p P c id •H H •rl +J E 03 0 CD X p p rd cu T3 T3 CU a P 3 Q U •rl •H CJ C 0 E rd 0 0 « E 0 CU fc 0 _ •H 3 0 ft f-i 05 * X - U CJ C P H C3 3 tn cn H AJ - CU w 0 P CJ 0 rd 0 U CO E3 Prd tofc. p * rd H H cd rd 3 rH CO rd COfc. 3 CO rdfc. a rd CO H •ftH u PQ P H P rd 3 p •H V •H C- - aH CD id >1 - 0 •rl rd C fc •H r? E X fc. g X - 0 Q c - E 3 rd cu X cd H E ft X rd 0 3 cj rd >1 0 fc. ^ rd 0 •H •H rd ft H 4H 0 cu 0 •rl P •H >i P p V x P C P tn c H 0 0 •H p p p •rl U •r| to X C CU P rd xCJ rd CU -P >i 0 CD X CD to CD p cu p -rl X 3 p 0 TO 0 0 c rH P 6 co N CO P r-\ r-i CO ft 10 ft p H ft X c P -H CD H rd •H I _2 3 >1 •rl 0 3 rd rd cu 3 •H •H CU H 3 rd CJ CU rH 3 H g X < ft, CO fc Z PQ cj fc fc fc fc CJ a < fc CJ < CJ < CJ fc to 3 CO

to •rcul CJ CU ft CN —s ro to ^^ «— T. «^ CN MH rH CD ^^ ,_, CU —s ,-v <. -s ro 0 o cu *•—' rd CD rH rd CN CN rH rd ^-N CD rd CU ^-* CU •»-* •-^ I *_•* —^ CD CN CD CJ CD rd CJ ro •— i >i H p rd CD X •rl •rl P p 3 rd rd E fc a z O o fc fc fc fc fc fc £ « fc fcs CO CO CO 115,

« CD P rd rd P P CD rd CU & E X id E CU P •H CD -E p G P 3 tn rd C G 0 C G H rd P CU 0 rH rd E rd 0 0 H >i E CJ CO fc a to rd En

* CD P E rd rd P rd 3 P 03 g TJ XCU rfl CD O CU G P •H ft E CJ p CD G G 03 Tj rd to G 3 t-oH rd 0 0 C 3 rd C 9*6 p P (U 03 E rd _ CU rd tn to rd >.p H Hcu & •H rd H CO EH H U CJ EH S3 O a CO

id •rl fl 0 cd to G •r| p H cu CU 0 E to c u CJ 3 rd rO g 03 H c rd •H id rjj 3 P U cj O 0 P Xicu P CU co 03 EH •H -0 X fc. •H rd p G G P id G ft •H o V CJ CD G •H •H o CO 0 Xi rd p 0 to X Ho •rl P 0 G rd 8 p •rl CJ (fc P Xi P CU P m 0 >i E rH G (U >i p >-, CD CU H 1 rd CD I Q X co CJ Q CJ a CJ P X CJ CD 3 rd CO P i PQ to cn CD cu P •rl CO u CD P ro P cu 0 c MftH ^_. *^ CN rH 0 «* CD r—\ CN **-' _—, *-* 4-H 03 r-i ,r_. o *—* rd ,—. *-^ v_H - G • V^ CN CU i rd 3 o CU rd C CJ CD p CD H G CJ r-\ CJ 0 CU rd U -, H P CD •rl •rl •rl PQ rd fc CO CO 00 13 D > > > S3 116.

rainforest types. Webb's (1968) structural-physiognomic classification system for Australian rainforests is employed where appropriate. Both climatic and structural typing are used later in this thesis to facilitate the comparison of the Ulawarra's rainforests with those elsewhere. On a regional scale, species associations are most important and these have been used in Chapter 9 to describe the rainforest types in the district in detail.

The major plant genera found in the Illawarra rainforests are listed in Table 5.3. with an indication of the floristic element with which they are associated. In terms of numbers, the flora is dominated by sub-tropical genera. As the area is near the southern limit of sub-tropical rainforest development many genera, and even families, are represented by only one species. The genera associated with the cool temperate stands are the most limited in number, while many genera of the warm temperate element are shared either with the sub-tropical or cool temperate elements.

5.3 Species at Their Southern Limit

Until recently, the Illawarra was considered by researchers to be a maior southern limit of rainforest species, particularly sub-tropical species. This was mainly due to the extensive collecting of the Illawarra flora and the lack of investigation and collection in areas further to the south, where the rainforests remained generally unknown until recently. The importance of the Illawarra area in the latitudinal sifting of rainforest species was recognised by Turner (1981) although for the above reasons this was generally over-emphasised. For example. 117.

to CD to •H CD 14H CJ H 0 CD rd ft dP dP dP # <*> S3 P CO O rH VD o CO G X H CO in in CO r-» P CUU rd rH H rH H H 3 P P 0 CU 0 W fc EH S= CU z G P CU X P H 3 p rd VD CO CO 0 •H CN o C/3 P H fc. E 0 rd EH P G 0 H P fc CU P ^ 3 03 • CU to 0 H X CO 03 0 0 p CU 4H G ro CN G . rd ro •H CO to •H rd p > « (U cu ft •H MH CJ 0 Xi G CD CO rd p a •rl ••» E ro co 03 •H CO cu .H cn X H > C •r| X P xi P CU G CO ro VD VO X rd cd ca H p CN 3 cn z to 0 r> CO cn ItH cu H o cu cu X fc. p P -p G CD cd EH MH 0 HE I CU CO G a 0 CO CO CO CO CO •H *• P o O o o O cd ro rH CN •<. CN CJ E0 0 0 0 0 0 0 p "tf in in m vD PJ HH ro ro ro' ro ro P rd 0 P •n rd rd rd Q cu >i a p P >i rd rd Xi >i PQ E rd rd 0CU G P PQ to P in P C Q 0 rd CO G rd cu •H S? •H 0 E P P rd > P tu G H H P H P 3 rd H CU •rl rd 0 •9 CJ H b PQ EH 0 a a rQ 118.

41.0 percent of the tree and shrub species and 21.4 percent of the vine species in Illawarra listed in Williams (1979) had their southern limit indicated as Illawarra. This compares with the presently known figures of 19.2 percent and 7.3 percent respectively (see below).

Recent investigations on the South Coast of New South Wales have dramatically changed the previously known pattern of rainforest species distribution in the south of the state. Work by Helman (1979.1983). Floyd

(1982) and Mills (1985.1986) has demonstrated that many species occur well to the south of their previously known southern limit. An analysis by

Helman (1983) showed that a number of areas were significant in terms of the southern limits of rainforest species. These 'southern limit' areas. or 'distributional nodes', and those to the north of her study area, are indicated in Table 5.4. Although the number of species reaching their southern limit varies in each district, these species form a similar proportion of the total number of species occurring in each district.

In most cases, the reasons for the occurrence of these 'distributional nodes' is clearly related to environmental factors. The major factor determining their occurrence in southern New South Wales is the presence of soils derived from igneous rock types. These are the Gerringong

Volcanics in the Illawarra, the Milton Monzonite in the Milton area. and the Mount Dromedary Monzonite at Mount Dromedary. The numbers of species found at these locations are shown in Table 5.5. Many rainforest species have a disjunct distribution governed by the occurrence of suitable high fertility soils. Such a pattern was recognised by Herbert

(1967) and commented upon in a New South Wales context by Hitchcock

(1977). 119.

The Illawarra itself supports many species which are southern

outliers from the more extensive rainforest areas north of the Hunter

Valley, 230 kilometres to the north. Similarly, the Milton and Mount

Dromedary volcanic areas on the south coast produce disjunct distribution

patterns for a number of sub-tropical species, eg. Diospyros penta.mera.

Baloghia lucida and Streblus hrunonianus .

An area in the vicinity of Batemans Bay also appears to be

significant in the loss of species with increasing latitude. Helman

(1983) suggested that the rainforest communities to the north of the

Batemans Bay area were more sub-tropical in character due to the "...high

mean annual temperature .. being accentuated by northerly aspects.

creating an environment with a marked hot summer period with frosts

only rarely occurring." Rather, the answer appears to lie in the direct

and indirect effects of topography. The higher near-coastal ranges

north of Batemans Bay receive higher rainfalls than areas further

south which are much flatter (Kalma & McAlpine 1978). and the associated

deep valleys provide protected locations away from wildfires and retain

moisture.

Native and introduced species which have their southern known

limit within Illawarra are listed in Table 5.5. Most are sub-tropical

and associate with the Gerringong Volcanics, The species Eucryphia

moorei (Eucryphiaceae). which has cool temperate affinities, reaches its

northern limit of distribution in the district, occurring as far north

as Loddon Falls west of Bulli.

The only endemic rainforest species in Illawarra. if indeed it is ac­ cepted as a separate species (see Floyd, 1978). is Daphnandra sp. aff. micrantha 120.

Table 5.5 : Rainforest Plant Sp ies Reaching their Known Southern (or Northern) Limit f Distribution in the Illawarra.

Species: Location: Abrophyllum ornans Shoalhaven River Acalypha nemorum Nowra Actephila lindleyi Shoalhaven River Gorge *Ageratina adenophora Shoalhaven River Alchornia ilicifolia Kiama Alyxia ruscifolia Cordeaux River •.Asparagus densiflorus Seven Mile Beach ^A. scandens Saddleback Mountain Austromyrtus acmenoides Jamberoo Brachychiton acerifolius Shoalhaven River *Caesalpinia decapetala Mount Kembla Cayratia clematidea Shoalhaven River Celastrus subspicatus Cambewarra Range Celtis paniculata Minnamurra River Choricarpa leptopetala Stanwell Park *Cinnamomum camphora Shoalhaven River C_j oliveri Gerroa Croton verreauxii Foxground Cupaniopsis anacardioides Coalcliff *Cyphomandra betacea Kangaroo Valley Daphnandra micrantha (sp.'C) Foxground (endemic) Dioscorea transversa Stanwell Park Eucryphia moorei Loddon Falls (northern) Euodia micrococca Shoalhaven River Ficus macrophylla Shoalhaven River Flagellaria indica Hacking River valley Galeola cassythoides 1Illawarra' Gei/jera salicifolia v. latifoli Foxground Gmelina leichhardtii Berry *Hedychium garderanum Mount Keira Helicia glabriflora Minnamurra Falls Hibiscus heterophyllus Kiama H. splendens Wollongong ^Ligustrum lucidum Shoalhaven River Mallotus philippensis Mount Keira Neolitsea dealbata Mount Keira Pararchidendron pruinosum Shoalhaven River ^Passiflora mollissima Cambewarra Range *P. caerulea Wongawilli Peperomia leptostachya ?Shoalhaven River Planchonella australis Shoalhaven River Syzygium oleosum Mount Kembla Trochocarpa laurina Barren Grounds Wilkiea huegeliana Shoalhaven River •^Zebrina pendula Minnamurra Falls Zieria granulata Endemic (Kiama area) * - Introduced plant species 121.

c0 G •H SS p 0 rd X U co G 01 0 CD dP P H VD CO CU CD •H X P X CJ co VO O m r^ P rd (U rH rH 3 urd rH 0 P CU a CO •H E P CrOd vo G •rl rd VO •rl H P in to 0 H G CU EH •rl p •H 0 CU 0 to X p cu 0 3 CaO •H 0 G tn p rd CO CJ G H pcu dP dP dP 0 0ss 0 co O > G MH o X G to *~* o *—> m ,_, H IH •H CD ro H ro rH CN 0 P rd C ^r •H P •r| tn CD > rd X rH cn o cn CD P rd P P CN CN sC P 0 cd P C •H to CU rd cu X a •rl P cu CuD 4H X 0 -P tao CU to UH tn 0c 0 rd X p dP dP cn cn G X in o CN P P CU cu CD CJ co m CO VO ,-. VD p ca H H vo •§ CD 3 H3 ft to Z Z cu CD H to X cu CO ro CD p ,-N •H • • p CJ cn T) SS EH CD CD G 0 H rd H Ula rd CD S3 03 X p P cn X CD G P CD cu pcu 3 ,CXJ > 0 0 rd •rl CO P m CO p tn u •rl G X •H S3 CD •rl G rd CD G P c cu « •rl rd 0 z rd P •H N CJ G H c _o 0 0 I CO B G > CO N in Sx 0 tn o G o O CD -rl P CN c 0 CN H p £ 0 rd 0 X rd o ro in -d VD rd CJ cn G co (U ro EH 0 C 0 PI •rl P § p P p H Q •rl CD _^ CJ a 122.

(Atherospermataceae). sp. 'C in Jacobs _. Pickard (1981), The status of this species is still unclear (G.Harden. National Herbarium. Sydney, pers.comm.

1984).

The status of the species Zierla granulata (Rutaceae) in the literature is also unclear. The species is distinct and only found on the volcanic soils of the Kiama area (J.Armstrong. National Herbarium.

Canberra, pers.comm.. 1985). usually associated with rocky sites within or on the edges of rainforest. It is now most common on cleared farmland in areas unsuitable for grazing, for example along fence lines and scrubby rocky slopes. This species has been listed by Leigh et al. (1981) as a vulnerable 'rare and threatened' plant species.

Although seed dispersal and propagation by other means varies greatly among the rainforest flora, many species rely on animals for the dispersal of seed. Table 5.7 lists the number of species of each life- form whose seed is dispersed by each of a number of main dispersal mechan­ isms. The majority, 81 percent, rely on animals, particularly birds, to disperse their seed. Such species are associated with the subtropical element of the flora, while the temperate elements largely rely on wind. or water, seed dispersal. The decreasing number of trees producing fleshy fruits is reflected by the decreasing number of fruit-eating rainforest birds at increasing latitudes (Blakers et al. 1984).

In the Tasmanian rainforest, most trees, and certainly the dominant species, produce wind dispersed seed, while those of the tropics produce fleshy fruits suitable for animal dispersal. For example. Webb

&. Tracey 1981a) have shown that between 81 and 100 percent of the tree species at sites in northern Quensland are dispersed by animals (or 123.

-^ SS2Sooooooo ooooooooooo

o CO co^joocNmcorooOrH 4-1 _S •r-» CO rH Sf r-H IT) CN oo O H CN r-- LO CO CO 00 B-S vD r-~ CO O vO CO r-t on P rH CO oo v£> i—l CN rH CD JJ _2 oa O -d CN cd S5 I m CN CC VD »H; G p CN CO •H o as H Cn JJ 03 CO rH CD CO P E o ro m CO O vO •H o o • 4H G CN m vO O CO 00 O o o CN 00 G CO &•$ CO oo CO vD CN CO r*» co •H P cd CD co A p JJ p o ro cn o ro oo •«_• CN vO ! vo H co o CN i-H co CN CN vtf p CD •H X JJ PQ

CO 4-) E •H CO vO to > o a •H CO 6*S fl U o CO CJ X oa o CO CD rH CO O rH | s _ ^ rH cd 03 u U •H CU JJ SWSSWZWZWSW c_ O CO X •H CD I O W cO *G CD JJ E > CO O mc u P •H CO oa u H O 0c u JJ CO rQ to AC D CO rH -G rcHo 4H CO CD 3 03 E rQ CO C CD CD G •H H JJ A C rH CO HH p •H rH CD CO A o P •H > O W H CO H CJ •J 124.

gravity). These authors also identified a trend in the north Queensland

sites which indicates that 'the species-rich communities ...rely less on

wind and more on vertebrate vectors' for dispersal. This pattern is

similar to the latitudinal trend mentioned above. In the Illawarra the

temperate rainforest sites are dominated by trees which have wind-born

seed, while the subtropical sites are almost entirely made up of species

that depend on animal vectors for seed dispersal (see Chapter 9 for

the species involved).

Little is known of the interactions between animals and seed

dispersal, or the role of vegetative progagation. in rainforest community

dynamics. As Webb & Tracey 11984a) have suggested, there are many

questions to be answered.

5.4 Naturalised Introduced Species

Naturalised introduced plant species have invaded nearly all

rainforest areas in the district (Table 5.8). The term 'naturalised' is

used here to denote plant species which reproduce themselves without

the intervention of humans. These species now play an important role

in the regeneration of rainforest following disturbance and in some

cases, due to their fire-proneness and ability to dominate large areas.

greatly influence ecological processes in the rainforest.

A considerable number of plant species introduced from other parts of the world have become established in areas associated with rainforest.

These species are mainly from tropical and sub-tropical areas, and are 125.

rd id r-i • rd rd U P • p O o c p P •H P rd 0 P u CD P CD a CD •H -H •H cu CD P CD •H p p •H rd t$ B CD E 2 E tn P 4H E CO e «c id m M-I to • •H

>1 >I >i H CD CU CD rd > > > to •H •H •H P P P JJ rd CD cd 03 03 03 to id to CO to to CO TJ Xi Xi Xi P P Xi Xi Xi Xi p X) Xi Xi Xi a G G G G ID CD p p p p tn cun p p P p p to •H •H •H -H CD CD •H cn •H -H -H •H •rl -H •H -H -H Es Ss PQ > > PQ Es & CD ffl ffl ffl PQ PQ Q > CO id

X P P CO CD CD rH rH p rd X X •§ •H CU X CD G 3- 3 CD X X CU CD 0) rd G P G G p p G G cu P P •8 rd P P •H 03 CD •H CD •H •H -H p O 0 > S3 > •H X X > SJ S3 PI CO to > > EH CO CO

G a 0 0 P to 03 to CD CO r~J CU X 5 G CU P — O O P X G • PH <_ CU JJ z •—' rd CU O G rd i5n « PI 31X P r-i o > 3 *—s *•—' to EH r«* • ^* 3 rd U rd £H ' PI rd 0 P w P s0 CO Cn E E w G W rd rd cu 2j -r-i Z H rH CJ PI 0 0 y G CJ a a O -H •H < to 03 •H H 3 H rd o Ha Ha H < < U CO fa fl £. OH rd CU CO fs q ¥ rH + + CD W P CD H 0 o < H U u a PI < rd CJ PI PI co U CO < 126.

• >1 • -H id rd • P •HO' • H G rd rd rd H H 0 P CU rd CD P -H ft SH P rd •H •H •H CJ •H •H H CU G •H 0, 03 CO 0 CU CU to CO •H N N E tn ^ to o i < B E •H •H rU < P rd rd CD >3 N BJ • a MH P P P < p ct•; P• c0o c•. 1 p W < PQ PQ i? CO w S 2 CO W o w EH to EH CJ CO

»• CU rH > rd •H to * JJ P rd 03 CO CO CO CO CO to to to to to CO 03 CO 03 0] JJ cu Xi XI Xi T3 *_ XI XI XI XI XI Xi T3 t3 T3 T) XI 01 tao P P P P P P P P p p P P P P P P tn •H •H -H -H •H -H -H -H •H •H -H •H •H -H -H -H •H CD Q PQ PQ PQ PQ OQ PQ PQ PQ PQ PQ PQ PQ PQ PQ PQ PQ >

rd rd rd rd H P JJ 43 JJ rd to CO CO P to id rd rd to rd 0 0 0 rd X 0 u 0 o tn u G rd G G G 0 0 p >1 03 0 r-i r-{ Q O G >i c rH CO CO G •H _ E 0 0 P 0 0 0 G •H H 0 0 u co g cj U rd O O CU rd G H • u ca UJ •H H UJ ca c_ E U 0 rd ca CU G 0 Xi Xi 0 tn Xi •H P xi _J Xi XI XI O H rd rd CO TJ CD ca id rd rd rd rd JJ tn tn cu CD G 3 CD CD - rd rd - T) 0) c 1 0 _ 03 P CD CD CO a •H ft to p P 03 03 03 p CJ 0 CD CO XI Xi rd - to rH 03 cu rd rd q G -H •H -H -H Q S: ES U P XI o _j ES rd -H PI Es q Es Es Es Es « & X 3 P X CD CD 03 CD CD CD CU x P P cn 03 0) P P p P P c 03 •H P P X P X X H X * -9 cu •H 3 3 CD 0) 0) CD X CD rd 3 p tn X P P P G G G G p CD P P X p rd X X .X •H -H -H -H 03 P U X S 2 to CO CO CO CO rd SJ CO CO CO SJ EH CO CO X X > > > > rQ

p 0) •H -O rd c PQ c p ,_. -H G rd PI 03 HB CO cu tn C CD o 3 p ^ to p 3 "O > a u W O to • p CO X -H rd 0 P 3 E EH P •s U U o "-' X •H w rjj •H O •CHO -H rd rd X K rd E p K rH P3 CO P CJ • 0) 3 PQ C XI •H to •3 0 C rd G 3 rd rd K P G 0 -H to P •H -o id rH G 03 P Id CD P •H p ra? 0 CD X •H P P u cj •n MH P rd rd G •H CaD rd 3 tn 0 •H w o rd E p P rd E CJ >i H XI E rd ^§ CJ 3 rd P 3 id G V r. P E w 2 e 2 rd W 3 C30 P 0 W to E G U -H W 03 o u w x to < 0 rH 0 c W G ID to PI < 0 3 W p X rd CJ rd § U CD < 3 u W -H X y< rH 03 U Cn co O X CJ P 3 u< 0a S a>1 0 W >i •H W tn H rd < « H H O J + rd w q CJ 3J OH SJ PJ rtj oCO rd a PI 2 CO PI H o N 127.

generally associated with the more fertile soils under higher rainfalls.

Some species are restricted to near-urban areas.

Those exotic plant species growing in association with the Illawarra

rainforest vegetation are listed in Table 5.8. Herbs, vines, shrubs

and trees are represented in this introduced flora. About 10 percent

of the total Australian flora has been introduced from abroad (Amor

& Piggin 1977). This figure is similar among the rainforest flora in

the Illawarra where 33 out of a total of 303 species (11 percent) are

introduced, but is half the figure of 21 percent which applies to the

total Sydney Region flora (figure taken from Beadle et al^ 1982).

Most of the introduced species are sensitive to cooler temperatures

and are generally not found in areas where these conditions occur.

One example is Lantana camara (Verbenaceae). which is distributed along

coastal eastern Australia from Bega on the South Coast of New South

Wales to Northern Queensland. In Queensland. Willson (1971) reported that

its distribution was associated with higher annual rainfalls. Willson

also gave an account of the introduction of various predatory insects

in attempts to control this serious weed species. These introduced

insects have not been highly successful, mainly because low temperatures

during winter do not allow the establishment of significant populations.

especially in the southern parts of the range of L. camara .

The taxonomic status of L. camara is unclear with many forms and varieties being present (Everist. 1974). The most prominent form in southern New South Wales is usually known as 'southern pink', which refers to its geographic distribution and flower colour. 128.

Lantana camara is the major weed of the forests of the coastal belt

of the district, forming dense, often impenetrable stands from littoral

sites to the escarpment slopes. The clearing of natural vegetation

has sometimes resulted in Lantana becoming a dominant species in some

areas. Because the species forms such dense thickets, it promotes the

spread of fire, readily re-establishes after fire, and will remain the

dominant plant of the site to the exclusion of almost all other species.

The species does not occur above approximately 300 metres, depending

on location, and is generally absent from cooler areas such as those on

the Woronora Plateau and the Kangaroo Valley. Interestingly. L. camara

occurs in these areas only on soils of volcanic origin, a pattern similar

to many native rainforest species, the higher soil nutrients overcoming

the effects of decreased temperatures. Other species such as Li gustrum

spp. and JPuhus 'ulmifolius hybrids' are more common in cooler locations.

Exotic plant species are generally absent from undisturbed rain­

forest, and usually require the disturbance of the canopy to create

the lighter environment necessary for establishment. Although exotic

species occur mainly on the edge of the rainforest, they play an

important part in local rainforest succession. A small number of exotic

species, mainly from the Asteraceae (eg.Ageratina spp.). which have wind

born seeds, are found in undisturbed forest. An example is Ageratina

riparia which is common along water courses and other wet places

throughout the district. This species is often found near waterfalls

and other wet rocky sites.

Unlike the North Coast of New South Wales, where it is a major weed-tree (Firth, 1979), Cinnamomum camphora (Lauraceae) is not common 129.

in Illawarra. It only occurs sporadically in the district, is usually of shrub size and close to urban areas. It is planted in many locations but does not yet appear to be a significant weed species.

The most common and widely distributed introduced species associated with the rainforest in the district are Lantana camara (Verbenaceae)

; Ageratina riparia, A. adenophora and Senecio mikanioides (Asteraceae):

Cassia coluteoides and C floribunda (Caesalpiniaceae) '. Tradescantia albiflora (Commelinaceae) : Ligustrum lucidum. L. sinense (Oleaceae) . Pas­ siflora subpeltata (Passif loraceae). Phytolacca octandra (Phytolaccaceae)

: Solanum mauritianum and S. pseudocapsicum (Solanaceae) . Some species are localised in distribution, often in near-urban areas: these are indicated in Table 5.8.

A total of 11 (33.3% ) of the 33 introduced species listed in Table

5.8 are species which are either at their known southern limit or are restricted to Illawarra (eg. Zebrlna pendula ).

The major natural means of dispersal of these exotic plant species are birds and wind (see Table 5.7). while about \2% of these species have the ability to reproduce vegetatively.

Human activities also play a part in determining the distribution of a number of the introduced species, for example by dumping garden refuse and promoting burning within moist forest areas. No doubt other plant species will be introduced to the area in the future and some species may become more prominent among the rainforest flora

(eg.Cvphomandra betacea ). 130.

Table 5.9 : Bird species recorded as dispersal agents for selected introduced plant species.

Plant Species: Bird Species: Reference:

Cinnamomum camphora Topknot Pigeon Frith (1982) White-headed Pigeon Frith (1982) Morris et al. (1981) Pied Currawong Firth (1979) Lantana camara Figbird Blakers et al. (1984) Red-whiskered Bulbul Blakers et al. (1984) Little Wattlebird Blakers et al. (1984) Brown Cuckoo-Dove Frith (1982) Emerald Dove Frith (1982) Lewin's Honeyeater Blakers et al. (1984) Liddy (1985) Wonga Pigeon Frith (1982) Silvereye Readers Digest (1979) Liddy (1985) Crimson Rosella Forshaw (1981) Mistletoebird McNaughton (1975) Ligustrum spp. Brown Cuckoo-Dove Pers.Obs. Mistletoebird Frith (1969) Pied Currawong Clyne (1982) White-headed Pigeon Morris et al. (1981) Silvereye Readers Digest (1979) Red-whiskered Bulbul Blakers et al. (1984) King Parrot Pers.Obs. Crimson Rosella Pers.Obs. Phytolacca octandra Brown Cuckoo-Dove Frith (1982),Pers.Obs. Emerald Dove Frith (1982) Wonga Pigeon Frith (1982) Figbird Readers Digest (1979) King Parrot Forshaw (1981) Solanum mauritianum Brown Cuckoo-Dove Frith (1982),Pers.Obs. Emerald Dove Frith (1982) Wonga Pigeon Frith (1982),Pers.Obs. King Parrot Forshaw (1981) White-headed Pigeon Frith (1982) Crimson Rosella Forshaw (1981) Solanum nigrum King Parrot Forshaw (1981) 131.

Many bird species are known to feed on the fleshy-fruited species of the introduced flora and probably aid in their dispersal (Table

5.9). Some birds have developed a close association with introduced plant species. Such an association is cited by Frith (1982) for the

White-headed Pigeon (Columba leucomela ) in north-eastern New South

Wales, where numbers of this species have increased as the weed tree

C. camphora has spread and birds have learnt to utilise this food source. Locally. Wild Tobacco (S mauritianum ) has become a favoured food plant of the Brown Pigeon iMacropygia amboinensls ) (pers, obs.).

S. mauritianum has recently been recorded in the Batemans Bay-Moruya district and appears to be increasing its range southward, no doubt aided by birds such as the rainforest pigeons,

5.5 Conclusions

- A total of 303 plant species have been included in an

inventory of the Illawarra rainforest flora. Ten percent

of these species (33) are naturalised introduced species,

- The rainforest flora of the Illawarra is well known because

it was collected and described from the earliest periods of

European settlement.

- The Illawarra rainforest contains sub-tropical, warm

temperate, and cool temperate elements.

- Comparison of rainforest species numbers from locations

in south-eastern Australia indicate a clear loss of species 132.

with increasing latitude. This loss is most pronounced in the tree, shrub and vine species.

- An analysis of the species reaching their southern limit in the Illawarra and further south, shows that the Illawarra is only one of several 'distributional nodes' which occur along the south coast of New South Wales. Although the numbers of species present at these nodes differ, the proportion of the total species reaching their southern limit at each is similar, ranging from 15 to 18 percent.

- The disjunct occurrence of volcanic soils and higher rainfall areas are suggested as the explanation for these widely separated distributional nodes.

- An analysis of the naturalised species associated with the

Illawarra rainforests indicates that most originate from tropical and sub-tropical areas overseas and one third reach their southern limit in Illawarra. Part Two

DETAILED INVESTIGATIONS

OF THE

ENVIRONMENTAL, STRUCTURAL AND FLORISTIC

NATURE OF THE ILLAWARRA RAINFORESTS 133.

CHAPTER SIX

SAMPLING METHODS AND TREATMENT OF DATA

Part Two of the thesis is a quantitative empirical investigation of. firstly, the environmental factors influencing rainforest distribution and type in the Illawarra. and secondly, the structural and floristic variations within these rainforests. This chapter describes the methodology used in the collection of data (site survey techniques) and the analysis of these data.

6.1 Data Collection

6.1.1 Selection Of Sites

For the purposes of a detailed quantitative assessment of how environmental factors influence the distribution and floristic composition of the Illawarra rainforests, a large number of sites was sampled for analysis. Fifty sites were selected throughout the study area in a range of locations which maximised inter-site variation of the following environmental criteria: soil type (parent rock), altitude, slope, rainfall and proximity to coastal influences. The distribution of the survey sites is shown in Fig.6.1.

Particular attention was paid to the selection of sites which represented sampling along major environmental gradients (eg. altitude).

Every effort was made to minimise internal variation by selecting 134.

LOCATION OF RAINFOREST SURVEY SITES

/ Site numbers 1 to 50

/

20km Helensburgh .2

Appin

/4,

Bargo* / 8

/ Wollongong .HA Ai3j 10 Approx. Limit of I 12 Rainforest Distribution 14. 05 17_ 16 Lake Illawarra Albion i ^ Park* '21 A9 /20< 26 Moss Vale Robertson/ 25A A /*22 24,, '27 Kiama < _36 13; 33, '39 Bundanoon 4*42 47i 4 45A A 3 • Berry 44* A^f A^A4 6 ,49 ^44 8 50 Shoalhaven River Nowra 135.

relatively homogeneous sites: areas of obvious disturbance from past logging and/or clearing, fire and other natural disturbances such as badly wind-blown locations, were avoided. However, there is very little rainforest in the district which has escaped the influence of Europeans.

Relatively intact sites are available, however, and these would exhibit a similar species composition to pre-European forests.

6.U2 Vegetation Sampling Procedures

At each site a grid system of ten sample plots was used to collect data on stand structure and species composition. In general, the grid was rectangular in shape, usually two plots by five plots, although this configuration varied frequently because of peculiarities of the site. Sample plots were located 20 metres apart and at each point a plot of radius 8 metres (201m2) was established. Within each plot the following life forms were assessed.

Trees

Trees were regarded as plants having a stem circumference greater than 10 cm (d = 3cm) at breast height. The circumference and specific identity of each tree within the plot were recorded. Palms were regarded as trees if they had distinct trunks: otherwise, they were recorded in the sapling/shrub class (see below). Trees at the edge of the plots were regarded as being within the sample area if more than half their trunk diameters were within the plot. Coppices were recorded as individual trees if they branched below breast height and were greater than the minimum circumference of 10 cm. 136.

The information recorded allowed calculations to be made of the number of stems per hectare and the basal area per hectare for each species.

Saplings/Shrubs

The number of sapling and shrub individuals was recorded within the same 8 metre radius plots at each site. Plants were included in this class if they were less than 10 cm in circumference at breast height and more than 40 cm tall. Tree ferns and young palms (without trunk and with mature fronds) were also included in this group. Coppices less than 10 cm in circumference were not included in any data collected.

Ground Cover

Ground cover, plants below 40 cm in height consisting largely of herbs and ferns, was recorded within a plot of radius 3 metres (28 nr) centred on each main plot. Within each plot all ground cover species were identified and an estimate was made of their individual coverage on a percentage basis. This information allowed calculation of the ground cover of each species at each site, as well as the total cover at each site.

Special Life Forms

The presence and general prominence of special life forms is a characteristic of rainforest vegetation. Quantitative assessments of some of these forms were included in the sampling methods. The occurrence of palms and tree ferns was incorporated into the above sampling procedures. The species of vines occurring at each site were recorded, giving presence-absence data for each species at each 137.

site. The numbers of large epiphytes in each tree sample plot were also recorded, regardless of whether they occurred on tree trunks or boulders.

6.1,3 Soil Sampling Procedures

At each survey site a total of five soil samples was collected, one from each alternate plot, at a depth of 10 cm. The five samples were thoroughly mixed and then analysed for the following soil parameters.

Soil pH

Soil pH at each site was measured with a Metrohn Herisan pH Meter. using 2Qgm of the soil sample mixed with distilled water in a 1:1 slurry.

Volatile Component

The volatile component (loss on ignition. L.O.I.) of each soil sample was determined as a percentage of dry weight, calculated by using weight differences after kiln firing (at 650° C) of approximately 30 gm of oven dried soil.

Extraction of Available Soil Nutrients

Following consideration of the literature on soil nutrients and vegetation, the following soil nutrients were analysed for: Ca. Al.

K, P, Mg, Mn, NO3, Na.. Zn. All of these nutrients are regarded as macronutrients . except Zn which is usually a micronutrient, (eg. Mengel

Si Kirkby, 1978). They were extracted from soil samples using acetic acid and the resultant extracts were analysed for the above nutrients using an atomic absorption spectrophotometer. For all but Al. a Varian 138.

Techtron AA6 with an air/acetylene flame was used. Al was determined using an Instrumentation Laboratory IL 551 with an acetylene/nitrous oxide flame. Each sample was run against known standards and the concentrations of available nutrients were calculated accordingly.

6,1.4 Other Environmental Factors

The annual average rainfall for each site was ascertained by interpolation from the rainfall map constructed in Chapter 2 (Fig.2.4).

Despite the shortcomings of such an estimate (eg. the problems associated with localised effects) this was the only method available because of the lack of any more detailed data. Little information is available on temperature variation between locations (see Chapter 2) although altitude can be used as a guide to mean minimum temperatures

(Fig.2.7). The following environmental attributes were ascertained for each survey site: topographic aspect, slope, altitude, rainfall and geological substrate (soil type).

Two readily accessible sites were selected in the Mt Keira area

(west of Wollongong) for more detailed measurements of some environmental variables. At the Mount Keira Scout Camp and at Goondarrin Creek, the former on the escarpment and the latter in a plateau gully, measurements were made of soil moisture, air temperature and humidity in rainforest and adjacent sclerophyll forest (tall open forest). Soil moisture was measured at the four sites on a weekly basis for 42 weeks during 1983. and thermohygrographs gave continuous measurements of temperature and humidity during the summer and winter of 1983. A rainfall gaucre was 139.

placed at the Goondarrin Creek site and rainfall records were available

from the Mt Keira Scout Camp.

6.2 The Data

The data collected at each of the fifty survey sites fall roughly into

three categories: species present, stand structure and environmental

attributes. These categories are dealt with separately below.

6.2.1 Species Data

Species data (floristic information) for each site was collected at

four levels: trees, saplings/shrubs, ground cover and vine species. For

each site the following data were calculated (see 6.1.2 for methodology):

(i) Density of tree species, expressed as the number of individuals of

each tree species per hectare.

(ii) Dominance, expressed in terms of basal area (nr) of each tree species

per hectare.

(iii) Importance Value (I.V.) of each tree species at each site,

(iv) Number of each sapling/shrub species per hectare.

(v) Percentage cover of each ground cover species per hectare.

(vi) The presence/absence of vine species. 140.

All. except the Importance Value, are self explanatory. The

Importance Value has been calculated as the arithmetic mean of the relative density and relative dominance of a species at a site. Turner

(1976) used this method of calculating an I.V. in stands of rainforest at Barrincrton TODS.

6.2.2 Stand Structural/Floristic Data

For each site sampled the following structural/floristic attributes were recorded or later calculated from the data.

Number of Canopy Layers (#)

Canopy Height (m)

Ground Cover (%)

Number of Tree Species (#)

Number of Trees per Hectare (#)

Number of Sapling/Shrub Species (#)

Number of Saplings/Shrubs per Hectare (#/ha)

Total Tree and Shrub Species (#)

Number of Fern Species (#)

Basal Area per Hectare of Tree Species (nrv'ha)

Number of Vine Species (#)

Number of Large Epiphytes per Hectare (#/ha)

Number of Tree Ferns per Hectare (#/ha)

Number of Palms per Hectare (#/ha) 141.

6.2.3 Environmental Attributes

The following environmental attributes were recorded for each site:

Aspect (0-360°)

Slope (0-90°)

Altitude (m)

Rainfall (mm)

Geological Substrate (soil type)

Soil pH

Soil L.0.I.C* wt.)

Soil nutrients (ppm)

6.3 Numerical Classification Techniques

The use of classification techniques has become common in the

ecological literature. Biological researchers faced with large, unwieldy

data sets which are practically impossible to analyse in detail without

the aid of a computer, have developed classification techniques, largely

because of their 'versatility and computational convenience' (Williams

1981). The use of classification has found favour with workers in many

fields in which the main object is to reduce the data available to '...a

level of information which can be easily summarised and communicated'

(Williams 1981). The view of Goodall (1978) is that 'the purpose of numerical

classification of vegetation is ... to identify sets of stands for which many of the same statements will be true, and thus to reduce redundancy and economic effort in describing the variety of the stands classified'. 142.

There are numerous classification strategies available and Williams

(1971) has examined the choices in the selection of a classification procedure and commented that it is often desirable to use several procedures for any set of data. As statistical tests are generally unavailable for application to the results of classification, the selection of a method 'depends on how the data can be usefully interpreted by the biological user' (Clifford & Stephenson 1975). A strong element in the selection of a classificatory procedure is its availability to the user.

One of the more widely used classification strategies is the 'group average' or the 'unweighted pair-group method'. This agglomerative polythetic strategy involves the formation of individuals into groups on the basis of their overall similarity with respect to several attributes considered simultaneously (Clifford & Stephenson 1975). Because of its wide use and simplicity the group average strategy is the procedure adopted here.

The outcome of any classification strategy is the clustering of individuals which are identified as being similar. The definition of the term 'clustering' is rather nebulous (Williams 1971). although Clifford &

Stephenson (1975) used the term to mean 'the formation of non-overlapping groups defined by hierarchical or non-hierarchical methods'. Hierarchical clustering can be displayed in the form of a dendrogram, which is simply ' a diagrammatic illustration of relationships based on degree of similarity' (Mayr et aL_ 1953: quoted in Clifford & Stephenson 1975).

Such dendrograms are generated from matrices of similarity measures 143.

between pairs of entities (ecr,sites) using 3 set of attribute values

0 : ( f±H ^PeC^e ) r^p.'f .; >-rr-"r rs^'-- l f r*V Dfl.n^ ;r,f -:f v(

The similarities between pairs of r^titir; r.r^ expressed in terms of similarity coefficients Numerous similarity measures, as well as the complementary dissimilarity measures, have been developed over the years and many are still in use (Clifford Stephenson 19 '5), Tr'- problem lies in identifvinct the appropriate measure ot similarity which should be used with the set of data available.

Similarity coefficients can be conveniently divided into those applying to binary (presence—absence) data arid these applvinc? tc continuous and meristic (Quantitative) data, ?. decision which has t J he made in selectincj anv similarity measure is whether conioint absences will be considered Such a decision will have _ marked effect on the similarity coefficient chosen and the interpretation of results Tn an ecolocrical sense, the absence of a species fr—m two vecfeta^"-'rin samples will usually provide little meaningful information, but causes considerable problems if the data set is overwhelmed bv zero entries

In such a case, conioint absences have to be excluded from the analysis..

The similarity coefficient chosen must then address this situation by discarding any conioint absences, in the course of computina the similarity matrix.

Of the similarity coefficients available for binary data the

Jaccard' and 'Czekanowski' coefficients have been suaoested bv Clifford

&. Stephenson (1975) to be the most satisfactory. Neither of these coefficients incorporates conjoint absences in their formulae. Their formulae are very similar, except that in the Czekanowski coefficient. 144.

conioint presences carrv double w eioht . The coeffic 'ier'r. s - r e r* -. 1Z" !^ 1 r _ r:

as follow

a Jaccard : J = (a + b + c)

2a Czekanowski : c _ (2a + b + c )

where 'a is the number' of conic int ~,r gp QT\ r•es . an.-j • h a r d P 3 :" e "he

numbers of nairs of attributes wh ere ther e is c nly OT -,e -re sen i - in

either sntitv . These similarity r* n_.£ f icient s are ,- • -. y _' 4" : ed bet ween

0 and 1. The Czekanowski coeff:icien t was found 4 (-•. v*| r*odu " •e r '•) 2 +_bl e

result s and is the procedure emolo ved here.

The two cornrnoniv used similar!•t y rTi-jf f i r*i e>'n't " S f r'*r"• coTlti*P i U O'J s; \C n ! ^ r tit at "•/•=.

data are the "'Brav-Curtis' and the• C:„nberr a Metric'. w h i ch are c;ilcu l 3-ed

as follows:

Bray Curtis : B = ' X2jl

(Xij 4• X2j)

x x 1 _ l lj -- 2jl Canberra Metric : M = — _ n (xxj + x2j)

-. where V is the number of attnhut 93 fecj,species) i -i ~n d are the valu es of the ith attributes fc•• r anv pair of en tit ].es . -+• Wll 1 h _. appreciated that the crreater the coefficient the err eater f u_ d1ffe r pnro 145.

between the two crroups of entities beinci compared. Beth measures are constrained between 0 and 1.

The Brav-Curtis coefficient has the disadvantage of being greatly influenced bv occasional larcre values which dominate it. The Canberra

Metric on the other hand is a sum of fractions so it does neb become crreatlv influenced bv outstanding "alues. For this reason the Canberra

Metric is the coefficient used in the present work.

There are two further considerations which must be taken into account when emolovincr the Canberra Metric. These are the inclusion of zero values where anv zero value in an entity pair results it: a measure of unity and second.lv the problem of conioint absences, '."here the measure becomes zero, and hence does not affect the fraction part of the measure but decreases the measure bv mcreasmcf 'n'. Bv convention the first is solved bv reolacino zero in any pair of attributes where oniv one is zero- bv a small positive number. A value of one fifth of the smallest value in the data set has been used here, fcilowinci Clifford -i.

Stephenson (1975). The second problem is solved b'-T reolacino the ferr

'n' bv 'n— r', where 'r' is the number of conioint absences (double zero comparisons.',

?. computer program incorporating the above methods was written (with the help of Dr.B.L. Jakeman. formerly of the Bureau of Mineral Resources,

Canberra) to run on the Univac mainframe computer at Wolionoono

University, This program uses the 'crrouo average' classification strateav and allows the employment of anv of the similarity coefficients listed above. 146.

CHAPTER SEVEN

STRUCTURAL AND FLORISTIC VARIATION

IN THE ILLAWARRA RAINFORESTS

7.1 Introduction

Major differences in both the structural and floristic characteris­ tics occur within Australian rainforests and within the rainforests of the Illawarra. Rainforest structural and floristic variation in the

Illawarra has been shown to be significant (eg. Bywater 1978. 1979.1985.

Floyd 1982. and Fuller & Mills 1985), Structural variation has been highlighted as a major feature of rainforest over its range, and has- been used as diagnostic in identifying rainforest types (Webb 1959.1968).

This chapter examines the general characteristics of the rainforests of the Illawarra. for the purposes of clarifying the manor patterns in rainforest occurrence and identifying the principal types of rainforest present. The next chapter describes in more detail the community types identified in the district.

Quantitative measurements of stand structure and floristic charac­ teristics were made at each of the 50 survey sites. These data were examined using numerical analysis and other methods to elucidate the patterns in stand structural differences and stand floristic composi­ tion. The latter was investigated in terms of several levels: the canopy, the understorey, the ground cover and the presence of vine species. 147.

The methodology used for the collection and treatment of data. including numerical analysis, is outlined in Chapter 6 together with the definitions of the characteristics measured.

7.2 Stand Structure

One of the major factors distinguishing rainforest from other forest types is its structural complexity, and most definitions refer to this fact. Stand structural-physiognomic attributes were the basis upon which Webb (1959. 1968) classified Australian rainforests. Similarly, the approach of Specht (1970. 1981) in establishing a general classification of

Australian vegetation formations involved the structural attributes of the vegetation rather than the species they contained. The present work is concerned with describing and analysing the structural-physiognomic patterns present in the Illawarra's rainforests.

A summary of the structural-physiognomic attributes of the survey sites is given in Table 7.1. where data are recorded separately for volcanic and sedimentary soils. There are appreciable differences between sites on volcanic and on sedimentary soils in terms of the number of tree and shrub species present (attributes 1. 4 and 6). the number of vine species present (attribute 9). tree ferns per hectare (attribute 10) and palms per hectare (attribute 11). Sites on volcanic soils, as opposed to those on sedimentary soils, appear to be characterised by higher species diversity, lower numbers of tree ferns and higher numbers of palms. 148.

Table 7 .1 : Summary of Structural-Physiognomic Attributes for Fifty Rainforest Stands in Illawarra. (s - sites on sedimentary soils, v - volcanic soils)

Attribute: Range: Mean:

1. No. Tree Species v 13-37 25.1 s 9-32 17.9 2. Trees/ha v 700 - 2790 1351.1 (THA) s 595 - 1945 1210.7 3. Basal Area/ha (m2) v 39.03 - 105.10 63.91 (BAH) s 24.26 - 112.01 58.00 4. Shrub/Sapling Species v 13-39 26.3 (SSP) s 11-35 21.0 5. Shrub/saplings/ha v 345 - 5644 1793.1 (SSH) s 430 - 3435 1445.3 6. Total Tree _ Shrub Species v 20-48 33.2 (TSSP) s 15-39 24.5 7. Ground Cover (%) v 16.3 - 91.8 51.8 (GC) s 0.0 - 94.13 40.5 8. No. Ground Cover Species v 3-12 7.1 s 0-11 6.7 9. No. Vine Species v 9-20 14.2 (VSP) s 3-17 11.8 10. Tree Ferns/ha v 0-575 44.3 (TF) s 0-545 120.2 11. Palms/ha v 0-345 48.4 (PALM) s 0 - 190 33.2 12. Large Epiphytes/ha v 0 - 190 44.1 (EPI) s 0 - 140 39.3 13. Proportion Trees v 0-13.8 4.8 50cm diameter (%) s 0 - 22.4 5.3 (TR 50) 149.

The main structural-physiognomic attributes of the 50 survey sites are illustrated in Fig. 7.1. where data for sites on volcanic soils, and on sedimentary soils have been segregated. Except for the number of species per site, there is little difference in any attribute among sites on these two broad soil types. Inter-site variation of these attributes is high, as demonstrated by the ranges in the attribute values (Table

7.1). Stem density and mean diameter show particular variation among many of the sites, as illustrated by the data for the sites at Bass

Point and Belmore Falls (Fig. 7.2). These two sites are representative of the extremes in rainforest structural development in the district.

Bass Point is a littoral site, with low canopy, high stem density and small stem size: the Belmore Falls site is located on a level escarpment bench and has remained undisturbed for a considerable period of time.

The latter site has a high basal area per hectare, low stem density and few small trees below the huge specimens of Dendrocnide excelsa and Citronella moorei .

One feature generally thought to be characteristic of rainforest is the presence of epiphytes, often in abundance. Large epiphytes are generally associated with sub-tropical rather than temperate rainforest types, while small fern epiphytes are common, often prolific, in cool temperate types. In Illawarra the wet sites along the escarpments contain the highest number of epiphytes. These stands are sub-tropical/warm temperate in character (MNVFF). such as at Minnamurra Falls Reserve

(Table 7.2). Host tree species with the higher numbers of epiphytes are those with very rough bark (eg. Citronella moorei and Backhousia myrtifolia ), flaky bark (eg. Toona australis and Ehretia acuminata ), or fluted and contorted trunks (eg.Pennantia cunninghamil ). All of these 150,

10 17T 05 05 CO CO CO 00 CN +-o' CN CN sv-ov CO CO CO CO "O i— +-| CJ CD CD c0) c 'cj roc b ro CD T3 Q. if) ro oO w ge-oe COD > •*-• ro _3 CO •c- c c 13 o o _. CD CJ CO CO Q5 Qj SI ,____, CO Mo— 1_ mi_ to

S9JIS #

031-OU

001-06 CN ti 08-0_ ro

05 Q. 09-09 ro CD _. ro ov-oe "ro CO ro DQ 03-01 I I I o sajis #

93-t3

06-08 33-03 E JO, [ O l_ 0Z.-09 05 O 81-91 E ro >_ ro 09-0. 05 05 CL n-zi 05 CO 05 C 05 ro OE-03 0L-8 05

01-0 9-. —1— o o CN S9JIS # S8JIS # 151.

DISTRIBUTION OF STEM DIAMETERS SELECTED SITES

Bass Point

No. Stems per ha : 1690 o Basal Area per ha : 24.3 m^ 80 Mean B.A. per stem : 0.014 m2

601 V) E B CO ro 40 +-• o 20-

nTTm}rmTT^

Belmore Falls

No. Stems per ha : 625 Basal Area per ha : 112.0 m^ 80 Mean B.A. per stem : 0.179 m'

f/5 60- E 05 ro 40- *-• o 20

[rTTTTTTTTlMimmijIimiUI^. o O O o O o o o o o 00 + I CO i in CO i CJ) CO CN i o i I o i o o o o CD o I ro o o o a CN stem diameteIX r (cm) 00 152.

Table 7.2 : Numbers of Large Epiphytes on Rainforest Trees at Minnamurra Falls Reserve. Numbers of trees in brackets.

Asplenium Platycerium Dendrobium Host Tree Species: australasicum bifurcatum speciosum

Citronella moorei 28 (9) 20 (8) 43 (7) Syzygium australe 27 (8) 13 (5) Toona australis 3 (2) 10 (5) Baloghia lucida 54 (14) 8 (7) Pennantia cunninghamii 31 (10) 4 (2) Ehretia acuminata 13 (6) 6 (5) Backhousia myrtifolia 45 (12) 2 (2) Cryptocarya glaucescens 23 (13) 7 (4) Doryphora sassafras 31 (17) 4 (2) Dendrocnide excelsa 3 (2) 1 (1) Ceratopetalum apetalum 20 (11) 5 (5) Diploglottis australis 2 (2) 3 (3) Ficus spp. 5 (4) 1 (1) 1 (D Dead trunks 3 (2) 1 (D Planchonella australis 4 (1) Litsea reticulata 2 (1) Diospyros australis 2 (D Pittosporum undulatum 2 (D Cinnamomum Oliveri 1 (1) Acmena smithii 1 (1) Acacia maidenii 1 (1) Elaeocarpus kirtonii 2 (1) 153.

attributes provide a good substrate upon which epiphytes can hold, which is not provided by smooth-barked trees (eg. Ficus sp.) . It is suggested that one of the reasons explaining why large epiphytes are not as common in the district's warm temperate rainforest is that these stands are dominated by smooth-barked Ceratopetalum apetalum .

Cluster analysis (see Chapter b) of all sites using 11 structural- physiognomic attributes (Appendix 7) revealed four main groups (Figure

7.3).the characteristics of which are listed in Table 7.4, Most attributes were found to be significantly different (difference of means test) between groups (Table 7.3). Those attributes which were significantly different between all groups were the number of tree and shrub species

(TSSP), the number of fern species (FSP), the number of vine species (VSR) and the number of palms per hectare (PALM), all floristic attributes.

The least significant attributes in defining groups were the number of shrubs/saplings per hectare (SSH). basal area per hectare (BAH) and epiphytes per hectare (EPI).

Group A. containing nearly half of the survey sites, contains sites largely on sedimentary soils with forest types that can be termed Simple

Notophyll Fern-Vine Forest (SNVFF). Six of the 8 sites are on volcanic soils (both Permian and Tertiary) in cooler areas in the Kangaroo Valley. the Cambewarra Range and the Woronora Plateau. Group A sites are characterised by their high number of tree ferns per hectare and. compared to the Group B sites, lower number of tree and shrub species. lower number of palms per hectare, lower shrub/sapling density and lower basal area per hectare (Table 7.5), 154,

4-1 en _ &H m tn tn C ,~N *--s ^-^ r_ ft) ^-s ,—, tn tn tn ,-^ tn tn tn --~ c ^-» CO n tn G C C tn C C C II CJ *~*»— * *-^ * *_-- • "*""' o tn *-" cn s G IH £ in C fl •*-' H x ffi H EC *— O — 0 . fa ft co *— ft < c IB HUE ft ft f£ CO H CJ CO ft ft to Si CO CO PC CO ft 0 4J rj CO fa > EH EH W •H C u EH W in pq rd 0e U •H Ccn 4-1 0 •H •H C tn Cn >i •ri X tn * g _; ft 1 4J u 5. < H 0 ft ft rd G e> w * _ 1 * * 4-1 (N tn * * * * * * u tn * * * * * -K * * C II C * * o * * * * * 2 ft tn * ft 4-1 c rf H EC to ft et ft ft < CO CO tn X ft co CO & ft X CO CO X fa w o < EH fa > EH EH fa > EH EH EH .C • m EH W PQ u o rd V _ ft * 4-1 * * * 0 * * * * * * * * * * CD in * * * * o * * U o g * m * g * o l-H X H X S >3 Ul fa ft < ft fa $ 0 ft to H fa PQ EH EH ft u •H d u * 4-1 *, * •H * * * * * C * <* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Cn * CN * * * * * * * * * * * * * •W * * * o * * * * * * o CO II * ft m ft g ft m tn G co ft ft < CO ft ft rJ 2i ft ft CO ft o CO CO CO ft X CO LO CO < Eti CO CO CO ft 3 o u EH fa > EH EH EH fa > ft EH fa > ei EH 0 o o H * C" o 1 V U ft (U •p * G * H *

ro

cn cu PQ H 0 u ,x u rd _> EH 155.

O in m rn rn O o rn i i cn I CN in

tn cu 0u 4H G •H rd in ft m r- >i o 4-> r^ i 4H •rH U CD fa oin^H m <_< m CN m 4H 0 • cn C Q) 0 4-> •rH E3 4J XI rd •H U rH •H 4-1 o 4H 4-> rH •H < cn oo m cn U I rd •H CN rn H PQ rn VD tn i I vo CD E0 oo o u G E>i Cn CN >^ rQ 0 •H TJ tn (1) >i 4-1 X rd ft SH 1 cu H o G rd m U cu 3 m iIn u 4-1 cn U 00 o ft 3 v_> in 3 rH CN o 0 4-1 *1H I rH m <* o rl CO H O CU 4H 0 <3 cn c 0 •uH 4J T3 CO CO Q) 4-1 •rH tn G U rd CO cn CU" PQ ,-% 6 cu 4-1 cn •H ft • • cu CJ tn cu TJ >1 G Cn rd XI 4-1 .. CU -P rd CJ U G •H cn »* CO rd rd rd to u CO •P gcu ft X! 4J l( •H u u cn U CO tn • -rH •H .. 01 0 rcd G in tn cHu 4-1 S3 rd CO XI 0 •H Hu 0 rd G fa CO 0 H •rH rd ,-N to > 0 U to H 4H > EH rd cn • cu cu 0 ft \ rH M •M CO >1 rT C CJ rd CJ •H -O • • EH rd rd rd U 4-J CO cu ft CuO •rH •H •H 0 u 3 rH 3 H 4-1 | 4J •U X 0 •§ •rH U E 4-> 0 fa •H 3 0 CU CU •H 4-s1 IS 4-1 rd u 2 to EH ft ftcu J to a CO EH o 156.

co AlUBIJUJIS .0 • .o

3 JD

O •«•• E o c CJ) o "55 o. CO

(0 c o •o o> tn CO 00 (0(0 CO M-* C/D •>* CN 4-* CD (0 r- 0) -. m o 00 c § •_•ro• O) QC o > o 4-» *•* «f- X CN LL 0) in *«• - o 0) 0) Lf> <0 r- c •o 1MB r- •o o CO 0) CN o o •r- 3 CO 00 *•» CO CO 00 CN O Q cn CM

CN 157.

Group B sites are largely on volcanic soils, with 3 sites on sedimentary soils: 2 of the latter are on coastal escarpment benches and one is at a low altitude in the Hacking River valley. Group B sites are characterised by high species diversity (trees, shrubs and vines). few tree ferns, large numbers of palms per hectare, high shrub/sapling density, and high tree basal area per hectare. The latter reflects the presence of large specimens of Ficus spp. and Dendrocnide excelsa at many sites.

The sites within this largely sub-tropical group are more complex than those in Group A. which are mainly temperate in character. Group B sites are either Complex Notophyll Vine Forest (CNVF) or Mixed Notophyll

Vine-Fern Forest (MNVFF). Some sites on the volcanics of the lower escarpment, where rainfall is high, could be termed CNV(F)F. but these sites are limited in number (eg. site 27 at Minnamurra Falls Reserve).

Group B sites occur at a considerably lower mean altitude compared to Group A sites. The differences between Group A and Group E sites can thus be attributed to soil type and altitude, bothof which were recognised by Webb (1968) as being important in influencing his structural-physiognomic classification.

Sites in Group C occur on all soil types, including two littoral sites, one on sand at Comerong Island and one on a sea cliff of Narrabeen

Group shales. This Group is made up of sites which are. for various reasons, simpler in structure than those in other groups. It includes sites at the inland limit of rainforest (eg. site 11). littoral sites (eg. site 50). sites on dry. rocky latite slopes (eg, site 25) and sites on steep slopes in the gullies of the Woronora Plateau (eg. site 7). Site 158.

O CD • I 1 CO _> m • cn • 1 • 00 o in ^f CT CT CN CO » CN i T3 1 cn O •P CJ CN 4H r^ H m 3 r^ CN !*- CTi •H r~- CM CO fa to I in I m 0o0 in O m i CO r- rH H ^3" in 4H 3 H o "vf o CN 1 CT. in o o o• 1 m o 0 H • • m CD • CD 1 • 1 • 1 • I . 1 i"-- i rd CN H r> —4 co in . rH in r- o c^o ton m rn CJ > U rn H rH H CN rH m rH rr rd •H CT in vD Ho rn H SC rH 00 CT m o in r-i U 1 r-- "* o H in i m CD Ol 1 o 1 > CN rn CN JO rQ rd • in o * 1 <* i . rH 1 CN 1 • 1 in 00 CD •P *. CN O CD H » m H • CN i 00 H r- in CN d 0 X CN O O o rH M ft I • I rn H CN CD m cn HCT • I I U I CN CN 00 m i m . 00 00 CD r- H cu • <-" CN in "tf i • 1 • 1 CD O m cn 4H r- oo CD 00 CT u CN • m CN rH oo •<* 0 3 H r- CN H CT rH in CN O T. in in m tn rH P H in CO U U •H 4-1 •sP CO CO •H H CU .. flj .. cu • • CU .. -P rd CJ rd CJ rd CJ rd CJ rd CJ % C rd CJ rd G rd C rd C rd C U CU rd CU rd CU rd CU rd cu rd CU rd CU rd CU rd CU rd CU rd CO rd rd G g ft g ft g ft g ft g ft g ft g ft g ft g ft g-rft g ft U 0 rd XJ T3 U CU CO tU rd * •P X 3 =8= .Q CO ,_^ cn •^ *— •H 13 CO cu ,-> rl CJ •P rd •p u *—-s ,3 A N •*-^ p P •H ^-N ,_* ^-^s * \ "v. B CO <: to to Or cftu # =tfc *—• cn to >•__• CU H *-* *—• *•_»' Cn CU CU CH w rd •cPu C rd U P 0 ,—s X tn CO X *-s >i •H .3 EH cu 5 •H •cHu cn ^-^ ft ft rd 3 rd in 0 0 X u U G •H rd CU 0 -H • rd to CU U rd ft to U •H Q a u X ftcu ft CU X fa v. «C •P XI V. CO to fa "*, to w B cu ft cn ca cn CU X rH 0 0 H 3 3 3 CU B CP rd ft o 0 0 cu cu U cGu CO H H cn 0 m •8 cu cu CU •H rd rd 4s_ rd U u u EuH EuH fa > EuH ft J to CQ ft EH o o 159.

22 on the Robertson Basalt, which is the highest site (755m) containing rainforest in the district, is also in this group. Although different from each other in many ways, these sites show similarities in terms of their low mean ground cover, high tree densities, limited range of fern species, low numbers of vine species, low numbers of epiphytes, low total basal areas and low average tree diameters.

Group D is a small group of 3 sites on sedimentary soils, all at higher altitudes. The sites are on the upper escarpment, one coastal and two inland (Kangaroo Valley). The sites are fairly simple in structure and are different from all other sites in nearly all characteristics.

These characteristics are Group D's high ground cover value, low tree density, low species diversity, high tree fern numbers (a charactersitic shared with Group A sites), the absence of palms, the high number of epiphytes, the low shrub/sapling density, high basal area and high mean tree diameter. One of these, site 29 at Belmore Falls (Fig. 7.2) is dominated by huge specimens of Dendrocnide excelsa and Citronella moorei with little understorey and a dense ground cover of ferns.

Site 21 is very different to all other sites, as it is a littoral site on sand dune deposits at Bass Point. The stand is similar to the simple sites in Group C. but has a high tree and shrub species diversity and no epiphytes, palms, ferns or ground cover. Tree size is small, basal area is low. and tree density is high (see also Fig. 7.2). 160.

7.3 Species Assemblages 7.3.1 The Canopy

Cluster analysis (Chapter 6) was performed on the three data sets for the canopy species recorded at each site. These data included the number of plants of individual species per hectare, the basal area of individual species per hectare, and the Importance Value (I.V.) of a species at a site (a measure calculated by combining the above values; see Chapter 6). Examination of the results indicated that the use of the Importance Value produced the clearest group differentiation.

Four groups could be identified after clustering of the 50 sites

(Fig. 7.4). the characteristics of which are shown in Table 7,6. The characteristic species of each group (Table 7.7) are significant m defining the groups generated by classification (Table 7,8).

Group A is the largest group, containing 50% of the sites which. with one exception, are on Permian and Triassic sedimentary rocks (16 sites) or on Tertiary volcanics (8 sites). The exception is a latite site at an altitude of 400 metres on the Cambewarra Range. The Group is characterised by sites with a relatively low species diversity and occurrence, occupying higher altitudes.

Group B contains most of the sites on Permian volcanic rocks (9 sites) and some on sedimentary rocks (5 sites). Of the latter. 3 sites are on escarpment benches (sites 10. 19 and 24) and one site is at a lower altitude (site 2): all are more diverse than other sites on sedimentary rocks. Within Group B species diversity and basal area per hectare are high (Table 7.6). 161.

cn m, o o •5. m ' CT "tf 00 CT -ct in rn CN CN ' CN 00 H CD i CD m1 CT 1 i r- 00 r- rn 4-1 • CN VD 4H I CN rn m 00 •H CD 1 . m r» rH in i U CO o m I m 1 m fa H o m CN in m rn O 4H H rn H CO 0 CT rH rn 3 0 •H p rd U •H 4-1 m •H tr CO CT tn . o o o • in «* cn r- H rd tn I cn m i VO CN CT. rH 1 rd rn o l-o~ -Q > in H rn T3 CU CU P 3u rd rd H •P CU H 3 0 CO & CN O E H H 00 imn O H to . r~ r-i H CN 1 ft tu in CO CD I m I • 00 CT r- 00 in 3 (U CN CD o r- CN VD H 1 o 0 H •5. rH 1 rH 1 00 H EH CmN CT rH in in O m (U CT. 4H X in 0 P CO CJ U 0 •H P XI CO (U •H rcdn cnu PQ 4J ,—» tn •• CU .. cu .. CU M _ U to to XI 3 Cn 3 tr 3 Cn 3 Cn rd XI cu cu rd rd 3 rd 3 rd 3 U G p tn to CU r. CU rd CU rd ,_. CU rd rd rd •H u CO g ft to g ft g ft N g ft XI P •• CO •H U cu U to to 3 •H •uH •H rd £ cu • rd 3 CO tn 0 ,3 •p 0 U rd tn XI CU \ rd •H 3 H 0 rd CJ ^-s ft tn X CO •• • H •H rd B to cu v. £ 0 H to CD CH cu > EH 4H Ucu CrUd * 0 r-i cu 0 EH £ H 3 3 rd < • • H EH rd rd rd W 3 u U & CU •H •H •H 0 P cu CU rH 3 X H P E £ P •H n rd rQ 0 ^ •H H P 4-1 •§ £q tn rd 3 0 CU CpU (pU •H H 3 rd u S3 EH ft ft J < S33 PQ EH u to a 162.

10 to /Uueiians • CM • • N o o •

CO 0)

_••3• CO > 0) o CcO +rf fc. 0 a £ •• > *•* _- •tn mmm K c 0) 0

•M •a E c a> 0 ^ CO 73 O •o co c CO CO CO CO tn __ •a CO c ro CO CO (0 *-* JrQo 0) a> tn k. a> o a c 0) 'co Q. QC CO •o >» Ci) c- LL _3 v_> E O o c o o • a •&> CO •o0) o CO «r- mmm D tn CO tn ro Oc o Q 163.

Table 7.7 : Characteristic Species of Groups Generated by Classification of Fifty Rainforest Stands Based on Tree Importance Values. Data: Mean basal area/ha (m2); mean no. stems/ha; no. sites species present. Higher mean values underlined.

Group: A (n=25) B (n=14) C (n=3) D (n=5)

Ceratopetalum apetalum 22.3 340.2 5.0 108.5 1.3 55.0 14.1 403.0 (24) (8) (2) (2) Acmena smithii 5.4 133.4 1.3 19.6 1.8—48.3 4.3 181.0 (24) (8) (3) (4) Doryphora sassafras 8.0 195.4 5.0 200.5 6.8 340.0 0.2 16.0 (25) ~ (12) (3) (1) Cryptocarya glaucescens 2.1 52.4 2.5 51.8 1.8 63.3 1.8 97.0 (20) ~ (9) (3) (2) Polypsma" cunninghamii 1.9 132.2 0.3 37.1 0.2 33.3 0.04 14.0 (24) (10) (2) (1) Schizomeria ovata 1.8 12.0 0.7 6.1 0.8 6.7 0.3 10.0 (15) (3) (1) (2) Diospyros australis 0.2 11.6 0.6 50.0 0.8 48.3 0.8 68.0 (12) (14) (3) (3) Planchonella australis 0.01 1.8 1.0 44.3 0.4 16.7 0.7 40.0 (2) (6) (2) (1) Baloghia lucida 0.3 8.8 1.4 132.5 2.4 243.3 0.06 2.0 (3) (5) (2) (2) Dendrocnide excelsa' 2.7 9.2 15.7 55.3 11.2 26.7 (8) (11) (2) (-) Ficus spp. 0.02 1.6 12.2 38.2 12.3 71.6 1.3 10.0 (6) (13) (3) (2) Pennantia cunninghamii 2.3 35.0 8.8 108.9 4.1 66.7 (14) (14) (3) (-) Toona australis 0.001 0.2 0.9 3.9 3.01 16.7 (1) (6) (3) (-) Streblus brunonianus - - 0.6 73.2 0.2 31.7 0.002 1.0 (-) (10) (3) (1) Brachychiton acerifolius 0.01 0.4 0.4 10.0 0.9 20.0 (2) (10) (2) ' (-) Sloanea australis 1.8 29.0 0.9 15.3 0.5 8.3 (6) (6) (2) (-) Citronella moorei 1.8 4.8 6.4 14.6 7.7 9.2 (14) (13) (3) (-) 164.

10 tn 3 _ tn •H CU 3 3 •H rH •H o HB 3 •H 0 •H in tn in cd U E 4H E 3 cn rd cu p tn rd •H rd 3 3 u o cu cu X H X rd H 4H 3 ft 0 Cn CU rji -H CH 3 3 3 3 3 O 3 3 3 in rH •H 3 •H rd •H •H 0 cn cn C" E •H H 3 •H 3 3 in rd 3 X CT 3 3 .3 3 rd to 3 rH -P 3 0 •P 3 in rd •H A O •P •H O XsI 3 & •P H -H rd M 3 _ tEo 3 rd X tBn rd in H 0 o ft U E o E 3 0 X 0 0 3 0 tn >1 3 tn H A ft 4-> P 3 •P 0 X 3 0 ft >i ft rd CU ft >i u CU >i •8 >i H >i rH rH to U E rd B H H 0 & ft O 3 •P tn o 0 E 0 CU 0 0 rH 3 >1 0 to 3 >i 4-1 4-> X 3 in X H 0 3 X u 3 ft CU 3 3 o •3 >i CU u M >i u 3 o 3 3 H E 3 3 CU H p CU •H U CU 0 o U 3 U U to ft fa ft Q ft < m P rl 0 H P cn tn P 3 3 •H •H CU •H •H H _ o •H tn E 0 SH tn to B 3 3 CH 3 m rd CU 3 3 XI •H cn CU U u A rd CT H rH 4H o 4H 3 CT •H 3 CU cu 4H • 3 3 3 3 •H o o •H tn H •H 0 3 3 X •H o •H tn Cn 3 3 3 cu Q 3 3 3 3 >i V .3 tn 3 3 o 0 CO p O XsI • -PT S H ctn_ PQ P 3 & 3 ft• H •H •P H rd 3 in •H ftA 3 i 0 rd E tn ft -P 0 3 to XI H 0 tn >1 ft >i -9 3 o TS 3 H >i r-i H 3 3 3 •H 3 8 rd 0 H 0 •P CO •H H CU 4H 3 P U ft to ft fa PQ Q •H cu CU 3 g E Cn CH u •H 0 to tu X u p 3 •H CU cn rl cu cu 4H •H 4H O •H CU Q CftO to cu co cu H u 0 PQ U X H EH 3 CJ 3E H •H rd g 165.

Group C is comprised of 3 sites which are characterised by very high species diversity, a feature which separates them from all other sites. The 3 "non-grouped' sites which are separate from Groups A and

B (sites 1, 15 and 27) also have high species diversity, but not as high as Group C. All of these sites occur at the base of the escarpment. with a high rainfall and low altitude and. except for one site, are on volcanic soils. These locations contain the most diverse rainforest stands in the district.

Group D is in some ways a 'non-conformist group' (Clifford, 1976) made up of sites which, except for the littoral sites (21 and 50). have little in common but are grouped together by virtue of their distinctiveness from all other groups. Although they have little in common as far as dominant species are concerned, they are characterised by a low species diversity and low basal area. These features are indicative of their locations at the extreme environmental limits of rainforest.

Site 11 is a dry site at the western limit of rainforest: sites 21, 50 and 3 are exposed coastal sites: and site 9 is a simple shale site.

Group A sites are largely Simple Notophyll Fern-Vine Forest (SNFVF) with a number of Mixed Notophyll Vine-Fern Forest (MNVFF) sites. Group

B comprises Complex Notophyll Vine Forest (CNVF) but also contains a small number of MNVFF sites. Group C sites, together with sites 15 and

27 can be termed Complex Notophyll Vine-Fern Forest (CNVFF), Group D is composed of MNVF. SNFVF and littoral sites.

Groups A and B are characterised by distinctive species groups

(Table 7.7). reflecting their warm temperate and sub-tropical characters, respectively. Group A sites are dominated by Ceratopetalum apetalum. 166.

with other common species being Acmena smithii. Doryphora sassafras.

Cryptocarya glaucescens and Polyosma cunninghamii. Species preferring moister. lower altitude sites are also present : Schizomeria ovata.

Pennantia cunninghamii and Citronella moorei . Sloanea australis is common in a small group of sites on Tertiary volcanics.

The species characterising Group B sites are largely absent or are of only minor significance at Group A sites. The species which characterise

Group B are Dendrocnide excelsa. Ficus spp.. C.moorei Brachychiton acerifolius. Strebius brunonianus. Pennantia cunninghamii. Diospyros australis and D. sassafras . Other species which are significant on the latite soils and are particularly sensitive to altitude, preferring warmer locations, are Planchonella australis. Baloghia lucida and Toona australis «

As previously stated. Group C sites are highly diverse, being at locations which maximise the number of species present: these sites have high nutrient soils, high moisture availability and are at low altitudes

(see Chapter 9). These sites contain species which are present in both

Groups A and B.

The results demonstrate that for canopy species the most important environmental variables influencing the species present and their diversity are soil parent material and altitude. There are major differences in the nutrient status of the soils of the sites within the species groups (Table 7.9). particularly the two large groups A and B.

Soils at Group A sites are significantly lower in most of the nutrients. with mean values ranging from one third to one half of those values for Group B. Thus. Group B soils are characterised by their higher 167.

Table 7.9 : Soil Characteristics of Groups Generated by Classification ' of Fifty Rainforest Stands Based on Tree Importance Values, (Higher mean values underlined)

Group (no. of sites) A (25) B (14) C (3) D (5)

pH Mean: 4.6 5.5 5.5 4.8 Range: 3.5-5.7 4.5-6.2 5.4-5.6 3.7-5.6 K (ppm) Mean: 51.9 128.9 144.1 54.4 Range: 6.8-140.0 40.0-260.0 45.3-260.0 27.8-108.0

NO3 (ppm) Mean: 80.3 127.0 152.7 72.2 Range: 2.0-425.0 27.0-510.0 59.0-205.0 14.0-270.0 P (ppm) Mean: 34.8 71.5 49.3 18.4 Range: 5.0-228.0 12.0-182,0 16.0-102.0 12.0-26.0 Na (ppm) Mean: 36.2 99.6 50.3 85.8 Range: 14.0-146.0 14.0-392.0 26.0-76.0 23.0-148.0 Ca (ppm) Mean: 316.2 1162(1876) 1633.0 278.6 Range: 2-880 312-2400 540-3040 2-640 Mg (ppm) Mean: 270.7 588.7(10000) 490.7 501.8 Range: 33-1350 1200-2880 272-920 32-1680 Mn (ppm) Mean: 25.6 62.7 46.3 7.6 Range: 3-132 3-144 6.5-120 2-15.5 Zn (ppm) Mean: 4.0 3.6 5.3 4.3 Range: 1.0-7.0 1.5-7.0 2.5-7.5 2.0-7.3 Al (ppm) Mean: 105.2 31.7 15.4 51.7 Range: 16.0-423.0 1.0-110.8 4.3-26.2 0.7-156.6 L.O.I. Mean: 17.3 20.0 16.4 12.1 (%wt.) Range: 7.2-36.5 12.7-28.8 12.9-19.8 3.4-15.1 168.

nutrient values, particularly of K. Na. Ca and Mg. Al and Ca are also significant in defining these groups (see Chapter 8),

7.3.2 The Understorey

Data relating to the understorey at each site consist of tallies of individual shrub and sapling species per hectare. Clustering produced

5 groups (Fig. 7.5). the characteristics of which are given in Table 7,10.

Group A sites are characterised by their high altitude, relatively low species numbers and high density. All sites except one (site 22) are on soils of the Narrabeen Group, either in the Woronora Plateau gullies or on the upper slopes of the Kangaroo Valley or coastal escarpments.

The sites are moist and cool. Site 22 is on the Robertson Basalt at

755 metres elevation.

Group B sites (predominantly MNVFF) are mainly on escarpment benches and Tertiary volcanic soils, and represent an intermediate group between

Group A on sedimentary soils (largely SNFVF) and Group C on volcanic soil (largely CNVF). These sites are at similar altitudes to Group A. but temperatures are ameliorated by proximity to the coast (eg. sites

8 and 19) or, alternatively, volcanic soils compensate for the effects of higher altitude (eg. sites 41 and 42). both of which increase species richness. Understorey plant density is low in this group, reflecting the lack of any disturbance at sites which are mostly situated on level topography where wind and fire incursion are rare (eg. the rear of escarpment benches). 169.

AVUB]IUJIS CM o • O

tn CD mwrnm tn CcD Q CJ) *«cM CD _. aCO CO (/) o \ CD _3 3 _. L. J_I CD (0 a c tn 0 CD 73 o CD CD 10 CO atn 00 .c CO oCO r CD CO H- 55 ° CO CO CD 3 h. t_"OM Ho- > c • •_• CO •c MM oc *- > •M 0 »*- k. LL 4) n 0 E c 3C • • •o ••• CO CD £ 3 CO « ___ % a o 170.

m o r^ rH ro cn cn H in • ro • m 00 CM CN CN rs 00 1 i o r* i W cn rn ro m in in (N r\i ID no CD

in o cn m cn O CO CD r*- tn • <. • CN H tu "tf HH(N | tN I VD 1 rn i H r\i o CN rn i 4-1 4H •H fa in CH O (N 0 CN CD o CO «3" ^r • m 1 rN 3 CN i O CN I H i rn i cn 1 0 u r-i in o (N ro r^ m •H CN CO H H 4-1 rn 3 H U •H CH •H tn 10 3 H U • tn m >i tu o tn X •H in H CN CD CD P in • rn • H T3 •H m .H r~ i m i CN i CO 1 CU tn m rn o CN r-{ rH O P c r. in H cn m rd cu IN SH Q CU C Cn cu 3 •H o rH tn ft 3 •cao 0 \ X in Ou in (N B in vD m in r^ CH X r- CN (N 0 to I rn i CD i i m 1 VO o rn VD in tn 3 ^r H H CD m u 0 cn H o •H p T3 cn CU •H tn H rd CU « p U to tn rd XI cu XI .. CU >• cu rH >• tu H G cu 3 Pi C Cn rd 3 cn 3 rd •P to rd 3 3 c 3 rd 3 X P •H 10 0) rd CO cu rd -3 CU rd U to tn u co 0 tf cu S •H S « 10 •H S •H a > CU 0 •H U tn cn rj •H 3 3 -H tn xi cu T3 P 3 3 „~v 3 •H 3 3 •H td CaO H CO U 3 u to EH £ CH CH CH ^ H U \ H CU 0 0 r-- 0 O H 3 3 T) 3 H 3 H U cu H tn > o •H 0 P CU tu H CU cu > E -P •H o X ft >1 SH 4-I P 1 H u 0) -H rH 3 3 3 >i U G CM PI _) I < 2 B EH EH 3 3 •H -H H 4-1 S •H U U o CU CU to EH O, 171.

Group B contains species characteristic of both Groups A and C.

but not as the most prominent species. Group C species absent from

Group A are present in Group B. explaining its stronger link with Group

C in preference to Group A.

Group C is composed of sites on Permian volcanics, except for two

(sites 10 and 3) which are particularly diverse sites on the coastal

escarpment. The sites are at a low altitude and generally exhibit high

species diversity. The Kangaroo Valley sites (44. 45 and 34) are less

diverse but contain characteristic Group C species.

Group D is a small group of sites characterised by high species

diversity and represents another intermediate group between Groups A

and C. Sites are lower in altitude than Groups A and B. The presence

of a number of species absent Group A. but common to Groups B. C and

D. results in Group D's link with Groups B and C rather than Group A.

Group E. the 'non-conformist group', has member sites covering a wide range of soil types and altitudes, and all are characterised by being species-rich and having a high density of understorey plants.

This group includes the littoral sites (sites 21 and 50) and moist, low altitude sites (sites 1. 5 and 27).

The species which characterise each group are given in Table 7.11,

These species were mostly found to be significantly different (difference of meanstest) between the groups obtained through classification (Table 7.12). 172.

Table 7.11 Characteristic Species of Groups Generated by Classification of Fifty Rainforest Stands Based on the Shrub/Sapling Densities. Data: mean no. plants/ha; range; sites species present. Higher mean values underlined.

Group (no. of sites) A (14) B (11) C (12) D (4) E (8)

Tasmannia insipida 484.6 75.9 2.5 77.4 26.3 180-1025 0-405 0-20 5-155 0-145 (14) (10) (3) (4) (4) Polyosma cunninghamii 137.5 47.7 9.5 65.0 231.0 0-525 0-190 0-40 10-175 0-770 (13) (9) (6) (4) (6) Cyathea leichhardtiana 155.4 40.5 151.3 1.9 0-495 0-275 - 15-525 0-15 (11) (5) (4) (2) Ceratopetalum apetalum 160.7 35.9 5.4 107.5 57.5 5-350 0-100 0-35 15-220 0-215 (14) (10) (3) (4) (4) Acmena smithii 172.1 105.0 18.8 90.0 233.1 0-410 5-415 0-300 10-150 50-585 (13) (11) (11) (4) (8) Citriobatus pauciflorus 187.4 249.1 75.4 50.0 564.4 0-1005 0-535 0-335 5-85 0-2635 (10) (10) (10) (4) (6) Claoxylon australe 0.7 48.6 97.5 45.0 51.9 0-5 0-335 0-435 10-115 0-95 (1) (10) (ID (4) (7) Streblus brunonianus 3.2 83.3 1.3 55.0 - 0-20 0-375 0-5 0-200 (3) (ID (1) (5) Cassine australis 6.8 144.6 6.3 161.3 - 0-40 0-710 0-25 0-335 (3) (8) (1) (7) Alectryon subcinereus 5.4 17.3 75.4 13.8 71.8 0-55 0-85 0-300 0-25 0-180 (3) (8) (10) (3) (6) Clerodendrum tomentosum 6.8 44.2 5.0 75.0 - 0-25 0-245 0-15 10-220 (6) (ID (2) (8) Diospyros australis 22.5 31.8 74.6 13.8 169.4 0-165 0-135 15-280 5-35 5-630 (8) (9) (12) (4) (8) Podocarpus elatus 4.5 0.4 5.0 56.3 0-50 0-5 0-20 0-190 (D (1) (1) (5) Livistona australis 15.7 26.8 53.3 23.8 108.8 0-80 0-90 0-275 0-40 0-360 (11) (9) (10) (3) (6) Stenocarpus salingnus 36.4 10.9 1.7 51.3 0-85 0-50 0-15 - 0-345 (13) (8) (2) (4) 173.

Table 7.12 Main Shrub/Sapling Species with Significantly Different Densities Between Groups. (Difference of Means Test), p < 0.05. (see Table 8.11 for specific names)

B

Tasmannia Tasmannia Tasmannia Tasmannia Cyathea Cyathea Claoxylon Cyathea Polyosma Polyosma Stenocarpus Ceratopetalum Ceratopetalum Ceratopetalum Claoxylon Claoxylon Claoxylon Cassine Clerodendrum Cassine Clerodendrum Streblus Clerodendrum Streblus Alectryon Streblus Diospyros Livistona Diospyros Alectryon Alectryon Livistona Livistona Podocarpus Acmena Stenocarpus Citriobatus Citriobatus Polyosma Tasmannia Ceratopetalum Cassine Ceratopetalum C1erodendrum Clerodendrum Cassine Streblus B Clerodendrum Diospyros Streblus Alectryon Diospyros Livistona Alectryon Podocarpus Acmena Acmena Tasmannia Citriobatus Polyosma Tasmannia Ceratopetalum Polyosma Acmena Ceratopetalum Podocarpus Acmena Cassine D Clerodendrum Alectryon 174.

The moist, high altitude sites on sedimentary soils which comprise

Group A are characterised by the species T. insipida. Polyosma cunnin­ ghamii. C. apetalum. A. smithii. S. sallgnus. C pauciflorus and the tree fern C leichhardtiana (Table 7.11). There is also an absence of some species which characterise Groups C and E. for example. £ brunonianus.

C australis and C tomentosum .

Group C is dominated by sites on volcanic soils, and is characterised by species typical of these soils, including S brunonianus. A. subcinereus and D. australis. while C tomentosum and L. australis are typical of low altitude sites.

The species which characterise Groups B and D indicate their status as intermediate between Groups A and C. The 'non-conformist group' E generally has high values for most species which characterise the two major groups (Groups A and C). and is characterised by the high density of individuals, although the constituent sites are very variable.

Similar to the canopy species, the understorey species are influenced by two main environmental variables - altitude and soil nutrient status. Again, two distinct groups can be identified, with intermediate groups, reflecting the continuum of rainforest types along environmental gradients.

Groups determined by the tree Importance Values and shrub/sapling densities are not as similar as might be expected. The groups found on

Permian volcanic soils in each analysis are alike (Group B for tree data and Group C for understorey data) with over-lapping site membership of

9 sites (5t>% of all sites from both crrouos). This result demonstrates 175.

the strong influence which high nutrient soils have over tree and shrub

species distribution. The moist, high altitude sedimentary soil sites.

forming significant groups in both the canopy and understorey analyses

(Group A in each case), have 12 sites (44% ) which are shared (see also

section 7.4).

The differences between the clustering results obtained for the

canopy and understorey data are explained by the significant part played

by species which are strictly shrubs and are absent from the analysis

of the canopy species. These species are T. insipida. C leichhardtiana.

C pauciflora. C australe and C tomentosum . The prominence of these

species on the volcanic soils is not as marked and accounts for the

higher overlap in group membership between the two groups whose sites

are largely on volcanic soils: Group B and Group C for the canopy and

understorey analysis respectively.

7.3.3 Ground Cover

Cluster analysis was performed on the ground cover data obtained

at the 50 survey sites. The data consisted of an estimate of the percent

cover of each species at each site. Four groups can be recognised from the results (Fig. 7.6), the characteristics of which are given in Table 7.13.

The differences in the values of the characteristic species (Table

7.14) was found to be significant in most cases (Table 7.15). 176.

10 AJUBIJUJIS 6 CM

o r^ m r- o tn CN CD 5 3 CN "CO in > CN _ i_ *~ d) o > If) cn 0 o r- o •* 73 in C f 3 o if) o o tn o

r~ o CN c •_•o» CN 0 CD r*> a CN CD to (i_0 CD CO CD rr CQ co a. in tn _. CO •o > co c o CO o co (/) CD CO o •M CJ) ro (0 CO *~ CD +•• o w. cCD 5 M_o> g ok. m c CD r~ 'co co a rM _£ T3 ro CD 00 H- •M CO CO CO il in H- IMES fO 0 CN CO o CD 00 c o • • s • C«•O• "O 5 © •MoM CN CO CN 3 - CO ,CN- tn CO ^ CO 4-* 2 CO 0) Q CN O CJ) *" (0 «r . <" • tt m , O •

co O "d- CO H VO cn O O oo H ro r~- CN 1 H 1 H LO o ro o IN I in p CO tu 0u 4H G •H rd « O . >i in vO o o <* •P m • ^ . cn U m vo ro 1 r- i r» i CO i •mH oo o vo m 00 fn ro 00 cn CH H 0 H c 0 •H 4-1 rd U •H MH ro •H i CO VoO 00 rH CO «* LO in . H CO rd « cn i i cn i tn i r^ i CO 1 H 00 in i cu ,Q 3 rH T) rd Q) > -P rd H H (U CU > G 0 tu CO _> u LT] Xi m CN tn H CO G rH 00 ft ro •Cf CM h I CTl r~ en 1 CO i 3 g0 IN i rH in H 0 H rH H o r^ O u> ro (U o m X H 0 -p CO c u 0 •H p T) CO CD •H CO M rd (U PQ p U CO CO to rd XI cu XI H G 4-1 CU .. .. tu • < rud rd •H CO Ul •• tu •• cu > .. CU Xi P W o CO G tn to C cn O tn U CO • • •H o U rd G cu rd G U rcd C CO 1 •H •H cu rd •H cu rd CU rd cu 0 rcd CO to g « U S « XI g « p O § CO xi CU G •H ^c H rd G ,r—s ft 3 M O Hu •H rd B Ul O ro to rl Ul U CH cu > >O EH MH H O ft H cu O o H c rd 4-1 .. U En rd rd rd H 3 H cu ft CU •H •H •H 0 P CU cu rH 3 •H P E P •H x 0 O •i •H H H He P P ^ u X M 3 0 CU CU cu •H H 9 cu rd U ui EH CM CM hJ <: 2 fH EH s 178.

Group A sites cover a wide range of soil types and are characterised

by high altitude and high rainfall, large numbers of species and a

relatively high percentage ground cover. Group B sites, which are ail

on soils derived from the Narrabeen Group, are at high altitudes but

have lower ground cover values. The latter is related to the location

of these sites on the steep slopes of the upper escarpment below the

cliff line, whereas Group A sites are. in general, on flatter topography

where ground cover is better developed.

Most of the sites in Group C are on volcanic soils, which are

generally at lower altitudes, and percentage ground cover is high.

Group D sites are at low altitudes on a range of soil types and have

low species diversity. Percentage cover is generally much lower than

all other groups (one high value distorts the mean figure). The sites

are generally in locations at the environmental extremes of rainforest

development (eg. very dry sites). Many contain species which are unique

to specific sites and as a result Group D is a Yion-conformist group'.

The species characteristic of Group A (Table 7,14) are those which

are common and widespread, such as Lastreopsis microsora. Microsorium

scandens. Gymnostachys anceps and Pteris umbrosa. those preferring

moister sites, such as Lastreopsis acuminata, and those preferring

higher altitudes, such as Arthropteris becklen . The high percentage

cover for many species at these sites differentiates them from all

other sites.

Group B species are similar to those of Group A: the main difference, related to topography of the sites, is the prominence in Group B of the 179.

Table 7 .14 Characteristic Species of Groups Generated by Classification of Fifty Rainforest Stands Based on Ground Cover Values. Data: mean % cover; range; no. sites species present. Higher mean values underlined.

Group (no. of sites) A (13) B (9) C (14) D (13)

Lastreopsis microsora 29.4% 9.2% 17.8% 14.3% 3.0-68.5 0-32.5 0-52.5 0-73.5 (13) (7) (13) (7) Microsorium scandens 9.3% 3.3% 10.5% 0.2% 0-24.5 0.3-7.4 0.2-35.3 0-2.0 (12) (9) (14) (2) Lastreopsis acuminata 3.4% 1.8% 0.5% - 0.2-5.9 0-11.5 0-4.0 - (13) (5) (4) - Arthropteris beckleri 1.0% 0.1% 0.3% - 0-6.0 0-1.0 0-2.1 - (7) (1) (2) - Gymnostachys anceps 3.7% 0.5% 4.2% 5.6% 0.5-7.7 0-2.5 0-17.5 0-17.0 (13) (3) (12) (8) Pellaea falcata 0.6% 0.01% 0.2% 0.3% 0-1.5 0-0.1 0-2.1 0-2.0 (10) (1) (2) (4) Pteris umbrosa 3.8% 1.3% 4.0% - 0-17.5 0-12.0 0-12.3 - (8) (1) (13) - Blechnum patersonii 1.0% 1.3% - - 0-4.7 0-9.0 - - (6) (6) - - Blechnum cartilagineum 0.9% 2.9% 0.2% 1.7% 0-11.1 1.1-6.1 0-1.5 0-22.0 (1) (9) (4) (3) Blechnum wattsii - 4.2% - 2.2% - 0-22.6 - 0-29.7 - (6) - (1) Arthropteris tenella 2.9% 2.3% 8.7% 2.7% 0-10.6 0-8.7 1.4-40.5 0-21.0 (12) (6) (14) (6) Doodia aspera 0.4% 0.01% 1.8% 0.3% 0-5.2 0-0.1 0-16.1 0-2.1 (2) (1) (7) (2) Adiantum formosum 1.6% - 9.0% 0.5% 0-7.0 - 0.1-26.7 0-6.2 (4) - (14) (1) 180.

Table 7.15 Main Ground Cover Species with Significantly Different Estimated Cover Between Groups (Difference of Means Test), p< 0.05. (see Table 8.14 for full names)

B

L.microsora G.anceps G.anceps G.anceps A.tenella A. tenella A.tenella P.umbrosa P.umbrosa P.umbrosa B.cartilagineum B.cartilagineum B.cartilagineum B.patersonii B.patersonii B.patersonii P.falcata P.falcata P.falcata D.aspera D.aspera D.aspera A.formosum A.formosum A.formosum M. scandens M. scandens L.acuminata L.acuminata L.acuminata B.wattsii A.beckleri A.beckleri A.beckleri

L.microsora L.microsora G.anceps G.anceps A.tenella A.tenella P.umbrosa B.cartilagineum B.cartilagineum B.patersonii B.patersonii M. scandens B D.aspera L.acuminata A.formosum B.wattsii M.scandens L.acuminata B.wattsii

G.anceps A.tenella P.umbrosa B.cartilagineum D.aspera A.formosum L.acuminata 181.

species Blechnum cartilagineum and B. wattsii. and the lesser significance

of a number of species typical of Group A, eg. G. anceps and P. umbrosa.

Group C sites are generally lower in altitude and drier than those

of Groups A and B, the main species difference being the prominence

of Arthropteris tenella. Adiantum formosum and Doodia aspera , These

three, along with G.anceps and P. umbrosa. are typical of the sites on

Permian volcanics.

Group D is made up of sites with quite variable species assemblages

(in Table 7.11 note the low number of sites at which species in this

group are present) and many sites contain only one or two species.

which are sometimes unique to the site.

In summary, the ground cover analysis indicates that moisture

availability, topography and to a lesser extent soil type and altitude.

influence the development and species composition of the ground cover

stratum.

7.3.4 Vine Species

Cluster analysis was performed on the presence/absence data for 36 vine species at the 50 rainforest sites (Fig, 7.7). The characteristics of the 5 groups identified (Table 7.12) indicate that there are significant differences between the groups with regard to altitude, soil nutrient status (indicated as ppm of available Ca) and the number of species present. 182.

O) 10 AIUBIIUJIS T- CO o 6 6 CD *mm* o oCD CN a m (0

CO O CD C • __•

in CO CD CO O CO CN 0c r- (0 3 _a < f r. i O CD 0) O O o 0c) CO CO § CD CO _•

CO Q.

CN 0

CN CO CD 5 CO CO CD o o Tf CO 00 •o 5 CcO 00 4-* ro CO CD 4-* CO O CD 00 k. o CN Ho- CO c CO IT) OC ro >» ro 4-» oo

o CN c CN o •4- MM" CN CO CO CN mWmmo 4- r- • -M * CO O ID CO CO 183.

o o O <. rn r~ "tf H VD rH

% G rd 4-1 Ul P o O to CU oo <* m in in VD i H u in CN I m i VD i i •P 4H •H Pn 4H o 0 m <* o CO 3 m m m 0 CN CN n i CN cn i CN i •H U r- O r- o tn P i r» vD rd in U o •H HH . CO •H to CM tn tn -cHu rd U H CU u ft ,~, o to VD o >1 O o .Q CD o m o C in H H T3 •H m —' •— o 00 CN O CO I VO t r> o CN •P m m rH O o o i rd CH m CO o "tf H 0 rH CN rH CU C CD 1 CU 0 CN e> CcD tn CO ft 3 0 ^ H acu U o u o o CH CcD m <, O rd tn -d 0 -H *-c^ H O rd 3 ^-N rd CU CO H •H rd U ft VD tn £ 0 H to £ to H 4H cu > EH CU » 0 ft \ r-i tu H cu >i & 3 3 rd •_ XI c r< •• U tH rd rd rd H 3 rd •H & CD •H •H •H 0 P r-{ > cu 3 rH P P •H •H 0 •H H H£ e P rd , rH u P U n3 0 CD tu 0) •H H > 0 rQ 2 Ul tH PH CM J «5 rfl 2 rd o EH 184.

in

>-. CN m m m in in TJ< «* Q i CN i CN H H i i 1 H CO H H H H H rH cn H tn xi G rd P CO r- - P II to 3 - 0u O H r- i 1 1 I CN m ro H t- CO <* r~ r^ vo vo in ro CH 3 •H rrt tf >i P IH •H CO Pn H II CH 0 *—c' cn r- rn ^ r- 1 ^r H CO r* 00 CN r» vo c -o vo H r^ H H H H H ! H H H H H H H H in ro 0 cn •H p rd U •H CH •H CO CO rd cn H II U G >i tn .0 cu W i H n CN oo m 1 rH I 1 H ro ro ro CN ro H ro H 1 XI •UH cu P ftcu rd CO H CU CD 3 3 . cu •H P _> > 3 H—-S in tn CH tun II ft 0 CD 3 , 3 *-^ 0 CU ftu <. m ro m •5. CN [ CN in in in in ro -tf H 1 H u KC •5. m ^ 1 W 3 to H 4J 3 m CD H rH 3 •H U H H •H cu 0 H 0 p rrt o T) > O •P 0 rd (3 •P (-! 4-1 O H xi rd u •nH 0 U rH 3 •H rd H 0§ tu 3 G tn 0.i 3 rd A rd tn 'U E •P CRD rd rd rH M 1 tn •H iH fci 0 H m H p 0 to o 3 E r. IH CO X CJ rH •rn C) CH rd CU 0 to to U •P u VH Xi M cu n rd CJ to rrt •P rd ft CU tn rtl ft to in 3 rd 3 >i rH •r-i rd to tu rd •H r> to rrl m H > 3 rd 3 rd •H urti J3 rrl •H rrt •H O rd 0 .3 ft ,C •H rd rd rd ft tn P U •H •H 3 ft 3 CU rrt tn 3 rd rd rd rl 3 ,3 cn rd X •H 10 •H U tn CU 4J 4J CO CD Oi tn B CD CU U H c a 3H CO rd Xs •H ft (I) 3 H 3 0 U 3 •0 U rd cwu XI 0 ft 3 CU 4-1 tn •H to rd U ft rrt to tn to •p •H cn TJ H e CU Hf ) H >i fl)r H H tn cn ft tn •H 10 H H 3 •H r-i 3 u to rrl tu rd 4-) m rrt (l) •H •H •H CU 3 U rd rd rd •H rrt CU £ u U to s S J u CM U o W __ a in UEJ m •3 Pn PU c •H r-« >0 tu 3 rH CN ro in vo oo cn o CN rn in vo co cn H .H ft CN X ft rd to 185.

The patterns identified in vine species distribution and occurrence

are, firstly, that the most diverse sites are those at lower altitudes on

volcanic soils (Group B in Table 7.12): secondly, that the lower nutrient

soil sites on shales at higher altitudes contain the lowest numbers of

species (Group D): and thirdly, that there is a large overlap in species

occurrence between sites and hence between most groups.

A number of vine species groups were identified which are associated

with the site groups generated by cluster analysis (Table 7.13). The

largest of these is a group of 7 species representing a widespread and

common group of species well represented in all groups (species numbers

10 to 16 in Table 7,13). Species which are common at low altitudes,

particularly on volcanic soils (Groups A and B). form a second group.

These are Madura cochinchinensis. Cayratia clematidea. Malaisia scandens.

Marsdenia flavescens, Legnephora moorei and Cissus antarctica . A third

group, Fieldia australis. Parsonsia brownli and Pubus sp.aff.moorei. shows a preference for higher altitudes. Three species which are typical of moist sites, particularly along the escarpments, are Piper novae- holla ndiae. Palmeria scandens and Cissus sterculiifolia .

The main environmental factors influencing the distribution of vine species are, therefore, altitude (see Fig. 9.1 also) and soil nutrient status. These factors are identical to those influencing the canopy and understorey species. 186.

7.4 Conclusions

- Classification of 50 rainforest sites based on structural- physiognomic attributes produced 4 main groups, charac­ terised as follows:

- Group A sites, which are largely Simple Notophyll

Vine-Fern Forests (SNFVF) on sedimentary soils, have high numbers of tree ferns, low species diversity, low numbers of palms, low shrub/sapling densities and low basal area per hectare.

- Group B sites, which are Complex Notophyll Vine Forests

(CNVF) or Mixed Notophyll Vine-Fern Forests (MNVFF). have a high species diversity, low numbers of tree ferns. high numbers of palms, high shrub/sapling density and high basal area per hectare.

- Group C sites, which occur on all soil types, are all simple sites exhibiting low values of almost all attributes except tree and shrub/sapling densities.

- Group D sites, a small group of 3 sites on high altitude sedimentary soils, have low tree density and diversity, low shrub/sapling density, high basal area per hectare, high mean tree diameter, high ground cover values, an absence of palms, a high number of epiphytes and high numbers of tree ferns. 187.

- The 4 structural-physiognomic groups recognised are largely determined by soil type and altitude, although a significant group of simple sites (Group C) was identified.

This group occurred across all soil types, altitudes and forest types.

- Classification of sites based on measurements of the density and basal area of the canopy species produced

4 main groups, characterised as follows:

- Group A sites, at high altitudes on sedimentary and

Tertiary volcanic soils, are largely SNVFF (warm tem­ perate) and are dominated by Ceratopetalum apetalum

- Group B sites, at low altitudes on Permian volcanic or sedimentary soils are CNVF or MNVFF. and are far more diverse than Group A (ie. sub-tropical),

- Group C contains highly diverse sites at the base of the escarpment and all but one are on volcanic soils.

These sites can be termed CNVFF.

- Group D sites are very different in their location and species composition, but all occur at the limits of rainforest occurrence in the district (eg, littoral sites) and are characterised by low species diversity and low basal area per hectare.

- Site groups based on the canopy species are largely determined by soil type and altitude. Locations at low 188.

altitude where soil nutrients and rainfall are maximised support the most diverse stands.

- Classification of sites based on shrub/sapling (understorey) densities produced 4 groups, which are characterised as follows:

- Group A sites, which occur at high altitudes on sedimentary soils, have low species numbers but high densities, and support a distinctive species group.

- Group B and Group D sites, which are intermediate between Groups A and C in terms of their occurrence and the prominent species present.

- Group C sites, largely on Permian volcanic soils, lack many of the species in Group A and have a distinctive group of species which are related to volcanic soils at lower altitudes.

- The site groups based on the understorey species are largely determined by soil type and altitude. There is a distinctive group of understorey species, including the tree ferns, which distinguishes these site groups from those identified using the canopy species.

- Classification of sites based on the estimated per­ centage ground cover of each species produced the following groups: 189.

- Group A sites, which are at higher and moister locations, have a well developed ground cover both in terms of the numbers of species and total ground cover present.

- Group B sites, which are drier than Group A due to their occurrence on steep slopes, have lower total ground cover values and a small group of distinctive species,

- Group C sites, largely on volcanic soils, have well developed ground covers and can be distinguished from other groups by the presence of a small group of species found at lower altitudes on volcanic soils.

- Group D is a small "non-conformist group' with sites containing distinctive species which are often unique to particular sites.

- Analysis of ground cover variation has shown that moisture availability and topography are the main influencing factors, although soil type and altitude also play a part.

- Analysis of the presence/absence data relating to vine species has identified three groups: 1) a widespread and common group of species: 2) species which are common at lower altitudes, particularly on volcanic soils: and ?) a group of species which are found at higher altitudes. 190.

CHAPTER EIGHT

ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS INFLUENCING THE DISTRIBUTION

AND CHARACTER OF THE ILLAWARRA RAINFORESTS

8.1 Introduction

In general terms, the occurrence of rainforest in the Illawarra depends on an adequate rainfall. Within this high rainfall zone other environmental factors determine both the distribution and the type of rainforest. Individual rainforest stand characteristics are dependent upon and vary according to many environmental variables.

Other studies have shown that, on a broad scale, rainforest type is particularly affected by moisture, temperature and soil type, where

"edaphic compensation' can overcome the negative effects of decreasing temperatures upon rainforest floristic diversity, both at higher altitudes and higher latitudes. Webb et al. (1981a). for example, have stated that "the more complex types „Cof rainforestl.become increasingly restricted by edaphic compensation to eutrophic [high nutrient] soils with increasing latitude and increasing altitude. Similarly, the simple cool temperate rainforests dominated by Nothofagus occur as a tew scattered northern outliers only on eutrophic soils in specially cool continually moist topographic positions on mountains." The role of fire in the development of rainforest has also been identified as a rnaior environmental factor (eg. Webb 1970). and is particularly so in southern

New South Wales (Floyd 1982). 191.

The purpose of this chapter is to explore the nature of the rainforest soils, moisture availability, the effects of altitude and the role of fire, examining the way in which each contributes to the distribution and character of rainforest vegetation in the Illawarra,

These and other factors interact in a complex manner to determine both the distribution of rainforest and its floristic composition;no factor operates in isolation (Fig. 8.1).

8.2 Rainforest - Environment Interactions

8.2.1 Soil Fertility

The nutrient status of the soil upon which rainforest stands occur has a major effect on the species composition of the stands, both in

Australia (eg. Webb 1968) and elsewhere (eg, Richards 1981).. The more floristically and structurally diverse stands are found growing on. and can largely be attributed to. the higher nutrient status of these soils

(Webb 1968). However, statements about soil-rainforest type association? must be made with caution, as the relationship is complicated. Some elements, for example, are accumulated by certain plant species and the implications for soil nutrient status of maintaining a relatively stable rainforest community on the same site for an extended period is unknown.

Nevertheless, research presented here, and elsewhere, clearly indicates a strong association between vegetation type and soil type, the latter largely dependent upon parent rock. However, as an environmental variable soil should be considered as co-varying and inter-dependent with other environmental factors. 192.

CD > CD Q +-> (75 CD _. 4O-

• c— •t-i Qc__ 0c) c cE O o CO 1>— CD c cO UoJ cu 1_ _3 0- \ \ CO •r-> o c Uc) r<1> CD o E n c E o o > c _=4-«. L. irn o < __ > c 193.

The problems of defining the interaction between individual plant species, rainforest types and the concentrations of particular elements in the associated soil is a complex biochemical and physiological problem and is not within the scope of this thesis. The investigations into soil nutrient status reported below are in terms of species-nutrient associations. These associations raise numerous questions and form a basis for future research. Detailed autecological studies of individual rainforest plant species are probably required before the complex patterns can be fully understood.

Soil samples from 50 rainforest sites were analysed for the concentration of nine elements ( Al. Ca. P, K. Mg. Mn, NOq. Zn. Na). pH and loss on ignition (see Chapter 6 for methodology). This data set

(Appendix 6) relating to 11 soil variables at 50 sites was subjected to cluster analysis (see Chapter 6) and the resulting dendrogram is shown in Fig. 8.2.

Most of the soil variables measured were significantly different between the groups generated in the analysis (Table 8,1). Group D stands out as the least distinct group, while the two groups characterised by shale and volcanic soils. Groups B and A respectively, are significantly different in all but one variable (see also Table 8,3).

The characteristics of the four distinct groups generated are outlined in Table 8.2 and Table 8.3.

Group A (Fig. 8.2 and Table 8.2) is composed almost entirely of sites on the Permian volcanics. the two exceptions being sites on an escarpment bench (site 24) and on a Tertiary basalt (41). The soils 194.

10 CO /UuBHuns r- o 6 o _l_

CN CN tn 0) CN 4- CN O 3

CO I__HJ o _. r- 4-» CN •*-> CD CN < CD _____ •* • MM ro o co CO o in Q> o CO ,•cM o CO c CO 0 • — • 00 co CD O - tn _J• £ C3 rv co CO X ID CO tn a CO •a n CN

0) CN co E O LO CO a O 4-» wa tn * *" _C o o4-c* CO H- ro CO CO o o il E CO 0 _z CO c in a• • *- •o •_• 4-* ? CD •a CN CO o 0) o CO '55 3CO 0) 0) CO ID (0 4-1 (0 r. O * a CO o CN

CO CO

. ID CN 195.

in 3 *-^ — *~s y—, ~ in ^—* VD cn ^-s cn 3 • —s .—N 10 co —, to CO II 3 tn w H cn tn 3 C to 3 c 3 — c S . 3 3 ^-' ^•^ "*~" *--' •—- **"*' £ H no rd H £j rd Q tf ft aCT OZ .3• ft W a < « p tn CD tH tn c rd OJ S IH 0 QJ * * U CTi * 3 H CO to CO rd * OJ 3 in _3 ft U •X SH II _3 * QJ P 3 * MH G Cn 3 * * * * HH rd U ft * * * * H •H U a a * * * Q •H m CH m O 3 X o• •H a 3 N ft vJ 0) 3 P tn 3 •H X cn •H H P P 0 P c * < i * * * H * * * * * rn n •H CO CN ^^ * 0 G rH tn rd O O 5> 3 CO II 3 « a a * a a a * 3 v^ * * A in ^-^ 3 * * * * , * * * . urd o• PQ * * * * H * * * * H Q) o a * * * * * * * * V o 4H ft H rd K 3 rd S3 C H o• 0 * «c U ft N rH U ft N < J CD U m C o * rd o •X U . •H * * CH o V • • * •H ft C * * H H * * * Cn * * * * • • * * * * •H cn PI * m CO Cn O rd o• o« rd Cn O rd rd in H ass r3 ft r-H u a 53 a a ft o II 3 o 3 * * * * * * * 0 o * * * U i * * * * * * * * * * * t7> * * * * * * •K * * * * * * * * o •K * * * 1 V H KB rd 53 C 3 3 S3 3 rfl rl ft « ft d) < W ft N U N a U P * ft a x N a 3 * H *

00 to cu ft PQ U Q rH D X O rd « H 196.

p in CD vo m I CN I VD I 0u VH C •H rd «

>i -P sH •H &H 4H CTi CN 0 OO CTl CN U m n rH H 3 0 •H P rd •uH

•mH CO tn rd H CN u CQ I H I >1 ,0 •0 CD P rd * H to CD CD 3 •P 3 _c>u X •H ro O in H H H H I i on H ft P H 3 P 0 rtj Uu H •H CH 0 0 to tn 3 0 •uH P TS CO CD •H tn H rd CD « P ^_, in to U tn cn xi cu rd •3 cu .. cu p U 3 P tn .. to •H rd rd •H 0 cn CO J_ P • • tn •H 0 • • u U to tn 3 •H •H .. 0 CD 0 rd 3 cn CO c fc fc P 3 U rd tn T) •*-• *•">» 0 H CO ft t_I t__ CN CH > EH >1 r1 ^ H EH cn § OO >i H 3 3 rd u u H rd rd rd H P (D cu •H •H •H 0 CO rH r-i P P CD •§ •H g fi H •8 3 0 u CU •PH 0 to IcHu ft ftcu in­ En EH a 197.

of the group are characterised by the high level of nearly all the elements analysed (Table 8.3). having average concentrations much higher than those of the other groups from which it is distinctly separated in the dendrogram. This group is equivalent to the Type 3 soils identified by Bywater (1979.1985) which were latite soils supporting a

Complex Rainforest Association. The rainforest stands on these soils are largely Complex Notophyll Vine Forest (CNVF).

All sites in Group B. except one (site 48 on Tertiary basalt), are on Triassic sediments. In most cases, the average concentration of the elements analysed is lower in this group than in any other. The significant exception to this pattern is the very high concentration * of Aluminium (Al) in these soils. The group is largely composed of sites supporting Simple Notophyll Vine-Fern Forest (SNVFF) occurring on the

Narrabeen Group sediments. Group B is similar to the soils below the

Simple Rainforest Association (Type 1) of Bywater (1979). although he did not investigate the presence of Al in his samples, an element which has emerged as a major factor in differentiating the rainforest soil types in the area (see below).

Group C contains sites on the Permian/Triassic sediments of the escarpments (11 sites), one site in the plateau gullies (site 14). one littoral site (50) and the remainder are on the Permian volcanics and

Tertiary volcanics (6 sites), most of which form a small sub-group of

Group C, as illustrated in the dendrogram (sites 46. 26. 27. and 6). The sites are characterised by their low average concentration of most of the elements. This feature combined with a low Al content and high

Calcium (Ca) content, distinguishes the group from Groups A and B. The 198.

VO 00 CO O CN m •—* VD CTl vD vD o , m VD H O ^T m O CN H o rH H o "* m in in i XI Q II ' VD • 1 • H • 00 . i m i o in m i oo r* i r-io QJ 3 m r^ r- O o I m 1 m O • CN . I o in 1 • CN 3 .N -3 XI 3 3 XI CD QJ p SH 00 in rd rd H H O • in r-i in (N QJ 3 U II • 1 • 00 • in • in • i in m CO I cn r» • 1 O 1 cn 1 U H 3 CO r^ H 1 O 1 o • <. vo • • •=. • i ^r vo • cn • H CN d ft o in <- it *. rH m 3 H 0 QJ U 43 O Gi •H H S3 0 4H CO to cn CD X! CN 00 CN 00 00 VO o o m P O 3 rH CN CN CN m r- i H O 3 rd CQ in O CD CN o o VD oo CN (N I •P II l <- • r- cn X in VD CN CN I 00 H H o in •H CO 3 m m cn vD i H I m in CN co m I I <_ I H VO I cn m riHn CN P p CN CN cn CN i m CN O CN O CO 'tf in cn -P H oo o <. 00 VD vo o CO •>* QJ CH it rH . H • CN • CN rH CO in i vo VD IT •H II r-i I in 1 VO 1 CN I r- i in 1 in I in m 3 fc c in o O CO vo r-» 00 CO o • r-i cn m r^ rd CN rH H rH r-> 00 rH iH m H in H i « CH CO rH CN cn H CN 0 H t) 3 C rd 0 •H cn P CD rd 3 U H •H rd CH > •H in to 3 tn p rd rd 3 CD r-i CD H rd 3 3 rd •H U ft « a" o a u SH «c N a P a a 3 S3 o a • m CD ft Hi r-i od X rd • t ft H ,_-v 3 •H E XI 0 rd ft rd H > ft EH O < 199.

sites are largely Mixed Notophyll Vine-Fern Forest (MNVFF) (7 sites) and

SNVFF (8 sites), with a number of Complex Notophyll Vine (Fern) Forest

(CNV(F)F) sites- (3 sites).

Group D is distinct from Group C due to the high average concentration of Magnesium (Mg) and Nitrogen (in the form of NO-}).

All except the littoral site (21) are MNVFF.

Two elements which are significant in differentiating between the groups are Al and Ca. and the concentrations of these elements in the rainforest soils appear to be inversely proportional to one another.

Two major site groups have been identified above: those on soils high in a number of elements, particularly Ca. and those high in Al. but low in many other elements. The concentrations of Al and Ca are clearly significant in differentiating between sub-tropical and warm temperate rainforest stands (Fig. 8.3). A high level of aluminium accumulation in soils below coachwood (Ceratopetalum apetalum) stands has been noted by

Webb et alj. (1969) and Richards (1981) reported that many tropical species have been shown to accumulate aluminium: Fox (1983) recorded higher aluminium concentrations below warm temperate rainforest than below sub-tropical rainforest, her results indicating a negative correlation between the concentrations of Al and Ca. The results reported by Fox

(1983) are not as conclusive as those presented here, her main findings supporting a significant difference in the concentration of Ca and Al in logged and unlogged rainforest sites.

Group B sites are dominated by C apetalum. a species which is known to accumulate Al (Webb 1954). like other members of the family

Cunoniaceae. The high aluminium content of the soils below rainforest 200.

200 300 400 500 Al (ppm) * p<0.0005

a. Relationship between Ceratopetalum apetalum and soil aluminium • Volcanic Soils o Sedimentary Soils

500

400

£ 300 Q. a

200 A

100 ^A _*

AAAA AA i. A A^ _^ A A AAtt<' AA 1000 2000 3000 Ca (ppm)

b. Relationship between soil aluminium and calcium concentrations A Subtropical Rainforest A Warm Temperate Rainforest 201.

dominated by C. apetalum does appear to be related to the presence of this species (Fig. 8.3a). At the same time. C apetalum is less prominent on the higher nutrient volcanic sites. It is suggested that this is due not only to increased competition from other species, but also to the high nutrient content of the soils.

The mechanisms of the plant-soil nutrient relationship described are complex. The relationship between particular plants and certain elements has a long evolutionary history. For example, plant species have evolved which are tolerant of high soil Ca and there are others which are intolerant of even moderate Ca concentrations (Mengel & Kirkby

1978). Similarly, as shown in the present study and elsewhere (eg.Webb

1954), C apetalum is tolerant of high soil Al whereas some plants are susceptible to aluminium toxicity (Mengel E* Kirkby 1978).

In relation to the Illawarra rainforest soils, many plant species are associated with sites exhibiting high Ca concentrations (eg. Baloghia lucida. Ficus spp., Streblus brunonianus and Flanchonella australis ), while stands dominated by C. apetalum are high in Al but low in Ca. the former being accumulated by C apetalum, The absence of some rainforest species at some locations dominated by C apetalum may be due to Al toxicity, a suggestion made by Bywater (1985), although this requires further detailed investigation.

Figs (Ficus sp.) are particularly prominent in sub-tropical rainforest and Webb (1979) has suggested that Ficus rubiginosa is limited in its distribution by its requirements for high soil calcium.

Observation in Illawarra suggests that this species and figs in general 202.

are most abundant on soils with high levels of Ca (ie, the Permian volcanics).

Bywater (1985) demonstrated that there were significant differences in the soil nutrient levels of his rainforest sites compared to adjacent

'wet sclerophyll' forest. This is not surprising as each vegetation type occurred on different geological strata . It would he of more interest to investigate the soils of the same geological strata which supported different vegetation types.

Most vegetation types are found across a broad range of soil types in the district. In general, rainforest occurs on the higher nutrient soils, although limited rainforest development does occur on soils of low nutrient status.

8.2.2 Moisture Availability

Moisture availability affects the distributional limits of rainforest development on a broad scale and, on a local level, it influences species presence and absence and/or abundance.

Rainforest development in the Illawarra is generally restricted to areas with rainfall in excess of about 1200mm per year (Ficr. 2.4).

Many other factors operate to determine rainforest distribution within this zone, so that even though rainfall may be adequate rainforest is restricted in its distribution. Rainforest development in areas with less than 1200 mm annual rainfall is restricted to highly specific 203.

locations, such as deeply incised gullies which remain moist and have some degree of fire protection.

Localised species composition is also influenced by moisture availability.

This influence is especially evident at high and low altitudes and on sites of high and low soil nutrient status. The stand types and individual species which respond to the extremes in moisture availability are dis­ cussed in Chapter 9.

Soil moisture measurements confirm that rainforest stands are generally moister than adjacent, non-rainforest, vegetation. Weekly soil moisture measurements were made during a 42 week period (January to November, 1983) at two locations, one on the coastal escarpment at

Mt Keira (altitude 310m) and the other 2200m further west in the plateau gully of Goondarrin Creek (altitude 400m). Rainfall was recorded at each location during the period and was virtually identical. Soil moisture measurements were taken in rainforest and in adjacent tall eucalypt forest at each location (Fig. 8.4 and Appendix 8), The results show that soil moisture differences between forest types are highly significant

(Table 8,4). At the Mt Keira location measurements were between 14 and

118 percent higher (mean 61.5%) under rainforest than under tall open forest and. at Goondarrin Creek, between 15 and 186 percent higher

(mean 67.1%) under rainforest. Clearly, at the sites studied there was a significant difference is soil moisture between the rainforest and tall eucalypt forest.

Differences in soil moisture between the two rainforest sites were also significant (Table 8.4). Measurements were on average 16.8 percent higher (range -2.7 to +63.4%) at the escarpment rainforest site. This 204.

u Z c h k. 0 cu CO (0 _ •a cuu c 5 UJ O o0 _£ i c t CO (ii 0 _• CO tn 5 CD "_D CD UJ u. Vcu 0 C O < LL. 0 LL. k _. oo a > a a >- >- w CaO v> CO ui > CD o OJ u o £ LU O LU j cr. _ c a u. CO CO CO CO < IT h- cr h- D z u ,- ,2 CN CN H < (fl _) DC Ui 5 J j J 5 < I- > O

u o a. LU

ID <

- 3

- 3

<

tr Q- <

<

CO oo

- <

CJ tu Q CN 00 05

UlUI »M% 205.

Table 8.4 : Significance of Soil Moisture Differences Between Survey Sites in Rainforest and Tall Eucalypt Forest. (Difference of Means Test)

Scout Camp Goondarrin Creek Rainforest Eucalypt Forest Rainforest Eucalypt Forest

Scout Camp

Rainforest

Eucalypt t = 19.35 Forest df = 41 p<0.0005

Goondarrin Ck.

Rainforest t = 9.47 t = 12.66 df = 41 df = 41 p<0.0005 p<0.0005

Eucalypt t = 27.41 t = 6.22 t = 26.8 Forest df = 41 df = 41 df = 41 p<0.0005 p<0.0005 p<0.0005 206.

is due to the more sheltered nature of the escarpment site compared with the plateau gully site.

The higher moisture status of rainforest stands compared with eucalypt forests is related to several factors. Rainforest develops on sites which are generally moister than surrounding areas, mainly because of topographic location (see below), and because the closed canopy of rainforest promotes lower evaporation rates by decreasing the effects of drying winds and sun-light penetration into the understorey,

8.2.3 Altitude

Altitude is one of the major environmental variables influencing the species composition of rainforest stands in Australia and elsewhere.

It is well known that rainforest species diversity decreases with decreasing temperature, both by increasing altitude and latitude. This point has been noted in the Australian work of (Webb et a_L_ 1981b) and in the tropics generally by Richards (1981). Although the phenomenon is undisputed, it is unclear which aspects of temperature actually cause the observed decrease in species diversity. Perhaps it is the mean temperature or the minimum temperature reached, as suggested. for example, by Eyre (1968). If the latter is correct, it remains to be determined how often such low temperatures are required to inhibit the spreading of these species towards higher altitude or latitude.

In terms of the total number of species present (Fig. 8.7) and in the abundance of individual species (Fig. 8.8 and Fig. 8.9), the Illawarra rainforest stands exhibit a strong relationship to altitude. The total 207.

RAINFOREST TREE & SHRUB SPECIES Vs ALTITUDE

• Volcanic Soils O Sedimentary Soils

50-

40-

30- C/J "o Q. 00 *r 20-

10-

200 400 600 800 Altitude (m) • p< 0.0005 •p< 0.005 208.

a. 6

CN E. ro CD Cryptocarya glaucescens Wilkiea huegeliana C/) < E CD V *+-** 10' • X J 400- 8 x x • * 6- • X 4-~-^a_?- • ". 200- • ~—— • X 2- X •—-X» • -_, • # x** *~~^^ * * •___ x •_.*?__ __. X* x .• __«j_<_ xx. 200 400 r 600 800 200 400 600 Altitude (m) Altitude (m)

ro __ ro v. x: (0 E Diospyros australis CO Polyosma cunninghamii to CED =** V) 360- • • • 300- 500- X 240- 400' 300 180- <*^

120- X 200' -_? r = -0.49"*

60- x^\* ••• 100' ^^-* Kx X * ^^^^^ X jfc X jj • x • """x • • * *^_ x x • ^"--_# x* x x 20_ 0„ Jtx»«x-vxx«400 -600 800 200 400 600 Altitude (m) Altitude (m)

*" p < 0.0005 " p < 0.005 * p < 0.01 I

Relationship between a number of canopy species and altitude

• volcanic soils x sedimentary soils

Regression analysis is for all data 209.

8.7

ro

/ JZ Tasmannia insipida Livistona australis tn stem s E cu § # o *-» M <" 800- 400- • 600- • x x x 300- X X 400- * * * * 35* x r__iS;^200- • ^____—— • 200- x ^^C__35'» x „ • __-~^*# * 100- —^ x • •• * *x • "---—__ x J» .____£ x,« n*./. yx*x • • * 7"~•••_>_, * A 200 400 600 800 200 400 600 800 Altitude (m) Altitude (m)

ro ro -C v CO Tree Ferns (all species) Cassine australis E E cu cu •_. co to •x • X 500- 1000- 400' 800- 300' 600- " x "" x . 0^ . 200- + XX « « \^^ 400- 100- 3-^"— 0S_^. . ^5"* . 200- • * • X __*"*"^ v ^ • X* * X v w _^w- fc*w_ X ^--^# * X • K __, —&_^__L%V200 + _A_40x0 x • 600 •80 0 200 400 600 800 Altitude (m) Altitude (m)

*" p < 0.0005 •• p < 0.005 * p< 0.01

Relationship between a number of understorey species and altitude • volcanic soils x sedimentary soils

Regression analysis is for all data 210,

CD "O _3

03

C CO

cb o c: co 2L o CO O £_ 03

CD > O O coo c CO CD O C u CU CD E Q. 'a •a QJ CD CO +-•CO COD c CD CD O CD CO JO c ro CO _o c o O > '•*—' _co CD 0_

J9AOQ % 211.

number of tree and shrub species decreases with increasing altitude, both on soils of volcanic origin, which support more diverse stands at all altitudes, and on soils derived from shales and other rocks.

Rainforest stands at higher altitudes show decreased species diversity because of some individual species response to the associated decreasing temperatures experienced. Most rainforest species show a negative response to increasing altitude (eg. Cryptocarya glaucescens.

Cassine australis, Diospyros australis. hilkiea huegeliana and Livistona australis ). but others exhibit a positive relationship (eg. Tasmannia insipida. Polyosma cunninghamii and the tree ferns). The 'sub-tropical element' of the rainforest flora is particularly responsive to cooler temperatures, as its prominence diminishes, whereas the vcool temperate element' reaches its best development at higher altitudes or at other locations associated with lower temperature (see Chapter 9 for details).

At some sites, a higher nutrient soil can compensate for the effects of altitude and species will be found at higher altitudes than normally would be the case (see Fig. 9.1). Many species are more prominent on soils of volcanic origin, while a few appear not to favour these soils

(eg. Tasmania insipida and the tree ferns).

Ground cover species, the majority of which are ferns, are much less responsive to altitude than are tree and shrub species, although some are more common at one end or the other of the altitudinal gradient.

One species whose abundance tends to be inversely proportional to altitude is Gymnostachys anceps (Fig. 8.10). although on volcanic soils it is prominent at most altitudes. 212.

8.2.4 The Role of Fire

Fire is one of the most significant environmental variables affecting the Australian vegetation (eg. Gill et al. 1981). The effect of fire on a rainforest stand can vary greatly, depending on many factors (see

Fig. 8.1) including weather conditions, the amount of fuel available and the nature of the adjacent topography and vegetation. The interaction of these factors affects the frequency and intensity of fire on a

site. Webb (1970) identified some environmental factors which are most significant in the fire environment: climate, topography, soil type and

the vegetation itself.

Fire is often cited as the agent which halts* the expansion of

rainforest (eg.Cromer & Pryor 1942 and Baur 1968). is largely responsible

for the mixture of sclerophyll and rainforest (eg.Webb 1959. Cremer 1961,

Ridley _ Gardner 1961. and Gilbert 1963), and is responsible for the

maintenance of grassland-rainforest boundaries (eg,Baur 1957. Herbert

1938. and Baur 1968), In some earlier studies, the importance of fire in determining the rainforest-eucalypt boundary and in determining the development of rainforest remained unrecognised (eg.Baur 1954, Burgess

& Johnson 1953. Fraser & Vickery, 1938. and McLuckie & Petrie 1927). or was considered to be of only minor importance (eg.Florence 1964). More recently, however, a considerable amount of literature has accumulated on the interaction of vegetation and fire (eg.Gill et a_L_ 1981). including some investigations of the association between fire frequency and soil fertility, particularly in Tasmania (Jackson 1968 and Bowman a Jackson 1981), 213.

There are few rainforest stands in the Illawarra which do not exhibit some signs of having been burnt, such evidence including the presence of burnt logs and tree trunks and charcoal in soil samples. The only areas .which probably escaped being affected by fire were the major concentrations of rainforest which existed before European settlement

(see Chapter 4) and some of the high altitude gorges, which are very wet and are afforded topographic protection.

Fire incursion into rainforest does not necessarily destroy it.

While fire has the ability to kill rainforest trees at a site, the ability of the site to immediately support rainforest again depends upon a number of factors, including the size of the area burnt, the intensity of the fire, and the types and availability of plants for regeneration.

.In Illawarra. the boundaries between rainforest and eucalypt forest are usually sharp. In some locations, there is an extremely sharp boundary between rainforest and previously cleared lands now dominated by the grass Imperata cylindrica and the fern Pteridium esculent urn.

This boundary is clearly maintained by regular burning by bushfire brigades in the area. There is no rainforest regeneration occurring into this grassland as the edge of the rainforest is composed of larcre trees. However, in other areas where fires have been absent for some time rainforest species have expanded into the grassland and eucalypt forest. Similarly. Unwin, Stocker _ Sanderson (1985) have described the interaction of fire, topography and the abrupt rainforest eucalypt forest boundary in an area in northern Queensland. 214.

In November 1980. during a drought period, a large fire burned much of the vegetation on the plateau to the west of Wollongong. affecting many of the C apetalum CNF(V)F stands. The effect which this fire had on individual stands was variable ranging from a slow, down-slope creep through the leaf litter, only affecting ground ferns, to the destruction of a large number of the rainforest plants, including trees.

Monitoring of a part of one stand which appeared to be almost destroyed by the fire has shown that the rainforest has not been eliminated from the site: most of the rainforest species present before the fire are still present. The rainforest trees C apetalum. Cryptocarya glaucescens and Doryphora sassafras produced epicormic and suckering shoots in response to the burning of most of their aerial parts, and few 'n on -rainforest' species have become well established to date (April

1986). Thus, the effect of fire on rainforest is clearly associated with a number of factors, and it may not eliminate rainforest from a site.

The rainforest stands on the Woronora Plateau, like most of those in southern New South Wales, occur as patches in a highly fire-prone environment. The continued existence of these patches is dependent upon either the exclusion of fire or their survival following fire incursion.

It is suggested here that, fire is an equally important factor to soil and topography in determining the existence of these rainforest patches.

This suggestion is in agreement with the work of Jackson (1968) in

Tasmania. Unwin et al. (1985) in northern Queensland, and Clayton-Greene and Beard (1985) in the north-west of Western Australia.

Floyd (1982) also comments on the fundamental role played by fire by stating that 'south of Batemans Bay. wildfire was seen to be the 215.

major factor determining the distribution of rainforest and whereas on the north coast, aspect and associated soil moisture are important in their own right, in this study area [South Coast] their importance lies more often in their effect on fire behaviour.' The absence of rainforest on the Robertson Basalt west of Robertson (see Chapter 4) and on high nutrient soils elsewhere in the district which receive adequate rainfall, adds support to these suggestions of the importance of fire.

There is little doubt that fire is one of the most important environmental variables affecting the occurrence of rainforest in the

Illawarra. Observations suggest that it may be fundamental to the distribution of rainforest although the role of fire has not been investigated in detail in this study because of the complexity and magnitude of such an investigation and the thesis is more concerned with the rainforest type at a site rather than the factors limiting its expansion.

8.3 Conclusions

- Investigation of soils associated with the district's rainforests has identified four broad groups of soil types:

Group A soils have high concentrations of most of the available nutrients measured, particularly Ca. Mn. K and Na. but are low in Al: Group B soils have a high Al content and lower concentrations of most other nutrients: Group C soils are low in most nutrients except Ca: Group D soils are low in all nutrients except Mg and N03. Group A soils are derived 216.

from volcanic rocks. Groups B and C from sedimentary rocks, and Group D from both volcanic and sedimentary source rocks.

- Forest types are broadly associated with the soil groups identified, that is. Complex Notophyll Vine (CNVF) Forest with

Group A: Simple Notophyll Vine-Fern Forest (SNVFF) with Group

B: and Mixed Notophyll Vine (Fern) Forest (MMV(F)F) with Group

C and Group D:

- The concentrations of the elements Al and Ca are significant in differentiating soil groups and are each associated with different forest types. High concentrations of Al are associated with SNVFF (warm temperate rainforest) dominated by Ceratopetalum. while high concentrations of Ca are associated with Complex Notophyll Vine Forest (CNVF) (sub­ tropical rainforest),

- Rainfall of 1200mm per year limits the distribution of rainforest in the Illawarra. although small areas exist outside this zone in specialised locations. The determining factor for the limits of rainforest development within this rainfall zone are factors such as soil type, topography and fire regime.

- Soil moisture measurements under rainforest and adjacent tall eucalypt forest at two sites have shown significant differences between the two. with an average 61.5 and 67,1 percent higher moisture value under rainforest over a 42 week period. 217.

- Altitude, through its effect on average temperatures. has a major influence on rainforest species "composition and the number of species present, particularly with regard to trees, shrubs and vines. Increasing altitude results in decreasing species diversity. Individual species respond to increasing altitude in various ways, many decreasing in abundance, while a small number increase in abundance.

- Fire is often a threat to the existence of rainforest in the Illawarra district. It is suggested that fire, or rather the absence of intense fire, is fundamental to the continued existence of rainforest in the*district, as it has been shown to be elsewhere in Australia. 218.

CHAPTER NINE

RAINFOREST COMMUNITY TYPES AND THEIR DISTRIBUTION

IN THE ILLAWARRA

9.1 Introduction.

This chapter looks at the development and distribution of the rainforest community types found in the Illawarra district. As previously noted the general distribution of the rainforest lies within a high rainfall belt which receives more than 1200 mm of rainfall per annum ( see Fig. 2.4), Outside this region of high rainfall the occurrence of small patches of rainforest is restricted to topographic niches with low evaporation rates and a high degree of fire protection.

The description of the Illawarra rainforest is based on the division of the district into several broad topographic - geological areas. These broad sub-divisions are : the Woronora Plateau, the escarpments, the

Permian volcanics. littoral sites and the Shoalhaven Gorge, Through the interaction of soil type, altitude and climate each area exhibits distinctive rainforest communities, Bywater (1979.1985) identified 3 broad categories of rainforest near Wollongong but until now there has been no detailed, regional treatment of the distribution and floristic compositionof the Illawarra's rainforests. 219.

9.2 The Woronora Plateau

As described in Chapter 2, the Woronora Plateau is a major physiographic feature of the Illawarra district. The rainforests found on the plateau are associated with three geological-topographic situations

: 1) well sheltered gullies on the Hawkesbury sandstone: 2) the deeper valleys on the underlying Narrabeen Group: and 3) the Tertiary volcanics, at a number of locations.

Excluding remnant areas on the Robertson Basalt, the rainforest patches on the Woronora Plateau are small, with an average area of

7.6 hectares: 65 percent are under 5 hectares in extent (Table 9,1),

Only 4 of the 186 sites identified are larger than 40 hectares, and 20 percent of the total area is contained in three large patches, each more than 95 hectares. Seventeen percent of the rainforest area is within the Hacking River valley in the north while the remainder occurs in the Metropolitan Water Sewerage and Drainage Board water catchments between Bulli and Macquarie Pass.

These rainforest patches cannot be considered to be remnant forests, at least not within recent historical times. They are. instead, naturally restricted in size and distribution by the nature of the terrain and the generally severe fire regime within an area dominated by open eucalypt forest, woodland and heathland vegetation. Fire, which has been an important phenomenon since well before the time of European settlement in Australia, is an important factor in the development and maintenance of these stands (see Section 8.2.4). Indeed, patchy rainforest distribution is characteristic of southern New South Wales. 220.

Table 9.1 : Size Distribution of Rainforest Patches on the Woronora Plateau.

Size Class: No. Sites (%) Total Area (%) unde:r 5 ha 121 (65.1) 231.1 ha (16.3) 5 - 10 25 (13.4) 153.6 (10.8) 10 - 15 16 (8.6) 189.0 (13.3) 15 - 20 5 (2.7) 88.0 (6.2) 20 - 25 6 (3.2) 134.0 (9.5) 25 - 30 5 (2.7) 135.5 (9.6) 30 - 35 1 (0.5) 33.0 (2.3) 35 - 40 3 (1.6) 105.0 (7.4) 40 - 45 45 - 50 50 - 55 55 - 60 1 (0.5) 58.0 (4.1) 60 - 65 65 - 70 70 - 75 75 - 80 80 - 85 85 - 90 90 - 95 95 - 100 3 (1.6) 290.0 (20.5)

Total Rainforest: 186 (100) 1417.2 ha (100) 221.

where the fire environment is more severe than in the north of the state.

A summary of forest structure and floristic attributes of selected rainforest stands on the Woronora Plateau is given in Table 9.2. These stands vary from being dominated by a sub-tropical element at the lowest altitudes to having a considerable cool temperate component at the highest elevations. Although most attributes are constant over this altitudinal range and on the different soil types (ie. operating independently of these factors) the number of tree and shrub species decreases significantly with increasing altitude, a similar pattern to that exhibited elsewhere in New South Wales (eg, Helman 1983). Higher species diversity is apparent within stands occurring on the Tertiary volcanics.

The phenomenon of decreasing species richness with increasing altitude on the Woronora Plateau is illustrated in Fig. 9.1. The number of tree and shrub species and vine species was recorded at

21 sites over the altitudinal range of the Woronora Plateau. These data represent total species counts and are not comparable with data presented elsewhere in this chapter taken from surveyed sites. Analyses of the data show that, on shale soils, the decrease in both tree and shrub species and vinespecies on the Plateau is significant (Fig. 9.1).

A slight anomaly at the lower end of the graph, where higher species diversity occurs at 150 metres, is the result of the inclusion of a few sites in the upper valley. There, sub-tropical rainforest occurs in the shallow gullies on the upper ridges, which are warmer than the lower valleys where less species rich, warm temperate stands occur (Mills 222.

• • CO cu •H CD in CN CU 0 cn m co CN cn fl cu H •rl > CaO

CO • « CU c rd 1 in ^ o m 1 1 m in in o H cu u vX! *. rH CO in H rH rl cu -. m CN cn tH 4-1 CU •H CU TJ rd 4J •• <. H CD C H CO cn CD <- in CTi •^ CD r> r- 1 iH 3 CU ^_, • * « • • i . • • • CU 0 > dP o rH ^ CTi <-• H CD CM r> cn CTi a w 0 *— in <- <* rH cn m CD CM CD CN _t O u E cu 0 u +0J CO o 3 ia cu 0 rd XI •H r- CN O CD ^ in CD r~ CT o CO u p c_ cu S o cn cn cn CN CN H cn cn rH CN cu P ucu X cu s TJ cd EH Ul cao EH 3 H U rH CM X) o l_ CO rd c U cn c • • 0 cn C m o o O m m o o 00 O m rd •H •H rd H x cn in CN CN CD r-i CT O co c p H X Is"- CT cr CU c CN m O •p p C4^ ro CN O CN «. CN o p G rd rd PI o ro •• c rd rd cn CU e_ CN CD ro CD m in CT O rH CU +J rd H m in CD <3* CD ro in in C Ul CQ < I _•P P c CO CO ,, •« H rH rl cu cu CU rd cn O in in O O m m o m o rd rd cu O rH CO (T u r> in CT r\i cr O IS SH Nx ro co ro tN o o E-i cr CN in o •H cn H rH H H I 4-1 rH a cu C rd •H cn COo w o CJ rd cu cn Tj CN CT <. CN CN CN ro OV u H •H r- cu 0) i W o rH O rt CN CO u >i O H o cu o o CU O O O • o H r-» o c rH in •H rd cu CU "fl fa O H o o > in m G m S3 O B ° H r. X m in •H •H in 4-1 in •H rH 0 rH 0 a • 3 0 CU H Xi rH U m H in 0 o P H rH U H rH «_ H •H 0) rd H X ° - fl rH H a cu co rd H m o m 4H P rd CN Q) ^ 3- 5- 0 CU 0 U u - o - U rd in CO CD oo « H 3 o CU T_- 0 H CN rd in H CO - P EH & r0d U CT « CT rd Tj CN CTCN 0 tr- CU H rO H ro cn C c rd rH O r-i Hr d ro cu CN fl o +J 00 C o P 1 EH EH EH +rd * *cn rd CTl (_ EH ui CO CO •*H C CD •H r-i CU ti •X * p • O TJ •s •H 0 H CN CD l> CT CN 00 CN o <. 3 E-i Ul 2 O o O O O CN P CU -H P 4-1 •H H W rd I 223.

*••» 10 o o 1 o 3 (0 co C/l < •Q C/) > O Q> .Q c 3 o J 2 • _c* < < u If] CO cn cd a c. ca LU C/l •o to < cu U _ "5 o CO a a> LU a o to CO D cu O A a c 00 co [h0 2 n CO 0) a o c a o o aLU CO 5 CD D L_ CO LL 0) 2 o * __• o J. < o «- DC o o _ LL z Q ° Is (0 0 cr 0 I LU 0 CO _> 3 o z o ro o o CN

o o

—T" - -r- "T o o o O o saioadsCO 'ONCN 224.

1984a). Four sites with species numbers inconsistent with the general trend (Fig. 9.1) are located on Tertiary volcanics. On these sites the high soil nutrient status has compensated for the species loss resulting from the lower temperatures experienced at higher altitudes.

The rainforest communities associated with the three main geological substrates mentioned above are now dealt with in more detail.

9.2.1 The Narrabeen Group

The major stands of rainforest occur on the plateau where the development of incised valleys has resulted in the exposure of the fine-grained Narrabeen Group sediments below the Hawkesbury Sandstone

(see Chapter 2). The Narrabeen Group occurs from near sea level in the north to over 500 metres in elevation in the south although, due to significant thinning of the Group, its outcropping is far less extensive in the south. These stands of rainforest are generally intact because of their patchiness and occurrence within the infertile sandstone soils. although some stands were logged during the Second World War.Additionally. the area is protected by its inclusion within the Metropolitan Water

Sewerage and Drainage Board's metropolitan catchments. Most stands are dominated by coachwood, Ceratopetalum apetalum. and are warm temperate in character (Mills 1984b). being termed Simple Notophyll Vine Forest by

Bywater (1979).

Figure 9.2 shows a vegetation profile of the upper Cataract Creek valley to the west of Wollongong. and is typical of the pattern of occurrence of the vegetation inthe plateau gullies. The sandstone 225.

to CD

jo ca ca 3 C c a ._ co 3 __ c CD o 3 n CD CJ E QJ •*_- CO ._ co CO a. CO 'co 3 3 CO co .2 co O n CoJ ci_ a. c a; 5 C V- .P O (_ ca o QJ CO 0) +-* '3 O _J o D Q_ CO 1- -1 a°i ca h- 4- CJ < a. u 00 h- H h-

< OC o o DC

>• oLU

< > cr LU > DC h- U < DC < _ CO h- 0) £ co 1c -Q "CD 0) F3 3 < CO 'co '5. E CJ) 3 10 CO 03 to CO U •a 3 3 3 +-> _) c Q. Q. a. n c cc >- O CO CD CD •*- LU o cCJo O n CO O 3 3 3 n -* Q_ O UJ LU LU LU _J J3 m Q. CO CD Q_ UJ UJ UJ UJ _l LU =) co O cu DC c CU CD CD CO ro Q_ CO Q. E CO 3 CD E CO g O co QJ f- a co O. CJ c CO 2 _L _>. CO CU _£ < CJ CO >• LU TO < E | CJ Q O CJ oo to (/) (D _! X < _ o o LU —rL-U < CO < > O IX) c- J LO -_• cn 226.

plateau is dominated by woodlands, while the shales of the valley support rainforest on their floors and. most commonly, on the eastern- facing slope. The areas of the Narrabeen Group which do not support rainforest have tall open eucalypt forest with various dominant species, depending on altitude and location.

The dominant tree species at selected sites on the Narrabeen

Group are shown in Table 9.3, Important features of these data are the greater number of species occurring at lower altitudes, where no one species dominates: the change in species composition with increasing altitude: the change in the abundance of some species with increasing altitude: and the small number of species which are prominent across the whole altitudinal range. The importance of species such as Schizomeria ovata. Cryptocarya glaucescens and Citronella moorei decreases with increasing altitude, while Guioa semiglauca. Alectryon subcinereus and

Livistona australis only occur at lower altitudes. The latter species is present in most rainforest areas but becomes less significant with decreasing average temperatures.

Eucryphia moorei only occurs at higher altitudes, although isolated plants are occasionally found down to 320 metres at Loddon Falls, north­ west of Bulli, where it is at its northern limit of distribution. The species is. however, rare below 500 metres. E moorei dominates the cool temperate rainforests of southern New South Wales and occupies the position held by Mothofagus spp. in the cool temperate rainforests of

Victoria and northern New South Wales.

Most of the rainforest on the Narrabeen Group is dominated by C apetalum which can contribute up to 70 percent of the basal area of 227.

ofi o dP _s LO dP dP *> <*> CO o dP w 00 cn C- O r- rl ro r- rl O III CN H H in w w ,C_I 031 0 4J O in in o o O O II) 01 r_ CTl H CN fi * rn H a n H n ,dP— Bl H II) _x C/l • 01 dP 0 m rn o rl cn in •H O •rl II O I) •rcl _M . r- 01 rl 01 s fi m ID CN ftIII *-.IftD u r~ CO •X> vo r~ a « o ro 0> CN< w rl• w o « H o O O ^f « _ ,_ _, ,_ _. * dp dP do g rl CO 'T n c10 cu in H H JJ 11) +> s w cn •P 01 -' 10 o O n o n m "0 rl * IN 10 r- VO cu ro r- CN •>* JJ r_ 0 M dP H 01 10 dP dP dP m dP dP dP dP dP dP _. ^^ CO IN 10 rl 01 CO cn in H 13 VD H ro _dP> OJ cu o • 01 01 cn m o H o r- O VO CO T VI) •H r> •r| U ~ CO CN *-* II o 1! •o _ 01 H 01 cu — ro iftn .-.ft in K p> H in O in H ID CN * CN ' CN O o O ro O r- H CN ft O CO H H CO -a CI cu cu dP dP dP dP dP dP dP dP dP dP dP dp dP _dP u c Ol in CD CO H ro in m VO o •H r- r- O tr CI) H H r- H O CN r~ rl O rl ov n O H rl H rH fi H rl H H fi H •rl *^ *-' (U ,-. CU id in o O in O in m in in o in O o in e +J in f) -ian in CN rl H ro o> IT ro CN OV ro S o CN H ro 01 a) O 1/1 H rl rl rl M r. H id 3 H ._ dP dP dP dP dP dP dP dP dP dP dP dP dP •M H dP CO in Ol CO VD in VO in VO H ro VO m cn O id OJ r- • 01 O 01 01 r- H H CN ro ro o ro ** O vo VO r- •H CJ •H > •*^ dl H II H ii u u H rl H 01 01 X CJ ~ —^ u ai in iftn CM iftn co0 e CO CN CN o r- •* H CN m H f rn r- ,_ • o m o •n CN Di OV rl O H r- r~ CN o CO CO •cr H N CN ft o r> in w •H O DQ *-* •u X U)

rd B ID U 01 •H 3 U •H II) 01 s01 in CD 5 II) •rl M ri •r| 01 fu rd H 01 0 •H id rl 0 tH id C H JJ rd 3 x HH II) •r| CO in lo fl n 0 IT B 0) H 1 "rl 9 •IS id .. rrl V) id R id JJ B 11) •H in m in •rl m m 3 U 0) u id 0) •rl • rcl U) •_ r B & • • u 0 CV II) U cu B n in H cu n) in u ft OJ in ID 0 0 0) E n U t 0 cn 0) JJ & 0 0 0 id in JB ft •rl cn in 4J JJ 0c N s JJ 0 u cn •rl 0 •H Vft) l_ 0B u cu uOJ •nH a) ft 4uJ H> . •C rl > 0 tr H 3 H & 0 rT . 0 iftn C5 •HH < U CJ CO •ral u rt u< _ 228.

the stands occurring from medium to high altitudes (see Table 9.3). The number of stems of the species at the same sites ranges from 43-58 percent of the total. Even at lower altitudes C. apetalum is prominent on sites where deeply incised valleys, because of the lack of warm aspects. maintain lower temperatures than the adjacent higher gullies containing stands which are more sub-tropical in character. This reversal of the usual trend, where warm temperate types are topographically higher than sub-tropical types, was observed in the upper Hacking River valley area (Mills 1984a). The sub-tropical stands in this area, in contrast to the deeper gullies containing mainly C apetalum . have species such as

Dendrocnide excelsa. Baloghia lucida. Toona australis. Euodia micrococca and the vine species Madura cochinchinensis. Malaisia scandens and

Legnephora moorei , The effect 'of aspect on species composition of stands in this area can be seen by comparing sites 01 and 02 in Table

9.2 and Table 9,3.

The dominant understorey species (saplings and shrubs taller than

0.4 metres and less than 10cm in circumference) for the same sites are listed in Table 9. 4. Tree ferns are also included in these figures. The total number of understorey plants is related to aspect, (warmer and drier vs. wetter and cooler) and light levels, rather than altitude.

Patterns similar to those demonstrated by the tree species are exhibited by the understorey composition of these sites. These trends include decreasing species numbers (diversity) with increaclna altitude, a sifting of species along the altitudinal (temperature) gradient and the lack of any clearly dominant species at the lower altitudes. 229.

fc! B dP Or dP e*> dP dP C»P Or dp cn o0 O ft O r}> rH cn ro cn CD CN O m _ in O CO 00 «. in ro O rH 00 0 cn •*-* •-' QJ C rH ro CN •rl OT 1 1 ft 5 4, cn rd CJ m m m O rn O cn in in U 0 m CN CD r^ in CN cn rH CN Q ft CN rH <. CN H H O «.

dP _° l#> dP dP oV> dP Or Or tn G CN ro rH cn cn in cn ro r*H° ro QJ

o OO O in CN O •tf (N O CO cn u > >_—* rH w ro OJ ^* cu <: ft _ 00 cn O in in in in O in cn ft CN 00 <_ CN <. r^ O ^irn r- CO ft ^ H CN H *-> X) _J w # dP Or riP Or dP rt°rn U Tl O H in CN m c*H G rd CO C) ^f H CN CN H 3 U — ro n m cu H cn r- rd cu O •P 3 0 r-i 0 rd ,G > ,<—> OV? Cfr dP Or or 0\° A" c*° dP dP dP dP CO rl SH B cn ro CO CN CU cu rH O ro r- O O CD ftrG rd O co CN CN O H ro • -H cn tl H CO -H _ w H CN r» u Q) X U H CD •rl ^- •P m in in in m O O O in in O ~ ft u xi rd cn ro ro cu CU H rH rH r- CO ft • ft fc CN O Ul 3 CN CD rd CN (N H cn cu O G +J •H rd H H ft ft rd oV dP dP C*° dP OP c*° dP dP or dP tn co rd r*l in cn cn ro in CN m CD O QJ \ U (1) • •H X 0 _ cn ro 00 co ro vo «. O SH H H QJ s § •—' ft X! U u CO CO 0 rd E m O o O m O o cn o o o in O H O CD in ro H cn ro m m CN H CN CO cn G s 0 >:. CN CN -y H •rl v pq w ro no CD rd ft H B 30 O MH >H 0 _) >i G CO in U N u a) •rl rd __ G CU -P tn cd •P SH rd rd r-i U • E B CD 0 fi rd 0 a cn QJ rd rd u •H QJ cn CD CO rd rH 0 X SH O ft o B 0 G rd G (U >1 X 0 >I •P rd 0 O tn X G QJ ft CD •H rd •H X o •rl ft cn G •P 4-) 0 ft rd X Ul r-i CU 4J cn 0 r« 0 c SH cn •H CD rd ft >i r*1 B •p X •P H tn •H H rd id •P 0 > fc u >i rH SH tn rd u rd 3 •rl H H •rl •rl •rl CJ i rd •H

One group of species is restricted to low altitude where the stands are sub-tropical in character. These species are Cassine australis.

Guioa semiglauca. f/iikiea huegeliana and Planchonella australis . A second group is most prominent at higher altitudes and includes Cyathea leichhardtiana. Tasmannia insipida and Polyosma cunninghamii The common tree species at all altitudes are well represented at all sites : Acmena smithii. Ceratopetalum apetalum. Doryphora sassafras and to a lesser extent Cryptocarya glaucescens . .

. The presence of ground cover species, consisting of herbs and ferns, was estimated at each site surveyed and the results relating to selected sites are shown in Table 9.5. The ground stratum is dominated by ferns, many of which remained undetected during the sampling procedure as these plants tend to be localised to particular areas, such as along water courses, which were avoided in the sampling of sites. There is considerable variation in ground cover between the sites in Table

9.5. Topography is a significant factor in determining the development of ground cover communities, although some species are more prominent at lower altitudes eg. Gymnostachys anceps and Lastreopsis microsora

. while Blechnum wattsii and Arthropteris beckleri are only found at higher altitudes.

Slender vines, as opposed to woody lianas, are prominent in the stands and their response to altitude is not as marked as that of the tree and shrub species (see Fig, 9,1) , Most vine species are widespread, although some species are responsive to changes in soil type and altitude (see Chapter 8), 231.

B .—N 0 B 0 O ft o m tn *—• G •H cn 3= X rd u SH 0 cn ft ft (N 3 a 0 O SH <- U G QJ CD XI G rd SH O SH > rd S rl _i O CD CD m 00 Q) O • •» CD CN CN CO ft H cn XI ft *. CN G rd P W t_ CD P U E CU H o Q) H CJ. •P ro in ro SH O — • • co 0 rd CH m cn SH X H CO rd QJ QJ •H P QJ 0 rd SH QJ U U ft ^_. CQ . o •_ SH cu B QJ G SH o > •H id 0 H U U Xi o cu CD ro ro in r~ H ro rH CO T5 Tl U m G G T3 rd ro CN o O O ro O O » 3 3 QJ H o cn 0 ro o U CO ft ft •5. _> CD CM 3 SH H o 0 rd 4H > SH SH CD QJ X > rG 0 CU •mH CU u SH OJ *—a* 00 cn u E o rd 00 CN O o <. P • 0 o ro G 3 ft H m Q) rd U CU rH H P O QJ rd ft H ft B Xi QJ rd E 3 P SH rd 3 rd id 0 U OJ cn rd •P •H E G tn 0 G G r-i •r| H •rl 0 ft tn •r) H •rH rd P U QJ 0 cn tn tc_u QJ G G O CO 0 u u fi id G C 0 •H 14H w & G CD H rd QJ tn •H rd •rul xi •H U •P SH rd E E G •P tn cu tn H CO rd SH tn •P 0 3 H >i tn U rd B •H rd u CO CO A -H tn CJ 3 SH ft x u CD QJ cu in u CO •rl CU (j2 rd rQ •rl •rl • rd ft rd P SH •p E 3 rd CJ u cn tn •P 0 •H 3 0 ft 3 co CU OJ cu CO cu SH fi CO 0 C cn •H H ft ft cu 0 SH CU ,G 0 SH rG •rl co 4H Ul Ul r-i •H c -P U rl E u o I U E CO r-i CD o 5 CD CD ft B r-i •8 >i id rd H •r| H •P r-i 0 QJ 0 3 EH _> J ft ft 2 £ m ft < s ft CD •H Ul SH G P CD co H rd ft CO <: 232.

9.2.2 The Tertiary Volcanics

Soils derived from Tertiary volcanics are not extensive on the plateau . only being of any real significance on the Robertson Plateau where the Robertson Basalt occurs. Elsewhere, volcanic exposures occupy only a small fraction of the plateau surface area (see Chapter 2) .

The altitudinal range of these soils is from 300 metres to 800 metres,

The rainforest stands developed on these soils are very different to the adjacent rainforests supported by shale soils, both in terms of floristic composition and structural characteristics.

Rainforest stands on volcanic soils are more species-rich in terms of tree, shrub and vine species than rainforest on shale soils at a corresponding altitude (see Fig. 9.1), The canopy species, unlike the adjacent Ceratopetalum apetalum dominated forests, are more variable in species composition.

The main tree species of the selected sites on the volcanics supporting rainforest on the Woronora Plateau are listed in Table 9,6.

C apetalum is prominent in these stands, but is not as dominant as it is elsewhere on the plateau. The information in Table 9.5 can be compared with the data relating to shale sites in Table 9,3: the numbers of tree species contributing to the canopy are considerably higher on volcanic soil sites, at similar altitudes. With the exception of the high altitude Robertson Basalt (over 700 metres) the stands contain a prominent sub-tropical species element. This includes species such as

Litsea reticulata, Baloghia lucida, Diospyros australis and. to a lesser extent. Livistona australis and Dendrocnide excelsa . These and manv 233.

Or dP dP dP Or dP cn CN IN in dP O CO CD CO CN O mE fc ro in CD r^ P m in m O O o m *-* CO rH O in m cn CN CN > * in rH in ft • 2 Or cAO dP Or dP dP co ro CO CO ro in dP G ^_. IN CD • -H O CJ CN CN CD m ro CO o r> U E CN ro o •p H w OJ SH • ft QJ ro in CN CO X i< CO 0 0 . CD ro 00 in to H CN o o >1 H SH ^-s, EQJ rd P O m in in o in in m O in in m •H E o m o O CO ro cn CD CD co CN H P CN CN in H co SH <•=. * ro ro CU "--' H X dP Or dP dP dP dP dP Or c#> o\° c*° CO _ CN rH CN CTl CO dP 3 O m in CN cn o CD CO rd ,—. •H CN 00 CD TJ CI) CN ro _) U o G xi E rH rd -__* OJ o p 0u ft W rj • CD CD cn CD CO cn CN CD cn CD cn CO CN < cn T3 CN • m CN H o O CN in o o QJ H ft m P H CO U QJ Or Or dP 1*° dP dp o\o dP 0\° H CO CD 00 "-1 m ro co cn in Or CD o CO E m CO CN CN o o CO o o o SH o •~-r CN rH 0 <- CED H ip *—' V O O m m in in in O o in o CO H CN ro ro oo ro [> ro cn » >H o CO rH * H CN CN 0) r-i H •H 3 U U or dP dP dP Or dP dP Or OJ in ro in ro H O CN en CN CO ro CO cn ft ^-, CO ,—% CD o CN •rj< Ul • tn ro ro cn o r» ro cn •rl o xi C CJ CU QJ 3 *—E' H w on CD CO 0) G C) m ft H •rl >H • CN ro m ro cn in in co cn H r-i ft, o O CD CO U ro * O o O in O ro o ro cn G CD rH ft rH •H T! ro rd G S 3 OP A" Or Or dP dP o\° di" dP dP dP dp O in O m O in o vO in dP K CO o o o CU QJ B CN CN in H cn SH 3 CJ m CN o rd H 00 fc P rd ro QJ U > ^-^ •P O in O in o o cn o o in m in Q) o CO CN H H H CN CN CN in H cn cn X SH W H in CN CD r- * IN cn U A CD tn TJ ft •H rd dP di» dP dP dP dP Or dP dP C*P tn 0 cn CN CN 00 oo cn cn cu dP •»—tn* m in ft •—* B N O «. CD CD • -H o QJ E CN H <* U •cpu • SH w Q) o Ul 3 •rl VD ft rH rd ft • O in O rH CD CTi in CO CD CD Xi CD rt CcNn G P -J • H o O CN o ro ro CO CN H ro rd rd ft m r-i o rd ft CD tn rl id rd G -rH E rt rl SH 0) E •rl 3 •r) 0 •rl 3 CJ 3 E rH •rl H G •rl CD cn tn •P id rd E tn rd 0 cn G •H cu rd X 4-> rd rd CO SH tn rd QJ rd rd 0 H o r-i tn 0) 43 rH rd 0 •H •P -p •P G SH rd 3 3 G ft tn m ft £ H rd rd •rH rd •rl U SH cd T) •rl rd G rd id r-i XI rd > SH •rl •H •P r-i G G •rl CO SH 3 •rl 1? O 3 •H in tn 3 G E C CO tn P U U .fi rd E rl 3 3 3 c rd Q) tn •rl 3 •P rd r-i id •P rd rd E u rH 3 CO •rl cn 3 •P r-H •H >i •H >i p rd O U QJ SH SH •P CD rd QJ tn U rd SH fi tn rd rd QJ •rl • SH id CD •rl m rri O •rl OJ rd SH U o rd r> ft cn CO rd -H 0 E •p U SH O ft -p ft fa O CD QJ QJ rd £ 0 O rd 0 rrl >t O tn G O tn rfi CO ft CD •H QJ N 4-> G ft 4-> 0 rd -P O ft G tn H E S4 Ul H U rd cn 0 n •rl 0 ft fl) tn ft •P G rd >• >l CD CD 0 +J H H 43 ft 0 >H -P C SH H R •rl u fi •s ft H •r) rd K*i 3 & O •H SH CD CD O O W •-4 ft U3 CoO W U Q U ft ft U ft ft P EH cn

other species found on the volcanic soil are generally absent or are of minor importance on Narrabeen Group soils.

Remnants of the submontane rainforest (Webb 1978) on the Robertson

Basalt contain some sub-tropical elements, such as Pennantia cunninghamii and Livistona australis In the past, other species probably occurred in the stands before extensive clearing opened the remaining forests to colder temperatures and frosts. For example, historical evidence suggests that the cabbage palm was plentiful at the time of settlement. but it is now present in very small numbers and is not regenerating in that area. Cool temperate related species are also present: Elaeocarpus holopetalus. Eucryphia moorei. Quintinia sieberi and Olearia argophylla

The dominant species of the understorey are listed in Table 9.7 which shows that patterns similar to those relating to the tree species are exhibited by the understorey. Again, except the Robertson Basalt site, the understorey is species rich and the main species reflect the dominant tree species at each site. The number of understorey species in these stands is higher than those on the shale soils (see Table 9.3).

The most prominent shrubs are Claoxylon australe. Citriobatus pauciflorus and Tasmannia insipida . Guioa semiglauca and Cassine australis. as well as the tree species Baloghia lucida and Litsea reticulata, in addition to many other species recorded on the Cordeaux volcanics (altitude above 400 metres), are generally restricted to the coastal volcanics. As suggested above, the higher nutrient soils there have compensated for the effects of reduced temperatures which would normally have excluded these species from stands at this altitude. 235.

E m dP OP dP dP dP OP dP dP CO .— CO in CD O ro CN ro <. r- <- QJ dP QJ > •H O •rl rH H CN o ro rH rH CO U O CJ c *•—• CN rH QJ Q) ^r *—' —' -— wH H 0 '"-' •~" »—' ft *-< ft to in m in in cn cn tn to to o in in P CN in 00 r^ CN CN r7 rd •H P P (D O OP OP dP Or OP dP H dP dP OP OP OP CO r—> CO CN m cn cn vo 00 CN ro cn H cu OP cu *• » •H O •r| in ro *. CN CD ro CN -tf O O CO I -* I -* rH CD Ho QJ T) X *— ft —' ft G 3 CO CO rd O O in rd m m m o in in o o O in P cn 00 cn CN cn cn 00 in CO QJ CN r-i ro CN r- >. 1 CD in H in CN cn cn i-» CN r-i 0) dP CD id o . •H o •H P cn ro H CO in co CN cn u O CJ 3 o Q) QuJ I ^ H CD H ,_> O •-' I •—- ft ^^ ft X • CO CO Xi co in in in QJ m o o o o m o o o o P tn ro cn H *_ CD CD G r- ro ro m ro 00 CD CN ro CN ro ft•r l fi rH —' CoN •—' r-i 3 CO P CD OJ 0 •rl Tl >H G QuJ 3 ft CO CO CU E tn 3 G H o •rl rd 00 r-i > OP OP OP OP OP OP OP dP OP OP OP dP dP Or dP CO r_. co ft ro cn CO CD CO CN CD CO in CO cn O cn in O QJ OP QJ rd SH W • •H o •H to CD r> m o CN O rH O H CD H <. CO cn o CN m CJ CJ \ X ro H OJ roH QJ X tn •O —' ft *-^ ft p •rl rd CO CO H ft m o in o O O in in in o in in in o O rG 0 cn CN CN H CN CN oo orH CN H CO CO H O 00 H H CN H CO CN ft m H G . OJ •H 3 P rd rd •rl QJ E P ft HH id CO 0 H O ft >N CO tn CJ rd G rd rd G SH QJ G SH CO 3E •H QJ QJ 0 U rd 3 0s 3 r-i •H •rl H C tn •H CD tn rH QJ rd CO E to •rH rd & 0 CD CD •P C •r| CP p •P rd rd rd •H tn P CD P C) r-i TJ 0 rd H •rl QJ CD P XI rfi rH CD •P SH 0 3 rd P P. C rd O C ft cp •H tn rd -p tn rd ft 5 cd P id O •rl P 3 •rl rd rd ft C p •r| 3 rd O H •P rfi •rl P •P rd •rl U tn •H •H •p id rd Xi 3 tn tn rG E 3 tn ft •rl rQ E tn to to •rl rd to 3 U rd 3 .fi 3 3 rd fi c 3 As G U rH cu rd rd •rl rd rH rd to •P tn rH in •r) 3c id •p O 3 tr tn CU •rl rd u P r-i •p •H cu & fi r-i & rrt CO 5 c •p rd rd rd cn X) U rd 0 rd •rl 0 rd CEO 0 CU P •H rd C O G rd OEJ •p cn U H rd U 4-> P ,Q >1 ft 0 C fi 0 o QJ •rl CO QJ u 0 >i CU 0 rd >H 0 id p 0 A C CO -P O 13 ft tu 4J •p •rl 4-> x: id CD X! A E ft C -P ft rd 0 in H O tn CO H QJ ft 0 •P ft 0 tn SH CD C) rd >i E >i •rl 9H QJ 0 O ft P >i rd rd ft 0 •p QJ P P tn r-i > rd H •rl p CO •Q >H E •r| •rl H >i t7 3 •H •H CJ H CD 0 rd 0 H rd 3 QJ rd U U U V ft Q U < < U Q EH ft •J C1O, ft ft O < EH CO rC P O 236.

It is of interest that saplings of the species Sloanea australis and Eucryphia moorei are absent or rare in the stands in which they are prominent as canopy species, site 6 for the former and sites on the higher altitude shales for the latter. Perhaps significantly, both species reproduce vegetatively by suckering from the base of the trunk

(see discussion of E. moorei by Johnson & Lacey 1983): in the case of S. australis. reproduction also takes place by 'stilting', where branches form roots on touching the ground and new trees are produced (pers.obs..

Site 6. Table 9.6) .

The estimated percentage cover of species in the ground stratum for the sites on the volcanic soils is shown in Table 9.8, The most common species on these sites are Pteris umbrosa. Gymnostachys anceps.

Microsorium scandens and Lastreopsis microsora, species which are less prominent on the shale soils and are often absent except at lower altitudes (see Table 9.4), Both the number of species and percentage cover tend to be higher on volcanic soils although, again, the distribution of the ground cover species is mainly controlled by soil moisture and topography.

Vine species recorded at sites on the volcanic soils are those which are found at lower altitudes on shale soils, a similar situation to the occurrence of tree, shrub and ground cover species discussed above. Epiphytes, mainly the species Asplenium australasicum. are more common in the stands on these soils, probably because of the roughness of the bark of the trees there in contrast to the smooth-barked C apetalum which dominates the Narrabeen Group stands. 237.

E m 00 r*» o o CN in ro CN in O in m CN CD CN

CO XI G rd P CO Xi CD E -P o in in 00 in H » o • m I cn H • rH• • • <* o H ro CD co QJ ro CO CN in P 0 ip CO QJ •H U QJ ft CO E P o o in CN in in tu • > o ro CN O CN o 0 in oo u cn oo -d 3 G rd 3 QJ 0 P p rd r-i o ft ip 0 rd P p 0 E C c>u 0 o r» m CN O 0 p CO 1. 0 0. 5 oo ^r in u p ro 3= 15. 5 Q) CO tn _ O rd to •P o G •H QJ G 0 rd P U QJ H ft 0 > XI QJ >i P P rd rd rd rd •H in P P E •H •rl G 0 rd •H P G CD CO G QJ P P 0 XI CO QJ 0 •rl G CO G ft EH P E cu p rd u CD u 3 •P rd P •rl tn P P tn E _ •H QJ tn CO ft CD QJ 00 rd E cn rd p •H •H H Eft 3 to QJ CO u . u cn < 3 •H •H I P rd QJ QJ •rl CO to ft rd ft ft CD G A P ft ft P 0 •H CO CO H CD U G 0 0 p XI • •P QJ 0 rd rM. •8 •H r-i CO cu X O r-i cu •rl O 0 CO p P < 2 m o p ft Q p P p p < CO CO o rd rd •H rH s 238.

9.2.3 The Hawkesbury Sandstone

Little rainforest vegetation occurs on soils derived solely from the Hawkesbury Sandstone. Rainforest which does occur on these soils is restricted to moist sandstone gullies where the soils are deeper. organic material has accumulated and fire is more likely to be excluded.

These occurrences range from sea-level to the highest parts of the plateau at about 700 metres. Along some of the more protected gorges outside the general limits of rainforest occurrence, a number of the rainforest species tolerant of the drier conditions grow, including

Ceratopetalum apetalum. Notelaea spp. and Callicoma serratifolia ,

The floristic composition of the stands on the sandstone clearly reflects, as on other soil types, an altitudinal gradient. Important characteristics of these stands are their simple structure, low species diversity and the presence of sclerophyll species. Table 9.9 shows the occurrence of the rainforest tree and shrub species at 4 sites on the Hawkesbury Sandstone. The altitudinal sifting of species is apparent, as well as the low species diversity of these sandstone sites compared to those on the adjacent Narrabeen Shales. On sandstone sites species diversity is similar at all altitudes, although species composition changes in relation to altitudinal sifting (compare Table 9.8 and Table 9.2). The sandstone soils are of lower nutrient status than the shales, and sites a and c (Table 9.9) are at the limit of rainforest determined by rainfall. Low rainfall is particularly restrictive of the development of the understorey species.

Table 9.10 shows the occurrence of the understorey species Cincludina ground covers and epiphytes) for the selected sites. These species. 239.

Table 9.9 : Tree & Shrub Species in Rainforest Stands on Hawkesbury Sandstone, Woronora Plateau. (3 = common; 2 = uncommon; 1 = rare)

Site (Alt.): a .Cabbage b.Frews c.Little d.Drawing Tree Basin Gully River Room Rocks Species: (10m;) (160m) (320m) (540m)

Glochidion 'ferdinandi 3 Schizomeria ovata 2 Eupomatia laurina 3 Notelaea longifolia 3 Syzygium oleosum 2 Omalanthus populifolius 1 Ficus rubiginosa 1 Endiandra sieberi 1 Elaeocarpus reticulatus 1 1 1 Livistona australis 3 1 Pittosporum revolutum 1 2 Rapanea variabilis 1 1 Pittosporum undulatum 2 1 1 3 Acmena smithii 3 3 Synoum glandulosum 3 1 Lomatia myricoides 3 Callicoma serratifolia 2 Tristania neriifolia 2 Tristaniopsis laurina 3 2 Ceratopetalum apetalum 3 3 1 Backhousia myrtifolia 2 Citriobatus pauciflorus 2 Notelaea venosa 3 3 Tristaniopsis collina 2 2 Rapanea howittiana 1 3 Tasmannia insipida 3 2 Quintinia sieberi 1 2 Polyosma cunninghamii 3 Cryptocarya glaucescens 3 Doryphora sassafras 3 Coprosma quadrifida 3 Eucryphia moorei 1

Total Species Numbers: 15 14 14 240.

among which epiphytic ferns are prominent, are responsive to the moisture status of the sites. The high altitude sites and. to a lesser degree, low altitude sites where moisture availability is higher, have a high percentage cover of ferns and mosses as well as a diverse species composition. At higher sites around the edge of the Robertson

Plateau (eg.the Barren Grounds area) ferns and mosses cover rocks, tree trunks and decomposing timber and. as a structural feature, resemble the fern-moss forests of Webb (1968). Species largely restricted to these higher altitudes are Blechnum wattsii. Arthropteris beckleri and

Microsorium diversifolium . At the Little River site (Table 9.11) there are few ferns and those present are hardy and widespread species.

The cover of the two species which are present is significant, with an estimated value of 22,0 percent for Blechnum cartilagineum and 9.5 percent for Sticherus flabellatus

The Little River site (see Appendix 9). one of the larger areas of rainforest on sandstone soils, was surveyed and the results are presented in Table 9,11. The site is similar to those on the shale soils (Table 9.2) in terms of the dominance of C. apetalum in the canopy and the prominence of the shrub species T. insipida . In most other respects, the site is quite different as it is made up of species which are generally tolerant of the dry conditions which prevail there

(eg. B. myrtifolia and Tristaniopsis spp.) and it lacks many species typical of the moister shale sites to the east (eg. D. sassafras and

C. glaucescens ) .

Some tree species which occur frequently at sandstone rainforest sites (see sites a and b in Table 9.9) are rare or absent at shale 241.

Table 9.10 : Ground Cover and Epiphyte Species in Rainforest Stands on Hawkesbury Sandstone, Woronora Plateau. (3 = common; 2 = uncommon; 1 = rare)

Site (Alt.): a.Cabbage b.Frews c.Little d.Drawing Tree Basin Gully River Room Rocks Species: (10m) (160m) (320m) (540m)

Peperomia leptostacha E 2 Gleichenia dicarpa G 2 Dendrobium pugioniforme E 1 Blechnum cartlagineum G 3 2 3 Pyrrosia rupestris E 2 3 2 Histiopteris incisa G 1 3 Adiantum aethiopicum G 1 Liparis reflexa E 1 Bulbophyllum exiguum E 1 Hymenophyllum cupressiforme E 3 1 Grammitis billardieri E 2 1 Sticherus flabellatus G 3 2 Pellaea falcata v.nana E 3 Lastreopsis acuminata G 3 Asplenium flabellifolium EG 3 Asplenium flaccidum E 3 Blechnum patersonii G 3 Davallia pyxidata E 3 Microsorium diversifolium E 3 Tmesipteris truncata E 3 Schizaea rupestris E 3 Arthropteris tenella E 2 Todea barbara G 1 Blechnum wattsii G 1

Total Species Numbers: 18

E = epiphyte; G = ground cover. 242.

rd \A tn rH *-* r-N r^N *--. *•_. ,—^ ,—* *•—»» ,—. ,-^ ^_. ^-^ ^_. rd OP dP dP dP OP dP dP dP dP OP dP OP rip 3 cn O CO ro in rH CN r- cn cn CO H O TJ • • • • • . « • t • * • . •H CN rH O ro H CN -. rH LO in H .. > CN *—* o•*—* ^•^ *—. rH ^-* M* 1 *" o_, ««__• *_^ N_, tn -H +—' _^ rQ TJ in m in in m in o in 3 2.5 ion rH oH in r~» ro o roo cn o H rd •C n H o m CD CO * r^ P rd ft rd P 0 G 0 P OP dP OP di° OP dP OP OP dP OP dP OP 0 rd CO ro 00 CN rH <_ in ro ro cn 13 ^r r» ,G CO ro o rH CN CD CN H o O O o "n r- CU s w CO •p m O m in O O O in o in in m CO E in CD rH CN •5. in in CN H CD ^r rH p H CD P > CO •H ft * CD rd P P X •H IN J E 'OP dP OP OP dP dP OP OP OP d," OP Or _t> CO CD CN CO CO CN CN rd ^_. rd O cn o P • CD ro <- CN CM rH H rH o o O O O rd TJ 00 Q QJ P G CO •P tn r Xi CO cn P 3 rcd CD rd rd rd E S E A •P G G in •rPd 3 0 3 CU tn rd rH •P •p 3 H 4-> r-i •P CO QJ •H •P 0 rH P G rd rd 3 rd 10 UH 3 •p P X MH rH 3 tn G TJ •H U rH •H •P rH r-i tH QJ •P 0 rd •p rd •P P •P 3 r-i o O cd ft 4-) CJ H H id •H ft CD 4-> TJ •P 3 > p rd P rd cn 4-> •P JQ 0) G rd i tn tn in •P tn QJ P 3 •a ft p in •p •H oG •H G •H •p 3 E in cn in 0 E rd B 3 rd P •H O 0 ft A rd rd B, 2 > •P in •p •P P rd •P •P p 0 rd sn G cn tn QJ 3 G G rd 0) m G G rd ft rd jq ft e ft O rd O rd CD G •P 0 cn cu 0 CO •P tu cu 4-> +mJ O r^ G rd •P n 0 G •P 0 CO rH •H 0 tn cn G cu rd B G cu •p rd p •P •p P ao •P •p CU •P ft cn •P rd 4-1 ft +J •P > •a u rrl P p •P 0 rd rd 3 r-i •P •P •p •p id ft EH H CO S3 ft EH O* ft ft ftm ft HH EH CD o ft P CO QJ U 243.

sites. Glochidion ferdinandi is a common species on sandy sites at low altitudes, including littoral sites: Callicoma serratifolia. Tristaniopsjs

laurina and T. colllna . which are typical of sandstone gullies, are

common at moderate to high altitudes although their distribution is

irregular in the district as a whole (see Fuller 1932 and Fuller & Mills

1985).

9.3 The Escarpments

The escarpments form the eastern edge of the Woronora Plateau

with a coastal aspect in the north, as well as the Illawarra Plateau

in the south, which has both coastal and inland aspects. Soils are

mainlyderived from Triassic and Permian sediments (see Chapter 2) with

significant areas of talus and. in the south, there are the Permian

volcanics on the lower slopes. Limited occurrences of Tertiary volcanics

in the form of sills also occur in the south.

In addition to the effect of soil differences, the rainforest

vegetation is strongly influenced by average temperatures and rainfall.

which vary considerably along the escarpment (see Chapter 2), The

presence of topographic benches, formed by the more resistant sedimentary

strata, also has significant implications for the development of rainforest stands.

The rainforest stands of the escarpment form a mosaic with the tall eucalypt forests, generally occurring as patches of less than

50 hectares. Some patches are larger than 100 hectares and in the 244.

south-east two large areas of contiguous rainforest occur, which are parts of the original Illawarra Brush (see Chapter 4).

Due to the forest clearing, logging and burning which accompanied

European settlement much of the vegetation of the escarpment has been highly disturbed or destroyed. This is particularly true of the flatter bench areas wnich were preferentially cleared and which would have supported the most complex and extensive rainforest development along most of the escarpment. There are, however, considerable areas

of rainforest remaining on the escarpment. Regrowth of the eucalypt forest and rainforest has occurred and earlier clearings have, in some

cases, regenerated to well developed stands, although these are of a

lower stature than the original forests (see for eg. Benson & Fallding

1979 and Powrie 1981).

The structural and floristic attributes of selected surveyed stands in the escarpment area are summarised in Table 9.12. Although variation between stands for many of the attributes is often high (eg. basal area per hectare and trees ferns per hectare) the stands can be divided into three types, based on their topographic/geologic location: those of the upper slopes, the topographic benches and the Tertiary volcanics in the south of the area.

9.3.1 The Upper Slopes

The upper slopes of the escarpments, directly below the Hawkesbury

Sandstone cliffline. are largely composed of the Narrabeen Group, although in the south where these sediments thin considerably the underlying 245.

CO cu CN in QJ •p H m cn G U •P Q) > ft CO in •• QJ G rd in m o 1 o o in cn O QJ P rG CN CO m ro <. CO rl IDS CM rH EH cp TJ G P •< cn in vO CD 3 OJ -. > OP CN CN CN CN Mi cn cn r-i cn 0 CN cn CO P O OU — oo cn CN CN G P CD E ft ca CD p rQ -P cn cn cn ro H cn H 00 CO CD cn ro ro CN CN H rd CD P CD CN ro CN ro U p rG ft tn H en to ft rd ca cn P tn CO G •• in O in in O O m •H rd o m o P rQ CN CD rH in r-i rd rH ,G CO oo ro g ft^ H CN 3? rG rd o H r-i rd CO Ul CN r-i H ca tn co H G OJ 1 QJ "- m cn CD CO M< CD X -H -P CN H rG CN ro CN CN 3 rH U •P P ft CD G A rd ft 0 CO CO CO tn rd o in in o cn O m O O TJ A •• in CD ro v CN o ro o CN G -i ^ --. O r-> M* O in CN rd rd N ro 00 rd CD cn CD r-i H m P tn CD E r-i ftHi rl^ CO ft p tn •• tn o) rd m cn o o o O O o in m CD CD CN QJ rG cn CD CO o ro o CD cn p p ^ o CD in cn CO ro H 0 EH H H ip G to •p rd cu 00 CD CN m oo CN cn tn ro r» ro CN CN cp o in m in M M <_ ro M1 CO ro tn M1 0 0 0 rd3 0 0 o CD 0 id o o r-i •P 0 CO QJ O O O CO O O ft O H O X O H O P O P r-i in m in 0 m in in r-ic n O m rd in EH m cprd G tn H H H H rd H tn H •P rH O H ft H H 0 0 G rd s P G X ft 0 ft •P 3 - P * - tn » •p - 0 - » • 0) - 0 - >itx P l-J CN P CD 00 P CN "i< . ft O P M S r- P 00 P O PQJ rd H rd H •H H cu CN « CN ro QJ ro ro 0 ro OJ «tf Q) U E 0 0 H 0 0 0 tn 0 0 Ho 0 0 1 ,* > 1 E rd E 0 H H ft r_ w CO a a u P in ft S ft a S 2 ft ft a QJ + EH EH EH EH EH EH P 11 CO CO U g to CO CN 0 CD \ ^s. -». ^_ -~v \ "->. s ^o H cp ft ft S ft ft ft S - >N EH EH a EH a EH a a cn ft EH CO CO CO CO s s CD • * * * * * * •P • 3 •H 0 ro M1 in CO O CO cn M1 tn o CO EH 23 O O O o H H H CN CN ro 246.

tn cu cn in cu •p cn m ro G u -p CD > ft CO cn «• Q) G rd m in o in m > (N &H *P TJ G P oo co m 0) 3 dP CD H CN (N 00 0 > ro cn in in P 0 — o u CO c_ CD X r- oo o •P oo ro CD 3 CN CN ro Q) P o tPH CAO CUD ft ca tn co G o o cn in rQ •P rd m cn O CN CD en 7l _? in co CO 2 ro H CO C8*O ^ CN ca tn cn G CD CN rQ "P -H cn m CN CN CN 3 H O CN CN P ft QJ rG rd ft CO CO CO id oo co o A •• CN o CO cn VO r-i \ --. CO 00 CN CN rd rd N r~ in CO CO co cu E m co rd P — ft < in •• CD rd O in in in O QJ X co ro o co o in p -V. ro r> o CN £H rH rH rH rH

cn CD CN oo CO CD CO •p CN CN rH CD O CN CD CD P ft EH to o O o o o ro H CO CD in in m M M in ft w

M G ro l o TJ •P 1 3 1 O o _5 0 p M" TJ M< M 0 M t. M" fo H CD ro rd ro 00 p ro rM\ m •P B — CO Hw W* ft ft ^ G a ~ 0 4-> U to a ft ft CD + EH EH P CN 0 CD CO CO H ip ft « s • * >i a EH a a a ft •EH tn t* Ul S S £ cu CD II =8= # * # H P 1 •P 0 in r- H CN oo •8 W B ro ro M" <. «* EH 247.

Coal Measures also become prominent. Not surprisingly, the rainforest stands developed on these slopes are similar to those on the same sediments on the Woronora Plateau. Any differences probably relate to the higher average temperatures at the escarpment locations.

The escarpment stands have higher species numbers than sites on the plateau gully at similar altitudes (see Table 9.2 and Table 9.13),

The decrease in species diversity with increasing altitude is not as pronounced as it is at the plateau gully sites, and is a reflection of the ameliorating effect of the coastal influences on temperatures of the escarpment sites.

The basal area and number of stems per hectare of the main tree species for selected survey sites on the upper slopes of the escarpment are given in Table 9.13, The change in species composition with increasing altitude is evident between sites 03 and 30. Except for sites 03 and 35. the stands are similar to those of the plateau gullies where C. apetalum is the dominant species and contributes between 28.8 percent and 72.7 percent of the total basal area of these stands. Other prominent species in these stands are Acmena smithii Cryptocarya glaucescens,

Doryphora sassafras and Polyosma cunninghamii , species which also occur in the stands on the plateau (see Table 9.2). At higher altitudes. cool temperate elements enter the stands, including Eucryphia moorei and Quintinia sieberi , Doryphora sassafras contributes considerably less to the escarpment stands than it does to those of the plateau gullies and seems to be replaced by a number of other species which are absent or of little significance in the gully stands. 248.

dP •Jr dP fN m e'­ m m 10 fN m Cft O GO en o « — rH rH H m

en m fN V0 as. o CD a O T IN O p* .« fN m '

m CQ dP PP •7 fN o O o H V fN in vD

m in in O ri %0 ro cn

•* fN dP O fN H fN fN *• — ~ v n O O fN •TOO (D -9 s CO H en H o en H rH O o o rH rj d d m ~ « ~ -. fN Cft ^ T m m m rH O in rH

o in in o m m r- m CO p* •J? _» vO in mm * M H *r • at o « m •»<; o -H m fN O cn H fN

•P dP •P «P dP dp dP •* dP dP dP dP O in 00 00 m H w in rH O rH fN cn ID *H o o P* fN r* o O fN rH Cft in rH m m ri

O in m m O in m m o o m o in in H p* fN r- fN rH in rH m r- rH m

rN UJ rH ID fN cn m o r* (N m o ON fN P- in — M 0) dP CU u — o fN o >» CD o H m o VD H ID m H •H O -rl rH O U u « _, x e ID rH \o oo fN H en O vO tn m O en o P- O H fN m m fN fN o — m m • in O o o H m o o H O fN m fN m o roH P- fN rH *^ m —

in cn CO in in cn *T m m m cn VO V in r* r- Cft CD m fN o o m O o o Ch fN o o o H o H

m o o in in o o in m in o m in m in O o o in in H H o fN rH in H (N rH p- in rH rH fN H H dp «P dP dP dP ID * dp VO •P dP dP dP d? dP dP dP dP dP vO Cft m m fN CD m 10 m O V m O m m VO CO 00 v cn — m o o o o o H r- m o o H m © o oo fN CO ri o m • V dP « n) « CN -M O -H ri fN — u o o Ch fN m ID fN VD o-i rH o rH 10 rH vO CO H P» en H m Ol — OH o O H H O in o H o in in o fN 00 P- CD o fN mm n o o o O O o fN fN o o o v o o Cft P» fN o o H

m m m m cn in 0. o cn m CO m iD en ri *T o fN rH o m ri m ri m o rH

CD CO fN cn CD m fN m ID CO v CD H ri o\ iD m « -* K rj — in fN tn CD o CN P- m fN o rH O CO ri m fN • v dP fl M fN CD -4 O -H E 6 H —• y o o fN fN H o CN fN H H 10 CN CD fN m CD cn VD m H P- %0 m Cft Cft m o m m m fN in O ft — U • _ fN ri m m O o fN H H o o o m CO m rH mm o m fN o a • fN • CO m r-i on

m n Id •rl •rl •H n c •H H a.) g ! rH •0 « « 0 •rl 4J V0M 1 *J C 0 4 «l •H U •0 _C7 •rl flc •rl tn id •H 4J «r s 4J c _ V VH o e •H 3 •H 0) H Rl Tl M « fll c Ik •w •3 •H rH 0fi ri 4J •H •H •H « c C « M M > n 0flm ID a au •H en e tl Rl « Ot fl) 3 9 « •a r ?, s 0c1 Hi 3c •rCl p H . o ** « « Ifl « a. fiU rH fl£ • •rfll 3 rQ U 1 O e a 0) in 0 0 _ 9 _ u « 41 0 B c 1 _ •_ C _l JC V •NH C 8 0 0 Ofl i_ c •H n "v -rl •rl t) m 1N r >•UH _ « H< 0 4J _ rl 0 is £• rW 5 01 O J-J •H m g 1 rH c 0 ri V) 4J 0 _ •p rH C O •KH R la id 0 X •rl t•H 0 ^1 fl 0 •H In 10 h 0i S U -a . 0- CO 5 o rJ g u u h fl fl c _ U z _ < u I 1 U « 0. 249.

Site 03 at Palm Jungle (see Appendix 10) is unique in that it occurs within the only well developed rainforest area on the escarpment where it forms sea cliffs. The stands are. in a sense, littoral: the influence from the sea is quite pronounced, not only in the structure of the stand but in the species composition. In terms of total species numbers the area at Palm Jungle is one of the richest on the escarpments and tree species recorded there are virtually absent from other areas on the escarpments. Typical species which are prominent are Cassine australis. Guioa semiglauca. Canthium coprosmoides. WilJciea huegeliana and Endiandra sieberi (not recorded in the survey). The exposure to severe coastal gales has also greatly influenced the structure of the rainforest vegetation. This ranges from a "rainforest heath" about one metre tall at the edge of the sea cliffs to typical closed forest development 25 metres tall inland. The stunted rainforest community is dominated by the species C australis and G. semiglauca, with high stem density and low total basal area.

The site at Meryla (site 35 in Table 9,13) exhibits higher species diversity than similar escarpment sites (eg. sites 16 and 30), This appears to be explained by the site's occurrence well inland at the western end of Kangaroo Valley which is probably warmer than the sites at the eastern end of the Valley. Thus, E moorei is absent and Citronella moorei becomes prominent: other species absent at the eastern sites are also present (see Table 9.13),

The dominant understorey species (Table 9.14) largely reflect the canopy species of each site. The shrub Tasmannia insipida is prominent in all stands except the coastal site and tree ferns are restricted to 250.

r-. cn dp OP OP OP OP OP OP dP OP dP OP OJ in CO 00 in in 00 CM p* VD rd ~ 00 o cn in -H H E CD rH rH rH cn VD vD CO VD O H o vD CO • u >i O rH rH rH r~ cu P cn cu m —< ^ ft S ~ m cn m in in O o m O O in O cn in VD CM CN CN in «cr O rH in CN r- r- vo H H <* cn cn rH cn rH •, rH H «— ^ E cn QJ 0 oVD dP OP OP OP dP dP OP dP dP dP •rl * o m cn in CD CN O ro cn p *-" rj QJ cu o <, H ^ o CO CD ro ro vo m QJ CM s_ _* p-) ft 0 •i-r? r-i rd P mc n Ul rj EH o o o o in in o O -' u O rH CN VD in T cn vD QJ rn OH Ui ^_. O E r-. cn ^ 3Cn VOD OP OP dP OP dP dP dP 0P dP OP di" dP OP dP QJ CO 0 ^ 00 <- in in i-H m in CN 00 -H Tl fQ w m n cn 3 m H CTi o in m •^ r-i dl E Ul VoD OP OP OP OP OP OP OP dP dP OP dP 0P dP dP dP dP dP OP QJ VO cn in cn cn VD ro in rH vD CN O CD rH «, •H M cpo co^ o o . U 0 cu O tn G rH CU •ri OJ H H .3 CP OP OP dP dP dP OP dP dP dP CO ft 3 1 id •ricn 00 CN CO O 3 "- r-» "tf ro cn • cu Ul X b •H **•_» CJ s _^s CD ro VD 00 O ST o o m rQ E E «- rH *-^ ^^ rH *—' *-* **-* *—* Q) r-i O —' *-' ~~" ft 2 • rd 00 CO rG P PH — O O O in o o in in o co G • r- o cn CN in p- ro CO CU ro CD CN H r-i E o •cH ft (fi P a rd U 4H cn 0 W

>1 rd CJ rl rn cn rH C E rd 3 OcJ rd fl)• H 3 E 3 P 3 5 C) •H H cn 3 id 0 rd tf rd cn CO rn E rrt 3 cn P •r| r-i u CU H rd •H •rl fl) rrt rd P 3 rd rrt P CW •H rH 3 H H rd CJ •fl rH H T3 •H P H en A •rl cu •rcln CM H O U rtj H •H rd (d rd rd 3 -i tn ft 3 rH 0 •r) rl rd •rl rrt 3 ft id H rd TJ id 3 P u •rl rG rd 3 H •p +J cn •H H •H cd cn 3 rd rd P rd QJ cn cn O 3u •r) m 3 cn E cn cn 3 rC ft P cn P rH tn 3 3 C id A 3 G p id u 3 cu cn cu rd id QJ H P rrl •ri rH cn cn g •H cn rd 3 •mH 3 > •H 8 rd i 3 cu 3 •rl H rC rT rd P ft rd M rH P rd 0 rd E cn cd rd b •rl • cu 0 G id •H cn rrt rrt •H a) U U 0 rd OJ cn cn Q) id O •P C> 3 ft rd 0 ft id XI 3 cn u cu E 0 QJ 0 ft 3 cu >i •P id rd rd n cn 3 u A cn 0 cu •H •H CO rH P rd P O ft 0 •rl UJ co rd ft fc G o A U •H cn O A! cn •rl cu 0 d) ft >i E rd 3 >i P P _, p U •H rH 0 > •P b r-i IH QJ SH P rd P U cn ft cidn aj P •H •H •rH OJ rd 3 •rl •rl •rH O £ o 0 >< cu 3 u u PH EH CO P PH U U u ft U e> 5 P J a W ft u u A CO P O 251.

the higher, cooler sites. The coastal stand at Palm Jungle lacks many of the "typical' escarpment tree and shrub species, such as C glaucescens.

Polyosma cunninghamii. T. insipida. C apetalum and D. sassafras: A.smithii occurs only infrequently. It is suggested that this is largely due to the influence of salt spray, these species being intolerant of high concentrations of chloride and possibly other components of the sea spray. However, the influence of increased competition from species able to occupy the higher nutrient soils should not be ruled out as an explanation for the absence of these species.

The ground cover species occurring on the upper slopes of the escarpment are similar to those of the plateau sites (Table 9.15). Some species such as A. tenella, G. anceps. A. formosum and P. umbrosa are more prominent on the warmer escarpment sites and these sites are generally more diverse. The total percentage ground cover ranging from

20 percent to 40 percent is similar also, although both areas show considerable variation with one plateau site recording a total cover of only 4.4 percent . The ground cover on these upper slopes is different to that on the adjacent benches, where the low slope angle and moist soil has encouraged the development of a dense ground cover (see below),

9.3.2 The Topographic Benches

The escarpment slopes are composed of a series of almost horizontally bedded sediments ranging from sandstones to claystones and coal seams

(see Chapter 2). The more resistant members of this sedimentary sequence, the sandstones, together with the overlying, more easily eroded claystones. form topographic benches along the escarpment. In 252.

m ro in r- CN ro H ro H "E rH O rH rH in 1. 1 O o CN

O 12. 0 rT H CU irno g '-' in ro ,^ E o 0 CD 0 in CN O ro in •—•• co p • cn QJ ro ro O CN o OJ Cn CN ft •i •ri 0 rd p H b EH CO o p ro cftu ,_, ft E D Cn o G CO _ 0 *. rH "* in cn o m o in cn PQ v-' o XI o in o CN vo <. CO rH rH • G tn CO rd U) P 0c rrt CO PQ PH XI CO CU H p ,_, OuJ E r-i o OJ CO CO CO ro ro VO ro O CN m in P ^r o p QJ O rH O 00 r- o O "=r 0 r* QJ HH 0 CO H p 0 cn r*~s « cu • a •rl TJ CO U CU CD G o ft •rl CO rH P P CU rd CU TJ p ro CD O o CO o > 3 p r*-N 0 3 rd H O ro ro CN CN CN H u cn g cJn XI cu 0 CN G 3 IS —' 3 H 0 rd o CJ P cu l(H CU H 0 _H Cn Cn G p •H 3 CN ro ro Q) ffi b > ^-s CN H 0 » r-iE E u rrt CoO Q) P (JH w Cn G rd QJ ro P E O 3 ft OJ P U rd P 0 CU tn Pi W tl id B OJ p P p 3 E rd rd H id 3 rd E 5 rd •rOl p tn rd O P •rl rd H MH CO 0 G 3 G cd •H •rl P r-i H •rl ft tn CU >i •H G •rl P ps CO r-i OJ H QJ 0 TJ* Cn tn E •r| tn tn CD iH H G H p G rd rd 3 0c G •rl •H tn 3 w rd CU Gu 0 rd P H tn Ep cn QJ H •rl rd TJ P pcu X id •ri O P •H rd 0 p XI rd cn P •H id rd id Ul 0) p tn £ rud CD G P P 4H ft U P tn H tn e P p 0 P P id P P tn H CU •rl MH >i Ul E rd P 0 cn id U tn rd tn •H in rd ft P rG •ri 3 id U jO 4H •H ft cn 3 S •rl x: UH CO CU tf u Ul •H •H fj2 tn rd p H rd p P rd ft P E P p s ft E id g QJ m CO rd ft •H P 0 0 0 p 3 O 3 •ri rd 3 P pE 0) rd 0 3 cn OJ tn p G tn P 3 P •rl 3 ft P QJ rd •H p CU 0 P 0

most locations there are two benches, although in the south the presence of extensive areas of Permian volcanics complicates the pattern.

These topographic benches are important for the development of rainforest stands along the escarpment. Their gentle slope facilitates the accumulation of moisture and probably nutrients, whereas the upper slopes above the benches tend to be drier, with large areas of bare earth. The existence of very wet sites on these benches has fostered the development of particular species assemblages, and some species reach their best development on these sites. The benches also afford some degree of protection from winds: the rainforest develops towards the back of the bench while the front edges are often wind-blown and remain a disturbed environment of rainforest and sclerophyll regrowth. often with large eucalypts.

The rainforest development on the benches is different both floristically and structurally to the adjacent C apetalum -dominated stands described above. The former can be termed Mixed Notophyll

Vine-Fern Forest (Bywater 1978) while the latter are less diverse in both characteristics and are termed Simple Notophyll Fern (Vine) Forest,

The dominant tree species of these stands are clearly distinct from those of the upper slopes (Table 9.16 and Table 9,13). Tree stem density is lower and total basal area per hectare is higher for these sites. where the highest basal areas were recorded for rainforest in the district. The stands are characterised by their structural diversity. including the number of species, the presence of emergents. deciduous elements, palms, epiphytes and dense ground cover (see Table 9.12). 254.

_l», _dP. ,_ ._ _^ ,*p_ VD CD *> V<*D> C*N> CN ^r o • C*3> H m on ro C- H VD C3 E CN H H rH o ^^ w ^. w ^* w ^* *-* o a o in in o O in H CO r~ CN H m oo <* vo

III _. Ix dr d? dP * dp CN ID Ol in 01 CO in dP in 01 • OJ O OJ M o r» m o ro o o 1^ •H O •rl O N_ CN II H II E H •-*0 1 01 H _ a, •-« [_ 01 01 ro r- ID IN in H tn 1 H in VD co 01 VD r- « *r o1 *r Ol < o CO VO H vo on• rN H CN CN •~.H m H H •^

dP SP d? dP d? dP dP dP dP dP _dP, CD ro ro H 0> r- 00 in CN CN _dP o O H CO VO H r- O co CN •* H 01 ro o H H H H R Q) o JJ '**' "^ in in in in m m in O in O in o o in O O •? CN oo H CD T in r- VO CN CN CD VO w ro H H H H ro * H ._ II ^-. n dP dP dP dP dP dP dP dP dP dP dP dP dP r_ VO O H H ro 01 VD VO VO «0- CN H _tn « • m01 ,_dP. 0 ) 3 _. H CN O ro o H VO O VO in in H CN •rl o •H 0 r. H CN H (1 0 H .-'0 1 Ho 01 H E Oj Ui 0) 00 H 01 CN VD ro O CN 01 01 VD r- H in •~.III >H • rl m CO CN O r- H H VC1 ro o o ro vo «: H H o CN o 01 in o "0> T 01 00 H •H in• C N >CM* co, H

dP dP dP dP dP dP dP dP dP dP dP dP dP dP dP in m 01 01 CN ro 00 Ol H Ol 01 m CD O in o o IN H H 01 vo in o H H rl o •» O I! •- H m in o o in CN in o o in o o • in O O H CI) ro CN H H VD VO H H CM CN m <0- in H O

1) •H dP r_ _» r_ C 01 H l_ I 01 o 01 rrt H O CO •H o •rl U 0 H 0 •-,0 1 Cll u< u< UKi ro in in III in in 0 •* H r- CN in H H o m CN ro ri O CN II*) Tl C ID dP dP _dP^ ^dP ,_dP. ,_dP. dP JJ 01 VO in in in ro VO If] r- r- r- vo o Tl H CN o CD •-• w ••^ fc-* JJ JJ CI r. « o o o o m o 91 CN VO m H 10 ro CO in ro 01 O CN in Ol CO CN in CN ,—dP . H M r^ <* C OJ CTV O o T O CN r- O ro in T CN o T n CO a » vo ro in M H in • JJ JJ _ dP _. ci dP d? dP dP rH dP dP dP d? dP dP dP dP dP dP dP CD CN 01 cu VO ro m H CO 00 CO in m in 01 _in. _cn S3 o i 01 _dP. 0) H 01 T r- o O ro ro vo o ro H H O in 01 •H O •H M 1 II O I) & ro >-r H OJ cn H E 01 H 01 Ui u u< Ui in H — r- CN in H CN 01 ro H r- H H fN t- H H C/l ^* in 01 10 H Ol ro O n VO in ro O co O CN in r w 3 o o r- CN 01 m o vo m Tf O O CN 0i T O CN H H o f vO• H r-•r o ".< •"• w JJ u CN 10 U) u in • in o CD Tl C » Hm m H H *OJ in i! 01 H XI u m raUl c tn m 01 01 rrt rH _4 OJ H H 01 « m H tl M •H Mffl •H +> N cn 5 .1 0 cn x: 01 rl 3 0 0) •rl tn rd ni 5 rd u Tl C) OJ JJ Ha •r II •H 01 •H OJ H in C Ui u in OJ 3_ rnE CJ cn 01 OJ 0_ •H 0 OJ c m U) •rl JJ 0 CT> tn U u 0c1 >1 Tl OJ U m 3 M J_J N 11 c 0J 01 •H fi >1 •H OJ Ol (0 lu Ul u u < o 255.

Floristically, the stands on the benches are composed of a

mixture of subtropical and warm temperate elements, particularly

those species which prefer the generally moister conditions of these

sites. The characteristic tree species are (Table 9.16) : Ficus spp..

Toona australis. Livistona australis. Doryphora sassafras. Pennantia

cunninghamii Polyosma cunninghamii. Cryptocarya glaucescens, Citronella

moorei and Dendrocnide excelsa Much of the basal area of the stands

is contributed by huge specimens of the. species Ficus obligua, F.

macrophylla. C moorei and D. excelsa. Between 20 percent and 45 percent

of the total stand basal area may be contributed by any one of these

species, often involving only one or two specimens. The sites are thus

characterised by low tree density and high basal area. C. apetalum only

becomes prominent at higher altitudes on these sites. .is not prominent

in the understorey (see Table 9.17) and is sometimes absent altogether.

Observations of C apetalum suggest that its occurrence is not only

inhibited by competition from other species at lower altitudes, but

that the species does not normally grow successfully on soils of higher

nutrient status unless other factors operate to overcome the effect of the high soil nutrients.

Species which become locally dominant within stands do so in response to very wet soils (eg. L. australis and Sloanea australis )

or to disturbance, usually at the exposed fronts of the bench (eg, T.

australis, Omalanthus populifolius. D. excelsa and Polyscias murrayi )

; otherwise, there is no tendency towards single species dominance on the benches. 256.

Species diversity decreases with increasing altitude, with the effect of the lower temperatures of the inland Kangaroo Valley (site

29) being particularly evident. Here, species diversity is quite low and a number of the species which are abundant on the coastal sites are absent (eg, Ficus spp. and L. australis ).

The dominant understorey species in the stands reflect the canopy species at each site (Table 9.17), Prominent shrub species are

Streblus brunonianus (at lower altitudes), Claoxylon a ustrale. Citriobatus pauciflorus and Eupomatia laurina. The latter three are typical of these sites.

A dense ground cover is characteristic of the near-level topography of the sites (Table 9.18), and contrasts with the adjacent steep slopes

(cf.Table 9.15), The former sites are much moister than the slopes, and this is the main factor governing ground cover development, which in all cases is dominated by fern species.

The common species contributing to the ground stratum are similar to other rainforest sites. The following five species are prominent at all sites and, except for the first named, do not exhibit a relationship with altitude: Gymnostachys anceps. Microsorium scandens. Lastreopsis microsora, Arthropteris tenella and Pteris umbrosa. Although unclear from the data presented, the species Adiantum formosum is typically more prominent at lower altitudes, while Arthropteris beckleri is distinctly a higher altitude species. 257.

tn H rH rd ^_. tn rn PH dP o\° dP dP OP OP dP c*P # rW rJP fl) ,-_, ni CU *r CN CN r-i H CN rH CN H o cn •rl •H p 0 o 0 E UJ CN CN rH rH in H CN rH r-» r- Q) n (D CN —' *— *—' *— ro *-^ ••— -— rH *— ft rM ft I o —' ~— tn *•" cn rM cn O O cn m in in O in in in co o CO QJ CN H H cn H r- ro rr H OQ rH H «* cn CN u •H X X ft CJ ^^ cn tn rrt 0\° dP 0\° OP dP dP d." dP di° OP dP OP dP Q) o s —. cu P I * r~-ro cn ro ro O CD ro CD O r> O •rl dP •ri cn « » CJ O 0 0 E o CO in rH ro n 00 CN ro «. ^r o «cf 0J ft 0 O cu o ~ **"'' **""* *—' * ro CN ft rH ft CJ "*"' tn *•"* cn EH _ cn cn m O O in in o O in O o cn O CN O -c. ta> • CD ^. H CN CN CD CN CN CD ro 00 rH in (N tn CN XI CN H *-* r— ^-* G rd P Ul TJ CU •H ^-* ^—s cn CO P X OP OP OP dP dP dP o\" OP dP 0) *-*Q J U 00 H H CN <- H •H OP •H QJ • cn r^ ,—V » • . * • u o u r-i QJ _? en CN "3" rH CO QJ QJ I -— *—* *"^ s"^ o cn cu roH Ul TJ > O ^^ •—' ft ft QJ 0 rH cn *~"c n P G r-i <_ o o m in O O in in in r- m CD 0 •ri CD H ro rH o CO *-* rH rH CM H U *- CN in P • CU QJ cn P Tl rd 3 P 3 U QJ tn X cu ,_, .-—>» ,_^ ,_^ , .t n CO 3 rd dP OP dP dP dP OP di" dP OP QJ -•^ CU P H P i> CD co m r- in CN CO CN o •H dP •rl QJ rd •rl >—_. • i i i • . U O CJ ft > QJ E O rH CN QJ O *>_-* *. o o m m cu « o W **^ <- w CN ft H ft tn P "—"C O "»—•• tn OJ OJ P woH o -rl r3 g in in o cn in o o O in O in m t. u in ro H rM «.< CN in 1 u * tn tn 3 cn rd 3 •ri QJ QJ P cu •rl •ri rC cn 3 u s •ri tn & u 3 cn tn CU cn cn 3 rd QJ 3 3 •ri •rl 3 rd cu tu X! l(H rd 3 in P CU rd rM. H 0 p CJ r-i cn •r0l XI rd cn H &H PQ •rl rd rd P 14H 3 rd 3 Hu tn 3 •rl cu 3 P P U rd rd P •H 3 3 •rl rH u 0 P P •ri in r-i •rl P 3 rd •rl P rd K 3 cn tn b tn tn •rl cn 3 ft 3 3 in i 0 rC 0 rd >i 3 O cn id CJ 0 ft cu cu XI CO ft P ft P 3 IX id •ri 0 E 0 P p Ul H •rl tu •r| tn ft >1 ft QJ 0 3 P >i 0 3 TJ cu P > 0 >i p >i E rd 3 P r-i ft QJ 3 .3 H •8 U P •H •H P 0 P CJ rH CU •rl 0 3 P (1) p r-H OJ CO rH Q Q U < U ft u OH W 10 Q o < ft u ui 258.

rd h OP OJ m o rM CM 00 P • • o E 00 CO CO o CN O o o 00 CD I o CO rM r- QJ PQ tn CN

u X •rl U r3 0 ft PH rd in O cn o o in CD P 2= ~ » • • • i • tn 0 E «. 00 oo r~ *. in ro 0 r-i O CN oo ft H in CO 0 QJ «_• EH >H — _ *. tn CN TJ 3 rd P Ul rM TJ •rHl QJ K dP P m in H CO in o r~ oo in U P r-^ QJ r-> cu E m oo O i> rH in O rH H O r- H • > o H CN o QJ TJ 0 H m H Ul QJ H <. C U '-' P •rl • 0 r-i en 4H P rH QJ in TJ Q) 3 •rl 3 CJ Q) CO ft QJ Ul 3 rd OP H P r- cn r- <- "=. CN 00 u rd •ri ,-s tu > QJ E CO CN CN CN CD CN o > CN m 0 P W• oH H u CU P oo r3 g ~ TJ 3 •ricn 3 X Ho 0 *—•* P u m P 0 3 OJ p E dP tu ft in cn ro in in CO CD cn > P r-^ 0 rd •p E H o in cn rH H CN CN 0 H O ro T-i rH r- u in H 00 QJ W 3 H in PQ ^- rd rd « p P in 3 P rd o cUu P rSd: 0) H PH H TJ H 0) «- P CO B rd Q) rd •rl rd E XJ 3 m P rd P P •rl a cu G 0 tn rH CU cd P 3 QJ cn ft rH H 3 in QJ 3 E Tl 0 QJ cu tn .* •rH w PQ •r| 3 3 P u 3 3 U s cn in rd 3 QJ p rd O •rio rd pc u rd TcJu XI rd Q CO u P in E 3 rd H cn tn 0 rd m rd 0 E cn >i •ri p U •H cn U tn CO CO •rl m 3 •rl r3 p cn p •rl cu QJ P •H tn u cu •i OJ tn r-i •ri •rl P E P ft rd P 3 rd p ft rd 0 0 CD CO 3 0 0 P ft •rl ft 0 CH QJ cu QJ rd P cn cu cn 0 CO P 0 QJ id ft ft QJ •H 3 0 P 0 p •H _! P p UJ UJ rM U rd p p X! P X! P tu U c E • X •H cn p p CU H p in rd r-i Q) TJ •uH id r*1 p P rd p rd r-i 0 rd ft < PJ < PH PH < PI < 53 EH Ul s o 259.

9.3.3 The Tertiary Volcanics

Small areas of Tertiary volcanic soils are present on the escarpment at higher altitudes along the Cambewarra Range and at the Barren

Grounds area. These soils are derived from the Kangaroo Valley Basanite.

Saddleback Agglomerate and the Bong Bong Basalt (see Chapter 2). The rainforest stands on these soils, like those on similar soils on the

Woronora Plateau, exhibit distinctive species assemblages. The stands show some characteristics which are similar to the Permian volcanics at lower altitudes and the moister escarpment benches,

A number of the dominant canopy species of these stands relates them to those on the adjacent shale soils (see Table 9.3), There is, however, no tendency towards single species dominance. The species are D. sassafras. A. smithii. Polyosma cunninghamii, C. apetalum and

C. glaucescens (Table 9.19). Species characteristic of higher nutrient soils are generally absent or of reduced significance due to the higher altitudes of these sites. The one exception is B. lucida at site 41. A feature of these sites, which are all at similar altitudes, is the fairly consistent species composition. They are also quite different to the stands on the Robertson Basalt which experience lower temperatures.

The understorey species are similar at each site (Table 9.20). Total species numbers are also similar and quite high for these altitudes. although the number of individual plants per hectare is highly variable.

The high figure for site 37 is the result of its location on an exposed hill top. Saddleback Mountain, and the large number of a single species.

C pauciflorus . The species group which characterises the sites on these Tertiary volcanics is: C. pauciflorus. Polyosma cunninghamii. ... 260.

OP OP dP dP dP OP dP OP OP dP dP

in H rH CO •=, H ro

id *-« (2.2% ) (2.8% ) (0.2% ) K (2.9% ) ft H CD cn VO CN in ft CO PQ • ro 00 H H CO CD CO u • < * • 00 • 00 •ri 1.3 8 1.7 6 oo • H CN 0.1 3 1.8 5 cn cn H ^•^ CN r-i G "* PQ rH 12.0 4 H rd U ^__ rM ,_, OP &P OP. dP dP _P d," dp dP OP 0 CN cn CN 00 CN dP > E cn cn CN o O O vD VD t. CO o CN ro m >1 3 dP dP Or OP 0P OP o\° OP dP OP >_ 0 CD 00 CN 00 VO O tn CO P m o dP CO TJ X! «-> o in CD CN CD H H CD tu o CU 3 tj) CVl rH H H rl O -H rd 3 E rH u P 0 ~ H U Ul P rM ro H in m O CN cu *— Q) CQ < CO 00 CO cn cn oo m ft ft TJ • ft o in QJ CN • CD cn «c. r- oo H CO • vo o in P "* cq CN ^ tn U • CD OJ CN H rM OP dP OP dP OP OP OP d.° dP VD "-^ QJ ,_. m ro O in ro cn CD VD sf d,0 UJ E cn 1 O o in oo s_ CN "SJ o H VD P oo E _r ro O CJ <, _ Url _. +j tn m m in m o in in in in in m in m * X ro CN cn cn tn cu * in CN rH O o *»—* H H •cHu • pcu u TJ U OP OP OP dP dP OP OP Or OJ CU co o 00 CN CN r- dP co OP ui ft c tn in cu o QJ Ul •rl - ^_. m tn oo r- vD co CD •rl 3 M • -H o H ru U CD P -H E >_ u Q) CU cu w t_ p TJ ro m o ft H 3 Hg ~• o ft 00 H CO in 3 • ft oo tn • vo 3 rM • ro in in oo in CN 00 •H tn <- PQ H oo ro CN rd cu • 00 _) w 2 3 ,-_, CN H H E OP dP OP OP •_ rd o in m oo tn dP OJ > H O p in cn H m in O rd P ^ E CN H H P QJ QJ oo (0.3% ) (0.3% ) (0.6% ) (1.9% ) (0.6% ) (0.9% ) U X • P *^ (4.9% ) 5 OJ cn 3 tn O in m 5 in in 1 5 1 0 3 0 7 5 X •H P oo oo 1 0 ro K S * m CN P *—* oo CN in QJ * H ft OP OP dP OP dP dP dP OP dP dP • u rd cn H CO H r- CN H m dP cn dP CO tn P X m H QJ QJ b 3 cu ^ H cn q oo •c. o o O o o •rl rH IN CN • -H o tu QJ CN CN rH rH P E TJ E 00 u *—' auj TJ — UJ ft — OJ ft P rd oo CN CN in CN H rH O VD cn _J in TJ rd w • 00 If VD H 00 in cn O CN ft O 3 U • < tn 1 00 rd CO r~ • CO in CN CN O o H O o vO CN H oo pq H H m in rd • oo QJ rd 1. rH P P in < P •H E 3 rd •ri •H 3 H •ri E OJ 2 E H •H rd rd in B rd rd •H rd Pn u CO H rd rd X P 3 in rd CO rd H P X tn 3 rd P Ti in •ri 3 3 *_» A, cu 0 3 P 3 P •ri CO rd A 3 3 p P tn CU cn p 3 U rH cn 0) rd E tn H 3 3o cn cn •H •ri 0 rd 3 TJ •H 3 tn id r-i 0) H rd E rd P •H P rd U P tn rd •H QJ & 3 i 3 •ri ft U CEO E •H cu cu X rd 3 O O 0 0 tn cu P A UJ CU •ri ft 3 0 rd P 0 P N 0 3 rd cn tn H o >i 3 rd CU TJ •H P rd >i 0 p ft rH id rH tu £. § 3 p 3 X P 0 0 N QJ UJ •8 0 CJ 0 QJ QJ r-i QJ tj •H H 0 >i id X EH ft Q ft PH PH U U) CU w UJ CQ Ul w a P P & O uP 261.

r-^ to cn dP did OP OP OP OP OP or OP OP CSV" dP dP CU ,—* OJ CD CD c~- O VO ro in in in CN ro •H OP •H X o O o u O in fN CD VD

>H P rd •H P TJ P rd CU CU t/J EH a OP OP OP dP d,° cu r—* Q) CO CO CO H •H dP •H _ 3 o U O U CO VD 0 ro CN CO •* CN oo ro aj O aj TJ P CN CN H ft rH ft 3 X -> w to '-' tn rd tn E P 3 o O in in in in o o m o in m CD o CO UJ 0 CO 00 —J ro m ro rH O CN p ^r H CO co in in CN ~—' CO >—' TJ PQ w ro tu P CN U sr QJ H QJ UJ P 0 4H X cu ,-, cn cn QJ cu OP dP OP dP QJ ,—s cu P ,-> p CD CN cn (N •H d.° •H rd • u « u O U P TJ O 1> CO CN cu O CU U QJ tn oo rH H ft H ft OJ 3 » ^-^ *—' CO ^ tn (0.5% ) (0.5% ) (4.4% ) (5.6% ) (3.3% ) •H (3.3% ) (3.9% ) a 3 E (9.4% ) 5 H •rl O in m o 5 O rH O CN 3 0 3 0 3 5 4 0 5 0 P P & CO r- in CO 8 5 H H o CN QJ CU P "cji H ^ m w ft TJ H «-' (N H C » cn 3 H QJ <- •ri CO 0 QJ CU 3 ft H UJ rd , > tn 3 3 P P •H Q) g —^ CO CO H X OP OP dP OP OP o\° OP dP OP dv" dP OP dP r—. cu X <- o 00 CN CO H rH cn rH CO cn en •aH ) dP •ri 9rd< •mH V m • O O u UJ rd r- VO 00 rH H rH 1 id U P CO E to 3 P 3 3 G rd OJ rd P •H CO CO QJ 3 3 3= 0 •P 3 0 in CJ rd tn rd r-i Fi QJ tn tn p 3 CO -rl tu H rd CH rd QJ P •H rd id 3 3 CD P p H 3 •P X rH QJ H P TJ in QJ vn U TJ fe H rd u tn rd 3 rd 4H •H •ri E •H 3 P •H 3 3 P •rl P rd ft r-i 0 H id rd rH rd •H •H P O P tn •P rd P rd H X QJ ft •H 3 cn 10 tn in P in tn X tn tn 3 3 •3 3 rd 3 P E u cu in X 3 rd tn rd in •H tn CO rd •H co 3cu 3 0 3 3 >1 QJ •H o 3 p 0) X P 3 3 in rd rd rd XI ft H •ri fN rd P rrt O O 0 P •H 3 p id u > tn rd X •P E rH >i P O 3 id CU rd o rd cu U tn QJ QJ 0 tn >1 P >i X 3 CU TJ 0 0 CU CU ft tu •H •H •P E 0 X P ft ft rd X 0 0 p X ft U ,* P >1 0 u tn >t b P P 3 ft P UJ UJ r-i tn r-i aj >K OJ H P rd cu 0 P tn rd CU rd p •8 •P •P rd O H H •p 0 rd >i r-i p p >i OJ SB U 3 PH U r< Q B U UJ U EH a a u u OJ X UJ E p u o < 262.

X CO o CN m CO rH in cn o o cn 00 v-H CN CN • CN Ul CJ O H rd in •uH H in 3 PQ ^ rd U . ro rH 0 >

>i P rd •H TJ P rd P Q) EcHu a 3 K 0 CN in CN cn CN O o tn P • • • • • 1 TJ in t-H m H 00 CO 3 Xtn Eo rd 3 o P 0 CO UJ p *. PQ *- TJ i tu CN P u 3 • 0 3 H -tf u CO TJ QJ 3 3 3 H 0 rd P > I u 3 P P CH CU g 0 X tn r* p •H u cu a rd m m oo m > X • • 0 QJ ^-. ro CO CJ H E r-» rH ( TJ O 0) p TJ H tn 3 rd in rd QJ UJ ^ P E f 3 ft r*- Q) P ro U rd P 0 cu in Pi w TJ rd E tu P 3 P P •H rd rd id id •ri rH E r« P rd cn P P 0 •H rd 0 tn r-i 3 rd CU CH P H in ft rH CU 3 H •H tn H 0 cu CU Ul TJ •ri X H w H p 0 3 3 3 E U H u 3 cu cu rd rd 3 cu CU Ul •H rd p TJ 0 P U X X Q E 3 CO rd rd rd UJ tn rd U tn r-i in >i •H CJ E H tn •H MH 0 H •ri X P cn p rd •ri p MH Ul -iH MH Ul cu E CN ft ord Pcu rd P ft p 3 E » tn 0 •P ft •ri 0 rd 0 ft •H tu in 0 p 10 CU cu 0 3 m cu p 0 p _! 0 rd p p tu 3 cu •H p X E p r-i P X r-i rd cn g p H 0 rH cn P CM •P r-i u rd ^i p rd •p

smithii. C australe. D. australis and T. insipida . Like other areas with higher nutrient soils, tree ferns are not common. This is a similar situation to those sites on the Tertiary volcanics on the Woronora

Plateau (see Table 9.7),

Ground cover at these sites, which are all in high rainfall locations. is generally well developed although the total number of species involved is not high (Table 9.21). The species which characterise these sites are

L. microsora, G. anceps. A. tenella and M. scandens The high altitude species. A. beckleri. is prominent at two of the sites, A similar species group occurs on the Tertiary volcanic soils of the Woronora Plateau

(see Table 9.8).

9.4 The Permian Volcanics

The large areas of Permian latite of the coastal lowlands supported a considerable area of rainforest prior to clearing, early in the nineteenth century (see Chapter 4), One large area of contiguous rainforest, the illawarra Brush', occurred in the vicinity of Kiama. and the 'Berkeley

Brush' was a smaller area to the north of Lake Illawarra. 'Fingers' of rainforest on latite occurred along the escarpment slopes to the north of Macquarie Pass, to the south-east along the Cambewarra Range, and along the inland escarpments of the Kangaroo Valley. As indicated by remnant vegetation, this rainforest was sub-tropical in character and contained the most diverse stands of rainforest in the district and in southern New South Wales. 264.

cn tu VD •H m UJ CO •< QJ 3 rd in QJ P X rl 0)N EH CH

TJ 3 p •• in CD QJ ^ 3 CD O IN > dP r~- r^ 0 r- ro in cPn ou *-•

CO u en ta QJ •H X o (N in H 3 •ri ro QJ 3 U 1 CN rd "- ro (N QJ QJ O p H P X ft 0 EH UJ UJ > U3 tn 3 tn rd in 3 •• in o in in •H m X -H id vo CN r- ro QJ 3 rH J_ rn CN o CO VD PH p ft^, H CN X rd QJ UJ UJ X P ca in cn 3 cu 3 o cn O ro cn 0 X -H -H 00 CN ro H H m p H u TJ P ft QJ 3 X rd ft rd UJ UrJd UJ ro o P O UJ X •• oo cn P H "^ ^ m • in CO in U) rd id N 00 00 o CO CO QJ tn tu E CO P rd P ^ O PQ < IH tn •• 3 QJ rd cn m in o O •H QJ X r~ CN o H 00 CO rd P \ in r- PH EH TJ (U p co o cu (N CD CO CTl tu •H 00 ro CN H rM CU u OJ OJ QJ UJ P ft EH UJ E o O o o O O o CO (N r- CD P H CN <- 00 00 m S3 id P rd - - TJ - 3 - >i- P m cn VD rd ro O QJ in >i tn ro "=. 0 >* X 0o0 H ro QJ id o r-i0 05" 0 0 0 H o PH O r-i O O 0 o id o in •ri in X in PI m > in 0J rH X H U H H H s 0 •ri rd cn O •ri P - >i - X - cn - 0 - 3 P rd •=. OJ H 3 p in UJ rd 3 ro •s To H •^ •H i id rH rd ro rd ro cd ro rd ro rd ro Sw _,• *_-• P3 S ' g — 5 *-* UJ g \4 — UrJd P cn cu p +• * CN 0 CN 4H cu PH PH PH PH & EH EH EH EH EH cn PH EH UJ UJ UJ UJ UJ QJ H QJ • * P • •8 •H 0 o CN CD

Although the rainforest was largely contiguous it was far from being floristically homogeneous. In addition, areas of non-rainforest vegetation occurred within rainforest areas. Some of the variation in vegetation community patterns on the volcanics of the coastal lowlands is shown in Fig. 9.3. Woodlands dominated by Eucalyptus tereticornis.

Casuarina glauca or Melaleuca styphelioides occur on sedimentary soils

(volcanic sandstones and floodplain deposits), while dry rocky outcrops of latite or volcanic sandstone support dense stands of Melaleuca armillaris Within these areas, rainforest only occurs on the latite members.

The sub-tropical (CNVF) rainforest on the Berkeley Hills was similar to that on other areas of latite: although little is left of the 'Berkeley

Brush' (see Chapter 4). one largely intact stand remains on Gooseberry

Island in Lake Illawarra (Fig. 9.4).

Previously, extensive rainforest occurred on the undulating topog­ raphy on the generally horizontal latite flows (eg.Gerringong area) and on the steep rocky edges of these flows (eg.Dunmore area. Fig. 9.3),

Most of this rainforest, the Illawarra Brush (see Chapter 4). has been cleared and the remaining rainforest occurs on rocky slopes and within gorges, usually on scree slopes where soil is often not visible.

The summary of survey data from a selection of stands on the

Permian volcanics (Table 9.22) identifies some of the characteristics and reveals the variation between sites. The stands are clearly distinct from other rainforest areas, particularly with regard to the following features: the high number of tree and shrub species, the high number of vine species and the lack of tree ferns. Other attributes vary 266.

VEGETATION TRANSECTS ON PERMIAN VOLCANICS

Stockyard Mtn. - Albion Park Eucalypt Woodland 400

Complex Notophyll Vine Forest 300 CNVF

Eucalypt 200- Woodland

CNVF

100- Psgb Eucalypt Woodland Melaleuca Woodland Psb < ii^-itsw Qa 5 km

Dunmore - Bombo

Eucalypt Melaleuca Woodland Closed - Shrub

150

100-

5 km

Qa,Qt :Quaternary material Psg : volcanic sandstone

Pi : Illawarra Coal Measures Psb : Berry Siltstone

Psgb,Psgc : latites 267.

_J o to -~i CO CJ 4- !_ ro E on s — >- °> _. -g ro O roc cr 3 tn ro U

< DC DC <

LU _*_ <

> z o < *-< c/) _J __ CD v£ _ ___ O cro LidJ- > OC c DC CO > CJ ; DC Q. JC UJ u CL 1— o CQ _J r3- o LU P" (/•) X CO CD CI E o o u ho- U LU CO __: < DC o r- < r- r8 LU (D "§__ « LU CJ .C QJ > (0 3 CO Q-J c._2 ro ^. § £ -g ro c/J cx =__J 268.

Key to Plant Species - Figure 9.4.

Trees and Shrubs:

Ae Alphitonia excelsa Fs Ficus superba Am Acmena smithii Gs Guioa semiglauca As Alectryon subcinereus Hh Hibiscus heterophylla Ba Brachychiton acerifolius Ma Myoporum acuminatum Bl Baloghia lucida Pa Planchonella australis Bo Breynia oblongifolia Pe Podocarpus elatus Ca Claoxylon australe Pi Polyscias elegans Cp Citriobatus pauciflorus Pp Pararchidendron pruinosum Cs Cassine australis Pr Pittosporum revolutum Ct Clerodendron tomentosum Pu Pittosporum undulatum De Dendrocnide excelsa Sb Streblus brunonianus Fm Ficus macrophylla Sr Scolopia braunii

Vines (not identified on figure):

Aphanopetalum resinosum Leghephora moorei Cayratia clematidea Malaisia scandens Celastrus australis Marsdenia rostrata Cissus antarctica Pandorea pandorana Eustrephus latifolius Parsonsia straminea 269.

considerably and are related to characteristics of the site. eg. slope and moisture availability. Decreased species diversity is exhibited at the cooler sites within the Kangaroo Valley (sites 34 and 45).

Variation in the dominant canopy species between sites is sometimes considerable (Table 9.23). Sites 20 and 32 at the base of the escarpment are particularly moist and are at a low altitude, exhibiting considerable diversity in the canopy. Site 36 on the other hand is a dry. north- facing slope, where species diversity is lower and species preferring dry conditions dominate: E acuminata. P. undulatum and . particularly.

D. excelsa . The inland sites lack a number of canopy species which are typical of the coastal sites. These include P. australis. B. luclda.

F. obliqua and B. acerifolius . Other species such as D. excelsa and

T. australis appear little affected by lower temperatures. The most prominent species at these cooler sites tend to be those which reach their best development in the moist escarpment areas, almost regardless of the soil type. These species are Pennantia cunninghamii, F. coronata.

C. moorei. C. glaucescens and E kirtonii .

The shrub and sapling species recorded at each site follow similar patterns to the canopy species (Table 9.24), That is. there is a decreased diversity at inland sites and differences in species abundance between moist and dry sites. Moist sites. 20. 34 and 45. contain species such as T. insipida, Polyosma cunninghamii. L. australis and F. corona ta. Dry sites, particularly site 36. typically have species assemblages made up of the following: C. tomentosum. D. australis and A. subcinereus . The species peculiar to stands on volcanic soils are B. lucida. £ braunii and &. huegeliana . 270.

dP *> dP dP dP dP dP dP dP dP dP dP dP o H c~ fN CO Ol in VD CN VD cn VD VD VO ID H VO H CN r- CN O r-i n O O o CO rl H - v^ 0tl1 H JJ *-* --• >i cn o tn o in in o in o m o in in in O CI) Ol CO H 00 CM H H rl ^- tn H *= rl rl H ffl > dP dP _^ n dp dP d? dP dP dP dP CO H dp dP dP dP dP in in 01 H CO VD O H H ro r~ _in n o o 0) r-. vo CO TT CO CO rl u ri ** o O r- *r O o •• H id ro CO •-o* II gv _ 01

icn r- r- CO cn O CM H CN rs • 01 <* VI) iftn _ o O CN vo in CN O O o VD VD O CN f « • vo •* CN ro CN CN CN H O o <* CN O O CN CN o **

,dP_ _dP^ ^dP, _dP^ _dP ^d_P *r H CO TJ1 VD rH vo rl 10 H CN ^r rl ro CN 00 •*. rl CO •-^ H rH *-•0fi ) w w w JJ JJ *-* 3 m O m o O in in I) H CO rl OV 4fc CN co _0! dP ii dP dP dP dP dP dp H dP in ro IN VO in O in _10. CTl 01 B H CO m H H CO •H N o ro• •H _ CN H 0 C •—,0 1 C e rn CD rl in CO cn H CN u. • r- in s rl CO H H o < rl CO CN O rl ro >CO* cu» CO CN rl o

dP dP dP dP dP dP dP dP dP P. CO oo CN •VT ro O 01 Ov CJ IN Ul O VD r- O CO CD rl H *f rH H fi01 ^* JJ Tl CO O o in in in O O in m m rl Ov Ov OV "d" CN CN n H CN « _= X dP ii dP dP rl dP dP dP dP rl in ro VD CD tn O 01 n o r- • 0) JJ VD •H 01 _s O H rl o CN ro ro CN CN H N l- 0 Tl B *»• 01 Tl in •t 01 rl •vr VD o VD in Ol iftn m CO OJ i vo OV in n r- in CO 00 O in cn• o Cu VD < o H H o CN CO CN CN o CO c~ CQ m TJ B dP dP dP dP dP dP dP dP dP dP dP dP dP dP dP dP dP dP dP dP —•. id CO OV Ol 01 Ov CO 01 rl Ol Ol VD VO 01 01 VO JJ m H in O CN CN rH o CD o T O o rl •sr cn r~ cn rl ro H CO r- o •0 fi E co o ffl O in O in o in O in in in O O in tn o o tn in in o JJ co JJ CN m CO m H ro CO Ol CO H ro H r- H H CN H H cj CM OJ cn rl dP dP dP dP dP dP dP dp dP dP dP H dP dP dP , rH m Tf n H O ro c- rH ro cn• •r l M 4 01 O CN H H CO O CO CO in O • 1) OJ U Cv) •rl 6 J- C 0) cn in _J 3 o 0 ft OJ 0ft 0 •H >1 J. ft 0) •H JJ IH tr A u OT rH rd rcl 1) U cn u U VJ N> . id c 01 id m _ 0) 0) U rH £ CJ PJ 0>0| OJ PH EH ft JJ OT O 271.

B , .C O CO o OP oV> df o\° OP dr OP OP n\° OP OP OP dP cu ,—. cu CO r-- OJ CD VO CO rM *& r^ CD 03 CD «. 00 •H OP •ri • u o 0 cn rH CD in CO cn in CTi o *. CO cn rr CD > s *—r m o cu 0 ^ rH "—' —• —' *-*• ••^ _* rH rH %_. "-* ft rH ft 0 '~' CO "-*CO rl >1 o o o m in in m in o in cn n o r~ in CTi fl CU OJ CO •^ •f CN ro CO O rH CN to CD — 00 rH _T> rH H rH CD —- CO G rH u rd fl •rl W > G • fl in ^^ ^ CO 0 •c. dP dr ^-^ co dP dP OP dP OP OP ,—N CTl (U cu H cn cn r^ cn — ro *—»—* co rH G —' *— ft ft •ri P CO "-' CO G 3 o o o o m in m o ro in to G 0 co H o CN 1— H rd - rH

r—> r— CO CO dP OP OP OP OP OP OP dP dP dP dp dP dP dP OP 01 r-v OJ A, CN CN rH CN in O u Fi '- r» ^r r- in O in r- r-H -H OP -H rd o O CN H CO O ro rH O O u CN cn CT) r^- H in CN <_ CU •8 rH rH H rH W *-"* -—^ r-i CM oH aftj H *•—• •^ Ul Tl m m O in in in O in in in TJ m O in in in in cn CTI • ^r ro CO a> 00 *. CD H in CN H in CT) rH r~- CN flT l CO (N CN CN rH H rH CO CN ^ o ^- « CN CO ro

^_. CO CO OP OP OP dP dt° OP OP dP OP dp OP rtP nV> rtP OP OP dP cu —^ CU e CO <- <- CO H rn 00 CD 00 CD o "tf 00 m CD rH r- •H dP •ri o • U O u CD CO o o o i CN (Nl ^—•• s s CN v-^ s_. v_«r- s_. •w <_*r< v_. w —" —' •—•* *—«• ^^ rH ft rH ft •3 -~—- *— CO w co H H o in rn o o in o o in o m in o in o o in ro O cn H H LO rH m r- rH CN CT) CN CN rH in cn in in rH (N CN rd •rl CN IS ffi ro H •~" CN *-' CN ro

r-s CO CO o'P dt" di" OP OP dt« dP OP OP OP OP dP OP OP dP dP cu *-v cu ? cn CO cn H CO o in CO <- rH r-- H r- •H dP •r| o U •r| O rH o <- CN H «. • u O o 00 r- co o ro CN o ro m CL) O CU rH H ro r-H rH ft H ft rd ~ w CO ^^ to & CO o m o in o o m in o o o in o o in m r- cn CN U CO CN o ro H CD rH in H ro tN rH ro CO rd rd m rH CN •—' •=. *-' S PH o CN

L0 to g G •H •H 2 CO co U_ •H CO 0 3 0 •gH rrl CO fc!e n 3 en rH cu to 4-1 fl fl p rd •rl Irl CU cu rd rd a u •H fi rfi M fl TJ CO u rC JH fl rH •H cu H CU fT. H rrt 0) rrt •p •ri •H 3 &> CH •H rd fl ft C fl C -P C ft H rd rd C rd G M 3u •cH tH 0 •rl U •rl flR rd flJ •rf rd XI H •H cn 0 •P fl •ri o P P C fl -P M P H Tl CO SH •ri IT a CO G cn ft •ri CO c Jp to 3 C 1 CO G +J o rd 3 •s 3 3 fl 3 fl CU U fl CU •ri CO c Ul ^ e rH •H 3 rd 3 rd en en rd U C fl ft u •H 3 rH rsQ 3 •H S 0 -P I TJ fi >i fl >i fl fl •r| id A Tfi 4-» 0 ft ^H CO •r| C •P ft 0 fl en r. B ft CD c Ul U e p 0 ft >i >i a) •H u 0) o to U c 3 0 0 tn en cu u CU CO rd rH H M M > p 6 a) 0 CU c CJ fl ft 0 P ft rd >i rd & 0 U •P •H •rl CJ H •rl H cu •H rM 3 •rl •rl g, cu H PJ Q Ul PJ Q l-H Ul u m u J u sC < a u Pu u W s o 272.

Ground cover on volcanic soil sites is variable (Table 9.25) and the distinction between dry and wet sites is again evident. The moister

_-iles (eg. site 20) have a higher number of species and usually have a higher total ground cover. All species are widespread and are generally not restricted to particular rainforest types. The species G. anceps. A. tenella and A. formosum do tend to be most prominent at lower altitude. volcanic soil sites.

9.5 Littoral Rainforest

The term 'littoral rainforest' is defined as those stands which have developed on sand dune deposits close to the sea. Other areas of rainforest sometimes referred to as littoral, occurring on other soil types (eg. volcanic soils on headlands) are only 'littoral' in terms of their location and do not contain species assemblage characteristic of littoral rainforest.

The existence of littoral rainforest is incongruous with commonly held notions of the requirements for the development of rainforest, as it occurs on pure quartzite sands of apparently low inherent nutrient value and water-holding capacity. However, the diversity of some sites can rank beside those stands which occur on higher nutrient soils seemingly more suitable for the development of complex rainforest stands.

This is sometimes the case with regard to littoral rainforest stands in the Illawarra.

Several theories have been suggested to explain the development of littoral rainforest. Atmospheric mineral nutrient input, mainly from 273.

co ro 0 ^-* 0 in 00 CN ro O CN rl >i fl CU 00 in cn in <_ O CD r-i rH G rM fl fl « > CO cn u <. •H C fl B o o r- rH CO to 0 cn ••— o cn CO o o in CN > c •H P m in CN co rH CN O a C 3 0 ACD flc - •rPiH s i-3 "31 en ro XI C fl P CO TJ fl o Q) ,Q CN m CN m r- r-H P cu <=. cn CN rH CO CN CJ o TJ H CD Tl rH fl CD CO CO. vD SH ro 0 4H CO CU •H Ei U O CU CO to CN 00 O CN O ft >i CN to •a O o in in CN u r-i H cu fl -H > i CN o ro u TJ C 3 e 0 eu o HH T! in in rH o to o in 00 CO O 00 0 CD •H O rH rH r-H CN CN SH C o o m in CD ro CN CN fl --' CU •ri H ro rH 3 > iH D"1 10 0 CD U CO U TJ fl fl 0) c S PJ tn 3 O fl CO CN P CD C 3 cu H u fl Ul fl rd •H cu > 3 £ CO fl U P SH Pi u •ri P P rH 0 fl Ul CU •ri c T! fl 0 rH CO C ft H cu G r-i •rio en TJ (U 0 ft •ri d) A CU -fi 0 rH ft C C fi fl u 3 _j u o •P CO CU 0 cu fl CU -P u to p c CU fl fl tn SH -H TJ U •p fl •r| 0 CJ fl X p •H CU ,fi C CO H B £ fl rrt •9 CO fl B X P H •P fl CO rH M SH Ul •ri fl UH \>i H CO PH PJ HH •J < EH ft m < 2 ft *C 0 u H CO o CU PJ a 274.

sea spray, appears to be responsible for adding significant amounts of calcium, potassium and magnesium to dune areas (Baur 1957 and Seymour

1983). However, nutrients from sea spray are only significant in areas in immediate proximity to the coast: nutrient inputs decreasing rapidly inland (Williams Si Moser 1976. Seymour 1983), Further, proximity to coastal winds carrying salt spray can also be detrimental to plant growth. causing chloride toxicity (Parsons & Gill 1968),

Sea winds also lower transpiration rates by reducing temperatures and adding moisture to these locations (Baur 1957). aiding the development of rainforest stands. Shell fragments can add significantly to dune sand nutrient levels (Beadle 1962.1981 and Webb & Tracey 1975) although they may lead to an over abundance of calcium which can adversely affect plant communities, as has happened in the Illawarra (Nott 1984),

Coastal sand dune soils are of comparatively low nutrient status and, in common with rainforests elsewhere (eg.Jackson 1968. Webb 1963). the main nutrient store Cnutrient capital') is in the vegetation itself

(Webb & Tracey 1975, Beadle 1981).

Topographic location is also important: for example, swales create fire-free sites, aid in protecting vegetation from direct on-shore gales. and positively influence moisture availability and nutrient accumulation,

Floyd (1982) looked at a number of littoral rainforest sites in southern

New South Wales and suggested that these were located in special fire-free situations, eg. Comerong Island, with obvious protection and Beecroft Peninsula, where protection is provided from severe fire incursion by the waters of Jervis Bay to the west. Locally, the littoral sites are also in similar situations, eg. Bass Point is to the east 275.

of a previously extensive area of rainforest (see Fig. 4.2) and the

Minnamurra sand spit is protected by the Minnamurra River to the west.

It appears that there is presently no single well understood reason for the existence of littoral rainforest. It is likely to be a response to a combination of factors involving moisture availability, protection from fire incursion, aerial nutrient supply and (pre-European) historical factors.

As expected, the loss of species with latitude, latitudinal sifting'. occurs in littoral as well as in other rainforest types. Species numbers for seven littoral rainforest sites in southern New South Wales are provided in Table 9.26. The location of these sites and others mentioned in this section is shown in Fig. 9.4. The loss of species numbers is most pronounced among the tree and shrub species: the difference in numbers between Gerroa (Crooked River) which has the highest diversity of any Illawarra littoral rainforest site, and Oakey Beach which is 115 kilometres southwards and is the southern limit of littoral rainforest. is 24 species. This represents a decrease of 65 percent in the number of species present. This pattern is not as marked among the vine species where the loss is 5 species or 29 percent .

Helman (1979) identified the littoral rainforest of the Beecroft

Peninsula. 22 kilometres south of the Illawarra district, as a significant southern limit of rainforest species. Although the Beecroft Peninsula is important in this regard, the prominence previously attached to it has diminished, as a result of further work carried out on the south coast (Floyd 1982. Helman 1983 and Mills 1985.1986). These stands are, however, the best developed littoral rainforest on the south coast. 276.

co cu CO in CN CD rH -rl in in m ro CN CN fl CJ to P CU cu p O ft •H EH CO to p co cu cn SH in 0 c 4H u U •ri cu fl rXJ PH r-i fl U 0 to P CN CO P cu ro •H c J •H P > fl CO CU i_ •ri to 0 to CD cu r- O "0" m co cn ft ro CN CN CO • ScHu ASH ro to p cu Ul rH flc fl rH IS Pi _ A to CO CO to to co to P p TJ CO 3 3 CD CO ro CN ^ 00 CN CU 0 CO S CIH 0 P 0 fc.CO E to fl •H rrt 0 U MH P fl fl | fi & PH rH SH 0 u C h» U 0 13 •rl fl H u rfi SH rfi . •rl iH U rH TJ H cu P U p 0 •rcl 3 H CU cu 3 cu 3 PJ CO S rfi H r* * « 0 cu 0 fl P O • to « CO CU * 3 h> 0 co k> CU m rfi 0 CD P u H rfi •» *. V SH en U CO CN fi u fl U fl cu fl E-I cu fl • G •rl SH cn fl H rH H cn cu » O 0 SH fi 0) 3 0 3 CU SH PQ • r* cn •rH Pi fl fl 0 pq CO X to cn 0 0 & SH fl cu >i PJ cu P to SH fl cu cn •rcl X •rcl rQ O CU • rH to SH H Ei fi CJ • fl fl

Port Hacking LITTORAL RAINFOREST Jibbon Beach

ILLAWARRA

COALCLIFF/ St Georges Basin

tf WOLLONGONG

Lake Illawarra

.Bass Point

k Minnamurra River

KIAMA

GERROA Crooked River

Shoalhaven fl/Ve/>»ykc_merong ff4ti Island

NOWRA JL 278.

Some of the sites on the Beecroft Peninsula are only slightly less diverse than those in Illawarra (see Table 9.26) and are atypical of most rainforest development in southern New South Wales in terms of diversity and species composition.

Littoral rainforest in the Illawarra. and on the New South Wales south coast, is limited in occurrence and extent (see Figure 9.5). Even allowing for the destruction of some littoral sites in the district as a result of European settlement, littoral rainforest development was never extensive, probably due partly to the location of the Illawarra at the southern limit of littoral rainforest.

Structurally, the stands are low-canopied with a high density of small diameter trees: vines are also prominent (see Table 9.27). Tree and shrub species diversity is high, but the understorey is little developed. The occurrence of other special life forms in the stands is quite restricted. Ferns are limited to a few of the more hardy species. there are no tree ferns and very few epiphytes are present. The ground cover is bare or composed of non-rainforest species. Following the nomenclature of Webb (1968) the stands fit the categories Notophyll

Vine Forest or Notophyll Vine Thicket.

These stands usually contain some sclerophyll elements such as the emergents Eucalyptus botryoides or E pilularis with Banksia int.egrifolia and Leptospermum laevigatum occurring within or on the edge of the stands.

There are two species restricted to littoral sites in the Illawarra:

Cupaniopsis anacardibides and Celt is paniculata , Both species are rare 279.

co cu -rl m u •H cftu > CO

to •• CU C fl I i cu SH x SH eu < H MH T3 C U .. 3 CD ~ O > OP _SH> OU w

to c_ cu CD CD ,_• •ri CU 3 CJ CN CN cu P CD En to CO M A ft U3 CO Cn in O to c •• co in X -H fl A CO co SH SH ft \ H U _3 fl fl CO CO fl i- en en C cu X -rl -H to "3" CN CN 3 H u to SH ft cu TJ _3 fl ft C CO tflo CO CO O rrt X CM 00 P fl fl N CO ro CO cu ft CN ro p fl u •=• to aj ft cu u ui •• 0 cu fl O O 4H 0) x tn r> C U -v. vo •H fl SH Ul PH cu 0 •H ro P cu 0 CN P cu CU SH ft •rl EH to rM u i >f 0 P ,_-*, in in MH H B fl < P fl a - TJ - CN C in CD m fl ^j 3 0 H o CO O to O p m H in H rH 0c •rcl tn •H 0 - C - >1 P PJ CO 0 ro SH fl ro SH in i tH EH cn PH EH Ul CO cu H CU t# P • •s •rl 0 o to a CN in 280.

in the district and do not dominate any littoral sites. Their southern limits of distribution are at Coalcliff and at the Minnamurra River. respectively (Fuller & Mills 1985). The species Syzygium panicula turn. which occurs only from St.Georges Basin in the south (pers.obs.) to

Bulahdelah in the north (Hyland. 1983). has not yet been found in Illawarra and has presumably been lost through large scale disturbance of the sand-dune systems along the Illawarra coast.

Common littoral tree and shrub species (see Table 9.28) of Illawarra sites are Cassine australis. Podocarpus elatus. Wilkiea huegeliana.

Guioa semiglauca, Glochidion ferdinandi, Endiandra sieberi and Acmena smithii . At Beecroft all of these species except f/. huegeliana. which reaches its southern limit in Illawarra. are also prominent (Helman

1979). Additional prominent species recorded at the Beecroft sites include Diospyros pentamera and Syzygium paniculatum . Species which are characteristic but not dominant in the Illawarra sites are Polyscias elegans. Euros chinus falcata and Celtis paniculata .

Comerong Island is a moister site than Bass Point: this may explain the prominence of the species Cryptocarya glaucescens and Livistona australis and their absence at Bass Point (see Table 9.28). which does not have deep sands with a normal water table level but is a small dune system blown onto a rocky headland. Nutrient input from the latite rock of the headland may explain the prominence of some sub-tropical species on the overlying sands, eg. Sarcomelicope simplicifolia. Baloghia lucida, Planchonella australis and H/ilkiea huegeliana .

The Illawarra littoral rainforest represents a dry phase of sub­ tropical rainforest types found on the latite soils of the area (Fuller 281.

cd _^ ,_ in j_ dP dP dP dP dP dP dP dP dP dP dP dP dP dP dP dP dP dP dP _ 01 •v. m •<* CO CN ro m rH ro H cn CN H CO oo rH CN Ov CO VD m# •H W • CJ (TV• , O CTl O VD CN VD rl En H in ** O VD in CO in ^- •, r- (11 1 C *-r rl _. v^ XI -H _* 0, p rl in M CM m in tn O in in in o in m in o in in in o o O in in in X! n> CN r- H ov 00 r» tn n CN CN 01 VD rH OV CO ^r V) 10 H H o H rl •-^ ro rl H _^ dP dP dP dP dP dP dP dP HP dP dP dP in O O 1- in O O VD CO CO T ro l» -- U) r~ rM rl o m H rl rl CN o CO O W CN CN e w ~ w *"•* ro ^"* *** TJ ID C JJ o in in o m in O in in m n id en H H H H r- H H V0 ro m H H ro CO rf cn at H ^ dP dP dP _* dP dP dP dP dP dP dP dP dP CO CO r? dP m ro Ol H CD rl -• CO ro O O ID 0) * VD •rl 0 r- VD i CN O in o VO vo vo o CN o CN• I) M N CN O •—, CN CN •»r OJ w *—* *-^ •—' *-, •"* »—' Uj a 6 •-• —' •— Ul CN 01 n cn (TV •vj1 VO ro VD rl r- H 01 rl m o co o 01 O o 00 rH o r~ O o oo •- u • CD o o o H o Ol 00 CN o O o o o • < fd ,_0), o _5• dP dP dP dP dP dP dP dp dP dP dP dP dP dP dP dP dP _dP 01 CN CN in in VD Ol 01 in CO 00 00 in 00 CN VO CO •H m \m • 1) <* rl rl *r H O CN CO CN o ro o O r~ T rH O r- u) rH rH H •—r *-r Ufl)i rl rl ^* *—' tn w w cn l c o O O in in o O in m m in o O m o OJ o o vo CN CJV r- CN ri. vo H in CO co CN 00 CN H ro 5 OJ H CN H H rl rl H *-, J3 CD Ul Ul dP dP tie dP dP CO CO co CO ro 0^ 0 O _• cu in JJ rH 01 in o in O O o ov ov ^t CO o c dp ,-~ dP dP dP »p dP dP dP >* dP dP •rl CN t- ^f m CN 01 O CN Ol H OJ 0 •H PH ^. ro o O C) N OJ in e u< Ul «•< CD o rH in ID r- CO o o o CN CQ O o

id •H H 0 id VH in e C 3 •H •H 0) •rl in in H U ti T) id 0 3fi 0 •H m JJ cn in in id Tfl)l •rl JJ JJ «H rM JJ id •H cd cu •rl •H cd •rl rl in c 3 cu •H m (tl •H cd rH rH in C ti H H c 0 0 •H cu rH in id l-l tn JJ id •r| id 1 CCI 0 •rl VH rH 0 id i M t> fi •rl fc c c c £ JJ id rrl 0) rM Tal M H •H nt 1J HH Tl in •H 0 cd •H u 0 rrt H cn XI rrt JJ id rH •H H JJ •H M n tn JJ C>U cn M JJ rl •M rM 0) 3_ in tn OJ M IH CD 3 in XJ cn 3 0 3 3 3 3 •H c a H id rj •rl DJ 3 rrt Cj in id X c? m 0 0 > rsd in u c Pi O*H M •ric 0 0 c_n rrt n cd •H C 0 id •H 0 J_ CI) m J, id tl 0) Tl _ rrt id CU Ui •H JJ rl OJ 01 Tl C_ u cu n •r_l u CD u H in cd C l) cn >i C •rl id n JJ rrt •H •rH 4> TJ III u ca >i >l 0. •r| 3i) •H rl rrt in 0 Ch •H 0) JJ in rH X J_ c c 0 0 tn b X c in •ri JJ >i CJ JJ 01 •rl 0 JJ in in 0a) rii •ri 0) t) JJ >l cd VJ o 0 0 H n rH JJ 0> JJ rH Ur id J5 OJ •rt H JJ Tl JJ 0 ._ l- O u cu H CU u •rl cn •H s > rH ri JJ Cn n CI) n r. a •H cd U M •H n M cd •H 0 H 0 E PH CJ PH U IS U rH 55 s CO V PH C_ 5 CJ to 0 z m W u rt o u « rt o CJ u rd to 282.

& Mills 198S). containing a number of species characteristic of the dry conditions: Alphitonia excelsa, Clerodendrum tomentosum.. Duboisia myoporoides. Papanea variabilis. Toona australis and Melia azedarach the latter two species being present but rare on Comerong Island,

9.6 Inland Vine Thickets

Vine Thickets of subtropical and tropical areas of Australia were described by Webb (1959.1968). who used the term to denote "stunted vine forest vegetation in which the canopy closes at 3-9 metres. with mostly deciduous emergents to approximately 9-15 metres" (Webb

1968), This vegetation type is common in the drier valleys falling from the tablelands of northern New South Wales (eg. Guy Fawkes

River valley) and can be termed Serni-Evergreen Vine Thicket (SEVT) in the Webb classification. In Forest Types of New South Wales. Baur

(1965) recognised a number of types within the Dry and Depauperate

Rainforest League which related to SEVT's. These are the Hoop Pine.

Brush Kurraiong and Myrtle types and a Viney Scrub which is restricted to coastal regrowth sites, particularly of Lantana camara , and does not constitute a vine thicket as understood here. Floyd (1983) also looked at vine thicket communities, indentifying a Low Closed Forest/Vine Thicket

Alliance within his Dry Rainforest Types, with a Alectryon forsythii -

Notelaea microcarpa Sub-alliance which occurs in the Macleay and Aspley

Gorges, as well as the Guy Fawkes River valley.

Patches of dry rainforest occur to the west of the Illawarra, in the valley of the Wollondilly River on the very steep slopes in the Wombeyan

Caves area. These are approximately 80 kilometres inland in a reaion 283.

with a rainfall of about 800 mm. and were noted by Cambage (1906). These patches occur along rocky stream lines and on adjacent scree slopes amongst eucalypt woodland - open woodland communities. The stands are small and generally low in species diversity, being dominated by one or two tree species. The main species are Ficus rubiginosa. Dendrocnide excelsa. Pittosporum undulatum and the vines include Cissus antarctica and Marsdenia flavescens . Backhousia myrtifolia is present but was not observed to form significant thickets as it does elsewhere.

The Illawarra vine thickets are located along the lower reaches of the Shoalhaven Gorge (34°47'S). from 40 to 70 kilometres inland. They have been discussed in relation to their value as bird habitat by

Mills (1984c). Their altitudinal range is from 50 metres to about 300 metres, although most occur between 50 and 110 metres. These rainforests are developed on Devonian and Ordovician sediments which underlie the

Permian sequences of the Sydney Basin (see Chapter 21 The patches occur in gullies as well as on steep rocky slopes, like some stands on the Permian volcanics nearer the coast. These locations provide a degree of protection from fire: the rocky ground, often with boulders. generally holds little fuel, either litter or plant growth, and thus inhibits fire incursion. If fire does enter the stand the effect is not likely to be severe and. in the dry fire-prone woodlands in which these areas occur, fire protection is critical.

The total number of rainforest plant species in the Shoalhaven

Gorge as a whole is quite high. There are 110 species (4\% of the total native rainforest species in the district), including 51 tree and shrub species. 27 vines. 22 ferns and 10 other species (epiphytic orchids 284.

and ground herbs) . The high diversity of species and the particular species present show a clear relationship between these vine thickets and sub-tropical rainforest types.

There are two main types of rainforest stands in the Shoalhaven

Gorge : Backhousia myrtifolia thickets, which can be termed Microphyll

Evergreen Vine Thickets (MEVT) and the typical vine thickets or SEVT's.

Riparian bands of Tristaniopsis laurina closed forest, often within other rainforest, also occur along streams in the gorge. In addition, small C apetalum stands occur below the Permian sandstone cliffline. where more protection is provided, moisture availability is higher and the sites are generally cooler. These patches are similar to those coachwood stands which dominate the upper escarpment slopes elsewhere in the district.

A summary of the attributes of 4 thickets in the Shoalhaven Gorge which characterise the two types of thicket, identified above is given in Table 9.29. Sites A and B are representive of the SEVT type, while sites C and D represent dry and moist variants of the Backhousia type. Characteristics of the two types are the higher number of species present, particularly in the canopy, in the SEVT's: the better development of ground cover and epiphytes on the moister sites: and. in the dry Backhousia thicket, the simple structure of the stand. The canopies of the Backhousia thickets are usually at a fairly uniform height and sometimes lack emergents of sclerophyllus or other species.

The understoreys are quite open with little shrub development. In contrast, the vine thickets are uneven in the canopy and invariably have rainforest species as emergents. usually deciduous species. They 285.

H •P CU i-n MH rH X MH 0 •rul fi O rC H in EH CQ H fl rfi z •H o tn SH roo fi *° fl » 0 dP dP c o >i rfi o O O 0 ^r H r* CD B 2 0 H U B o 1 CJ i> • 0 cn O fl ft in 4-1 rfi •ri r-i H CU CU rM ft r* fl rH s 0 U OP •ri O r-i •H o 0 rfi to U) rfi OP H OJ - EH o # XCO • CD >1 o ,-_. o rH r-H CO 4-> 4-> "rt< r* CU H rH in E m CU •—' •P UlCU s 0 u fi E 1 B •—" i CJ XI CU X • •«. 0 •H in H !-- CM CN r- ro in CN G rH ro u CJ fl •rl X SH •P b XI en C cu in •rl rH tn SH m O CM SH 0 •r| H ion rC •p cu cw o rH cu C c r* •ri tn z _ U cu o rQ •H cn flen H m rfi OP *k cu PH TJ - EH Or OP cu TJ r- CU cn o O o •H 4J 0 <=. ft CU oH in E r-i U fi X 0 0 1 B I CJ r» CU •rcl E B in • «tf H in (N o o oo o o i cn ft X < cn CO > rH l> CN cn ro m 01 o cn •rl CO SH CN m •P CO 4-> •P cu CO en CO CO tn tn iH < cu 1* cu cu ,* cu cu cu CO •ri •rl cn SH •H •r| •ri 0 CIH •rl 4J u .. u C CU u u u MH 0 .. CtJu SH fi ., cu SH .. cu SH rfi cu A) cu 4-1 CU 4-> ft CU •P ft CU 4-> u ft ft ft C >1 ft Cn > cn Pu > fir4 CP 0 U 0 Cn o 0 fl 1 cn I •ri • Ulfl •rl cu •rl U • * 4-1 CU 0 u (U 0 CU 0 u 0 0 CO U X Or HE 3 Or K OP CU I s w s s s SH fl 0 c HH c C7> >i 0 •riG IN .» rfi en 0 ft cu fl •cH 0c fl >1 •P PH .« 0) SH >i 4J •rl M >i 1 TJ •ri »« •P Cn *! ft SH SH C CU en rG H cu fl 0 cu 0 cu 0 G > cu ft fl TJ rQ •P CJ ft ft TJ 4-1 0 0 C •H 4-1 TJ c SH •rl fl •H 0 0 >i fl C CO u ft 0 EH w J EH H u CJ > w EH 286.

also have a dense shrub and vine development in the understorey. The characteristics which the two tynes share are the high density of tree stems and the generally low total basal area of the stands.

Sites A and C are typical of SEVT's and Backhousia thickets respectively and their different structural characteristics, including species numbers within all strata, are clearly evident. Higher ground cover values and the prominence of epiphytes are largely related to moisture availability. For example, site D is located along the gully of a permanent stream and epiphytes, mainly ferns, are prominent on boulders and tree trunks.

Stands at the environmental limits of rainforest typically exhibit a high tree density and low average basal area. This is the case with littoral sites and of rainforest stands on dry and exposed sites. In the lower Hunter Valley, for example, dry stands (with rainfalls below o 100mm per year) have basal areas of between 30 and 50 m'" per hectare and tree densities of between 1000 and 2000 stems per hectare (S.Vernon,

Newcastle University, pers.comm.). These figures are comparable with those recorded in the Illawarra for dry littoral sites (see Table 9.27),

The tree and shrub species recorded at the above four sites are listed in Table 9.30), The higher species diversity of the vine thickets is again evident. Backhousia thickets are clearly dominated by _?, myrtifolia with few other tree species or understorey species, except where the site is ameliorated by additional moisture (eg, site D), Common and widespread tree species are Alphitonia excelsa, Diospyros australis.

Notelaea long!folia. Ficus rubiginosa. F. corona ta. Alectryon subcinereus.

Clerodendrum tomentosum, Claoxylon australe. the deciduous species Toon a 287.

Table 9.30 Tree and Shrub Species, Rainforest Thickets, Shoalhaven Gorge. (3 = common; 2 = uncommon; 1 = rare)

Species: A.Hoddles B.Mt . C.Gang Gang D.Monarch Cliff Ph.illip s Brook Bluff (65m) (65m) (75m) (70m)

Solanum stelligerum 2 Livistona australis 2 Dendrocnide excelsa 2 Rhodamnia rubescens 2 Synoum glandulosum 2 Pittosporum revolutum 1 Elaeocarpus reticulatus 1 Alphitonia excelsa 2 1 Toona australis 2 1 Ehretia acuminata 2 1 Guioa semiglauca 2 2 Deeringea amaranthoides 1 2 Acronychia oblongifolia 1 2 Melia azedarach 1 1 Citriobatus pauciflorus 2 3 2 Diospyros australis 3 3 1 2 Clerodendrum tomentosum 1 2 1 1 Notelaea longifolia 1 2 2 1 Ficus rubiginosa 3 2 1 Backhousia myrtifolia 3 3 3 Claoxylon australe 2 2 1 Alectryon subcinereus 2 3 1 Eupomatia laurina 2 2 Rapanea howittiana 1 1 Ficus coronata 2 1 Pittosporum undulatum 2 1 Acmena smithii 2 2 Breynia oblongifolia 1 1 Ficus superba 3 Hymenanthera dentata 2 Commersonia fraseri 2 Santalum obtusifolia 1 Brachychiton populneus 1 Duboisia myoporoides 1 Stenocarpus salignus 2 1 Tristaniopsis laurina 2

No. Species: 28 21 15

Non-Rainforest Species: Angophora floribunda 2 Eucalyptus tereticornis 3 2 Syncarpia glomulifera 2 3 Eucalyptus paniculata 3 2 Macrozamia communis 2 288.

Table 9.31 Ground Cover and Epiphyte Species, Rainforest Thickets, Shoalhaven Gorge. (3 = common; 2 = uncommon; 1 = rare)

Species: A.Hoddle s B.Mt. C.Gang Gang D.Monarch Cliff Phillips Brook Bluff

Pellaea falcata F* 3 1 1 2 Pseuceranthemum varibili2 H 2 2 Gymnostachys anceps H 2 1 Adiantum formosum F 3 2 Doodia aspera F 2 3 Doodia media F 1 Lastreopsis decomposita F 2 2 Adiantum aethiopicum F 2 1 2 Adiantum hispidulum F 2 2 Pteris tremula F 1 1 Pyrrosia rupestris F 2 2 3 Asplenium australasicum F 1 2 Sarcochilus hillii 0 1 1 Dendrobium speciosum 0 1 2 Plectranthus parviflora H 2 1 Commelina cyanea H 1 Asplenium flabellifolium F 1 Urtica incisa H 1 Solanum pungetium S 1 Lomandra longifolia H 1 Lepidosperma laterale H 2 Liparis reflexa 0 2 Sarcochilus sp. 0 1 Hymenophyllum cupressiforme F 1 Bulbophyllum exiguum 0 1 Dendrobium stiolatum 0 1 Davallia pyxidata F 1

Species Numbers; 14 17

Habit: F - fern; 0 - orchid (all epiphytic); H - herb; S shrub, 289.

australis. Melia azedarach and Ehretia acuminata , Emergent rainforest species in the vine thickets include the deciduous species T. australis and M, azedarach. and Dendrocnide excelsa. F, rubiginosa. A. excelsa and. at one site. F. superba .

The numbers and prominence of ground cover and epiphyte species in these sites (Table 9.31) indicate that dry and moist communities occur.

These are represented by sites B and C as the dry type and sites A and D as the moist type.

Backhousia myrtifolia thickets are widespread and common in southern

New South Wales (Baur 1965. Helman 1983 and author pers.obs.) and. in the Illawarra they are by no means restricted to the Shoalhaven Gorge,

They do. however, reach their best development in the dry environment of the Shoalhaven Gorge area. These thickets occur at least as far west as the Bungonia Creek area (68km inland), a tributary of the

Shoalhaven. where small areas of rainforest species can be found. The number of tree and shrub species here drops to only 16. with 9 vine species being present. A dense thicket of F. coronata has developed along the gully into which the waters of the Bungonia Caves system empty. The genus Ficus has been observed elsewhere to prefer soils high in calcium, and this occurrence appears to be related to the high concentration of calcium in the limestone caves water.

9.7 Conclusions

The rainforest types found in the Illawarra district can be conveniently divided into those which occur on sedimentary soils and 290.

those which occur on volcanic soils. The detailed community types identified in this chapter are best summarised in table form and these are presented in Table 9.32 and Table 9.33. 291.

>< >1 1*—N tu cu co to CO H rH p CU 4-> p rH rH c rfi fi MH c fl ft fl ft cu ft CJ OJ 0 cu > G > fi CO E G fi E E 0 0 tu ft 0 CU -H CU .H U U SH rH •H rH SH XI TJ ft TJ CU CJ CU U r-i fl CU 0 cu > > r-H CJ u (U •p en rH 4-1 cn •n c •H C G CO l> C CO C PC, cu « 01 cn cu (cU c >1 cu c CU c 0) ^ tu tu ^ QJ Cn E fl r-i fl cn ,Q tn en fi u tn rQ cn SH 0 ft-H fl H C rd cu Bf-r. tu fl rd CU -i SH E P aSH .P •H rl H •rl r4 H tu &tu 01 r4 H Gn 0 fl SH CO fl fi ^ SH fl * r4 fl P ft SH fl O CU rj CU fl u 0) u fl __ U fl fi fl fi 0a fl rC CO ft fl s en CO H rH 2 co u o 0 co ft fl z c3 O u cu • ft cn CO P p

H u H cu >1 SH a O •P o en ft tu OOm m lie s ( OOm m •H o cu G pect s ( o CO P H r» -P >i in en CD H r~- fl>1 r-i cu •rl H -rl rifl H fl H fi H H tu SH CO SH _n H X fi• 3 1 £ ft 1 r4 I 1 fl Ul •P H •p g en cu •P SH CO •H o en o o E O CO o cu X •rl rd O -H o fl O SH O -H o C p 0 > m o *. cu 1 cu o o 0o0 o SH TJ «tf CN H in fl G 4-> 4-1 1 1 1 i C •rl CU •P o E o o o B H o o o H m •ri rij CN CD H Xi cu U CJ U U 0 Ul IN •H •rl •H •H •ri 1 CU A X rC rG A ft ft ft ft ft ft cn >i 0 0 0 0 0 cu EH u SH SH SH SH ft •p P P P P >i H 0 0 0 O 0 EH •H CO • CO CO cn tn 0 CU CU CU tu eu >i CO S _H S •p s s •ri ^* fi ^-^ ^•N # ^-. r—•• G OP <- civ" (N Cr? CD H CN r— • (D * ro 1 • oV> 0 dP O .»—s Or . ^—. CO rH r—, ". o\° CD CO CD H Or rH CD *> rH *—. *-•' or ^r CN *—.w , < u Sv° 1 H • O ,_, *~*S *"~* ov" CN •—* • OP CD 4J rH rH I rH oV> OP CD CO in CO 1 • mi -—* CO rH •rl tN CO 00 CN •ri <- E CO rH ". ,~. c E s fi•ri CD •rl dP •rl • •ri • G m tu *»-^ G ™' m tu ^-. _ CN E CD rH i> B [•^ rH H 0 rH rH CJ •ri Or S0H cn fl fl CO • fl CO ^^ fl fl rH fl *—* CO CO fl CO *—' tn B ro MH ^_^ fl cn •rl rn >H •rl tn X -- +J tu fl 4-> fl tu fl • o\° -rl SH xt-n r-i rH H 4-1 H CO rM Cn eu fl u SH tu SH fl CJ X in c CN CU MH G CU fl CO fl•r l < 4-1 •rl fl- P fl r. •H fl G fi > H CO co > H CU fl to 0 CO G CU tn •rl en SH CU rH •P G fl E 0 Cn tn E tn 0 CD fi•ri •P rH rC fl ft cu ~ B fl 3 G A fl fi fl fl G fi fl fi fl C •P u >1 SH CO CJ CU flJ P rH fl en eu SH CJ Cn rH fl fl cn rH CO fl fl 3 E-i •rl rH c •ri >i CJ •H u fl • fl TJ G TJ -P 0 •H fl •flP •H fl ftr H fl fl• H fl E CU cn fl •rl en SH fl E -P u rT fl fl SH SH E rj r-H ftr H r4 •rl G G cn c 0 fi fi 0 •rl cu tu (U fl M CU SH cu fl fl cn rd •H fl CO cu 0 +J CJ 0 0 SH cu o fl o •P cn ft B u O ft O E o E rH MH CO G G 0 4-> fljf i >I C 0 C 0 0 0 rC 0 rC 0 0 cn fl •rl •P •p r—| •rl fl tn o xftj fl U cn u ft SH fl CO fl rd N -p ft ft N O C •ri c CO •ri ti •rl H U X G u G TJ cu c en TJ fi G C O fl ft SH fl ^ ftH cu 4-J & > 0 •rl SH X >1 SH A CU rf0 G G c •ri cn 0 •rol E MH ft •o rl •r| 0 CU CU •rl O rHfl fl 1 H H H 1 H r4 fl fl fl tu fl cu fl U CU U 0 u •P U P 4-1 •rl •H •rl •ri •rl fl fl ft fl P cu fto E ri ft0 ft0 0 SH CO rd ft cu SH SH SH g CU •P A •P •EH E>H1 Eft XP •P fl ft H •9 •9 Tempe r • • CO 1 cu G War m co EH U EH co Ul CN H &H CO fl CM fa • SH cu > cn fi P>H ft fa E_ ' cu •UP >1 ^ ^ r>> g OH En CO •a 2 § 1 s s ir4 cp o 292.

tn ^_, fi >i p ft r-H tu Cn CU fi fl Cn 0 Cn cOJ 0 4-> SH H rH • >1 tu B >H 0 0 0 > TJ ft o CU t_) CU U 0 SH Cn TJ tu fi ff eu G c cu p fl C 0 C SH C U ^-^ U *-. fi fi CU P i rQ 0 tn 0 CO rfi r-i p P > > CU Ol p en -P cu XI TJ fl S fl ia G rH fl C rfi CU rfi tu fl cu cn en •a u o fl cn MH SH fl rH CO •rl H tu x TJ _: MH * E SH H cu 0 SH CO flH SH fl > •H •rl fi 0 •P S C A Cn H fl 0 CU fl 0 tu TJ u _) CU H Z ca rfi rfi fl fl fl Cn SH > P tu u tu PQ CJ •—' CO ca *-' CO co o rH X Ul •rl o ft *- K Cn TJ C fl >1 tn CO •P cu CU CO CO MH o o o o •H ft ft 0 o cu o cu H o o 0 ro p ro p o H •rl rH •rl •H •P CO tn cn CD CO tn 1 • >1 H 1 i P r•aH P tu IH SH SH CO 1 "s O O CO CU o cu o cu •H O -H O O •H •rl •H •rl o o 0 O rH m no H H H SH 0 SH H Q rH s ro H P P rH ES a E E E O o CU o o in TJ ro rH fi o • P E i 1 VO o •H E o o o o •P o o ro in in CN ro 0 0 U u U IN •rl •rl •H •H •ri CU rG X ft •a o ft ft >i -a 0 0 EH 0 U SH SH SH P 4-1 p o 0 0 •H P 0 SH CO O 0 CO co P cu cu CO CD cu •H 0 a a a co tu OP OP CN • OP OP OP a in rH co ro 00 • • • CD OP '-' >* CN CN —' ^-» ^^. rH _*• *_• ^_* rA» oV> • E E CO -tf ". E G fl fl fl fi • • *•-*• G fl fl rH •rl fi rH r^ vo rH •rl •ri fl rH •H •ric flH "-' W fl flrH rH fl co P 0 rH -P — fl P G O 0 CO •ri 1 •ri X CJ P 0 CU fl £ tn Ul E 0 CU en H >1 rH H Q) fl cn ft CU p E£* •ri •rl G 0 •rl fl fis E E fl u G G >i rH rH Ul CO r-H CO CO rH SH tu H CM £ fl fl fl EH fl fl fl ft fl fl ft fl fl P TJ TJ Cn •P •rl 0 0 -P o fl fl •P U •rl -rl CO •ri CU cn H U H •ri •ri O CO •rl CU •rl U I •P rfi •p 4-1 •p rfi rfi SH SH •H fl -P P ft fl fl ft flr * tn CO fl & fi fl o X r5 C TJ •rH CO CO U _2 SH o •ri •r| SH o •ri rT 0 CJ o 0 C r-H fi SH n •rqi QJ CU fl H CU fi G 0 eu rH A fl 0 CU CU CJ PQ EH EH CV EH PQ PQ EH p ft dP u U w p U a P CO *- H fl tu cu CU 0 p U u •P 4-1 p •H fl 0 fl fl •rl SH fl ft P 4-1 CU SH u SH SH O \ tu CU c cu p & CU SH fi E P 3 £ fl CU fl 9a o fl cu g£ XI •H EH Es EH * EH Es fl CU fi CuM H Ss EH CO ro Ufl SH CT) 3 eu •P ft ft EH o >i ft Z Z EH CO CO •9 s CO CO EH p CO 293,

TJ C fl cu tn u *->• c >i r-i tu tn fl u 0 SH u H 0 CO G 0 •P tu u CU -P c u •H fi o-*"__u" rQ TJ

P ft >1 _J C •p o •rH •H o H ro >1 (U •H rH fl SH rQ U G fl 1 ft 4J H CO en •H O •H fl O fl 0 > OJ QJ a ft rH CO

CU TJ G P •H E P o H CN < U •rl D rfi •a (U ft ft 0 •rH >1 SH fl EH P > 0 fl rH tn •ri •H CU 0 H u Ul 1 ov° •P ro ^-* .-. MH • Or dP 0 CTH ) in• CD• dP ^"J N LO r> r-i H H • dP fl fl^"-•t N VHI U •P rH • •rl fl tn •rl —' CTi ft CJ G SH *—' >1 H •p cu fl P .—. fl flr Q CO •H 00 tu fl MH H CU 0 •rl CO CD tu •rH C ,G TJ CD ft cu cn cn cu •p C rH >i u G CO > •H fl >^ C fi fl B P EH fl •H ft SH fl Ul CO X2 U H rfi u TJ cu 43 •r| fl u fl fi fl fl SH 0) CO o flH C 0 Es MH CO 0 0 •H CU 0) MH •ri fl SH TJ TJ •P E SH U XI G O fi 0 u C CU W ft < CU P CU w z > MH ft dP •H fl CO ^ Cn >i u fl Cn fl cu O •P •H H g P H •rcl o •H EH fl u U •P •H flCO cBu CN H rQ PQ EH ro fl • S4 tu CT) G ft 0) •p EH CN rH u X fi fl M •P EH CO 294.

•P cu CO ctu c p ,-, CO tn CO tu E 0 tn ^ fl CU rH tu 5>1 cu •ri ft -P c tu 0 CU -P fl P rH p rH SH CO cu P O SH -H •P •rl SH •ri rH fl TJ ftE •rl U fl 4-1 CO P tu p G o c S4 P CU fl fl fl rfi rd Cn CO fl fl fl CU rg grH 0 •P i-Q CO CJ rQ *r-^W £rQ cu u SH CO CO fi >1 fl 0 c u CU fi 0 fi rH SH Cn tu b Cn fl MH CO fl H cu c SH Cn E fl c cu c fl 0 \ C -rl 0 ft -H p •rl •rl 5 0 TJ •H SH H fl -H E rl E ft CJ £ ,fi 0 Cn c £ G 0 E rl C CU fl fi cu cu fi •P rH TJ fl fi u tu rd SH cu CO CJ cu CU ft OJ 0 fi r-iC U u CJ -H cu ft fl cn ft -P tn ft 0 MH PQ fi ft o •~*' _> O w CQ W — CO fl ft 0 H "*—'

CO tu ft >l co cn 0 B ui p o o cu O H O CO o cu •rl cu Cn O tn o tu H *. O ft o a o SH H ro -H CU -H «_ o CO 0 rl CO O rH H Cn 1 TJ G H H 4-1 SH P Cn tn tI.-an O tu o o >1 O tn I •H O •H o •rl o S4 O >i m H tu CN SH P __ SH 0 H > P a P o cn o -H E E E E •* o •H E O 0 tu o o o cn o o CO TJ CN CN o o o u CN CN •a1 •H B SH C •ri 0) o fl p TJ u H C o r-i 3 ro 0 CN > CU u o U U U •H •ri •rl •H •ri cn rfi rfi rfi tu EH ft ft -ft ft 0 0 0 0 U U SH >i SH SH •rl P •P P H 0 G G P P >i CO W w fi fi p 3 w W •ri ^^ G d? ^ dP fi ,—* OP ro dP CD OP o\° CT, • CO • CD l> r-s dP • ro • O 0 *"—s • CO rH OP dP ro d? in U o\° r> rH —•—'^ ro en • "—O ' ^ CN rM ,—, OP ro •—«• •—• • • T *~* CO . _r rfp _) P cn o ro ^ d>0 E fi ro "tf cn CO CO E c *-. H r- _ O 3 •ri -C* -H • ^~ cn tu *-* -H OP -^ • 10 rH ^ -rl H # ^ r-H ro fi cu — E SH o cn 3 CN o 0 en rH CO fl fl rH cn • Ul fl +J W +J MH fi fl fl —- • cn 0 .-* tn CD fl •rl SH cu CN fl tn fl c C •ri fl in rfi ^t" fl MH dP rH •P r-^ 4-> o rH M rH H fl cu SH fl rH in in rH Cn -rl *-" u C m cu tn OP CU w l+j QJ fi •P CU •ri 0 •H H (U C CU MH • U G E •H G ro ft fl fl O TJ fl 0 O C m rH in CU u -rl SH CO fl rd o X fl H •H tn C C P fl 0 •rl fl •rl 0 X C 0 •H tn CU fl in tu • fl Cn •ri tn CXU 3 -rl fi SH H X (U C 0 rH in ft •*^ o ft CU fl CO A fl E £ fi •H P fl cu 3 E fl fl fl >1 r4 tu H CN E fl P tn tu £ 3 p 0 H tn ^4 0) U SH- cn SH • TJ r-i fl >i •rl TJ 3 fi •P fl 3 -P fl TJ fl P EH fl -- r, u XsI SH ft •rl cu ft p SH E fl •ri SH fl TJ •ri en fl CO •ri •rl fl H CO fl fl U H ft fi ft fl in fi 0 C A en fi G C •rl H G ^4 CO c 0 cu 0u ft fl CU fi fl CU fl 0 CJ •P tu fl 0 Ss •H fl CO o o o 0o A ft 0 fl rfi 0 •ri TJ >i rH SH •P 0 C C MH tn cn A fl r4 CO •p C ft M 0 -P 0 CU •rcl fl •ri rl fl 0 fl •ri fl CO CJ 0 A XI ft rH G TJ G •p ft cu >i TJ •P 1 SH C •P SH CU fl •ri to 0 ft fi C 4-1 0 & H u fl E u H CU •rH CU r-i SH 0 CU •rl rC H SH 4J CU 0 0 0 CO SH 0 SH SH SH •p S4 •P >1 •P p ££ XI p SH •§ XI •H EH G •§ P fi •§ H Ul CO co rn CO CO U ro ft ft H • fl CT) ft ft SH ft CU 3 CU H •P ft rQ O >H u U u fl p EH CO cn cu x P X fiCn eu H fl 3 fl CO fl ft u CU (U r-, fl TJ CU 4-1 U --« CJ X c •>, r4 X 4-1 O 3 -H fl >i SH SH cu cn U fl G r4 O fl fl CU fl -P •H SH H SH TJ C rQ fl P 3 0 (U SH -H _ tu ft 0 SH E U u u cj ft U U ft us ^- fl w cu O — P EH CO U ca cu G fl ft E cu •P o E -P •H ._ rH o O fl rH CO TJ (U -H o CcUn r-ito O r-i U rH CO TftJ I CU fi I CU P H •P & CO tn -H O rH o o O •rl fl O CU TJ O o > O ft in <* A fi CO X a < H CO fl rH ft E E E cu o o o TJ o 3 o o p m 03 in •rl O •P o o o cn "5. m ro in

IN CU u u U •ri •H •ri rfi rG EH ft ft ••a 0 0 0 •H SH iH SH O p P •P CO G fi fi W H ft

d" r-< d,° OP CD ,-» dP r> cn dP OP r- in OP o ro. C•D "* OP O s— w ". tN CD rH -, CN •>. • dP r^ M • +" rH — dP *-* • i> co tn d." ^" ro «-' r- co rH • C in ro £ •rl • E r-H »-- co eu • -rl _, 3 •ri •H co 3 •^ rH O CN -rl rH •ri r0 rH CO w CO ^™^ E CO fl £ fl£ -* rd en fl cu fl fl• p flrf i •P fl SH fl fljf i SH rfi tr. in SH MH 4-1 3u Cn MH ftcu Cn fi •rl ftcu M H fl fl fl•ri c fi fl fl G •H rH ft? fl CO > rH U -rl CO •H fi fl to CU fl CO 0 Cn G C CO £ G c ^4 E en ft CU fl fl c fl 3 G fi •P G fl >i r4 tn fl flrH G en rH fi u in rH en EH fl •H >i CJ fl U 3 fl fl SH M fl fl• P fl flp fl CJ r-i rl CU fl•r l fl SH CU fl• H cu M •ri fl 0 E o •P S 0 ft E •P fl ft 0 MH Ul rfi 0 0 fl tn XI 0 tn fi cu 0 A •ri fl ft N •p E 0 ftP 0 fl c 4-1 ft U XI >H •H ft 0 >> >1 fl >i fi fl fl >i CU SH rfi >1 ftrH SH SH H c 0 SH SH ft dP 0 u SH 0 0 CU 0

fl i •SPH fl ftSH CJ •H En X -s Stu % 3 cu CU 11. U EH CO I EH ro fl cu fl ft ft ro SH Ss EH CT. 3 tu > > P (U ft ft ft rH u EH Z p CO •8 CO EH 296.

P-X&Pm

PLATE 5 The south-facing slopes of the Illawarra Escarpment at Barren Grounds. Note the topographic benches. This is one of the few locations where rainforest covers the whole escarpment face. 297.

PLATE 6 The Robertson Plateau south-east of Robertson. The hills are of Robertson Basalt and support remnants of the 'Yarrawa Brush'. The lower, forested lands are of lower fertility sandstones and shales and have not been cleared. 298.

PLATE 7

The Permian volcanics (latite flows and volcanic sandstones) south of Lake Illawarra. The vegetation is a band of sub­ tropical rainforest (CNVF) on the exposed edge of a latite flow. The latter is being quarried at the bottom of the photograph. 299.

jy^&cr ^>

:, 0:

PLATE 8

Typical slope on latite supporting sub-tropical rainforest (CNVF). Note absence of soil and ground cover plants and the abundant vines. Photograph taken at site 25, Curramore. 300.

PLATE 9

Deep gorge of Gerringong Creek (site 31) at the head of the Kangaroo Valley. Rainforest in this area is dominated by Ceratopetalum apetalum and Eucryphia moorei. 301.

CHAPTER TEN

CONCLUSION

Introduction

The Illawarra rainforests represent only a small part of the overall distribution of Australian rainforests (see Figure 1.1), However, hevond their intrinsic interest and value, these rainforests are of particular importance for understanding the floristics. distribution, structural differences and environmental controls of Australian rainforests in general. Firstly, the Illawarra rainforests contain a number of the major rainforest types. Secondly, some of these are at or near their limit of distribution. Thirdly, they are in a region with a wide range of environmental conditions that influence these forest types and. therefore, the effect of these conditions can be readily examined.

Thesis Summary

The description of the regional setting in Chapter 2 demonstrates that the Illawarra district is a distinct region of south-eastern

Australia, both geomorphologically and climatically. This distinctiveness has lead to the occurrence of a major concentration of rainforest vegetation in the district, at least as far as south-eastern Australia is concerned. Indeed, the Illawarra contains the southern most of five major rainforest concentrations in New South Wales, 302.

A review of the literature pertaining to the rainforests found in the Illawarra (Chapter 3) has shown that this vegetation type was not known in any detail and in fact many misconceptions had been recorded over the years: not the least of these was in relation to the pre-European extent of the rainforests. Exaggerated claims about the extent of this rainforest occur throughout the literature and no systematic investigation was undertaken to delineate the area originally covered by rainforest.

Using historical evidence, an understanding of the environmental requiremnents for rainforest development in the district and the evidence of existing vegetation patterns, the Illawarra rainforests are shown to have been far more extensive than they are at present (Chapter 4),

The Illawarra still contains the greatest concentration of rainforest vegetation in southern New South Wales, and the present distribution of this rainforest is indicative of its historical distribution. This fact is regarded as important, validating the use of the selected survey sites to make statements about the types and occurrence of rainforests in the district.

The reconstruction of three major concentrations of rainforest indicate that the area of rainforest in the district was originally over 23.000 hectares. The three major areas of rainforest have been termed the Illawarra Brush, the Yarrawa Brush and the Berkeley Brush. and covered areas of 12.000 ha. 2450 ha and 1600 ha respectively. About

70 percent of the original rainforest was contained within these major concentrations. The rainforest has been reduced in the past 200 years to approximately 5700 ha, a decrease of about 75 percent. This remaining 303.

rainforest represents approximately 3 percent of the area of intact rainforest in New South Wales.

An examination of the rainforest flora of the district (Chapter

5) demonstrates that it is more diverse than anywhere else in south­ eastern Australia, but less so than in areas to the north, A loss of species with increasing latitude is clearly demonstrated, where the

Illawarra is only part of an overall pattern of decreasing diversity southward. Similarly, the Illawarra is one of a number of 'distributional nodes' in southern New South Wales, which are widely separated locations where significant numbers of species reach their southern limit, with values ranging from 15 to 18 percent of the total rainforest flora at each. The location of these 'nodes' can be explained by the occurrence of high nutrient volcanic soils and high average rainfalls.

The inventory of rainforest species provided in Chapter 5 is regarded as important for this and future studies of the floristics of the Illawarra rainforest and of areas further south. Within the district. subtropical, warm temperate and cool temperate floristic elements have been recognised. The district contains a significant southern outlier of the subtropical-type rainforest and the northern extent of the

Eucryphia -type cool temperate rainforests.

Considerable detail is given in Chapters 7. 8 and 9 on the distribution of and variation within the rainforests found in the district.Chapter

7 identified the major rainforest types found in the Illawarra, These are based on structural-physiognomic characteristics and floristics.

The results of the analysis of the floristic data identified rainforest 304.

types and species groups based on the canopy species, understorey species, ground cover species and vine species.

Chapter 8 investigates the major environmental factors which influences rainforest occurrence and rainforest type. Soil type, and more specifically nutrient status, and altitude are identified as the major factors influencing rainforest type, while rainfall, soil type and fire were found to be the major factors determining the actual distribution of rainforest vegetation.

Chapter 9 gives considerable detail on the rainforest community types in the district, providing more specific information than the previous chapters. The major occurrences of rainforest are described and detailed descriptions of community types and their constituent species are given.

The present chapter synthesises these detailed results into an ecological model of rainforest occurrence in the Illawarra. bringing together the environmental, structural and floristic characteristics of the Illawarra rainforests.

Relationships with Rainforests Elsewhere in Australia

The Illawarra rainforests are part of a continuum of rainforest development, which ranges from the highly diverse tropical rainforests of northern Queensland to the simpler, cool temperate rainforests of western Tasmania. The rainforest communities of the Illawarra are not particularly distinct from rainforests elsewhere. However. 305.

the combination of rainforest types occurring in close proximity in the Illawarra. and the numerous species at or near their limits of distribution, make the Illawarra district of special interest.

Subtropical, warm temperate and cool temperate rainforest elements are found in the Illawarra district (see Chapter 5). Subtropical rainforests are found from the Illawarra to northern Queensland (Allworth

1985): warm temperate rainforests are largely confined to New South Wales but do extend into northern Queensland on isolated uplands (Floyd 1985): and the cool temperate rainforest is found from the Queensland border to Tasmania, with Eucryphia moorei-do\n\T\a\,&d rainforests occurring from the Illawarra south to the Victorian border (Mills 1985b),

The district contains the major southern outlier of subtropical rainforest: there are only minor occurrences further to the south, at

Milton and Mount Dromedary. These correspond to the southern extremity of the A^ (mesotherm) floristic province of Webb et aL_ (1984), This subtropical/warm temperate province has its 'core area' in the vicinity of the Queensland - New South Wales border.

Within the district the major Ceratopetalum apetalum warm temperate rainforests in southern New South Wales can also be found, although this species does occur as far south as the Batemans Bay area (36° 00'

S). This type is within the A^ floristic province of Webb et aL_ C1984).

The warm temperate - cool temperate mix of the C apetalum and

Eucryphia moorei forest types of the district is also significant as only a few additional areas occur outside the Illawarra. to the south in the northern Budawang Ranges (35° 15'S). In the Illawarra district these 306.

stands are common on the higher elevated parts of the plateau. The district does contain the northern limit of distribution of E moorei the dominant species of the cool temperate rainforests of southern New

South Wales. These stands contain some of the elements from the A3 (microtherm) province of Webb et al_ (1984). which these authors identified as occurring from an area south of the New South Wales-Victorian border to Tasmania. Examples of such species include Coprosma puadrifids and

Elaeocarpus holopetalus (Webb et al_. 1984. p,180).

Stands of littoral rainforest, near the southern limit of their range in the Illawarra (Floyd 1982). are minor in their extent. These rainforests, restricted to coastal sand deposits, have been largely removed since European settlement. The few remaining areas are clearly related to the subtropical element, floristic province A^ (mesotherm) of Webb et aL_ (1984). Littoral sites usually show a particular species assemblage, although this is not as marked in southern New South

Wales. Baur (1957.1965) described two littoral rainforest types in Mew

South Wales within his Dry and Depauperate League: the Cupaniopsls anacardioides type, which occurs on deep sands and a Headland Brush type which is dominated by Lophostemon confertus. occurring on exposed headlands. The former reaches its southern limit in the north-eastern corner of the district while the latter does not occur as far south as the Illawarra.

Floyd (1983) recognised five Sub-Alliances within a C anacardioides

Alliance in his Dry Rainforest Group. The littoral rainforest stands in

Illawarra and on the south coast at Beecroft and Murramarang were placed in an Acmena smithii - Ficus spp. - Livistona australis - Podocarvus 307.

elatus Alliance. The tree species which particularly characterise the

Illawarra stands (see Chapter 9) are Euroschinus falcata. Endiandra sieberi. Podocarpus elatus and Celt is paniculata.

At the inland extremities of the district 'dry rainforest' stands occur. These fit into the category of Semi-Deciduous Vine Thicket (SDVT) of Webb (1968). This community, and a Backhousia myrtifolia thicket

(Microphyll Vine Thicket. MVT). can be recognised in these areas (see

Chapter 9). The stands are at low altitudes in the Shoalhaven River gorge with rainfalls of less than 1000mm per year and at distances inland ranging from 45 to 70 km.

These vine thickets are part of a latitudinal sequence of the vine thicket type rainforest vegetation occurring in the drier valleys and gorges falling from tableland areas throughout the eastern highlands.

The SDVT type has not previously been recognised as occurring as far south as Illawarra (35°S), Helman (1983) recognised a Backhousia myrtifolia, Acmena smithii. Dendrocnide excelsa Simple Notophyll Vine

Forest at inland locations in the Tuross River area at a latitude of

36° 20'S (her Community-type 13). This is the equivalent of the vine thicket types further north, but is of reduced species richness. In the Tuross area only one deciduous element remains. Ehretia acuminata. although there are many other species in common with the vine thickets of Illawarra (see Section 9.5.2),

The vine thickets of the Shoalhaven River gorge are dense, low- canopied stands with the emergents Toona australis, Melia azedarach.

Ficus rubiginosa. F. superba and Dendrocnide excelsa (see Section

9.5.2). These vine thickets are clearly subtropical in character 308.

and are related to other areas of rainforest nearer the coast

(eg. drier sites on volcanics near Jamberoo). The Shoalhaven Gorge stands are characterised by their 'thicket' character, their dense, low canopies and their deciduous emergents.

The Illawarra rainforests thus have affinities with rainforests that occur over much of eastern Australia. They are. as suggested on a number of occasions above, part of a spectrum of rainforest types occurring along coastal eastern Australia and represent one of a number of regions which contain significant concentrations of rainforest vegetation ( at least before European settlement) and a transition-overlap zone in major rainforest types. •

Developing an Ecological Model

The district's rainforest types, based on the structural-physiognomic classification system of Webb (1968). are summarised diagramatically in

Figure 10.1. These broad patterns in rainforest structural types are consistent with those described by Webb (1968). where struc­ tural types are particularly influenced by soil type and mean tem­ peratures. These two variables represent the major environmental gradients operating on the Illawarra rainforest vegetation, deter­ mining both the structural and floristic character of rainforest, stands.

The importance of soil parent material ( and its inherent fertility) in influencing rainforest type is well recognised, both on the broad scale

(eg. Webb et al_ 1984) and in regional studies on rainforest (eg.Floyd

1982, Helman 1983. Fox 1983 and Bywater 1985). Stand characteristics of 309.

< DC oc < < _J — AiisiGAjQ oi}Suo|d $ |Bjnionj}S Bujseejoui

°°- -1 H H z _ < < c i1i -J " < iD CC u_ D . H i? j _• 3 O •!mt =) 13 *_F: 20 ^ «3 ) U. .!S /J o :iT1J ) z :J o J= mmm 1- D CQ MM OC H CO _•_•• o Q spn.mv UJ CO _•_• _J < OC til HzI o 310.

rainforests are also associated with differences in mean temperature. influenced both by altitude and. on a broader scale, latitude. Changes in the character of rainforest stands with increasing altitude have been demonstrated, for example, at Barrington Tops (Turner 1976). on the south coast of New South Wales (Helman 1983 and Floyd 1982) and. on a continental scale, with increasing latitude (Webb et aL_ 1984), Such a pattern has also been described for areas in the tropics generally

(Richards 1981) and on the island of Jamaica (Grubb & Tanner 1976), The importance of these two environmental gradients in the Illawarra has been stressed throughout Chapters 7. 8 and 9 of the present study and reinforces and expands the findings of recent work for part of the Illawarra by Bywater (1985).

Bywater (1985) demonstrated a link between soil nutrient conditions and rainforest type in the Illawarra. He also suggested that climate. soil moisture and soil nutrient status played the most important roles in determining rainforest structural complexity. He did. however. underestimate the importance of mean temperature, related to altitude. in determining rainforest type. Results here have shown that the type of rainforest at any site is largely a response to soil nutrient status and mean temperature, whereas the extent of rainforest is related to the supply of adequate rainfall and the interaction of fire with the site. Locally, any one of these four factors may be the most important in determining the initial development, the maintenance and/or the floristic composition of the stand.

Decreasing soil nutrient status and decreasing mean temperature

(due either to increasing altitude or to increasing latitude) are 311.

responsible for decreasing the richness of plant species and the structural complexity of rainforest. Although it is mean temperature which cab be identified as an important influence on rainforest type. the actual feature of temperature having the most effect is probably the minimum temperature reached. Rainforest structural types tend to change from complex to simple along both of these gradients (Fig.10.1).

While the influences on the floristic and structural character of rainforest stands, in the Illawarra and elsewhere, are more complex than can adequately be displayed by a simple model based on two variables

(see Chapter 8). such a model can account for the major variations observed in rainforest community types in the Illawarra district.

Analysis of rainforest soils in the Illawarra district (see Chapter 8) has identified three main groups of soils: those with high concentrations of all nutrients but conspicuously low in Al: those high in Al but low in almost all other nutrients: and those soils which are high in Ca but lower in most other nutrients. These soil groups were associated with Complex Notophyll Vine Forest (CNFF). Simple Notophyll Vine-Fern

Forest. (SNVFF) and Mixed Notophyll Vine-Fern Forest. (MNVFF) respectively.

These results indicate a clear link between rainforest type and soil nutrient status, a pattern identified by Bywater (1985). although he did not look at Al in his soil samples. The positive association between soil concentrations of available Al and the prominence of Ceratopetalum apetalum in a stand was established, and Al and Ca concentrations were found to be responsible for differentiating rainforest soil groups.

Two dominant types of rainforest have been identified in the

Illawarra (see Chapter 7): those of warm temperate character occurrina 312.

^•s #^. 2 .. 2 K- S \r.O a s O 3 ^ _; ^ to •* *• (0 s n S||OS H » '_ (B 9!ll D H -SS • .5 «_ Q- "S c • ^ «C Q. C DjU_D|OA auoispues > a o o ,Y *• *» -s LL fc. to ._. UH-. fc.m ho •-c• LL O fc. T; > o> a a >2 UaJ Oo> .QS C2O o m o CO < A -i cr C'Ot *S!J 99S 00 0J 3 c _J cn t/1 < 1— < a <—* u_> £ cr Q _) r- h= i co F= 2 4* 10 ~i «-N 5 10 i- H- (1) fc. 25 2 CO (0 o (0 (0 Q. S|!os silos t- CO Q, to co •_< _> fc. «Q_J O UL 4oM p. a (r0 (0 o c LU U_ fc. DIUi2D|OA Apu.g LL O CO •oc DC > 0 0> 0 Q, > 4_ •_: •a. mena VFF(W T ratopeta ^v 2 z CO O Q Z ._! o 2 Z 0) « ofc. Q) o o CO o ^ Q CO K CCQO o •o LL *-s cc c/l a Z r- DO' CP o-i co _ C < d « O) Q_ r- 2 5 _i Hi H o Urn _) c =£ O u ••_ Q. TO V) a co v^ C tfc.J > a V OJ CO QJ LL 0 c r- > o fl)o Q 5 Q> un K Q ^ *"s a CD fc. z u. 2 CO Q. co S 2 CC 4_ o fc.C O ^ £ 0) a w a m SIPS CO a c "co "^ — .2 _* 0 o0 LL 4o_ •c o *_ Apues •c 52r- fl)^ * > CO o JC a> z fc.o o Coo CO 0) Kfc. CC QO Q. LL ** N CO o o .LL _«;0 J":2 •fto* > a> o a I*_ 2 O to CD (D 2 ^s fc_ 2 1- Q> C/l +J ^ a OCO U S»r o CO 0> CO CO c a. o a UJ CcD < (A x '< __ E c_ > 1 0 CO o Xo ^ CD -J z ^> t- 2 CO h- «_(>4 o 5= a < >m* •0e _J \- ' « > o LU 2 (0 DC

Aj///jiia_/ //os Bujsesjoui 313.

CO <*^ »» ^» 6 cc S cc T™ c•o- 75 CN co > > *- CO d «_ e "• 2 Q) fc. H- co Q. 0 *- 5 _, £ 0) o « LZ *~> w .5; CLL CaO *J-O *»Q . n m 0 su- o. JrCI% Jr0 cu >U- t0o Q«. 2 CO O Q 2 < to - 2 2

i^ c/l 60 0) OJ Urn GO C 3 ^ "175 3 4-J 4-tf>l Rj I— a; _. 0) 1— AR R ecre a CL u a) OEJ Q a_> < 1£- _j •3^ ^s 2 OC i co to cc s c c .2 5 l!OS _: saijS J— co I- O (Q RJ co 5 a> CO DIUBDIO/V |E}S_03 A LU > *- '_: =: >_» 0 c P" § g s > g Q) LL ** to •? DC _- & fl) a 2 -1 U. 0 oLL > u. a. o £ 1 § > .52 a % Z > s1 ss z ._; 0 lo < o i 2 U. Q. O rOL- *§!_ sas TOL '§!_ 99 3 2 P E F asin g a >- OJ — *_ *_ '•- _ 'o _J — < 2 0) O •S CO Q. to CC _s fl) o fc. \- co to a 0 Qc_c w "2 O » ID >LL JO -0a) _ _(j 5 CO z a o c z U. CQ Q. X 1— £ CO c/i o _) HI P CO Dry e o • I- < r-S Q) a LU cc "S o (sjuaaupas) cc (spues) £§§ffl DC SUOjJBDO"] 1- sails ^ 5 'a *_- CO ~ s-11 |BJOM.n pUB|U| P 1_| •§ CC « to «_ si« > S o « Q oo m gt -Cu8. USJ U1l LL 2 > -2 _J z? "S g gels r 0 a ,e

/1 W //oc fi/fooa toil/ T5/J+" 3 1/^'O ** 314.

on sedimentary soils containing, and usually being dominated by,

Ceratopetalum apetalum (Coachwood): and those of subtropical character which most often occur on volcanic soils. Rainforest communities vary- along a number of environmental gradients and. although these two maior floristic types can be identified, there is a continuum in rainforest development along any one gradient. The use of these two broad floristic types can be usefully employed in discussing relationships between the district's rainforests.

The relationships between the Ceratopetalum apetalum-tyoe ram- forests are shown in Fig.10.2 (see also Table 9.32). Variation in the community types is- largely due to differences in mean temperature as these rainforests are almost exclusively on soils derived from sedimentary rocks (see Chapter 7).

The relationships between the subtropical-type rainforests are shown in Fig.10.3 (see also Table 9.33). As with the C. apetalum-type communities, differences in mean temperature have a profound effect on subtropical community types. These subtropical communities occur on a variety of soil types, but reach their most diverse development on volcanic soils (see Chapter 9).

Concluding Remarks

Although severely depleted in extent. the Illawarra rainforests hold a position of particular interest in the overall occurrence of Australian rainforests. This thesis has. for the first time, described in detail the rainforests of this district of New South Wales and explored the important 315.

environmental attributes affecting the nature and distribution of these forests. It has also addressed a number of important aspects which are of significance for Australian rainforests in general. However, many questions remain unanswered. These relate to the interactions of the rainforest vegetation with the major and minor environmental variables influencing the floristic composition of rainforest communities and the dynamics of the rainforest-sclerophyll boundary. The former requires studies to be undertaken on the autecology of individual rainforest plant species. The second requires the undertaking of detailed studies of interactions at the rainforest-sclerophyll interface, particularly in relation to the role of fire. The elucidation of both of these avenues of investigation will add significantly to the knowledge of not only the local rainforests but to the general understanding of Australian rainforests.

Finally, there is a need, which is pressing in some cases, for those who are responsible for environmental planning to appreciate the values of the rainforest vegetation of the district and to provide the necessary statutory requirements for its protection. Particular attention is required for those small remnants of the once extensive

'brush' areas before they disappear completely. Action is required now in many instances to ensure the continued survival of these fragments of our scientific and cultural heritaae. 316.

CHAPTER ELEVEN

REFERENCES

Allworth. D. (1985) Subtropical Rainforests. Jn_ Rainforests of Australia.

Weldons Pty.Ltd.. Sydney, p.105-152.

Amor. R.L. _. Piggin. CM. (1977) Factors Influencing the Establishment and

Success of Exotic Plants in Australia. Proc.Ecol.Soc.Aust.. 10:15-26.

Backhouse. J. (1843) A Narrative of a Visit to the Australian Colonies,

Hamilton. Adams & Co.. York.

Baker. D. (1958) The Origins of Robertson's Land Acts, Hist.Stud,Aust.-S.

N.Z., 30(8):166-182.

Baur, G.N. (1954) Factors Affecting Rainforest Distribution in New South

Wales. B.Sc.(Hons.) Thesis, The University of Sydney. (Unpubl.)

Baur. G.N. (1957) Nature and Distribution of Rainforests in New South

Wales. Aust.J.Bot..5(2):190-233.

Baur. G.N (1965) Forest Types in New South Wales, Forestry Commission of N.S.W., Res.Note, No. 17. Govt.Printer. Sydney,

Baur. G.N. (1968) The Ecological Basis of Rainforest Management. Govt.Printer.

Sydney, 499p. 317.

Bayley, W.A. (1959) Green Meadows - Centenary History of Shellharbour

Municipality, New South Wales . Shellharbour Municipal Council.

168p.

Bayley. W.A. (1976) Blue Haven - History of Kiama Municipality. Kiama

Municipal Council, Weston & Co.. Kiama. 230p.

Beadle. N.C.W. (1954) Soil Phosphate and the Delineation of Plant Communities in Eastern Australia. Ecology, 35(3):370-375.

Beadle. N.C.W. (1962) Soil Phosphate and the Delineation of Plant Communities in Eastern Australia. Ecology, 43(2):281-288.

Beadle. N.C.W. (1981) The Rainforests. J[n__ The Vegetation of Australia.

Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, p.136-195.

Beadle, N.C.W.. Evans. O.D. & Carolin. R.C. (1982) Flora of the Sydney Region.

Reed, Sydney. 720p.

Beaglehole. J.C. (1962) (Ed.) The Endeavour Journal of Joseph Banks:1768-1771.

Angus and Robertson. Sydney.

Beauglehole, A.C. (1980) Victorian Vascular Plant Checklists. Westn. Vict.

Field Nat. Clubs Assoc, Portland. 206p.

Beale. E. (1983) Discovery and Settlement, ln__ Illawarra Heritage. The

Environmental Heritage Committee. Wollongong. p.37-42.

Bembrick, C. Herbert. CC. Scheibner. E. & Stuntz. J. (1980) Structural

Sub-Division of the Sydney Basin. Ini Herbert. C & Helby. R. (eds.) 318.

A guide to the Sydney Basin. Geological Survey of N.S.W,. Bull.26.

Dept. Mineral Resources. Sydney, p.3-9.

Benson. J.S. & Fallding. H. (1980) Vegetation Survey of Macquarie Pass and District. Report prepared for Dept.Main Roads. Mat.Herbarium

N.S.W.. Sydney, January. (Unpubl.)

Black. R.D.C. & Konekamp. R. (1972) Papers and Correspondence of William

Stanley Jevons. Vol.l, Biography and Personal Journal. MacMillan.

London. 238p.

Blakers, M.. Davies. S.J.J.F. & Reilly. P. (1984) The Atlas of Australian

Birds. Roval Australasian Ornithologists Union/Melbourne University

Press, Melbourne. 738p.

Bowman. D. & Jackson. W.D. (1981) Vegetation Succession in Southwest

Tasmania. Search,12(10):358-362.

Bowman. H.N. (1974) Geology of the Wollongong. Kiama and Robertson 1:50000

Sheets. Geol. Surv. N.S.W.. Dept. Mines. Sydney.

Boyd, M.J., Wheway. R.T. & Heven. M.P. (1982) Wind Statistics for the Wollongong

University Climatological Station:1972-1980. The University of

Wollongong. Wollongong. 92p.

Brough. P., McLuckie. J. & Petrie. A. (1924) An Ecological Study of the

Flora of Mount Wilson. Part 1. The Vegetation of the Basalt.

ProaLinn.Sor.M.s.w,, 49(4):475-498. 319.

Bryant. E. (1982) Local Climatic Processes in the Illawarra. Wollongong

Studies in Geography. No.ll. Geography Department. The University of Wollongong. Wollongong.

Burgess. A, & Johnson. R.D. (1953) The Structure of a New South Wales

Subtropical Rainforest. J.Ecology.41:72-83.

Bywater, J. (1978) Distribution and Ecology of Rainforest Vegetation and Fauna in the Illawarra. B.Sc.(Hons.) Thesis. Department of

Geography. The University of Wollongong, Wollongong. (Unpubl.)

Bywater. J. (1979) Rainforests of the Illawarra. Wollongong Studies in Geography. No.3. Department of Geography. The University of

Wollongong. Wollongong.

Bywater. J. (1985) Edaphic and Other Environmental Conditions Associated with Rainforest Development in the Illawarra District. M.Sc.

Thesis, Department of Geography, The University of Wollongong.

Wollongong. (Unpubl.)

Cady, L. (1960) Orchids of the Illawarra District. Aust.Matural..XII(l):ll-14.

Cambage, R.H. (1906) Motes on the Native Flora of N.S.W. V. Bowral to

Wombeyan Caves. Proc.Linn.Soc.N.S.W.. 31:432-52.

Cambage, R.H. (1923) Botanical. Historical and Industrial Notes. In:

Guide Book to the Excursion to the Illawarra District. A.J.Kent.

Govt.Printer. Sydney.

Cameron. L. (1935) The Regional Distribution of Vegetation in New South

Wales. Aust.Geogrr 2(5):18-32. 320.

Cheel. E, (1912) Notes on the Flora Collected during the Easter Excursion:

Lake Illawarra. Mt.Kembla and Gooseberry Island. Aust.Natural..2:145-

147.

Clayton-Greene. K.A. & Beard. J.S. (1985) The Fire Factor in Vine Thicket and Woodland Vegetation of the Admiralty Gulf Region, north-west

Kimberly. Western Australia. Proc. Ecol. Soc. Aust., 13:225-230,

Clifford. H.T. (1976) Dendrograms and their Interpretation. Inj. Williams,

W.T. (ed.). Pattern Analysis in Agricultural Science. Elsevier

Sci.Publ.Co./CSIRO. Melbourne. 96-101.

Clifford. H.T. S, Stephenson. W. (1975) An Introduction to Numerical

Classification. Academic Press. Mew York. 229p.

Clyne. D. (1982) Wildlife in the Suburbs. Oxford University Press. Melbourne.

205p.

Commonwealth Bureau of Meteorology (undat.) Average Annual Rainfall

Map of New South Wales. Bureau of Meteorology. Sydney.

Commonwealth Bureau of Meteorology (1966) Rainfall Statistics New South

Wales. Bureau of Meteorology. Melbourne.

Commonwealth Bureau of Meteorology (1969) Climatic Averages Australia,

Bureau of Meteorology. Melbourne.

Commonwealth Bureau of Meteorology (1975) Meteorology Survey - Holsworthy-

Campbelltown District. Bureau of Meteorology. Canberra, 118p. 321.

Commonwealth Bureau of Meteorology (1979) Climatic Survey. Sydney -

Region 5. New South Wales, Australian Government Publ.Service.

Canberra.

Cook, J (1982) Mass Movement and Slope Stability in the Municipality of

Kiama. B.A.(Hons.) Thesis. The University of Wollongong. (Unpubl.)

Corbett. J.R. (1972) Soils of the Sydney Area. JJQL Nix.H.A. (ed.) The City as a Life System ? Proc.Ecol.Soc.M.S.W.,Vol_7.Canberra. p.41-70.

Cox. P. (1983) Precipitation Regimes of the Illawarra Coast and Adjacent

Highlands. Wollongong Studies in Geography. Mo.12. Department of

Geography, The University of Wollongong. Wollongong,

Cremer. K.W. (1961) Eucalypts in Rain Forest. Aust.For.. 24:120-126.

Cromer. D.A.N. & Pryor. L.D. (1942) Contribution to Rainforest Ecology.

ProcLinn. Soc.N.S.W.. 61:285-297.

CSIRO - Division of Soils (1965) Map - Atlas of Australian Soils. Sheet 3,

Sydney, Canberra. Bourke. Armidale Area. Divn.Nat.Mapping, Dept,

National Development. Canberra.

Dames & Moore (1983) Maldon-Dombarton-Port Kembla Railway. Environmental

Impact Statement, State Rail Authority of N.S.W., Sydney. October.

Davis. C. (1936) Plant Ecology of the Bulli District. Part 1. Stratigraphy,

Physiography and Climate. General Distribution of Plant Communities and Interpretation. Proc.Linn.SocN.S.W.. 61:285-297. 322.

Davis. C (1941a) Plant Ecology of the Bulli District. Part 2. Plant

Communities of the Plateau and Scarp. Proc.Linn.So_.N.S.W.. 66:1-19.

Davis. C (1941b) Plant Ecology of the Bulli District. Part 3. Plant

Communities of the Coastal Slopes and Plain. Proc.Linn.SocN.S.W.,

66:20-32.

Department of Decentralisation & Development (undat.) Soils of New South

Wales (Map). Resources of New South Wales. Dept.Decent. L Devel..

Sydney.

Department of Decentralisation & Development (undat.) Natural Vegetation

of New South Wales (Map). Resources of New South Wales, Dept.Decent.

& Devel.. Sydney.

Dury, G.H. (1980) Step-Functional Changes in Precipitation at Sydney.

Aust.Geog.Stud.. 18(2): 62-78.

Eliot, I.G.. Young. R.W. & Clarke. D.J. (1976) Lake Hydrology. Jr__ Illawarra

Lake:An Environmental Assessment Project. Wollongong City Council

& Wollongong University. Wollongong, Sept.. p.41-50.

Environmental Heritage Committee (1983) Illawarra Heritage. Env.Her.Comm.,

Wollongong,

Erskine. J. (1984) The Distributional Ecology of Rainforest in the Illawarra

in Relation to Fire. B.Sc.(Hons.) Thesis. Department of Biology,

The University of Wollongong. Wollongong. (Unpubl.)

Everist. S.L. (1974) Poisonous Plants of Australia. Angus & Robertson. Sydney. 684p. 323.

Eyre. S.R. (1968) Vegetation and Soils, Edward Arnold. London, 328p.

Fallding. H. & Benson. J.S. (1985) Natural Vegetation and Settlement at

Macquarie Pass. Illawarra Region, N.S.W. Cunninghamia. 1(3): 285-311.

Barron Field (1825) Geographical Memoirs of New South Wales.

Firth, D.J. (1979) Camphor Laurel : Important Tree Weed in the North-east.

Agri.Gaz.CN5W). 90(55:14-15.

Florence, R.G. (1964) Edaphic Control of Vegetation Pattern in East Coast

Forests. Proc.Linn.Soc.N.S.W.. 89:171-190.

Floyd, A.G. (1978) N.S.W. Rainforest Trees. Part VII. Forestry Commission

of N.S.W., Research Note No.35. Sydney. 78p.

Floyd, A.G. (1982) Rainforests of Northern Illawarra. Report to National

Parks Si Wildlife Service of N.S.W. (Unpubl.)

Floyd, A.G. (1983) Review of Nature Conservation Programmes. Vegetation

- By Communities/Habitats: Rainforest. National Parks S. Wildlife

Service of N.S.W.. Internal Report. Paper No.22. (Unpubl.)

Floyd. A.G. (1985) Warm Temperate Rainforests. In: Rainforests of Australia.

Weldons Pty.Ltd.. Sydney, p.153-184.

Forestry Commission of N.S.W. (1983) Eden Native Forest Management Plan

- 1982. For.Comm. N.S.W.. Sydney.

Forshaw, J.M. (1981) Australian Parrots. Lansdowne. Melbourne. 312p. (2nd Ed., revised). 324.

Fox. M. (1983) A Vegetation Survey of the Washpool Area. Northern New

South Wales. Department of Planning & Environment. Sydney. 140p.

Fraser. L. Si Vickery. J.M. (1938) The Ecology of the Upper Williams River

and Barrington Tops District. Part II. Rainforest Formations.

ProcLinn.SocN.S.W.. 63:139-184.

Frith, H.J. (1984) Birds on the Australian High Country. Angus and

Robertson. Sydney, 396p.

Frith, H.J. (1982) Pigeons and Doves of Australia. Rigby. Adelaide. 304p.

Fuller, L. (1980) Wollonoong's Native Trees. Weston & Co., Kiama, 330p.

Fuller, L. (1982) Wollongong's Native Trees. Weston _ Co.. Kiama. 2nd. ed..

338p.

Fuller. L. & Mills. K. (1985) Native Trees of Central Illawarra. (Including

the Kiama and Shellharbour Municipalities), Weston S Co.. Kiama, 186p.

Geological Survey of New South Wales (1966) Map - Wollongong 1:250000,

Geological Series. Sheet SI 56-9. Geological Survey of N.S.W.. Dept. Mines, Sydney.

Gilbert. J.M. (1960) Fire as a Factor in the Development of Vegetational Types. Aust.For.. 26:67- 70.

Gill, G.H., Groves. R.H. & Noble. I.R. (1981) Fire and the Australian Biota.

Aust.Acad.Sci. Canberra, 582p. 325.

Goodall. D.W. (1978) Numerical Methods of Classification. Ir__ Whit- taker.R.H.(ed.) Classification of Plant Communities. W.Junk, The

Hague, p.249-286. (2nd. Ed.)

Grubb, P. Si Tanner. E. (1976) The Montane Forests and Soils of Jamaica

: a Reassessment. J.Arnold Arbor.. 57:313-368.

Hamilton. A.G. (1914) The Flora of the South Coast. Jn_. Handbook for New

South Wales. British Assoc.Adv.Science. Sydney, p.386-406.

Hamilton. G.J. (1976) Soil Resources of the Hawkesbury River Catchment.

New South Wales. Soil Cons. 1^.32:204-229.

Hamilton, H.W. (1928) The Distribution of Vegetation in the Sydney Region.

Aust.Geogr.. l(l):43-49.

Hayden. E.J. (1971) The Natural Plant Communities of New South Wales.

M.Sc.(Thesis), The Australian National University. Canberra. (Unpubl.)

Helman. C. (1979) A Case Study of the Rainforest Vegetation of Beecroft

Peninsula, N.S.W. B.Litt.(Thesis). University of New England. ''Unpubl.)

Helman. C. (1983) Inventory Analysis of Southern New South Wales Rainforest

Vegetation. M.Sc.(Thesis). University of New England. (Unpubl.)

Henderson. K. (1980) Farm and Forest on the Dorrigo : A Historical-Ecological

Study. PhD (Thesis). The University of California. Berkeley.

Herbert, C. (1980) Depositional Development of the Sydney Basin. JJQI

Herbert, C. & Helby, R. (eds.) A Guide to the Sydney Basin, Dept.

Mineral Resources. Bull. No.26. Govt.Printer. Sydney. 326.

Herbert. D.A. (1935) The Climatic Sifting of Australian Vegetation. Report to the Twenty-Second Meeting. ANZAAS, Melbourne. Jan. 1935.

Herbert. D.A. (1938) The Upland Savannahs of the Bunya Mountains. South

Queensland. Proc.Rov.Soc.Qld.. Vol.49. 1938.

Herbert, D.A. (1967) Ecological Segregation and Australian Phytogegraphic

Elements. Proc.Rov.5oc.01d.. 78:101-111.

Hitchcock. P. (1977) Rainforest Types. In: Rainforests. National Parks S

Wildlife Service of N.S.W.. Sydney. 32-49.

Home. R. (1981) Recovery of Rainforest Following Logging. I_QL Shaw.

J, & Riley. S. (eds.) Proc. of the Rainforest Conference. Dept.

Geography, Sydney University. Geographical Society of N.S.W.. p,56-64.

Hume, M. (1969) Plant Geography of the Illawarra Region. Geogr.Bull..

Nov.:33-39.

Hunter. S. (1974) From Rainforest to Grassland : A Study of Man's Impact on Vegetation in the Jamberoo Area. N.S.W. B.A. (Hons.) Thesis.

University of Sydney. (Unpubl.)

Hyland, B.P.M. (1983) A Revision of Syzygium and Allied Genera (Myrtaceae) in Australia, Aust.J.Botanv. Suppl.Series No,9. August.

Jackson. W.D. (1968) Fire, air, water and earth - An Elemental Ecology of

Tasmania. Proc.Ecol.Soc.Aust.. 3: 9-16. 327.

Jacobs. S.W.L. Si Pickard. J. (1981) Plants of New South Wales. A Census of the

Cycads. Conifers and Angiosperms. National Herbarium/Govt.Printer.

Sydney. 226p.

Jacques. G.H. (1920's) Pioneering of Berry. South Coast. 1858-1870. Manuscript held by Wollongong City Library Archives. Wollongong.

Jarman, S.J. & Brown. M.J. (1983) A Definition of Cool Temperate Rainforest in Tasmania. Search. 14(3-4):81-87.

Jeans. D. (1978) Use of Historical Evidence for Vegetation Mapping in

N.S.W. Aust.Geogr.. 14(2):93-97. -

Jervis. J. (1939) Cedar and the Cedar Getters. J_k Proc.Rov.Aust.Hist.Soc.

25(2):131-156.

Jervis, J. (1950) Kangaroo Valley - Some Notes on its History. RAHS,

Jrnl. & Proa. XXXVI(2):109-117.

Jervis, J. (1962) The Yarrawa Brush. J_r__ A History of the Berrima

District:1798-1963. Berrima County Council, p.41-58.

Johnson. R.D. S< Lacey. CJ. (1983) Multi-stemmed Trees in Rainforest.

Aust.J.Bot.. 31(2):189-195.

Kalma, J.D. Sc McAlpine. J.R. (1978) Climate. Ini Gunn. R.H. (ed.) Vol.2,

Biophysical Background Studies, Land Use on the South Coast of

New South Wales. CSIRO. Melbourne, p.1-15. 328.

Kemp. H.G. (?1920's) The History of Foxground. Typed manuscript in

Wollongong Public Library and Berry Historical Museum. 4p. (author

of article not confirmed).

Lee, I. (1925) Early Explorers in Australia. London.

Leigh. J.. Briggs, J. Si Hartley. W. (1981) Rare and Threatened Australian

Plants. Australian National Parks & Wildlife Service. Spec.Publ.No, 7.

Canberra. 178p.

Liddy, J. (1985) A Note on the Associations of Birds and Lantana near

Beerburrum. South-eastern Queensland. Corella. 9(4): 125-126.

Levering, T. (1959) Significance of Accumulator Plants in Weathering

Bull.Geol.Soc.Amer.. 70:781-800.

MacDonald, W. (ed.) (1966) Earliest Illawarra. Illawarra Historical Society.

Wollongong.

Mayr, E,. Linsley. E.G. & Usinger, R.L. (1953) Methods and Principles of

Systematic Zoology. McGraw-Hill. New York.

McLuckie, J. & Petrie. A.H.K. (1927) An Ecological Study of the Flora of Mount

Wilson. IV. Habitat Factors and Plant Response. Proc.Linn.Soc.N.S.W,,

52: 161-184.

McMinn, W.G. (1970) Allan Cunningham j_ Botanist and Explorer. Melbourne

University Press. Melbourne, I47p.

McNaughton. M. (1975) Australian Birdlife Illustrated. Rigby. Adelaide. 127p. 329.

Mengel, K. & Kirkby, E.A. (1978) Principles of Plant Nutrition. International

Potash Institute. Switzerland. 593p.

Mills. K. (1983a) The Illawarra Rainforests : Red Cedar. Cabbage Palms

and "The Thickest Jungle in the Colony". Habitat. ll(2):35-38.

Mills, K. (1983b) The Natural Vegetation of the Wollongong Area. Wollongong

Studies in Geography. Np_13.Department of Geography. The University

of Wollongong. Wollongong,

Mills. K. (1983c) Rainforests of the Illawarra District. Paper prepared

for Workshop and Open Forum on 'The Past, present and future of

Australian Rainforests'. Griffith University. Brisbane, 2-4 December,

1983.

Mills, K. (1984a) Vegetation of the Upper Hacking River Catchment, Report

prepared for the National Parks & Wildlife Service of N.S.W.. Sydney.

May. 1984, 86p.

Mills, K. (1984b) The Character. Distribution and Conservation Status of

the Rainforests of the Illawarra. N.S.W, Ini W err en. G.L. & Kershaw.

A.P. (eds.). Australian National Rainforest Study. Report to the

World Wildlife Fund. Vol.1. Geography Dept.. Monash University, Melbourne, p.38-55.

Mills, K. (1984c) Rainforest Birds of the Shoalhaven Gorge. N.S.W. Aust.Birds, 18(4); 76-79. 330.

Mills. K. (1985a) Vegetation Survey of the Proposed Shoalhaven-Moruya

No.2 132kV Transmission Line. Report prepared for Electricity

Commission of N.S.W.. Sydney. 205p.

Mills. K. (1985b) Cool Temperate Rainforests:New South Wales. 1K_Rainforests of Australia. Weldons Pty.Ltd.. Sydney, p.185-198.

Mills. K. (1986) Southern Limits of Rainforest Plants: South-Eastern

Australia (South of Sydney). Including Introduced Species but

Excluding Ferns. Dept. of Geography. The University of Wollongong.

17p. (Unpubl.)

Moore, C S, Betches. E. (1893) Flora of New South Wales. N.S.W. Govt.

Printer, Sydney.

Morris, A.K.. McGill. A.R. £< Holmes. G. (1981) Handlist of Birds in New South

Wales. New South Wales Field Ornithologists Club. Sydney. 79p.

Nanson. G.C Si Hean. D.S. (1984) The West Dapto Flood of February 1984 :

Rainfall Characteristics and Channel Changes. Occasional Paper

1984. Dept. of Geography, The University of Wollongong. Wollongong.

23p.

Nanson, G.C. Si Hean. D. (1985) The West Dapto Flood of February 1984: Rainfall

Characteristics and Channel Changes. Aust.Geog.. 16C4):249-258.

Norwood. T.G. (1975) Studies of the Acid Sulphate Soils of the Lower Shoal­ haven River Floodplain. B.A.(Hons.) Thesis. Geography Department.

The University of Wollongong. Wollongong. (Unpubl.) 331.

Nott. J.F. (1984) Revegetation of Coastal Sand Drifts in the Illawarra.

B.Sc.(Hons.) Thesis. Dept. of Geography. The University of Wollogong.

Wollongong.(Unpubl.)

Parbery, N.H. (1947) Black Headland Soils of the South Coast. Agri.Gaz.,

1:123-125.

Parsons. R.F. & Gill. A.M. (1968) The Effects of Salt Spray on Coastal Vegeta­ tion at Wilson's Promontory. Victoria. Australia. Proc.Pov.Soc.Vic.

8id):i-io.

Phillips. M.E. (1947) Vegetation of the Wianamatta Shale and Associated

Soil Types. M.Sc. Thesis. University of Sydney. (Unpubl.)

Pigeon, I.M. (1937) The Ecology of the Central Coast Area of New South

Wales. l.The Environment and General Features of the Vegetation.

ProcLinn.SocN.S.W.. 62:315-340.

Pople, CD. Si Cowley. N.B. (1981) The Rainforest Inventory. Forestry

Commission of New South Wales. Sydney. June. 39p,

Powrie. S. (1981) Rainforest Regeneration in the Illawarra : A Comparison with recent Research done in Southern Queensland. B.Sc.CHons.)

Thesis. University of Wollongong. Wollongong. (Unpubl.)

Readers Digest (1979) Complete Book of Australian Birds. Readers Digest.

Sydney. 615p. (lst.ed.. 2nd Revise.)

Richards, P.W. (1981) The Tropical Rainforest. Cambridge University Press.

Cambridge, 450p. 332.

Ridley. W.F. £< Gardner. A. (1961) Fires in Rainforest. Aust.J.Sci., Jan..

227-228.

Roxburgh, R. (1981) The Meryla Pass. J.Proc.Aust.Hist.Soc. 66(4):287-292.

Royal Botanic Gardens (1981) Flora of Minnamurra Falls Reserve. N.S.W,

Unpublished report held in Library. National Herbarium. Sydney.

Seymour. J. (1983) The Dunes of Cooloola. Ecos (CSIRO. Melbourne). 30: 3-11.

Specht. R.L. (1970) Vegetation. JJQL The Australian Environment. Leeper.

G.W. (Ed.) 4th.ed.. CSIRO, Melbourne University Press. Melbourne.

Specht, R.L. (1981) Major Vegetation Formations in Australia. In: Ecological

Biogeography of Australia. A.Keast (Ed.). W.Junk. The Hague.' p.165-297.

Spencer, H.P. (1977) Secondary Succession in the Minnamurra Valley. N.S.W.

B.Sc. (Hons.) Thesis. University of N.S.W.. Sydney. (Unpubl.)

Stace, H.C.T., Hubble, CD.. Brewer. R.. Northcote. K.H.. Sleernan. J.R.. Mulcahy,

J.K. & Hallsworth. E.G. (1972) A Handbook of Australian Soils. Rellin

Tech.Publ.. South Australia. 435p.

Strom. A.A. (1977) On the Illawarra. JUL Rainforests, National Parks I

Wildlife Service. Sydney, p.13-17.

Tille. P.. Morse, R. _, Atkinson. G. (1983) Soils of the Wollongong - Port

Hacking 1:100 000 Sheet. Soil Cons. Serv. N.S.W.. Sydney. Nov. 333.

Tozer. J.C (1967) Changing Landuse along the Illawarra Coastal Hinterland and its Effects on Natural Vegetation. Litt.B.Thesis, University of New England. Armidale. (Unpubl.)

Turner. J.C. (1976) An altitudinal transect in rainforest in the Barrington

Tops area, N.S.W. Aust.J.EcoI.. 1:155-174,

Turner. J.C. (1981) Rainforest Distribution and Ecology : Recent Studies in the Hunter Region. IniShaw.J.H. S. S.J.Riley (Eds.) Proceedings of the

Rainforest Conference. Geography Department. Sydney University,

Geographical Society of NSW. p.6-20.

Unwin, G.L.. Stocker. G.C. & Sanderson. K.D. 91985) Fire and the Forest

Ecotone in the Herberton Highland. North Queensland. Proc. Ecol.

Soc. Aust.. 13:215-224.

Walker, P.H. (1961) A Soil Survey of the County of Cumberland. Sydney

Region, N.S.W. N.S.W. Dept. Agri.. Soil Survey Unit Bulletin, No.2.

Walker, P. (1962a) Soil Layers on Hillslopes: A study at Nowra. NSW.

Australia. J.Soil Sci.. 13(2):167-177.

Walker, P (1962b) Terrace Chronology and Soil Formation on the South

Coast of N.S.W. J.Soil Sci., 13(2):178-187.

Walker, P. (1963) Soil History and Debris-Avalanche Deposits along the

Illawarra Scarpland. Aust.J.Soil Res.. 1: 223-230.

Webb. J.H. (1979) The Role of Calcium in the Cultivation of Australian

Plants. Aust.Plants. 10:220-227. 334.

Webb. L.J. (1954) Aluminium Accumulation in the Australian-New Guinea

Flora. Aust.J.Bot.. 2(2):176-197.

Webb. L.J. (1959) Physiognomic Classification of Australian Rainforests.

J.of Ecol.. 47:551-570.

Webb, L.J. (1963) The Influence of Soil Parent Material on the Nature and Distribution of Rain Forests in South Queensland. Paper to Symposium on Ecological Research in Humid Tropics Vegetation.

Kuching, Sarawak. 1963.

Webb. L.J. (1968) Environmental Relationships of the Structural Types of

Australian Rainforest Vegetation. Ecology. 49(2):296-311.

Webb, L.J. (1970) Fire Environments in Eastern Australia. Paper given to Second Fire Ecology Symposium. Monash University, Melbourne,

Nov.28. 1970.

Webb. L.J. (1978) A Structural Comparison of New Zealand and South east

Australian Rainforests and their Tropical Affinities. Aust.J.Ecol..

3(1):7-21.

Webb, L.J. & J.G.Tracey (1975) The Cooloola Rain Forests. Proc.Ecol.Soc.Aust..

9: 317-321.

Webb, L.J. & Tracey. J.C (1981a) Australian Rainforests : Patterns and

Change. Jni Ecological Biogeography of Australia. A.Keast (Ed.).

W.Junk. The Hague, p.606-694. (2nd. Ed.) 335.

Webb. L.J. & Tracey, J.C (1981b) The Rainforests of Northern Australia.

In; Groves. R.H. (Ed.). Australian Vegetation, Cambridge University

Press. 449p.

Webb, L.J.. Tracey, J.C Si Williams. W.T. (1972) Regeneration and Pattern in the Sub-tropical Rainforest. J.Ecol.. 60:675-695.

Webb. L.J,.Tracey. J.C Si Williams, W.T. (1984) A Floristic Framework of

Australian Rainforests. Aust.J.Ecol..9(3):169-198.

Webb, L.J.. Tracey. J.C. Williams. W.T. &. Lance. CN (1969) The Pattern of

Mineral Return in Leaf Litter of Three Subtropical Australian

Forests. Aust.For.. 33:99-110.

Werren, CL. _ Allworth, D. (1982) Australian Rainforests : A Review.

Monash Publications in Geography. No.38. Geography Dept.. Monash

University. Melbourne. 94p.

Williams. D.J. Si Moser. B.C. (1976) Airborne sea salt sedimentation measurements and a method of reproducing ambient sedimentation rates for study of the effect on vegetation, Atmos.Envir.. 10:531-534.

Williams, J.B. (1979) A Checklist of the Rainforest Flora of New South

Wales. Botany Dept.. University of New England. Armidale, 39p.

Williams. J.B.. Harden. CJ. & Macdonald. W.J.F. (1984) Trees and Shrubs in

Rainforest of New South Wales and Southern Queensland, Botany

Dept.. Univ.of New England, Armidale. 142p. 336.

Williams. W.T. (1971) Principles of Clustering. Ir__ P.F.Johnston. Frank, P.W.

Si Michener. CD. (eds.X Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics.

Vol.2. Annual Reviews Inc.. California, p.303-326,

Williams. W.T. (1981) Underlying assumptions in numerical classification.

In:: Gillison. A. &. Anderson. D. (eds.) Vegetation Classification in

Australia. CSIRO/ANU Press. Canberra, 229p.

Williams. W.T.. Lance. CN.. Webb. L.J.. Tracey. J.C & Dale. M.B. (1969) Studies in the Numerical Analysis of Complex Rainforest Communities. III.

The Analysis of Successional Data, J.of Ecol.. 57:515-535.

Willson. B.W. (1971) Biological Control of Lantana in Queensland. Tech.Bull,.

Dept. Lands. Brisbane. Nov., lip.

Woods, T.R. (1976) Multivariate Analysis of the Vegetation of the Royal

National Park. B.Sc.(Hons.) Thesis. University of N.S.W., Sydney.

(Unpubl.)

Young, A.R.M. (1976) The Characteristics. Origin and Stability of Debris- mantled Slopes near Wollongong. Australia. M.Sc.Thesis. The Univer­ sity of Wollongong. Wollongong. (Unpubl.)

Young. A.R.M. (1977) The Characteristics and Origin of Course Debris

Deposits Near Wollongong.N.S.W., Australia. Catena. 4(3);289-307,

Young. A.R.M. (1978) The Influence of Debris Mantles and Local Climatic Varia­ tions on Slope Stability Near Wollongong. Australia. Catena.5(2):95-

107. 337.

Young. A.R.M. (1983) Upland Swamps (Dells) on the Woronora Plateau. N.S.W.

PhD Thesis, The University of Wollongong. Wollongong, (Unpubl.)

Young, R.W. (1982) Soils of the Illawarra Region. Wollongong Studies in

Geography. No.10. Geography Dept.. The University of Wollongong.

Wollongong.

Young, R.W. Si Johnson. A.R.M, (1977) The Physical Setting : Environmental

Hazards and Urban Planning. In: R.Robinson (Ed.). Urban Illawarra,

Sorrett Publ.. Melbourne, p.38-57. APPENDICES 338.

Appendix 1 : Rainfall Data - Illawarra Climatic District (No.68) (Source: Bureau of Meteorology)

Station: Location: Average Rainy Days Record Rainfall per year: Years: (mm):

68000 Albion Park 34°35' 150°47' 1110 82 78 001 Appin 2 34°12' 150°42' 957 97 63 002 Avon Dam 34°18' 150°36' 964 120 48 004 Berry (Bellawongarah Rd.) 34°47' 150°42' 1449 106 88 005 Bowral P.O. 34°30! 150°24' 945 116 80 006 Belanglo S.F. 34°30' 150°12' 870 101 33 007 Brownlow Hill 34°06' 150°36' 742 78 91 008 Bundanoon P.O. 34°42' 150°18' 1167 98 71 009 Burrawang 34°36' 150°30' 1508 105 68 011 Camden (Bowl.Club) 34°03' 150°43' 767 89 90 012 Camden MWSDB 34°06' 150°36' 786 25 013 Menangle (Camden Pk) 34°08 * 150°45' 728 86 95 014 Campbelltown (1) 34°04' 150°48' 742 102 79 015 Campbelltown (2) 34°06' 150°42' 856 25 016 Cataract Dam 34°16' 150°48' 1038 111 67 017 Cataract River 34°18' 150°42' 857 108 83 018 Cordeaux No.l Dam 34°18' 150°42' 1115 116 58 019 Cordeaux No.2 Dam 34°27' 150°48' 1612 133 52 020 Cordeaux Quarters 34°18' 150°42' 1138 117 33 021 Crookhaven Heads 34°54' 150°42' 1086 135 54 022 Dapto Bowl.Club 34°30' 150°47! 1085 82 62 023 Dapto West 34°28' 150°47' 1170 95 77 024 Darkes Forest 34°14' 150°55' 1389 113 77 025 Exeter 34°36' 150°18' 1083 125 64 026 Foxground 34°43' 150°46' 2099 25 027 Gerringong 34°45' 150°50' 1313 113 79 028 Helensburgh P.O. 34°11' 151°00' 1471 90 82 030 High Range Jellore 34°23' 150°19' 941 33 031 Burrier P.O. - Illaroo 34°52' 150°27' 879 89 49 032 Jamberoo 34°42' 150°42 1362 118 88 033 Mittagong Water Sup .34°27' 150°30' 901 78 68 034 Point Perpendicular 35°06! 150°48' 1244 133 75 036 Kangaroo Valley 34°44' 150°32' 1338 100 55 037 Kenny Hill 34°00' 150°42' 785 91 45 038 Kiama Lighthouse 34°42' 150°54' 1232 134 74 039 Maddens Creek 34°15' 150°56' 1531 87 60 040 Maquires Crossing 34°30' 150°30' 939 76 37 041 Menangle 34°06' 150°42' 667 78 72 042 Minto 2 34°00' 150°48' 689 22 043 Minto 34°00' 150°48' 780 85 80 044 Mittagong Pub.Sch. 34°27' 150°30' 900 99 70 045 Moss Vale P.O. 34°33' 150°22' 994 120 103 046 Mt.Pleasant 34°24' 150°54' 1593 114 56 339.

Appendix 1 : cont...

Station: Location Average Rainy Days Record Rainfall per year: Years: (mm):

68047 Nepean Dam 34°18' 150°36' 950 114 43 048 Nowra Bowl.Club 34°53' 150°37' 1038 93 78 050 Orangeville 34°00' 150°33' 1014 111 13 051 Penrose (Panorama) 34°40' 150°14' 1021 121 68 052 Picton 34°10' 150°37' 810 99 94 053 Port Kembla 34°28' 150°55' 1278 121 28 054 Robertson P.O. 34°35' 150°36' 1648 117 79 056 Sherbrooke 34°18' 150°54' 1553 113 75 057 Sublime Point 34°19' 150°54' 1475 103 28 058 Sutton Forest 34°34' 150°21' 932 109 62 060 Unanderra 34°28' 150°50' 1083 98 67 061 Viaduct Creek 34°31' 150°42' 1603 95 32 062 High Range (Wanganderry) 34°20' 150°16' 963 131 34 063 Waterfall Home 34°12' 151°00' 1302 87 60 064 Waterfall 34°09' 151°00' 1189 136 8 065 Wedderburn 34°12' 150°48' 924 38 066 Wilton 34°12' 150°36' 759 97 67 067 Wingello S.F. 34°42' 150°09' 1091 106 31 068 Wollondilly .-.•• (Karalinga) 34°21' 150°12' 824 102 32 069 Wollongong P.O. 34°25' 150°56' 1136 88 80 070 Woronora Dam 34°06' 150°57' 1107 112 42 071 Yerrinbool 34°24' 150°30' 904 85 65 073 East Kangaloon 34°31' 150°12' 1404 114 26 074 Smith's Hill 34°25' 150°54' 1205 109 34 075 Cherry Tree Hill 34°33' 150°17' 945 99 23 076 Nowra R.A.N.A.S. 34°57* 150°32' 1224 137 37 077 Kangaroo Valley 34°45' 150°30' 1063 92 21 078 Hyams Beach 35°05' 150°41' 1330 111 15 079 Jervis Bay Forest 35°06' 150°48' 1510 131 21 080 Greenwell Point 34°54' 150°44' 1211 92 19 081 Campbelltown 34°05' 150°49' 882 111 20 082 Yalwal 34°56' 150°23' 920 96 33 083 Culburra 34°56' 150°46' 1304 116 17 084 Terara 34°52' 150°38' 1515 114 5 085 Nerriga (Tolwong) 34°51' 150°08' 916 102 18 086 Mt.Keira Scout Cami> 34°24' 150°51' 1866 146 35 087 Spring Hill (Waran.i ) 34°26 ' 150°30' 771 116 10 089 Joadja (Greenwalk) 34°26' 150°14' 893 82 20 090 Bangadilly 34°29' 150°07' 806 92 8 091 Berrima West P.O. 34°29' 150°16» 893 137 11 092 Berrima Hillview 34°29' 150°22' 976 98 9 093 Sutton Forest 34°34' 150°16' 955 106 34 094 Bridgewater 34°36' 150°13' 1000 88 9 095 Canyonleigh 34°33' 150°09' 800 84 14 340.

Appendix 1 : cont...

•Station: Location: Average -Rainy Days Record Rainfall per year: Years: (mm):

68096 Glenco 34°35 * 150°05 " 786 98 19 097 Spring Valley (Wingello) 34°39 * 150°08 ' 1029 5 098 Tugalong 34°24 * 150°09 ' 914 90 7 099 Boyton Lea 34° 40' 150°18* 1285 144 9 100 Bundanoon (Platwood) 34° 40' 150°18' 1285 131 18 101 Bowral (Riverside) 34°32 * 150°29 ' 1103 113 18 102 Bowral (Burradoo) 34° 30' 150°24* 1005 146 18 104 Taliawarra (Power Station) 34°32 ' 150°49' 1115 108 17 106 Clifton (Coalcliff) 34°1(5 ' 150°5I3 ' 1511 91 36 107 Coledale 34°17 ' 150°56' 1408 99 35 108 Woonona 34°21 ' 150°55* 1325 93 50 109 Caoura (Tallong) 34°47 ' 150°10* 903 67 57 110 Berkeley 34°29 * 150°51 ' 1218 126 17 111 Budgong 34°46 ' 150°29' 1159 46 10 112 Garie Beach 34°10 ' 150°04' 1446 120 17 113 Kurrawong - Dunmore 34°35 ' 150°51' 1051 95 13 114 Bundanoon (Meryla) 34°41 ' 150°22' 1317 111 10 115 Ocean View (Robertson) 34° 34' 150°37 1578 113 8 116 Pheasant's Ground 34°36 150°39 1817 93 8 117 St.Anthony's (Robertson) 34°35 150°36 1759 129 17 118 Tapitallie 34°49 150°31 1344 105 17 119 Towradgi 34°23 150°54 1311 117 14 120 Wilton 34°15 150°42 821 71 17 121 Yallah 34°32 150°47 964 116 12 122 Woodburn-Gawdor 34°07 150°39 959 88 17 123 Windang 34°32 150°52 1246 131 17 124 Upper Kangaroo Valley 34°41 150°36 1552 99 17 125 Oakdale P.O. 34°05 150°31 1064 84 16 126 Nidgee Stud 34°27 150°49 1320 97 17 127 Douglas Park 34°11 150°43 827 70 16 128 Alpine 34°24' 150°31 915 88 9 129 Albion Park (Parkville) 34°36' 150°45 1340 83 6 130 Ian Wyn 34°33' 150°44' 1292 103 17 131 Port Kembla 34o29t 150°53' 1150 112 16 132 Stanwell Park (Hillcrest) 34°14' 150°59' 1330 122 12 133 Tahmoor 34°14' 150°35' 882 87 13 134 Appin (Stanhope) 34°12' 150°47' 1006 75 26 341.

Appendix 1 : cont...

Station: -Location: • Average -Rainy Days • Record Rainall per year: Years: (mm):

680135 Balmoral 34°18' 150°33' 873 91 22 136 Bomaderry 34°34' 150°38' 993 99 36 137 Brogers Creek 34°42' 150°41» 1966 119 41 138 Broughton Village 34°18' 150°42' 1354 129 18 139 Browns Mountain 34°48' 150°31' 1372 96 13 140 Caper St.George 35°12' 150°45' 1486 116- 33 141 Cawdor 34°05' 150°40' 672 85 30 142 Cordeaux River 34°19' 150°44' 1495 121 54 143 Exeter 1 34°36' 150°18' 971 85 12 144 Glendon 2 34°06' 150°36' 649 74 30 145 Ilkey Moor 34°36' 150°12' 904 67 7 146 Kembla Hts. MWSDB 1491 111 18 147 Kembla Hts. 1 34°26' 150°55' 1383 82 25 148 Letter Box 34°18' 150°54' 1443 41 149 Mt.Kembla 34°25' 150°49" 1536 102 24 150 Narellan 34°02' 150°47' 673 80 39 152 Picton College 34°17' 150°33' 763 97 14 153 Rosemount 2 Wollongong 34°25' 150°56' 1193 102 22 154 Stockyard Mtn. 34°37' 150°48' 1018 95 22 155 The Hill 34°35' 150°48' 1004 87 20 156 Ulster Park 34°38' 150°32f 1622 143 23 157 Yarrow Boural 34°30' 150°24' 858 93 19 158 Picton Mill Hill 34°49' 150°36' 871 96 15 159 Wedderburn, Booalbyn 34°10' 150°48' 918 100 15 160 Kentlyn 34°03' 150°52' 868 106 13 161 Wattamolla (Macksville) 34°44' 150°38' 1504 123 10 162 Tallong 34°45' 150°10' 678 85 42 163 Leicester Park 34°25' 150°24' 900 102 14 164 Oakdale (Silver Hill) MWSDB 34°05' 150°31' 949 102 12 165 Oakdale (Nattai R. ) 34°04" 150°27' 1089 10 166 Buxton 34°15' 150°31' 922 91 11 168 Knights Hill 34°37' 150°41" 2303 148 15 169 Mt.Keira Township 34°25' 150°51' 1539 136 13 170 Mt.Nebo Colliery 34°26' 150°49' 1565 89 13 171 Wollongong (O'Briens Road) 34°26' 150°51' 1079 103 6 174 Woodhill 34°43' 150°41' 2256 167 12 175 Toolijooa (Nyoba) 34°46' 150°47' 1514 110 12 176 Tahmoor(Ranfurly) 34°15' 150°38' 775 101 5 177 Maddens Plains 34°15' 150°57' 1580 111 72 342.

Appendix 1 : cont...

Station : Location: Average Rainy Days Record Rainfall per year: Years: (mm):

680178 Barren Grounds 34°41' 150°43' 3018 159 4 179 Kangaloon P.O. 34°33' 150°32' 1456 124 9 182 Nerriga (Glen Garry) 34°08' 150°08; ' 746 82 5 183 Nerriga (Touga) 34°57' 150°05' 763 82 17 184 Bowral 34°28' 150°23' 996 120 11 185 Wildes Meadow 34°37' 150°33' 1717 108 27 186 Berrima West 34°30' 150°16' 818 99 9 188 Wollongong University 34°25' 150°53' 1590 134 9 190 Woodhill (Bluff View) 34°44' 150°40' 1769 137 9 191 Barralier (Bellbird) 34°18' 150°04 ' 734 111 3 192 Camden Airport 34°02T 150°41' 871 116 36 193 Bargo P.O. 34°17* 150°35' 805 107 69 194 Nattai River 34°06' 150°24' 843 55 13 195 Moss Vale (Tovokina) 34°37' 150°24' 1396 147 8 196 Bellawongalah 34°46' 150°38? 1515 99 17 197 Foxground 34°44' 150°46' 2224 151 7 198 Wollondilly 34°21' 150°05' 866 94 6 343.

OS g>vX>oo*incovocNi-HCNc^oovoovo>H^oco>.nHvDHinoH^oN<(ncoN^ cncx>vovOi—icovovocovOcNr^i^i—IOVI—ivtr^cNf^voinOi—icor^co Q C»I^CX>C»CN00vOOCN00l^CNO<^C0OV(NOVOrHOOrHrHrHOVCN rH rHrHrH HH I—I rH r—I r-1 I—I r-1 I—I rH rH i—I OTOocNiinvoco^cNirHOvinrHcocNsfocNir-^r^invoovococooo NNooi^^vaciVNOor-irirjcvivOHNOvooco^r^cocjvc^Nooc^ r-H r-t i—I |J^l^vfH^^vON_c^^HN^lno^Nlnco(ncoo)lN^c^cplco i^vof^r^ovvOrHovovDinc^c»r^rHcxDovi^r^ooooooooooi-iooov rH rH rH ,_| Cj^rHCnOCS^C^OOV^OOCnrHrHCSinCNinOVVOOVrHCOCNOVCOin cn lnlnolnco^no^coln•*v_vovooolna^l^|l^|^vo^coco^^co

_3rHt^^^rHCOC»StCOCn-OCNCNinOOOVrHOvr^rHOrHvOr^OV vovoc»^oovoovoovvo^cx>covoooooooint^oovoooo>oor--r^r^ ^H-<.ini^cNinrHcocx)O^OLnc^ocNr^i^cocnoocooKi-oin •-3 COOOC^VOOCOC)VC)VSJOOCOVOV_!3VOS>.VO(OHOOONHHCJVOH <—i r-i r-i r—i .—I rH rH i—It—I rH o^r^rHov^rH^rHuo^r^voco-^r^inin^fr^ocN^ovooi—io HOHOnCjVC)VHv_HC)VvONNv_tvltNOOctCv!cn 2_H_(NO)-*OOVvDinNa)HfOCOCv|vOCNC)Vin. <—I r-i CN i-H rH rH i—I rH r-t r-H r-i r-i r—I I—I rH i—I i—I i—I rH J_ JJ voovoooKfi^cncococ>rHinr^ovor^o*.cNcor^cNi>-ovcocNin d __ INOVrHC»inOVr-lrH^OV00r^inrHvOrHVOCNCNC0OV>*VOd-CN OOVOOCOOVOVrHCvlOVOOCOrOOinrHinOrHrOOCNCOrHCNOCO o *_ •H CO rH U rH O •H C« o u •H r^ r> CO 00 CN H;NMnOOOvNCv|N-o o oooooooooooooooooooooo B O O rH O O OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOrHOOOO •H .. in^uoi^ninininini^inininij^i^ininini^nin^ rH d m m m m m O o CO •JHJ incsinrnr^ocooi^vos.incNco>^oovooost-oo rH cd rH r—V u COrHOCN-COrHrHrHCNrHCNCNrHCOCNrHCOV 0 OOOOO OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO r* 00 rJ cocncocncocncocnc^cocncocococococococococococococococo CO o r-H iH rH o vO H rH O /-s o rH O /-N 1 CO CN '-vOO QJ ,—v vO O <*"> vD CO CO JOJ r—v r-~ v-' /—\^-v CO CN r"> CO O 4-1 __ |-~ rAH 00 ov VO< ^X rH CN /-v 00 vO Q 4-1 IT) rH r~vr-l 00 4H O O 00 r—\ O r-N 00 VO V_/ o s o o OCO^^OvOvM COOOCOvO CO 00 I * CN v__ r-> H o '"•v OVOCOOCOV-'TI'-VVOVO I-I S_X CN vO CN O r-N QJ 00 rH 3 oo CM COv. OO^O riNvv/O) Ov-' O 00 CN >> CO St CO CO vO O vO OC0v~/i_UO 4JIM 00 'MX) vO CO CJ 3 H 4H OJ ^-X/T-S O /-N w __ 00 vO DHHHCM ri (D S~\v O _LOvO v_OH OOO »• d u I—l 00 st CDvOv__-S>cOco • • CO > CN w 0) Cvlv-- COH J_ _ •H G X o vOO • 0) w Cfl-HOvOOOd-H CN a; o A vo co JJ v_/ CN CO PQ u o V-'OOVH OWUv-'SsSsO'PCiC JJ |H 00 00 00S_'> __ PH CO 00 oo • o d oo - w 00 co o vo d )H oo x X! »« .. PH VO EVOPL, Od4J4J 0) X X X X vO Q)Cj_v-'0 3 00-H0 M >v _ d v—' cos-' coocouodr-idddd V-r- _£ OOrQ O OlJrJ O rH u o d >^Pi rH !_ C ;s cO CO O al co ITI m co CO rH d <0 rH rH U z J_ rH •ri o d QJ rvcaajtdtOrirjydajQJvDO o OQJQJ-HdQJCOCOQJ w JJ 3 4J •rl -H r-i d M u ooia u co co <+H OJ -a •_• T_ -a 4J JJ_4Jhll)4J___ PL, d 0 CO rO D.T-3 OrHr*OdrH4J4J -HlH rH rH rH rH CH rJHrHQJrHrHBdCOJJ PH 0 VI JJ r-i O, G >a)oi-iddcocOrHooooo CO COCOXQJQJCOCO-HQJ < s v_^ CO <<<jWi_r; 344.

0_ str^cocNinoocnincNvocNstOststc»corHO>coinooocNinOrHi-ioo < cnovoocNccocni^ijOstrHOincNvocnvostrHincoorHcooocop^cNO W voinvoovinoovovoinstvovof^incoinvor^inst

CTNCnCnt^COVOrH^OStrs-inrHOOOOVO^l^Stl^Ocnt-HCNvOCNCNr^rH i^cnstinvoovor^voooinstrHc^oovovoinstinovr^-vostvovooor^in i—I i-H OOOOOCNincNCNstCNHvOstC^vOCOstOOincNstCOCNOVinCNOVstOOv

l~j rHstinoooo^vOHinooi^incoinrHCNoooor^oooooinvovooovor^vo r-i r-i r-i rH rH i—I r-i OOCNi^Or^OOvOOOC^sti^HCT>vOOOvOCOOvOrHrHCOstr^ i—I r-1 CN rH rH i—I I—I I—I i—I rH i—I rH t—It—I t—I rH rH rH cNcooostvOHHstHstcoc^invovoo>cocostc)ocor^cNcnoocNoocNr^- CO MH T. vo_oinr^ooc^H- d i—I H H H H t—It—I rH t—I t—IrHi—I rH I—I •rl CO Stcn00stC0vOvDst0>CNCOCNOvOij0r^cnOinOvC»00stOOCN0000CN Q_ < voin_or^coLnHinc»incx3r^-OH_o^oooinococMcxj^cx)c^Havoo >v rH i—Ii—Ii—IrH i-H I—I i—I i—I t—I i—I i—I i—I i—I rH A HrONOHOO^COOOinMnvOCO»DvOO\OrOHONOVS'ocovocovoooor^cor^oooor^rHOcooovoovi-Hstooo O rH i—l CN i—I i—I t—Ii—I i—Ii—Ii—It—Ii—I rH CN t—I i—I I—I t—I __ stHinr^cni-icNCNstr^ststcnc^ststincNCNinvocNstcNr^-ooooinco QJ l^i^vOOOO>stvDCXDOCOHCX)vOC^vOOOOOOvO^HCNOOr^COOCOCNOV 00 £H CO rH CN i-H I—I I—I i—I rH I—Ii—Ii—I t-H CN l—I I—I rH rH i—I rH QJ C^OOOOvstrHHf^COvOOOOOvOl^i^O>OOOvOvOOCOrHt-HvOOvcOCOin > vO^i^00C>C)0CTvi^Ost0>C»stOin0>0000vOrHvOCN0vr^OOCNO0v <

TJ Ul rH u 0 O00CNCNC>r^stvOir)00CNCNvOHStOCNOvOr~-OOVvOO0V00CNrHst to OJ QuJ vOCOI^vO^CNCN-OstCSvOC^i^COi^CNvOinstH PH

voco-or^coH_^csi^cNstr^voststoocNrHinocNOovi-Ht-istinvDcN inostcNCNinstincoinrHcocoininstocNoinstoststrHinininco OO0O0OOO0OO000O00OO0OOOO00OOO G OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOrHOOOOrHOOOOOOO O inioioioiOLOioioioioioioioinioinLnioioioioioioioiAio •H instcoi^cnstincNOinooininc>or^stOi-icoostcoinrHr^-cN JJ rHCOOCMCOCNCMCNCNCNstrHCOCNi—ICOOCOsfCNCOOrHrH-

S~\ Ov r—\ /—^ St /~-v /—\ vO ov vo m 00 rH O co oo r-v '-v 1—1 in vo oo O O vO '~v st <-N 00 O O r—V VO r-V JJ 00 r-N/-VOO'~VStl^- '"V r^ VO V£5 oo r—voo'~vin v I-H d vo r—vst in vo ov o st stom^-' vO O vO CO vO '"v '-v r-». v_^ r-Hststs-'^-tooo '"N moo o s—' /—^ vD v_x vO O r~ • /""N o o o st O O i—i vO 00 I-H '"v O vO 00 • NO OCCwO OCOMX) __ ooooo • „vvo ainiNcowo c JJvOC0__00vOvOO • O O vO u QJ OOvOvOCJvO v-'COOinvO ^'JJ COrHVO CUVOV-'VOOOPHI—ICOV-' 0) vOv_'v_' «W4J OCOOVH S QJ 00 v-/ CD v OvO 00vO CN rHV_x CO d S VO CO rH QJ •n HVO rH d00v^00vOv_'rH O OOQJ C0c0C0C0v_.vOC-H__XJ d Ov BJCJH HVD dv-' O X (UdrHCOiHCOPl- s-'OMOrH COCH U rHdv-'OO COO M d mdr-iocOrHrOco dcu co oca r-H 00 rl JJ tOrH H 00B1 rlJJ CQJOOOO-HBQJdQJCOdJJCOrHr^ rM ddcuoHHiHdrHddOd Q 0 QJrHdCO Q)CUrHcO-HOOrHJdXJ__ QJ OO-ddMQJOCDOOd'H 55 •H XldCOJJCOWWPHClJrHrHJJQJJJrHO rd JJ rH d T) QJ X) JJ OOrH d O U JJ X)rHdJJC0 • • •C-.PQdOrQ-HCUO JJ JJiHCOcajJ-OrHdrHOIntH w CO COCOCU-HOJJJJJJQJ- CU-HOBrdJJ 3 ScOd-HcOQJ-H-HOOOQ) SSSSSSSSisOfHCHPilWWw CO COHt=>DSD5_E____D£_£>H PH JJ PH co < 345.

u O m is. rn vO 00 CO H v_>o mvD OvtO Ovov oov com P^ OVO oo CO co o CN Ov VD 00 VO '"•C O•• oO COCO OVOv rHr HCM C NCN CCN OOinO LOST O CO VO 00 O rH QJ CN CN r-i CN CN H CN rM CM rM rM CN rM >H CM rH

rM OV St vO OV O O ov vO O O CN St CM rM 10 CN CN 00 vO O CN OV OO r-- CM u is. St VO r-i CO CO vO QJ m m Ov Ov m st m vO rs st m o rM oo CN st st CN rH rH CN rM CN CN rM rM CN CN rM CN i—1 CM CN CN rH CN rH CN 1—1 CN rH O r» vO co VO OV OO CN CN vO st r~-rM T-M CO vO VO Ov n st St in rs o CO Ov > vO CN co CO CO 00 rM 00 vD CN vO rM St St vO CN CM |s oo vO r-i st O o CN rH o CN rM rM CN rM CN CN CN CN r-i CN rM CN rM CN rM CM rH OJ rM CM rH 2_ CN O 00 St 1^- r^- CN ON in O r-M Ov CO rM CO St is vO IS. OV rs Ov 00 rs in O JJ U CO rH co rM O VO OV in CO o st Ov CN CN CO rH Ov m m CO ov CN rs is CN rH CN rM rH r-i CN CN rM CN rM CN CN rM CN rH rH rM rH rM CN rM o rM VO rs is. CO rM VO vO in CN st CO co CO m CO vO oo CO CO rs o vO co rs in p_ QJ O VO Ov r- r— St m CN rM VD rM vO o OV o rs m CN CN rH rs rM st in rs rs rH rM cn C/j CN rM rM r-i CN CN CN CN rM rM rM r-H JJ St CO |S- St vO is. CN co rM co st rM rM CO rs in vO 00 rM VO O VO o\ co 00 00 u 00 rH VO OV •H 3 co in 00 m co CN rM Ov co 00 St 00 r~ rs vo rM o Ov O O co vO vO rM rM rM rM rM rH iH r-H rM rH r-i rM IH 1 JJ CO v£) m rH 00 o m CN in st St OV r^~ st CN 00 VO CN Ov CN CM O CO. VO in CN CO 3 r- CN CO rM tH CN O CN rs CN vO VO St OV O rs rM m OV Ov CM m m U rM rM rH rM 1 rM rM rM rH 1 rH rM •H s JJ m ov vO St rM o vO r^ 00 o rH vO CN 00 I - OV rM m st rH CN St 00 vO CO CN CO 3 r-. in m CN CN CN rH m 00 st |s. r-» vO vO O rM 00 o VO O Ov CO m vo 3 rM rM E rH rH rH rM rH rH rM r-t rM rM •H m ov VO rM CO i—i CO St vO rM co m r^ o v£> 0> Ov CO co co CN CO CO OV CO rH iH Ov U CO o\ vo ON 00 m st m CN O rs O vO ov o Ov |s CN co rM CN CO CN CN m rs ov rH rM rH cd 2 rM ' rH rH CN CN rH rM rH rH rM rM rH rH rM Ov St CN CO 00 O O 00 O O st m vO St CN CN 00 rs CO rM oo m vO CN CO rH rJ CO .. r_ St rH St rM OV r^ O VO st o st o CN CO St rM vo vO in st rM St vO oo CM CN to r~N< CN tH CN rM rM CN CN rM CN rM CN rH CM rM rH rM CN rH rM CN rM CJ St VO co vO vO r^ m O Ov o CO m Ov co rM |S Ov Ov is. vo rM CN |s vO CO VO o rJ rs •_ CO VO St vO in CO O CN O vO m co st vO P- St rH Ov OV 00 CO O rM St St CU CN rM CN i—i c CN rH CN rM CN rH CN rM CN rH CM rM CN rH CN r-i CM rM CN rM H CO r-i s m ov St rH 00 CO CN r~ co m vO r^ OV r^ o CO Ov v_> CN rM O vO OV st VO 3 _- QJ JJ 00 vD 00 m CN m CN 00 vO 00 in m fs 00 VO St rM rM o St 00 CN CN m vo OJ CN rM tH rM c CO CN rM rH CN CN CN rM CN rM CN rM CN rM CN rM CM rH CN CN r-t CM rM TJ u O Ov r*» 00 vO rM m CN rs st h- VO O st OV rH rs St St 00 ov m VO 00 CM St CO 01 oo vo rs is VO CN is vo in rH CN OV co is CO CM VD VO I 3H m CM oo vO oo m vo rs CN rH CN rH CN rM CN rM CN rM CN rM CN rM CM rH CM rM CM CN CN rH CN rM cn E cl QJ H cn rJ O rJ 1) cuu to E TcJu QJ in CN oo 3 vO st r- st O o rs vO a QJ o_ >H CN 00 Ov St H •P r-N 00 vO r-t rH O st in rs Ov m rs OV o •H £ vO VO vD rs v£> st vO rs rH rs OV CO E VO vO rH rH 3 E •H 3 •_ 3 r~V CO CJV r- st CO st st rH CN rM CN 00 E Ov st CN CN St st O st rM rH 0o o 0 0 O 0o 0 3 rH o o o O O rH o o O O rM O O rH E in in O C rmH rH rMm rM rMm rmH Hm mr^ rMm r-im •H « m X Ov o .. .. _ _ .. ^ .. _ vO .. ». to 00 •H CO in o o rM vO vO CV co St co •M m in co co CO O co st o st rM 23 O CO 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 o 0 0 CO o rH co co st st St st co CO CO 3 U CO co co CO CO CO CO co m co co C o o co < rH rJ O OJ O, J3J OJ X /—\ rH CO X JJ rH cn s—\ X 2CU QJ rH cd QJ • 0) o c OH > _H -•oU SH tH • PH > CO co C3 43H U O IH rH CJ Ul • o _• C>O. CO O c •ri JJ co O PQ to 3 OH o < rH •H QJ PQ CO co C Ol 0 o rH G •H a c rO IH s o rl JJ rH T3 C QJ C rH CO CO cn E IH c OJ CO CO QJ _2 QJ rH rH •H 3 •H cn o o QJ - • 00 X rJ H •_ OH JJ c o o > 0 C a JJ X) c > IH E B 3 0) c c u JJ rH tu _ CO CO co o 3 cd cd QJ rH cu QJ 0) co 3 a. 60 U JJ PQ PQ pa PQ U CJ U CD <-> >-) o fc_ _- < CO u Ul U 3

u ^ov ov ov corn °°' ^ ^ ^ VOrs" NO VOst rH rH* COO CN O QJ rM CNrHCMrHCMrHrH rM rM CNrHtH NH IN H IN H >H mov vtcN OV-JJ voov covo OvvO CNCN CN -_• COOv COCN rHrs COCO OOvD OV CO Ost COCO Ovrs o !_ ^ i0°2 Zi ^ "* ** ^ ^ coco 000 stcNovvo COCN mco stcN 2JJ CN CNrHCMtHCNrHCM CM CM CNHrHCNHCNHoSrH U °0 "^ ^OV 0000 000 VO00 CNCO stfs tN Is Ov Ov COIs rsCO mm o S"1 JTJO H rH CNCO OvvO OvO s vD st CD VOCO HO COO COO OH rM CN H CN H CN H H CM rH CNrHrH IN H IN H IN H QJ in 1-IV 00r-< | Ul .'~l "^ ^ ^ ^ ° ^ ^ ° °^ ^ ^ ""' ** ^ ^ ** >** '- °o

00 in co ors OVQV rHO vom rsco st st d rs stn ovto HIS HIV! 3 rM CN rH CNrHrH rM rM CN rH rH CN CN ovov stvo ovst rsvo oco vooo voco rscN stco IHVO rs^t ors < • • •• • •• ...... •HO com vois oooo coco COH OCN com 00 rs vo com 00m 3 rM rM rM rM rM rM r-t rM rH I i-H rM rM ^ m ^00 cost stcjv cooo OVCN oors rs -frH isco stoo COH CN N rs O vost com mrs H vo Ov OH rsm vooo rsco HCO CNCN OVCN rsvo ovo vo is is d dm cd rM r-M rM rM rM rM rM r-M rM rM 2 cost ooo r-oo CNCN cvirs mcN n ov ovco VOCN ooco COCN COCN '• rH coco ors coov OH mm mst cNst ovrs CNCN co d OOO doo '-S OH H CN rM CNrHrH rM rM rM t-H rM CM H O

rs 0 CN m rM CN rM st rH m rM co CN rM CN O 0 0 0 0 0 0 O 0 0c o O 0 O 0 rM O O O r-t O rM rH m m m m m m m m m m G rM H H 1—1 rM rM H rH i-H rM O _ _ ^ _ „, ». _ _ » •H Ov vO 00 rs CO m St |s OV St JJ CM m st CN co CO CN St Sf 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0m 0 0 cd CO co CO st st co CO st co CO cj co CO CO CO co co CO CO CO CO o •J

(0 /—V 0u CO JJ . H A co fc z rH 00 •H • co •H rH •H 00 cu IH Ul JJ K O OJ 3 tH O K^s JJ 3 ri 0 O co JJ CO JJ O P_ a 00 > O CO Ul E 3 0 00 H Ov CO •H QJ CO cn JJ u co IH ro •ri A OJ CO H co > CO 3 u 3 JJ 0 0 3 JJ co • IH S •* U 3 JJ •ri •H 3 CO •H 0 JJ CO CU 0 CO QJ CO i-l hJ A 2 2 2 2 53 £5 OH OH JJ z CO 347.

IH voov OCN rsrH ovst oov coco stm OV fs vO vO 00 vO CO QJ co oo H st CO H CO o CM rM CO O H CO H CN r-H OV H CN Oi CN CN H CN H CN H CN rM CN H CN H CN

00 H co 00 vO 00 CN rs O Ov 00 OV CN rH is m CN H 00 U m QJ 00 st co VO 00 m Ov m m vO 00 St sf rs m vO vO co m m rM rH rH rH CN rM rM rM O CM H CN CN CM rH CM CN CM CN CN H vO vO vO CN CN OV co rM CN 00 rH O m CO 00 rs vO m rs o > rs rs |s o VO rH CN m CO co st CO CN CO m co st CM o CO st CN H CN CN rM CM rH CN rM CN rM CM rH CN r-i CN CM H 55 rM rM CO IS rs vD st CM rH St Sf rs m CN OV co rM Sf O St CN H JJ O Sf 00 o CO sf rM m O CN i—i co O r-M CO CN CM CN Ov CM CM CN rM CN r-t CN rH CN rM CM rM CN rH CM rM CN CN H O CN VO CN O vO rH VO CM rH Sf OV St St fs 00 OV st O co CN CO PX QJ r-t m OV rM rM rs CN |s O 00 rH rs Ov o OV OV O VO O O CM rH rH CN CN CN CN rM rM CN CM H CO rH co oo OV rH m st O CO rM 00 Sf Sf Sf is. OV st st st rM m 00 3 CO CN is. o 00 m Ov st 00 vO 00 m fs 00 fs fs fs St CO CO rM rH i—i rH rM rH rM rH r-t H < rM 00 00 vO is rH vO CN co m CN rM sf CO 00 00 co rM rH vO CO 3 vO H vO OV fs co rs co vO vo |s St m rs vO vO vO st vo rs "j CO CN vO 00 IS. st CO vO OV st CO CN vo rM St O rH o H 00 3 3 rs co fs IS. m rs st vO r- rs VO vO OV is oo VO m is. CO rM rM o rM rH rM r-M rM rM rM rH rH CN rs CN rs rM rs CM co St vO CO CN O CN is Ov St m vO OV Ov CO o m OV CM O is. O is OV ov OV CO OV rM Ov Ov OV rs OV O rH rH rM rM rH r-t rH rH rM rM 2 CN CN CN fs ro CO CO rH o vO CN St vO OV CO rM m is VO is oo st m rH PH CO ov CM m St CN co rH CM CN CO CN CN St CN co CN o CM CO • < CM CN rH CM rM CN rH CN rH CN rM CN H CN rH CM CN H rM o CN H CN OV CO VO rM OV rH 00 CN rM m co rM Ov m CM CO OV U CO rs co sf rs rs m rs st m m fs VO st rs m vo sf CO st m QJ CN H CN rH CM rM CM H CM rM CN H CN r-M CM H CM rH CN H rH 2 3 00 st st vO rs St rH fs CM CO CN 00 st Sf Ov st st St 00 H •U QJ co m st 00 oo rs CJV VO vO IS fs vO m 00 m 00 m m m rs CO CN r-M rH CN H rM CM r-M CM r-M CN rH CN H rH CN H CN CM CM rH QJ m co rH CM St co rs is co CN CO rM is co 00 rH o CO Ov ov P_ ov m st oo Ov is OV vO vo rs 00 vO m co m oo vo m m vo B 3 CN H CN H CM r-M CN H CN H CN H CN H CN H CM H CN H QJ cd TJ rH o OV OV rH rH CN CM Ov Ov is rs is. is CN CN CM CN m oo St St CN CN CN CN st st st st CO CO CuU OJ is rs PH OH

QJ TJ CO 00 Ov o CN CM 3 JJ 00 OV d rH m vO CN CO o co •H vO CN is St co CN JJ

vO m VO CO fs vO m m co co m m rH m st st 0 o 0 O o 0 O o o rH o m O o m 3 O O m rM rMm m m o m m .. .. •H 00 vO vO rs co St JJ St CmM CN co CO st m o 0 CO o st o co 0 0 st st u CO CO co co co sf co CO o co co co CO •J Ov 4H IH HH O O JJ O CJ CO IH QJ oo o 0 2 < IH P_ 00 3= QJ IH rO CO •H 3 E TJ TJ QJ •H o c 3 3 OS rd < o 3 QJ •H O 00 o O 0 3 O* E o « 0 Ov QJ 3 •ri QJ co JJ JJ u QJ 3 o 4J M u > JJ CO u IH QJ c TJ o •H QJ JJ O CJ 0 TJ JJ _s •H 0- CO Ov CO OH OH •H •H Ov 00 PH CO £ 348.

CN rs rM • TV co m i-H O CO I I tO rg • rH * • .3 vO r-H OV CO CJ O VD £3 o £ 2 |s " a" a $ s? «r>S ° CO IH ^ ._ st O vo is OV vD CM rH to 0^ „, 1 • rM rH vO cu I I DrH co • m rH _.: oo H i-oH CO rH rM 1 rs rM o> CO «^ co 3^ St s CO rs vO O H CO .T-co rM ^O Ov • in «co • Sf I I CO rM is SQH sf cQ rs CJ Ov ov m 00 ov VO CN • • QJ iqm OCN II CN rH i i St r-t I I lO CM I I PH CO m H

00 o oo vO So ^O . vO • vO rrv vO • vO o st00 co vD 3^ cQS CN m S cQ . H > CO oo _ CO Cvl ^ rrv ^ i i I I H I I co o CO tn CM co • CO S- rs. 55 CO rM Ov Ov is VO m 00 H- CN CN m m o rs' _* vN cQ S* H"* |S rH OV Sf VO CN 3- m OV OV OV JJ q oo CO o oo CM ll rs" rH CO I I CO H I I NrH O CO Ov CO OV m I I CN St • H rs. q m m m • CN vO co co CM d rM S rH CO VO rs ' _H I I I I I I m I 1 CO VO CO vO sf HH ^^ QJ r_« CO o U E co co CU O CM H _ St CO CN CO \o q JJ CN co I I H i i CO CO X CO^ rM^ Ov OV CM /v. co d co CO rs rM o 00 I I I I I I I I I i I I H | | JJ •ri m rH 3 d d •H H •< CO rH 3 CO CO co OV rs H P3 CO N H • CO oo Ov rs'^ OV rH• CN 3 X) CO q • CN CM CQ O CN rH JJ sf st Ov sf Ov _- rH I I rM • rM II C-rH I I I I CO CO QJ 3 d co d d St CU •"j CO IH m Ov rs O 0cu) CJ 00 CO CN 00 q oo OV CM IS IH oo 5"* r-H fJH rH X 2 8 cQ m" rH co m VO QJ 00 OV St r-M CM co IS 3 . 3 I I I I I I ST rM r-M r-t CN CN vO CM co d 1 3 CO *". CO OV CM CO JJ st st „ 00 cn 00 rrv ^ rn Ov rH "St *° r. So 8 r-> X CM fs fert• Q . VO CO . rH S iH vD r-t rM O X rM a CN vD w Sf is st CO OV 00 u o, I I I I • st d •ri CM is CM rv JJ OV fao E cn 2J2 co O •ri 00 CJV sf vO T) CN JJ °^ r^ O • H I I in °^ r^ c CO CO rH m m CO V JJ X CM• rs s? CN CO R —• CO rs Ov vD 00 I I I I I I CM l I i o J_ E IH CO oo I H d PH QJ cu C_ QJ rH JJ < co 3~ „• oo OV cn rH co X 8 v8'-, IH rH TJ rH Ov Ov vO Ov 3 QJ •H _.« ^CN H • CO I i co ^CM O , gv to >, cn >, __cn_ or->2 c__(o Ov2 __rS >_!r3 H_rS __rS _3rS H^rS ____ _3 ^ SZ6I 9_6T __6T 8_6I 6Z.6T 0861 T86T 3861 £861 UB3J4 349. APPENDIX 5: Plant Species List for the Illawarra Rainforests.

PTERIDOPHYTA ADIANTACEAE Adiantum aethiopicum L. A. diaphanum Bl. A. formosum R.Br. A. hispidulum Sw. Cheilanthus distans (R.Br.) Mett. C. sieberi Kze. Pellaea falcata (R.Br.) Fee var. falcata P. falcata (R.Br.) Fee var. nana Hook, paradoxa (R.Br.) Hook ASPIDIACEAE Lastreopsis acuminata (Houlston) Morton L. decomposita (R.Br.) Tindale L. microsora (Endl.) Tindale Polystichum australiense Tindale P. formosum Tindale P_. pro life rum (R.Br.) Pr. ASPLENIACEAE Asplenium attenuatum R.Br. A. australasicum (J.Sm.) Hook. A. bulbiferum Forst.f. var.gracillimum (Col.) Brownsey flabellifolium Cav. A. flaccidum Forst.f. polyodon Forst.f. ATHYRIACEAE Lunathyrium japonicum (Thunb.) Kurata BLECHNACEAE Blechnum ambiguum (Pr.) Kaulf.ex C.Chr. B. cartilagineum Sw. B. chambersii Tindale B. gregsonii (Watts) Tindale B. minus (R.Br.) Ettingsh B. nudum (Labill.) Mett.ex Luerss B. patersonii (R.Br.) Mett. B. watts ii Tindale Doodia aspera R.Br. D_. caudata (Cav.) R.Br, var.caudata D_. caudata (Cav.) R.Br, var.laminosa F.Muell, D. media (R.Br.) Benth. CYATHEACEAE Culcita dubia (R.Br.) Maxon. Cyathea australis (R.Br.) Dom. C. cooperi (Hook.ex F.Muell.) Dom. C_. leichhardtiana (F.Muell.) Copel. Dicksonia antarctica Labill. 350.

DAVALLIACEAE Arthropteris beckleri (Hook.) Mett. A. tenella (Forst.f.) J.Sm. Davallia pyxidata Cav. Rumohra adiantiformis (Forst.f.) Ching DENNSTAEDTIACEAE Dennstaedtia davallioides (R.Br.) T.Moore Histiopteris incisa (Thunb.) J.Sm. Hypolepis muelleri N.A.Wakef. H. punctata (Thun.) Mett. ex Kuhn GLEICHENIACEAE Gleichenia dicarpa R.Br. G. microphylla R.Br. G. rupestris R.Br. Sticherus flabellatus (R.Br.) St.John S_. lobatus N.A.Wakef. S. tener (R.Br.) Ching GRAMMITACEAE Grammitis billardieri Willd. HYMENOPHYLLACEAE Hymenophyllum australe Willd. H. bivalve Forst.f. H. cupressiforme Labill. H. flabellatum Labill. H. marginatum Hook, et Grev. H. pumilum C.Moore H. rarum R.Br. Macroglena caudata (Brack.) Copel. Polyphlebium venosum (R.Br.) Copel. Sphaerocionium lyallii (Hook.f.) Copel. LINDSAEACEAE Lindsaea trichomanoides Dryand. OSMUNDACEAE Leptopteris fraseri (Hook, et Grev.) Pr. Todea barbara (L.) T.Moore POLYPODIACEAE Dictymia brownii (Wikstr.) Copel. Microsorium diversifolium (Willd.) Copel. M. scandens (Forst.f.) Tindale Platycerium bifurcatum (Cav.) C,Chr. Pyrrosia rupestris (R.Br.) Ching 351.

PSILOTACEAE Psilotum nudum (L.) Beauv. Tmesipteris billardieri Endl T. ovata N.A.Wakef. T. parva N.A.Wakef. truncata R.Br. PTERIDACEAE Pteris comans Forst.f. s.lat. P. tremula R.Br. umbrosa R.Br. P. vittata L, SCHIZAEACEAE Schizaea rupestris R.Br. THELYPTERIDACEAE Christella dentata (Forst.) Brownsey et Jermy

GYMNOSPERMAE PODOCARPACEAE Podocarpus elatus R.Br, ex Endl. ANGIOSPERMAE ACANTHACEAE Pseuderanthemum variabile (R.Br.) Radlk. ex Lindau AMARANTHACEAE Deeringia amaranthoides (Lamk.) Mett. ANACARDIACEAE Euroschinus falcata Hook.f. var. falcata APOCYNACEAE Alyxia ruscifolia R.Br. Melodinus australis (F.Muell.) Pierre Parsonsia brownii (Britten) Pichon p. straminea (R.Br.) F.Muell. var. straminea ARACEAE Gymnostrchys anceps R.Br. ARECACEAE Archontophoenix cunninghamiana (H.Wendl.) H.Wendl. & Drude Livistona australis (R.Br.) Mart. ARALIACEAE Cephalaralia cephalobotrys (F.Muell.) Harms Polyscias elegans (C.Moore & F.Muell.) Harms P. murrayi (F.Muell.) Harms P. sambucifolia (Sieber ex DC.) Harms 352.

ASCLEPIADACEAE *Araujia hortorum Fourn. Marsdenia flavescens A.Cunn. M. rostrata R.Br. Tylophora barbata R.Br. ASTERACEAE *Ageratina adenophora (Spreng.) R.M.King & H.Robinson *A. riparia (Regel) R.M.King & H.Robinson Olearia argophylla (Labill.) F.Muell. ex Benth. *Senecio mikanioides Otto ex Walp. ATHEROSPERMATACEAE Daphnandra micrantha sp.C Doryphora sassafras Endl. BASELLACEAE *Anredera cordifolia (Ten.) Steenis BIGNONIACEAE Pandorea pandorana (Andr.) Steenis spp. pandorana BORAGINACEAE Ehretia acuminata R.Br. var. acuminata CAESALPINIACEAE *Caesalpinia decapetala (Roth) Alston *Cassia coluteoides Colladon *C. floribunda Cav. CAPRIFOLIACEAE *Lonicera japonica Thunb. Sambucus australasica (Lindl.) Fritsch CELASTRACEAE Cassine australis (vent.) Kuntze var. australis Celastrus australis Harv. & F.Muell. C. subspicatus Hook. COMMELINACEAE Aneilema acuminatum R.Br. Commelina cyanea R.Br. Pollia crispata (R.Br.) Benth. *Tradescantia albiflora Kunth *Zebrina pendula Schizl. CONVOLVULACEAE Calystegia marginata R.Br. *Ipomoea cairica (L.) Sweet *I. purpurea (L.) Roth 353.

CUCURBITACEAE Sicyos australis Endl. CUNONIACEAE Aphanopetalum resinosum Endl. Callicoma serratifolia Andr. Ceratopetalum apetalum D.Don Schizomeria ovata D.Don DILLENIACEAE Hibbertia dentata R.Br, ex DC. H. scandens (Willd.) Gilg DIOSCOREACEAE Dioscorea transversa R.Br. EBENACEAE Diospyros australis (R.Br.) Hiern. D. pentamera (Woolls & F.Muell) F.Muell. ELAEOCARPACEAE Elaeocarpus holopetalus F.Muell. E. kirtonii F.Muell. ex F.M.Bail. E. reticulatus Sm. Sloanea australis (Benth.) F.Muell. EPACRIDACEAE Trochocarpa laurina R.Br. ESCALLONIACEAE Abrophyllum ornans (F.Muell.) Hookf. ex Benth. Polyosma cunninghamii J.J.Benn Quintinia sieberi DC. EUCRYPHIACEAE Eucryphia moorei F.Muell. EUPHORBIACEAE Acalypha nemorum F.Muell. ex Muell.Arg. Actephila lindleyi (Stend.) Airy-Shaw Alchornea ilicifolia (Sm.) J.Muell. Baloghia lucida Endl. Breynia oblingifolia Muell. Arg. Claoxylon australe Baill. Croton verreauxii Baill. Glochidion ferdinandi (Muell.Arg.) F.M.Bail. Mallotus philippensis (Lamk.) Muell. Arg. Omalanthus populifolius Grah. EUPOMATIACEAE Eupomatia laurina R.Br. 354.

FLACOURTIACEAE Scolopia braunii (Klotzsch) Sleumer FLAGELLARIACEAE Flagellaria indica L. GESNERIACEAE Fieldia australis A.Cunn. ICACINACEAE Citronella moorei (F.Muell. ex Benth.) Howard Pennantia cunninghamii Miers IRIDACEAE Libertia paniculata (R.Br.) Spreng. LAMIACEAE Plectranthus parviflorus Willd. Prostanthera lasianthos Labill. LAURACEAE *Cinnamomum camphora (L.) Nees C_. oliveri F.M.Bail. Cryptocarya glaucescens R.Br. C. microneura Meisn. Endiandra sieberi Nees Litsea reticulata (Meisn.) F.Muell. Neolitsea dealbata (R.Br.) Merr. LILIACEAE *Asparagus densiflorus (Kunth) Jessop *A. scandens Thunb. MALVACEAE Hibiscus heterophyllus Vent. ssp. heterophyllus H. splendens C.Fraser ex Grah. MELIACEAE Melia azedarach L. var. australasica (A.Juss.) CDC. Synoum glandulosum (Sm.) A.Juss. Toona australis (F.Muell.) Harms MENISPERMACEAE Legnephora moorei (F.Muell.) Miers Sarcopetalum harveyanum F.Muell. Stephania japonica (Thunb.) Miers var. discolor (Bl.) Forman MIMOSACEAE Acacia binervata DC. A. elata A.Cunn. ex Benth. maidenii F.Muell. A. melanoxylon R.Br. Pararchidendron pruinosum (Benth.) Nielsen 355.

MONIMIACEAE Hedycarya angustifolia A.Cunn. Palmeria scandens F.Muell. Wilkiea huegeliana (Tul.) A.DC. MORACEAE Ficus coronata Spin. F. macrophylla Desf. ex Pers. F_. obliqua Forst.f. var. obliqua F_. rubiginosa Desf. ex Vent. F. superba Miq. var. henneana (Miq.) Corner Maclura cochinchinensis (Lour.) Corner Malaisia scandeu-. (Lour.) Planch. Streblus brunonianus (Endl.) F.Muell. MYOPORACEAE Myoporum acuminatum R.Br. MYRSINACEAE Rapanea howittiana Mez R. variabilis (R.Br.) Mez MYRTACEAE Acmena smithii (Poir.) Merr. et Perry var. smithii Austromyrtus acmenoides (F.Muell.) Burret Backhousia myrtifolia Hook.f. & Harv. Choricarpia leptopetala (F.Muell.) Domin Rhodamnia rubescens (Benth.) Miq. Syncarpia glomulifera (Sm.) Nied. Syzygium australe (Wend, ex Link) B.Hyland S_. oleosum (F.Muell.) B.Hyland Tristaniopsis collina P.G.Wilson & J.T.Waterhouse T_. laurina (Sm.) P.G.Wilson & J.T.Waterhouse NYCTAGINACEAE Pisonia umbellifera (Forst. & Forst.f.) Seemann OLEACEAE *Ligustrum lucidum Ait. *L. sinense Lour. Notelaea longifolia Vent. N. venosa F.Muell. *01ea africana Miller ORCHIDACEAE Bulbophyllum crassulifolium (A.Cunn.) Rupp B. exiguum F.Muell. B. minutissimum (F.Muell.) F.Muell. Dendrobium aemulum R.Br. D. linquiforme Sw. var. linquiforme 356.

ORCHIDACEAE cont.. Dendrobium pugioniforme A.Cunn. D- speciosum Sm. var. speciosum P_- striolatum Reichb.f. P_t tetragonum A.Cunn. var. tetragonum Galeola cassythoides (A.Cunn.) Reichb.f. Plectorrhiza tridentata (Lindl.) Dockr. Pterostylis hildae Nicholls P. pulchella Messmer Sarcochilus australis (Lindl.) Reichb.f. S. falcatus R.Br. S_. hillii (F.Muell.) F.Muell. S. olivaceus Lindl. PASSIFLORACEAE *Passiflora caerulea L. P. cinnabarina Lindl. *P. edulis Sims P. herbertina Ker ssp. herbertiana *P. mollissima (Kunth) Bail. *P. subpeltata Ort. PEPEROMIACEAE Peperomia leptostachya Hook. & Am. Pj tetraphylla (Forst.f.) Hook. & Am. PHILESIACEAE Eustrephus latifolius R.Br. var. latifolius Geitonoplesium cymosum (R.Br.) A.Cunn. ex Hook. PHYTOLACCACEAE *Phytolacca octandra L. PIPERACEAE Piper novae-hollandiae Miq. PITTOSPORACEAE Citriobatus pauciflorus A.Cunn. ex Ettingsh. Pittosporum revolutum Ait. P. undu latum Vent. PROTEACEAE Helicia glabriflora F.Muell. Stenocarpus salignus R.Br. RHAMNACEAE Alphitonia excelsa (Fenzl.) Reiss. ex Benth. Emmenosperma alphitonioides F.Muell. 357.

ROSACEAE *Eriobotrya japonica (Thunb.) Lindl. Rubus hillii F.Muell. R. rosifolius Sm. R. sp.aff. moorei *R. 'ulmifolius hybrids' RUBIACEAE Canthium coprosmoides F.Muell. Coprosma quadrifida (Labill.) B.L.Rob. *C. repens A.Rich. Morinda jasminoides A.Cunn. Psychotria loniceroides Sieber ex DC. RUTACEAE Acronychia oblongifolia (A.Cunn.) Endl. ex Heynh. Euodia micrococca F.Muell. Geijera salicifolia Schott. var. latifolia Sarcomelicope simplicifolia (Endl.) Hartley subsp. simplicifolia Zieria granulata (F.Muell.) C.Moore ex Benth. SANTALACEAE Santalum obtusifolium R.Br. SAPINDACEAE Alectryon subcinereus (A.Gray) Radlk. Cupaniopsis anacardioides (A.Rich.) Radlk. Diploglottis australis (G.Don.) Radlk. Guioa semiglauca (F.Muell.) Radlk. SAPOTACEAE Planchonella australis (R.Br.) Pierre SMILACACEAE Ripogonum album R.Br. Smilax australis R.Br. S. glyciphylla Sm. SOLANACEAE *Cyphomandra betacea (Cav.) Sendtner Duboisia myoporoides R.Br. Solanum aviculare Forst.f. S. laciniatum Ait. *S. mauritianum Scop. *S. nigrum L. ssp. nigrum *S. pseudocapsicum L. S. stelligerum Sm. STERCULIACEAE Brachychiton acerifolius F.Muell. B. populneus (Schott.) R.Br. Commersonia fraseri J.Gray 358.

SYMPLOCACEAE Symplocos thwaitesii F.Muell. ULMACEAE Celtis paniculata (Endl.) Planch. Trema aspera (Brongn.) Bl. URTICACEAE Dendrocnide excelsa (Wedd.) Chew Elatostema reticulatum Wedd. var. reticulatum VERBENACEAE Clerodendrum tomentosum R.Br. Gmelina leichhardtii F.Muell. *Lantana camara L. VIOLACEAE Hymenanthera dentata R.Br, ex Ging. VISCACEAE Korthalsella rubra (Tieghem.) Engl, subsp. rubra VITACEAE Cayratia clematidea (F.Muell.) Domin Cissus antarctica Vent. £. hypoglauca A.Gray C. sterculiifolia (F.Muell. ex Benth.) Planch. WINTERACEAE Tasmannia insipida R.Br, ex DC. ZINGIBERACEAE *Hedychium garderanum Roscoe 359.

N C0tn N>;ftSHH(nvDtnvOalrx o °^ . "^t^^°1 ° O_f0fv|vV| ^S___3fNvo»vDcn CNCNHHrHHHrHHHHCNCNHHHHHrHrHrHCO rHCNCNrH

S^I^^S^^O^O^OOKCOOOtNCNOCjVininOv SrH^st^^^^S^^S^sH^^Q-:^ st st rs ov mcooooHincNstooH is. ov CO r-t CO VO VO CN co

3 oocncninoc^cncnoHOOoooooooinooooinooinstino N __ ^i,,! ~ «. HCNinvorsu-vinvois-stcNcNHvostincocostincNCNCNinrscNincoin

Oiflininiriinoifliflo^oininoooinoinooooininio-iifi cni^voc^voinrscnincnr^covocxjcxjcNOOHCNCNincostoovostcoo <—< i—I 00 rH O i—i r-t r-M St i—I i—I t-H

OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 'OOOOOOOOOOOO 00 •••••• • • o oo m CN __ SS9^?)9!2S!!_0'S0CNOOVOOOOOOOVOOCOVJCOLO IS. SSt2r?;^"""^M^^N^^»Ncv)coooiOHOvocovjcn rscNstHCNCN CN CO CO rH ri |s. ,_, COHCNvOHCNStCOCNCN ooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo CO /•••• • U CN ,HCNCN00O r£S9 999S oocNoooooooooooino r^^"S St CO Sf 00 ri ri vOstiJOvOstOvvOOOCNOvDCNCNstvOOOCOCN CNVOVD tnst co co stooHts HstmcocNHincovovooo m

oooooooooooooooooinooooooooinoo CO r1^_S_oro^N^^^^m^^ON-cr_)in<^NinHcorHvo __ (NvOstCNststHCNCNHCNincOCMvOCNr^CNCNCNCOrHHOvstvOCOstrH <~H H CO ooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo PH ^cNi^uooc»HaDv_5cocNOOCNOHincocNdindinstrHOvd rHHrH COHrHCOCNOOHHrHCNinrH ri IO ri N VO H VO H ri ri ri

CO OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO , or5 vtCJVH^CJ^cv!c^„^oooOlrlO«cNvtro^oo_cv!oHH'o ocn /—V ststcninstincoi—iricNtninvococNi—icNstors CN ov ov m rs. ,—i m JJ CO m CN CN CN CN CU Q) CO JJ •rl CO CO oocoincoooooinooooooinooooootnoooooinin JJ « CO O HooocNincNvocNrs-ostcnvovooinvostcNcx)uoc>riCNstindc^c» O LO oostocostri coststcocors.stcNcNrs.costrHinmcovocostvo H CO (xj r-t r—i r-t i—I rH i—I CD JJ CO 3 QJ % rO H c^NvDOln>tOlnM ^^cj^^tncvlOvOHL^voNcv|lno^oOlnvtcn vO' •TH JO tOnH rH CO stininst-oins.stsjstcnstinstinststst-oininstststvoininstin X JJ -H JJ rH < CO > • fl H 01 w •H H JJ PH O H •H H^_3st^^smcJ^OHvNc^vtlnvo^coo^OHcsm•vtlnvo^ooo^ PH CO v_/ CO < OOOOOOOOOr-Ii—!•—Ii—Ii—Irii—Ii—Irii—ICNCNCNCNCNCNCNCNCNCN 360.

voincxjricoinooinvoristinorsoorivoovooost H_^^Ovoo,ooristricx)votncncNOrscorivoco CN t-Hi—I,—IrHCNCOrHCNi—ICOi-HCNrHCNrHSti—Ii—I

OOCNOOinstoinOOOOOcNrscNrscNCNrs rs.vov_>cnstis.ovcncoc»r"scnvoocNcNrsridcod OV CO vOt-HCNrs CN COinrsOOCNrHCNCN H St N rH n\ rr\

Oin^oococoooostinstoooininooinooo rsCNCNCOCNstmstmcNstCNOOCOriCNCOCOriCNin

oooooinooooooomoooooom CNOOCNOOsti—lOCNstOCNvOstOOvOstvOOOvO mCOCNrsCOi—IrHStt-HStStCOrHi—lOVSt COCOCN

OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO OOOOOvOstOvOOOOOvOOOCNOOOO StCNCNCNOOCOstiHOvvDstvOOvrsCOvOCOstCNOOCN •—ICOOVCOOOrirs-CN rsCNOOCOi—ivOincNOi—IstCO CN ri OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO CNOOvOOOOOOOOOvOOOOOoddd rivOstCNOstCNvOincNinOOststCNOCNOstOst CNO OvOst C_v OOCNrsrHstvOst om COOrH rH r-1 CN CN CN oooooomomoooooooooooo stvOvOst-OstOOCO cNcois-instcNvococNrscNini—icNinstcorscoost 1—I rH CN I-H

OOO OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO •••o st vO CN •r^cx)voc»vovoinooovooooococNincocN CO i—I O in VO OOCNrH|s.cNinOCOCOi—ICN00 VO i—i r-1 CN rH i-H i—I i—I OOO OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO •••oo • mmin • •coosj-ststcNinocNOinrscoinrsst OOCNOCNrs-riCNvOCNst CNOvOOOmcNst CN i—I H CN CN CO i-H st m oooooooomooooooooooooo rivOOvOvXOOOCOristCNOristOOOOCNstOrs. stinvoinststcovocovovostinstvoorscocNvocvi CNrHi—I i—Ii—I i—I CN CN CN mmststOriorsoovcostcocors-ocNCNOoocN costinstvoinvOststststststLninvomvostmin

OricNcostinvors-ooovOi—icNcostmvorsooovo COCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOStststStststststststm 361.

o cnrs-inc^stinoooOriOOooooorsriCNOvoorsoostis-vostrist in /v. MCOOHCNl^incOCOOVi—istCNincNStOOCNini—lOCNOmCNi—linOCN EH i—I rH i-H CN

rs._ocNHv_)v_)ocninricocnstst_o_*covocnococn < PQ cNcxiOsttscocx5rs-strs-ininc3vcncNstovoocj>ststcNinincoovocN inststcnvoinvocostovstvocnstinvorsvOrHcocNinvorsovstvosti—i i-H r-M ooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo W inoinooooininininooinooinoinininoinoinoovino CO cninstcNvocNi-HstcNvOvOi-Hstvovocncj>cnrHvovooinincj^inrs.ovst CO stcNstis-oor^cx)rs.|s._^riovst_Astosti^covostvorsincorirs.st CO H H CN i—I CN CN i—I st i—I i—I i—I i—i i—I i—it—I CN i—I n ion

ooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo PH W ooooininooomomoooininoooooinoooooo fsrHCNCO st i—IstOHIs-rivOi—I stst COrsCNStmCNst

ooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo

PH oomooooommmmoommooomoomommooo mcOririOVst COOOOvi—irsCNOvOOCN CNvO CO ri i—I vO i—I t-H CO

ooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo HH H oinoinininooinoooininooininoinoinoinooinoin st CN rs. t—i vo i—i oors inmvoco •—i •—i st i—i m mCN CNCNstri i—I CN

PH 6 OOOO o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o CD O o o o o CO > vO fs CN CN rs m r-H m CN Ov ro m vo CN CN i-H O st m vO rH CN ^M r-t fs-vO ro in rs

JJ QJ CO CO JJ PH OOO cvl CO (-H MH OOOOOOOOOOOOOO OOOOO • • • o o o o o o o CO OOst QJ JJ cNooinstvoint-HcocnincNvovovostoovoovcoi—i coincNinmrsvo 3 rO. PH OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO •H CO H CO rscNC3>cncj>ovocnststinvoi^i-HOi-Hc^vocj>ovoocj>i-H^rsooi*sco JJ H COCOCNCOCOCOCNCOCNCOi—iCOCOCNstCNi—iriCNstCNCNriCOCNCOstCNCN JJ < r—V U CO OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO •H QJ e JJ < ininininoinooooininooinooooinoinooooininin •H __ OrsstvOvOini—ivOCJvOstOOOvstCNststrsstrsOvCNvOvOOvOCOOvCN o CO H c00 rostcocNcxjcocnocxJOstvotnoocorsriCN_ovo O •oH CO m OvX A PJ CO • • QJ coinors.c>stooinstriinovstHcois.v_>cNOOOr^cNvococjoincovo r-H rs rH A u Oi-HCNCNCNStOvCNststrHCX)CNr^stC>rsOvrs.vjOOincOC>vOOvCNsti—l CO u mstcNstrsstrico ovoomoooococNCNrsinrs. VOCVINHHMOOO X! Hca •H r-i 3 rH JJ CO 5o5 0 • fl 3o 0) PwH rH i-H JJ PH JJ r-M •H wNv^OHNm•vtlJ1vo^cx)CJ^OHCNcnstlnvDrs„ov < • CO V_/ CO OOOOOOOOOHriririririririririCNCNCNCNCNCNCNCNCNCN 362.

CO QJ •H (J stovorsoovoinovcoinoocNinovrstsooorsrs QJ PH ristcnincoinoocovoinvoorsstint-itnocovoo CO QJ C •H > stcsvcxjritscNririrsoorsvoovvoooovinooooo rirscOric»rsinvostcNi—icocNCNrsininovi—IOVCO CO •ncnixicccotjooininrsinvovovovovovocoininco > CO oooooo o o ooooooooooooo QJ •H mooomoinmooinominminomooo CJ rii-HCNststCNrsstCX)i-HOvinOvOrscOO\CNvOi—iin QJ CNCNCNincOCOOvOrHinOOOvOOvOOvOCNsti—lOOO OH CO i-H I—I i—I rH CN CN in 1—I i-H i-H I—ICNrHi—IrH C H CD t=H OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO oomoomoinoomoominininoooo PH CO •—I costm CN •—i co ovricostin CN co •—i PH

CO CD OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO •H CJ ommoomoommmoommminmomm QJ r-t st i—i co st co in cNm rs-cr H •—i CN rs PH CO CO rQ 3 OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO u oinooomominooommmoooinmo A OOst OV i-H st CO i—i m O vO i—I COCN Ul ri CN r-i CN m CO i—l o_ QJ CD H OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO H rHststi—imovrsinomovovmcorsi—locooovin PH i—I i—It—I rH T—I rHt—It—Ii—I i—Ii—Ir—Ii—ICNi—IrHi—Ii—I CO CO

CO rC OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO M CD voo^inrsovocNOc»riis.|s.voovrs.ocoinovri P. i—I i—I i—I i-H CO QJ QJ OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO U OOCOCNCNrirs-UOrs-riCNCOstOOOCNCOvOOOrivOvO H i—ICNstCNCNCNCOCOCNCOriCOCNCOCOCNCOCNCNCOCN < < OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO S3 PH inininuoooininininoininoinoinoinino EH ^ c^rsrscoovocNcocovoovovoovOi—lOOvcNstrs Bv? strsinrirscocoinOi-HorsOCNcNoostrscoOs. t-H i—It—I rHrHi—It—Irit—Ir—Ii—Ir-HrH rH CN i—It—I i—I P uQJ > CO o c rs-stincx)vOcoHoooorsrsinrirs.oois-ini—iststo o u TJ

OriCNcns.invors.cx)c^OHCNcostinvors.ooovo CJ Cu rocooococococococoooststststststststststm CD H 363.

APPENDIX 8 : Soil Moisture Measurements and Rainfall : Mt.Keira and Goodarrin Creek

Date: Mt.Keira Scout Camp Goondarrin Creek Rainfall (mm) Soil Moisture Soil Moisture (previous week) (% wt.) (% wt.) R'forest Sclero. R'forest Sclero.

12 Jan.1983 1.0 22.8 12.4 17.5 8.9 19 Jan. 8.4 20.4 11.0 16.9 9.5 26 Jan. 0.9 18.9 11.0 17.2 9.4 02 Feb. 5.2 18.5 10.0 16.4 8.7 09 Feb. 8.8 20.0 10.3 16.3 5.7 15 Feb. 15.0 19.7 10.5 16.5 8.3 22 Feb. 8.6 20.9 9.6 15.2 10.2 01 Mar. 33.0 25.3 11.5 15.5 10.7 30 Mar: 143.4 28.0 14.0 21.0 11.0 06 Apr. 31.4 19.2 15.1 15.7 7.5 13 Apr. - 24.5 13.6 20.0 12.7 21 Apr - 21.8 16.8 19.8 9.9 28 Apr 11.8 23.2 18.5 24.7 12.3 05 May 322.5 28.6 17.8 23.2 15.9 11 May - 25.3 16.6 23.7 13.6 18 May - 26.7 16.9 21.1 12.9 25 May 119.6 30.8 17.5 27.0 18.8 01 Jun. 115.5 28.5 20.9 24.2 17.2 08 Jun. 14.6 29.1 17.0 26.0 19.4 15 Jun. - 30.3 18.8 25.5 15.2 22 Jun. 131.8 33.8 21.9 25.5 21.8 29 Jun. 1.2 28.1 19.6 26.6 13.9 06 Jul. 10.4 27.5 20.7 24.6 21.4 13 Jul. 3.4 31.0 18.6 24.5 15.7 20 Jul. - 29.8 16.1 23.1 13.1 27 Jul. 7.8 24.8 17.4 25.5 18.1 03 Aug. 12.2 31.8 18.2 24.2 14.6 10 Aug. 4.2 29.9 19.5 21.6 12.3 17 Aug. 3.2 28.7 16.2 22.9 12.3 24 Aug. 9.8 29.0 16.5 28.2 16.2 31 Aug. 13.6 27.2 18.7 24.2 16.9 07 Sep. 3.0 25.9 17.3 22.2 12.4 14 Sep. 16.0 24.8 16.8 23.6 14.2 22 Sep. 20.4 34.7 18.6 23.6 14.5 28 Sep. - 23.0 16.8 20.5 12.0 05 Oct. 84.6 29.6 14.5 28.1 18.3 12 Oct. 100.4 27.7 16.1 26.2 18.5 19 Oct. 270.6 27.6 23.6 26.5 19.4 26 Oct. 20.0 32.0 25.1 24.3 16.9 02 Nov. 33.8 33.0 24.0 28.5 20.1 09 Nov. 0.2 24.8 20.8 23.8 14.2 16 Nov. _ 24.6 20.8 19.9 12.6 364.

r—i I—l CO tfl Cfl tfl u o u u •ri •ri •rl •rai. O. •~v r—v r-N r~s r-S Oo . o. •—«, _H o o o t- H OH _H Cn /-s r-N IH r—V IH M [JH |JH _H u t- CO JJ OH OH OH _H JJ _H JJ JJ OH IH I 1 I > > r—V > HO > > > > > | > /•—•. z z 0 Z Z z z _J z £> HO _r OH Ul JJ b_ OO 3 -j C/J CO 3 CO 3 3 C/. s_nv v_^ JJ v_/ CO N-• v_/ _• s> CO v^ Cfl Cfl > •QJ• •rl > s^ s, OH QJ QJ rJ § CU QJ QJ QJ QJ QJ QJ 01 QJ QJ QJ v_x >-> JJ JJ •w JJ JJ JJ JJ JJ JJ JJ JJ J-l JJ JJ H co CO rH CO CO to Cfl CO tfl CO CO CO CO Cfl H JH IH CO IH IH IH IH IH IH IH IH IH IH IH CO JJ OJ QJ QJ QJ QJ QJ QJ 0J QJ CU QJ CU QJ CO Q. O. •rol QJ OH O, O. OH o a. o. O. o. O. O. O. •ri cu B E a. U E E E E E E E E E E E O. IH 0) QJ o C CU QJ r"S QJ QJ QJ QJ E E E E E > E E > E b> E I •rl IH IH X) HH IH IH u IH IH IH SH IH IH IH _J CO CO CO C CO g CO Cfl tfl Cfl CO Cfl Cfl u 3 cfl CO Eg 3 PH _S _£ CO •ri S 3 V/ 3= S 3 _£ _£ n_• _£ _£ v • 3 S-* »CO Ul

QJ OH 0 o 0 0 0 o o 0 0 0 0 o o 0 0 0 vO to m in rM CN m in tN CM 00 CO vO m in rH CM rM to CN CN CO rM rH CM CM CO oo

JJ o o o O 0 o 0 0 0 O 0 0 o o 0 0 0) O O O O O O O O Sf O O O O LO o O. OV 00 st rM 00 00 sf vO sf 00 in in CN Ov CO Cvl rHm rH rM rH rM rM rH rM rM CM rH

< QJ QJ QJ U c JJ JJ QJ •ri O •ri •ri C OH PH CX. o. OH a OH O. o. O. JCJO G e o. 0 3 3 3 0 3 CO 3 3 3 3 TJ CO 3 JJ 0 0 0 0 O O O O ca O CO IH o o e a c SH IH IH rH rH IH IH IH IH Cfl •rl •ri IH TJ O e> U U CJ 0 CJ CJ CJ CJ Ul U IH CJ c > CJ tfl C c C c C c C c a >V a co CU _ QJ cu QJ 13 tu OJ QJ 0) rH X X cu >v tu QJ QJ cu cu QJ 0) QJ (U tu 3 3 3 aj DO oo _a -O rO J=> X> E -Q HCJ _J -a rO CO Cfl _3 C o to CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO QJ QJ CO o rH u IH IH IH IH C rH IH IH H QJ TJ -a IH 00 O u U IH IH IH 1 rH rJ IH IH 3 IH IH IH •a Q) co CO CO CO CO c Cfl CO to Cfl CO O o CO 3 O z z Z Z Z _J z z Z Z S3 U cj Z P3

O o o o o ooooo o o o o o a CmO o o o ion ooooo o o o o o •ri m sf m CO sr in vo m vo co vo vo vo in P_

rH S ooo oo ooooo oo o om stooo moo OOHVOOVH CMst O OH H CNH cococococo cost Sf StCM

CN rH rH |s CO r-M rM CN 00 ON CO m fs rH in O O O in in in sf sf st Sf sf Sf sf 0 O 0 0m 0 0 0m 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 rH rH rM O O O o o O O O O O O O in in in in in in in in in in in in i/l c m m o •rl Ov rM CN VO oo Ov rH CN CO sf St tn VO 00 Ov JJ O rM rM rH rH rH CN CN CN CM CN CM CN CN CN CO 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 sf St Sf St St Sf sf sf Sf Sf sf st sf sf Sf U CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO o rJ OH E CO X CJ QJ CN JJ X QJ JJ Cfl QJ IH 3 O rH W QJ CU CJ O IH !>, z |JH CU is U Cfl u QJ rH X rH CO U O C CO > rH X •ri cu IH 00 CO T-J z •rl •rl 3 0 rM cu Cfl 0 CO Cfl Cfl JJ IH CO PH X U PH r-M IH _l 3 IH OH 0 a CO rJ u 3 •ri u CU -> IH B_ CO u CO •rl CU CO CO 00 3 O Cfl •rl IH QJ XJ QJ rH QJ oo c CO QJ tfl B HO rH QJ CO X C _H JJ TJ c •ri OO rH -a rH E rH IH JJ O 0 • JJ IH 3 >v c e O QJ CO O 3 •ri cfl IH 0 JJ •rH O 0 tH 0 CO PQ 0H OH S « fa CJ PQ a X CJ >H tH _5 SH a o rM CN CO Sf m VD |s 00 ov o rM CN CO St in z o o o O o O o o o rM rM rH rH rH rH > > 365.

Cfl JJ ^^ /—\ rH _ c r-N rH 01 rH s~~. OH OH Cfl JJ QJ OH tfl JJ CO OH OH OH u Cfl E OH U Cfl o OH > > •ri IH QJ > •ri IH •H > Z Z O. 0) iH z D, QJ OH z CO CO •—- o Q. •~N 4) C/J O Q. ^v O CO ^-> v»/ OH IH E OH v/ IH E OH IH —' OH JJ JJ OH JJ QJ OH CU 01 0) QJ > I JJ > JJ QJ 1 r-v r—V JJ > 1 QJ JJ JJ Z _3 Z Cfl JJ J3 OH OH z -Q JJ Cfl Cfl CO 3 E CO IH cfl 3 > > E CO 3 Cfl rH IH sx CO IH _• QJ IH CO Z Z IH v_^ CO IH OJ QJ QJ •s-. CO r—V Or CU s_ CJ CJ CO s-, Q) v_/ OH OH QJ QJ 3 OH QJ E QJ w _ 0) OH o. JJ JJ JJ QJ o. cu >v E E ***---, > E JJ JJ JJ E cu QJ CO Cfl z CO JJ QJ CO rH rH rH cfl CO QJ H JJ JJ U u •_- CJ u JJ U ca cfl Cfl H IH JJ QJ QJ o s_x QJ rH QJ o O U QJ OJ +J rH rH OH O. •ri OH O rH P. •ri •ri •ri o. o. rH 0 E E o. rH E 0 O E OH O. O. E E O cfl o r-S r—V 0 0 CU QJ o /~\ CO QJ a 0 OJ O 0 O /-s QJ OJ r-v O QJ u 0 JJ JJ OH IH OH IH JJ u JJ OH IH IH U OH JJ JJ OH 0 IH 1 1 OH JJ OH 0) 1 OH JJ JJ JJ OH OH 1 JoJ O E E E E > 1 > E E 6 E > 1 1 1 > E E > E IH u H H _J JJ IH O rH Z J3 -Q .o Z IH u 4H CO CO CO __ 3 CzJ •H to CO CO tuo _: 3 3 3 CO CO S_ ca v—' a cfl 0 _£ 3 _£ _£ 00 s> rj 3 v_/ 3 3= v_^ C/_ CO oo 3 _E w 3= •H CQO) PH OH 0 0 o 0 o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 oo o O CC OV CO CN m oo in vO O CO in in o CM CM CO CO vO sf CN rH co Ul JJ 0 0 o 0 0 o o o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 a O O O O o CO o O O O O O O O O QJ sf |s O 00 O vO O rH VO CM sf |s O. Hr - rH rH rH rH rH CN -H rH rM rH rH roH to 0) < JJ CO 0) CO 0) CU •ri CO Q) C JJ QJ JJ c JJ CO o, OH SH 0 rH OH IH •ri O CO o. IH o. 3 3 3 °a JJ CO 3 3 JJ JJ X 3 3 3 O o CO to CO O 'Cfl CO CO O CO O IH IH CO QJ T) CO CO H cfl ,-J OJ TJ CO SH CO IH O CJ QJ JJ C TJ PQ O OJ JJ C IH CJ 01 CJ •ri Cfl c S CO •ri CO IH _: C C __ JJ co CO C c IH JJ CO CO c c QJ QJ rH CO CO o 0) rH U CO IS 0) rH Q) QJ QJ CO rJ 00 Cfl 01 Cfl CO X 00 QJ 0) CO QJ oo J3 -O O c cu JJ X O 3 c HO HO O _3 CO co CO (J O O c u CO a 0) O O E CO CJ CO o IH IH 3 jn 00 •ri QJ rH • _) -O oo CO IH • IH rH IH IH rH rH e TJ H rO IH rH E E TJ CJ IH rH IH CO Cfl ca rH 3 3 CO O CO rH CO 3 3 CO rH CO o Z Z H M PQ PQ ST PH z M

JJ r-N OOOO o in in o o o o o O O O rH VO r-t LO rH in VO Ov rs vO orH is sof Smf CmN roHo in st st m sf sf sf

ro rH CjV rs Ov CN in CO CO m rs rH CN CM CM sf St to CO CO CO st sf sf Sf CO Sf 0 0c o om o 0 0 0 0 0 0 co n r> r> O O O O O O O O O O o o in m m in m in m in in in i/l m in in in 0 rH

O |s •ri O rH CO Sf st vO in rs |s fs CO 00 00 JJ JJ CO CO co CO CO CO CO CO CO co co co co co co o 0 o c U o st sf st oooo sf o sf st sf sf st O CO sf sf CO CO CO o rJ sf sf sf sf CO co co CO CO CO u co co co co CO H IH QJ QJ IS >v Ov p. IH •< PQ ex o QJ CO rH tH I I X 3 •ri to Cfl co CO CO cfl CO CQ 00 TJ CO ca Cfl PH OH CJ OH •rl a CO ca CO X U QJ OH a OH C OO Cfl ca CO 00 PH •rl C u 01 IH OH H QJ O c OH o o O IH U O c •ri IH o JJ •ri 3 QJ QJ O PH 0 IH > IH IH _ o O u CO OH CO oo QJ E O QJ E O O PQ JJ o O. QJ < cfl 3 Cfl CO E E H < > IH c H CO CO 00 QJ 3 C-r Cfl IH rH rH QJ E Q) •ri rH •ri c Q) QJ OH o CO IH _J CO a a 0 u 0) 3 X PQ PQ OH rH PQ PH c E o cfl IH >< CJ 3t •ri z -o u CO OV co VPQO |S (XS-)

QJ 0) r—V QJ r-S rH rH JJ JJ OH JJ OH CO Cfl Cfl CO OH CO OH U L) IH IH > IH > •ri •ri QJ QJ QJ OH OH •—V ,r~\ r-N z Z O. OH CO OH CO 0 0 /-^ OH OH OH E E '—' E V-r- IH IH OH OH OH •~s OH Q) QJ QJ JJ JJ OH s-\ s—\ > r—V > OH > JJ JJ Q) JJ QJ 1 1 > OH t_ Z OH Z OH z JJ JJ HQ XI OH OH co > DO > c/j- e E Cfl E CO 3 3 CJ* > > —• v_^ Z v_/ IH U M OJ z a to _-• z z CJ CO CO QJ cfl OJ OH QJ v_CJ/ QJ S-* QJ IS OH S s-OJ. 0) QJ CV_JH sC_x) _ SL. o. >> JJ JJ JJ s^. E E JJ JJ JJ CO rH Cfl rH CO rH rH QJ rH QJ CO Cfl CO rH rH H IH Cfl IH CO U cfl CO JJ tfl JJ u IH IH CO CO JJ QJ u QJ 1 > E > E E > E > g 1 1 IH rO IH IH rd _5 rQ LH _J H rH IH rd JQ C CO Cfl 3 CO §" CO eg CO cfl Cfl eg cfl 3 •ri 3 3 (J 3 V—r 3 g 3 3 _£ CO _t -j S> 00 3- CO w 3- 3= v_*- 3 s-> 3= CO to CO co PH 0) OH 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 O in sf in in in in LTI vO in in CN in CO CmO CO r-i CN CO CN rMm n rH sf CO CN rM rM co CN C/l

u 0 0 0 O 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 o 0 O O O O O O O O O CO O O O o o CU CO O sf CN in st vO vO CN in CN rH —H rH CO rH rH m rM rH rH rH rH rH CO CoO o. r—V co CO rH CO QJ C C QJ QJ JJ 0) s-> OJ JJ JJ JJ •ri •ri X JJ IH •ri IH QJ rH rH OH •ri O. rH Cfl ca u •ri 3 JJ 3 C 3 CO 3 JJ 3 CO JJ JJ Cfl JJ CO tfl CO 0 CO cn O CO 0 CO e c -Q Cfl Cfl rQ CO JJ ca cfl IH X (H CO 3 3 OJ r-J cu QJ Cfl Q) PQ 0) QJ CJ a PQ O O iH -S Cfl S TJ S _- JJ X JJ CO S s TJ Cfl IH c oo O cfl V CO a IH c 00 TJ IH rH IH rH cfl rH C cfl IH CO (H QJ U cu c O 0) 0 0J CO IH >v Cfl CO CO Ul CO o rO 0) -a QJ 0) Cfl OJ o o JJ o JJ Ul CO 00 0 IS o o PQ QJ E QJ E rQ S -o PQ SH •rl IH •ri 1 tu > o O 0) CJ Cfl CJ rH O rH o Cfl QJ CO CO c CO c O JJ Q) • XI E 00 TJ rH TJ rH IH rQ IH OO 00 Cfl 00 cfl JJ -ri _n rH rH E rH CO rH c TJ 00 TJ OO IH E IH 3 c CO C Cfl OH JJ E O rH CO rH •rl rH tfl 00 CO 00 CO cO Cfl 0 Cfl CO CO CO CO CO CO r-t o PQ OJ H CJ W M PQ -J < Ul < Z U Z PQ »_ i-H PQ O rJ CJ _>

CO MH OOOOOO o O O O O o o o o C O O OOOOOO n vO o ios voO o o o •ri vO oo oo sf st st CO vo st st st co in PH

OOOOOO o o o o o O O O o rH E rH CM 00 in in co oo oo rs co CN sf o vo vO < v_/ in in CO in st st in CO CO co cvi sf co in st

oo VO O o St rs |s vO VO CN St o |s VO in CO St CO CM st St sf Sf St St sf CO CO CO 0 O O oc o 0 0 0 0 o 0 0 0 0 0 O n ("J O n O O O O O O o o o o in in in in LO in in m in m m in in in in c rH rM rM r-M rH rH tH rM rM rM H rM rH rH o H CM CN CO St vO vO m •ri o o o o Sf st st Sf sf st St sf Sf sf st JJ st st sf sf o o o o o o st st o JJ Cfl o o o o st st st Sf Sf sf sf sf CO CO sf st st CO CO CO co co CO c u sf st CO CO CO o CO CO CIOH CO o OJ X OH u OH CO 3 X X OV JJ TJ O P-H >V 0J 0) 3 3 Cfl cn O TJ QJ c X OH Z X O O TJ CH cfl •rl U o JJ E QJ QJ X X c Z* C CO TJ U O Pd rS o QJ lxl P. 00 o X 3 IH ri J_ cu > o X O QJ O U o CJ cfl rH o O a X rJ IH TJ 00 0} o cfl o PH O x> 00 00 Ori ri0 c - JJ < o CO •ri CO o o Cfl 0 X) QJ rJ J_ QJ rQ 3 •rel rH IH 00 •ri a rS TQJJ u oo ? oo X IH •rl CO •ri IH TJ cu X CO IS 3 E c a rH rH o 00 ca QJ CO rH (fl o O CO •ri e PQ OH ca H CO > a Ul TJ IH Z IH 2 rH QJ c _H c TJ PQ IH rH CN PCQO sO f CO rM CN co sCtO in vo rCsO on ov o Hm_ o OJ Sf St sf st co to co croS co co CO co co sf st z CJ 367.

01 s-\ 0) JJ OH JJ CO OH cfl >H > IH 0) Z QJ OH rH C/J OH E CO v/ E 0) IH OJ JJ O QJ JJ JJ r-v JJ E JJ OH CO E IH •rl > IH IH QJ CO r-H Z 0) CO /—V OH IS s. CJ OH IS OH >v s. E rH rH v-r QJ rH Z> H (0 CO JJ Cfl JJ U O r-v CJ V^ur cfl •ri •ri QJ rH •ri OH OH U 0 OH rH Q) O r—V O C 0 0 r—v CO IH IH OH IH 01 0 IH OH IH O JJ OH JJ 3 1 JJ OH O MH 1 1 rH E 1 > JJ XI > X> MH IH rO JJ C 3 _g. 3 C Cfl 3 zCJ •ri •ri CO v_^ Ul -ri _• CO 3 Ul X Pi QJ OH O m n O |s rH CO CM CN CN 00

u o o o O o QJ rH CN vO 00 vO OH rH rH rH rM CO cn < QJ Ul HI JJ QJ JJ •rM OJ IH •ri JJ JJ 3 JJ tfl •ri Cfl CO X JJ CO X cn CO QJ TJ Cfl rJ S- CO C IH IH CO IH 0) rri IH Cfl >v CO rH CO CO 00 IS O _ QJ OJ Xo CJ QJ C o Xi _ XI •ri rH E 0 rH E U O cfl rH rH CO CO QJ CJ PQ H U S CJ

o o o o o a o o o •ri ' o o CO st CO P_ CO CO

JJ .—v o o in E o o ^ o in St OV

CO vD ov CO st m CO st o CO st o 0 O O o o c in O m m in m o oo - fs vO CO st oo cfl st st in sf o c u st sf 0 o st o O CO CO sf st CO CJ X CO CO C •ri CO c C TJ 3 X •ri a •rl CO O JJ co TJ c a a QJ 3 CO cu QJ oo rH O u c o Cfl cfl u o o OJ JJ o a CO E •ri cn 3= IH < OH u QJ Cfl OJ CO c u XI E z QJ _ E O o vO CfJs 00 OV Co J sf sf sot sCtO z IH CJ m PQ