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The Illawarra Rainforests: an Historical, Floristic and Environmental Study of Their Distribution and Ecology Kevin Gibson Mills University of Wollongong

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The Illawarra Rainforests: an Historical, Floristic and Environmental Study of Their Distribution and Ecology Kevin Gibson Mills University of Wollongong University of Wollongong Research Online University of Wollongong Thesis Collection University of Wollongong Thesis Collections 1986 The Illawarra rainforests: an historical, floristic and environmental study of their distribution and ecology Kevin Gibson Mills University of Wollongong Recommended Citation Mills, Kevin Gibson, The Illawarra rainforests: an historical, floristic and environmental study of their distribution and ecology, Doctor of Philosophy thesis, Department of Geography, University of Wollongong, 1986. http://ro.uow.edu.au/theses/1389 Research Online is the open access institutional repository for the University of Wollongong. For further information contact the UOW Library: [email protected] THE ILLAWARRA RAINFORESTS AN HISTORICAL, FLORISTIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL STUDY OF THEIR DISTRIBUTION AND ECOLOGY A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the dearee of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY from THE UNIVERSITY OF WOLLONGONG by KEVIN GIBSON MILLS B.A.CHons.) Wollonqona DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY 1986 For my Parents Cas and Val Mills who took • me into the bush at an early age i. ABSTRACT This study presents a detailed analysis of the structure, floristic pattern and environment of the Illawarra rainforests and also evaluates their relationships with rainforests elsewhere in Australia. The results presented here illustrate the fact that the district's rainforests can be viewed as a part of a continuum of rainforest vegetation throughout eastern Australia, with links to those well to the north and to the south. This research contributes to a national effort, over recent years, to more fully understand Australian rainforests. The rainforest vegetation found in the Illawarra district represents one of five major areas of rainforest in New South Wales, The original extent of the Illawarra rainforests is shown to have been largely in the form of three major rainforest concentrations: the "Illawarra Brush' of 12.000 ha: the 'Yarrawa Brush' of 2450 ha: and the 'Berkeley Brush' of 1600 ha. The present area of rainforest in the district is only 5700 ha following an estimated reduction of 75 percent since European settlement. Several 'distributional nodes' for rainforest plant species dis­ tribution, of which the Illawarra district is one, have been identified in southern New South Wales. At each of these nodes between 15 and 13 percent of the total species of trees, shrubs and vines reach their southern limit of distribution. The major environmental factors determining rainforest distribution are identified as: soil nutrient status, mean temperature as indicated by altitude and location, moisture availability and probably the influence of ii. fire, however, these are not listed in their order of significance. Soils supporting rainforest are found to differ significantly, particularly in relation to the amounts of available calcium and aluminium. Soils supporting subtropical rainforest (Complex Notophyll Vine Forest. CNVF) are high in Ca and other nutrients such as Mn. K and Na. Soils associated with warm temperate rainforest (Simple Notophyll Vine Fern Forest. SNVFF). dominated by Ceratcpetalum apetalum. are very high in Al (an element accumulated by Capetalum ) but lower in other nutrients. Mixed subtropical-warm temperate rainforest (Mixed Notophyll Vine Fern Forest, MNVFF) are found on soils intermediate between these two. Numerical classification is used to elucidate patterns in the varia­ tion of rainforest structural and floristic characteristics. Analysis of structural-physiognomic attributes of 50 rainforest stands identified three main groups, largely determined by soil type and altitude: 1) a mainly SNVFF group which occurs on sedimentary soils. 2) a group composed of CNVF and MNVF which largely occurs on volcanic soils, and 3) a group of simple, but each different, rainforest stands which occur on all soil types and altitudes. Similar techniques are used to investigate patterns in the canopy. understorey, ground cover and vine species. Analysis of the canopy species produced two major groups: 1) high altitude sites on sedimentary soils and Tertiary volcanic soils are largely SNVFF (warm temperate) and dominated by Capetalum. and 2) lower altitude sites on Permian voicanics or sedimentary soils, which are either CNVF or MNVFF (subtropical). The understorey data also produced two main groups: 1) a group on sedimentary soils at higher altitudes, and 2) a group occurring on iii. Permian volcanics at lower altitudes. There is a group of understorey species, including the tree ferns, which distinguishes these site groups from those identified using the canopy species data. Classification of ground cover data identified three main groups: 1) a group at higher, moister sites containing a well developed ground cover. 2) a group of sites on steeper topography which are drier and have a less well developed ground cover, and 3) a group which is largely on volcanic soils with well developed ground cover. Analysis of the presence/absence of vine species identifies three species groups: 1) a group of widespread and common species, 2) species which are common at lower altitudes, particularly on volcanic soils, and 3) a group of species found mainly at higher altitudes. An ecological model is developed to explain and describe the occurrence of rainforest in the Illawarra. This model is based on the structural and floristic character of these rainforests and their distribution in relation to major environmental factors operating. Regional studies of this kind are important for developing a wider understanding of the Australian rainforests. IV. CONTENTS Abstract Contents Acknowledgements List of Tables List of Figures List of Plates CHAPTER ONE : INTRODUCTION 1.1 The Thesis 1.2 The Thesis in Perspective 1.3 The Illawarra District 1.4 Thesis Organisation PART ONE: CHAPTER TWO : THE REGIONAL ENVIRONMENT 2.1 Geology, Geomorphology and Soils 2.1.1 Geology 2.1.2 Geomorphology 2.1.3 Soil Types 2.2 Climatic Patterns 2.2,1 General Climatic Setting 2.2.2 Rainfall Distribution 2.2.3 Temperature Regime 2.2.4 Wind Patterns 2.3 Man Made and Modified Environments 2.4 Conclusions v. CHAPTER THREE : ILLAWARRA RAINFOREST STUDIES - A CRITICAL REVIEW 3.1 Introduction ...51 3,2 Early Descriptions of the Rainforests ...52 3.3 The Beginnings of Ecological Investigation ...53 3.4 Recent Detailed Research in the Illawarra ...63 3.5 Conclusions ...69 CHAPTER FOUR : RAINFOREST AND SETTLEMENT 4.1 An Historical Overview ...72 4.2 Extent of the Rainforests - Past and Present 4.2.1 Pre-European Distribution and Extent ...86 4.2.2 Estimates of Contemporary Rainforest Occurrence ... 102 4.3 Conclusions ... 104 CHAPTER FIVE : THE ILLAWARRA RAINFOREST FLORA 5,1 Rainforest Plant Species Inventory ... 107 5.2 Floristic Elements ...111 5.3 Species at Their Southern Limit ...116 5.4 Naturalised Introduced Species ... 124 5.5 Conclusions ... 131 PART TWO: CHAPTER SIX : SAMPLING METHODS AND TREATMENT OF DATA 6.1 Data Collection ...133 6.2 The Data ...139 6.3 Numerical Classification Techniaues ... 141 vi. CHAPTER SEVEN : STRUCTURAL AND FLORISTIC VARIATION IN THE ILLAWARRA RAINFORESTS 7.1 Introduction ... 146 7.2 Stand Structure ...147 7.3 Species Assemblages 7.3.1 The Canopy ...160 7,3.2 The Understorey ... 168 7.3.3 Ground Cover ...175 7.3,4 Vine Species ... 181 7.4 Conclusions ... 186 CHAPTER EIGHT : ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS INFLUENCING THE DISTRIBUTION AND CHARACTER OF THE ILLAWARRA RAINFOREST 8.1 Introduction ...190 8.2 Rainforest - Environment Interactions 8.2.1 Soil Fertility ...191 8,2.2 Moisture Availability ...202 8.2.3 Altitude ...206 8.2.4 The Role of Fire ...212 8.3 Conclusions ...215 CHAPTER NINE : ILLAWARRA RAINFOREST COMMUNITY TYPES AND THEIR DISTRIBUTION 9.1 Introduction ...218 vii. 9,2 The Woronora Plateau ...219 9.2.1 The Narrabeen Group ...224 9,2.2 The Tertiary Volcanics ...232 9.2.3 The Hawkesbury Sandstone ...238 9.3 The Escarpments ...243 9.3.1 The Upper Slopes ...244 9.3,2 The Topographic Benches ...251 9.3.3 The Tertiary Volcanics ...259 9,4 The Permian Volcanics ...263 9.5 Littoral Rainforest ...272 9.6 Inland Vine Thickets ...282 9.7 Conclusions ...289 CHAPTER TEN : CONCLUSIONS ...301 CHAPTER ELEVEN : REFERENCES ...316 CHAPTER TWELVE : APPENDICES 12.1 Rainfall Data - Illawarra Climatic District ...338 12.2 Monthly Rainfall Data - Illawarra Climatic District ...343 12.3 Average Monthly and Annual Maximum and Minimum Temperatures - Sydney & Illawarra Climatic Districts ...345 12.4 Monthly and Annual Hours of Fog and Fog-Days - F6 Freeway, Bulli to Waterfall ...348 12.5 Plant Species List for the Illawarra Rainforests ...349 12.6 Soil Attributes Data Set ...359 viii. 12.7 Structural-Physiognomic Attributes Data Set ...361 12.8 Soil Moisture Measurements and Rainfall - Mt.Keira and Goondarrin Creek ...363 12.9 Summary of Rainforest Survey Sites. Illawarra District ...364 ix. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I wish to thank the following people and organisations for their assistance during work for this thesis: Gerald Nanson. Wollongong University, my supervisor, for his assistance in getting the thesis from draft form into its present state: Ted Bryant, Murray Wilson and Bob Young. Wollongong University, for their useful comments on draft versions: Barbara Jakeman. formerly of the Bureau of Mineral Resources, Canberra, for her substantial help with programming for the computer analysis and for commenting on other aspects of the thesis work: Richard Miller and Robin Johnston. Wollongong University, for their advice on cartographic and photographic problems: Hilde Shaw. Wollongong University, for her interest in and advice on historical subjects: David and Marion Walsh, formerly of the Mt.Keira Scout Camp, for rainfall records and historical information: Betty Burke, of Woodhill. Rachel Roxburgh and Janet Cosh, of Moss Vale. for their encouragement and interest. Gwen Harden. National Herbarium. Sydney, for information freely given on the rainforest flora of New South Wales, and also to other staff of the Herbarium who have given assistance: The staff of Wollongong City Library, particularly Jan Keith and Jan Richards, who were always helpful in locating historical material: The staff of the Department of Environment and Planning.
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