Introduction 1

TRADITIONAL MEDICINES

Medicinal plants have played a vital role in nature as a repository of treasures, since times immemorial. Ample of notable modern medicines that have been sequestered in nature, originate from plants (Cowan, 1999). Plant materials have always been an important source to contend many serious diseases all over the world in conventional medical systems and provide solutions for health related issues in developing countries. The human body has a definite physiological reaction when it intakes chemical substances or group of compounds obtained from medicinal plants. These chemical compounds are known as secondary metabolites (Edeoga et al., 2005).

In plants, these phytochemicals are classified into two broad categories according to their function in the metabolism process, viz., primary metabolites and secondary metabolites. Phytochemicals or phytoconstituents or plant secondary metabolites are all synonyms. Phytoconstituents are responsible for pharmaceutical activities in plants (Savithramma et al. , 2011). Primary metabolites are necessary to fulfill all metabolic activities which directly regulate growth, nutrition and development process in plants but secondary metabolites do not play a direct role in growth, nutrition and reproduction but have other roles such as allelopathic interactions and protection from herbivory. Primary metabolites include simple carbohydrates, lipids, amino acids , proteins, all types of vitamins and chlorophylls while in secondary metabolites we include alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, antraquinones, phytosteroids, saponins and others (Parekh and Chanda, 2008; Kumar et al. , 2009).

To resist and alleviate diverse diseases secondary metabolites are acknowledged suitably and are abundant in medicinal plants. At global level, many vigorous and strong drugs have been extracted from herbal sources. Approx. 35,000 varieties of plants are used for medicinal purposes. It is a popular belief that the traditional medicines also known as Green medicines, are much safer, simply available and have very less after effects (Savithramma et al. , 2011). Herbal plants are pioneers for novel drug findings and many phytoconstituents are directly used as starting components for the formation of medicinally active components and some Introduction 2 are directly used as therapeutic agents. Human being have utilised these plant based medicines in various forms like powder, mixture of more than two plant extracts or in liquid form. The concept of Herbal medicines was very much popular in India and over the whole world and the utilization of herbal medicines has increased tremendously in last few 20- 25 years (Rios and Recio, 2005).

Traditional herbal medicines are employed as crude drugs throughout the world within their own designed medical systems for e.g. in Asia, China follows Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), Korea follows Korean Chinese medicine, Japan follows Japanese Chinese medicine also known as Kampo, Indonesia follows Jamu and India follows Ayurveda. In Europe, this system is followed as Phytotherapy and Homeopathy. In America, these systems are named as alternative medicinal systems where they combine with different herbal therapies to cure some serious ailments. Integrative medicine (Western medicine) has come in existence due to combination of Traditional medicines with Modern medicine (Feher and Schmidt, 2003; Piggott and Karuso, 2004; Clardy and Walsh, 2004; Koehn and Carter, 2005; Lee et al ., 2001).

TRADITIONAL v/s MODERN MEDICINES Western medicine is a very popular form of medicine in the present time, but simultaneously, this system has also created problems in the form of some side- effects like carcinogenicity caused by the synthetic drugs. So, Phytotherapy is considered as the best alternative tool to alleviate the side- effects of synthetic drugs (Sanchez-Lamar et al., 1999).The plant based medicines which are used to combat various diseases are considered under separate branch of science called as herbal medicines or botanical medicines or Phytomedicines. After many years, another word emerged which replaced the word herbal medicine or Phytomedicine with Phytotherapy. The twentieth century healthcare system was totally dependent on natural drugs obtained from plant origin but gradually these natural drugs loss their popularity. Later on Phytotherapy was completely taken over by the allopathic system of treatment in which people sought immediate therapeutic effects of synthetic medicines without knowing their future side effects (Singh, 2007). Introduction 3

A person who deals with the formation of plant based medicines is called chemist of natural products or Phytochemist. Plant material is first identified, collected by Phytochemist and further subjected to purification process. Different parts of the plants are subjected to form crude extract in which all phytochemicals are equally present. The crude extract of the various plant parts is tested against selected biological agents and active phytochemicals are isolated and further characterized by specific techniques. This whole protocol is known as bioassay- guided fractionation. So, without the knowledge of molecular biology, it would be very much difficult to discover a novel drug from medicinal plants.

Pharmacognosy is an interdisciplinary approach which encloses many suitable fields of science. The term Pharmacognosy has been utilized and practiced by Phytochemists, since 18 th century, to formulate many crude medicines (Samuelsson, 2004; Kinghorn, 2001). A detailed definition according to the American Society of Pharmacognosy defines it as ‘‘the study of the physical, chemical, biochemical and biological properties of drugs, drug substances, or potential drugs or drug substances of natural origin as well as the search for new drugs from natural sources’’. Pharmacognosy includes the current research on drugs obtained through not only the medicinal plants but it also incorporate all kinds of unicellular as well as multicellular organisms like bacteria, algae, fungi, plants, animals and aquatic organisms. In broader sense, Pharmacognosy is the study of a number of criterions of herbal dietary additives and medicines which may be further tested by Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to design approved medicines (Cardellina, 2002; Tyler, 1999). According to Bruhn and Bohlin, pharmacognosy can be stated as ‘‘a molecular science that explores naturally occurring structure– activity relationships with a drug potential’’ (Bruhn and Bohlin, 1997).

People are again focusing on herbal products because of increasing side effect of these synthetic drugs. In recent times, the whole world is turning towards natural products from artificial synthesized products and it is very well known that medicinal plants with their various therapeutic components aid to provide protection from diseases and disorders (Sharma et al . 2008). The early man was dependent on Introduction 4 these plants for seeking instant relief from critical ailments and pain which also helped them to survive long with enduring health (Nair and Chanda, 2007).

A survey of top-selling medicines conducted in 2001-2002 shows that approximately 25% drugs are natural compounds or procured from plants (Butler, 2004). World Health Organization (WHO) also published a list of 252 medicines of which 11% are solely plant based. It has also been concluded by WHO that 65–80% of world’s population is still dependent on herbal medicines for major health related issues (Rates, 2001; Arora et al. , 1999; Savithramma et al ., 1996). The number of drugs that have been isolated from plants indicates their activity against broad range diseases (Fabricant and Farnsworth, 2001).

All plants have some unique properties and at the same time it has also been reported in different tribal areas or countries that an individual plant may also be utilized for different purpose. This indicates that plants tremendously have a wide range of healing powers because of their chemical composition (De Silva, 1997). In the present scenario, pharmaceutical industries are trying to focus on plant based medicines and research is continuously going on in the field of exploration of new medicinal plants. This is due to the increasing demand of herbal products which have lesser side effects as in contrast to other medicinal combinations (Pandey et al ., 2008). In drug making industries, adulteration and substitution has also exponentially increased & this is another reason why people are returning towards nature. Almost every third plant and its parts are accounted in for discovering conventional drugs in India. In Vedas also, which highlights the glorious Indian history of herbal drugs, plants are referred to as alleviative agents (Jayabalan et al ., 2011).

Now days, many new phytoconstituents have been broadly interrogated as medicinal agents which were earlier not reported to have any pharmacological activity (Krishnaraju et al ., 2005). All natural products obtained from plants are also a novel source of antimicrobial drugs (Ahmad and Aqil, 2007; Barbour et al. , 2004). Over the world, a large number of medicinal plants are analysed for their antimicrobial potential but few of them have been systematically studied (Arora et Introduction 5 al. , 2009; Rojas et al., 2006). A host of infectious diseases can be treated with the help of these antimicrobial agents (Iwu et al ., 1999).

Many scientists have been trying to isolate pure compounds which are pharmaceutically more active. Such kinds of compounds are further characterized and standardized by various drug designing techniques. We all know that, extraction of chemicals in the form of drugs from plants is a very complicated process. It includes knowledge and expertise in various analytical techniques.

The first step for designing a drug begins with a botanist who specialized in Ethnobotany, known as Ethnobotanist or Ethanopharmacologist or with a plant ecologist who can identify and collect the required plants. The collection procedure is completely dependent on the biological activities of the plants which further need to be analysed for the isolation of already existing active compounds as well as some new compounds or may also include those taxon which are randomly screened for collection purpose. Another crucial point that collectors always keep in their mind is the claim in the form of Intellectual property rights of that country or region from where the required plants are gathered (Baker et al ., 1995).

There are many common structural features which are present in natural plant products that support to discover new drugs e.g. presence of aromatic rings, molecule saturation, chiral centers, complexity in ring structure and number of hetero atoms etc. ( Feher and Schmidt, 2003; Piggott and Karuso, 2004; Clardy and Walsh, 2004; Koehn and Carter, 2005; Lee et al. , 2001). The structural similarities between compounds opens a new way for the chemist who designs synthetic drugs as to how to use these features to form a new compound which is combination of chemistry and nature ( Eldridge et al ., 2002; Burke et al ., 2004; Hall et al ., 2001; Ganesan, 2004; Tan, 2004). The natural products which have been abstracted from medicinal plants sometimes act themselves as new drugs and sometimes these products are used to design some more complex and modified medicinal products. Such kind of modification in these components leads to an increase in the biological activity and a list of such modified compounds have been approved or some are still on clinical trials against distinct diseases like cancer, malaria, pulmonary diseases, Introduction 6

HIV/AIDS , Alzheimer’s and many other diseases (Butler, 2004; Newman et al. , 2000).

There is increasing concern that resistance characteristics of microbes against antibiotics have increased (Westh et al ., 2004). In the last few years, a number of pathogenic microorganisms have been observed that show multiple resistances against several commercially available antimicrobial medicines due to extensive use. To overcome this problem, scientists are trying to discover more and more antimicrobial drugs from various medicinal plants to resolve this problem. Several plant species and their respective families have been screened out in an ongoing process (Iwu, 2002). List of adequate antibiotic components have been identified from plants (Basile et al ., 2000). A number of resistant microorganisms are treated with plant elicited antimicrobial compounds and have the capability to inhibit the growth of these microorganisms (Torsten, 2005). There are thousands of antibacterial drugs used for pharmaceutical purposes that are somehow linked to the nature itself (Newman et al ., 2003). So there is a constant need to develop some such antimicrobial drugs through different herbs. For this purpose, some higher plants are chosen due to their better defence mechanisms to oppose infections comprising cellular metabolism (Devanaboiyan et al ., 2013).

Numerous screened plant extracts and their related products represent a promising source of unique antibiotics precursors (Afolayan, 2003). Conventional healing setup also motivates to discover new antibiotics for the reason that whole world exploit herbal assistance (Okpekon et al ., 2004); Out of these herbal remedies, some have produced effective compounds against antibiotic-resistant strains of bacteria (Kone et al ., 2004). The results of this indicate the need for further research into traditional health systems (Romero et al ., 2005). Synthesis of more biologically active drugs with minimum toxicity has been facilitated by pharmacological studies (Ebana et al ., 1991; Manna and Abalaka, 2000).

The revitalization of plant based remedies and therapies have been supported by society also (WHO, 2003; WHO, 2004; Calixto, 2000; Kong et al ., 2003). Some of the reasons ascribed for their use are as follows- Introduction 7

• The effectivity of herbal medicines • Source of direct therapeutic agents • Affordability • Raw material base for the elaboration of more complex semi-synthetic chemical compounds • Models for new synthetic compounds • Taxonomic markers for the discovery of new compounds • The production, consumption and international trade in medicinal plants and phytomedicine is growing and expected to grow in future quite significantly • Renewable source • The preference of consumers towards natural therapies has increased with a common belief that they are safer • A dissatisfaction with the results from synthetic drugs • Inadequacy in the result of synthetic drugs • The high cost and side effects of most modern drugs • Improvements in the quality, efficacy, and safety of herbal medicines with the development of science and technology • A movement towards self-medication

INDIAN SYSTEM OF MEDICINE India has been an Emperor of sorts in the field of herbal medicines which mainly consist of two important systems of diagnosis i.e., Ayurvedic system and Unani system (Surana et al ., 2008).

Ayurveda, the oldest Indian traditional medicinal system, which means “science of life”, has been practiced since 5000 B.C. all around the world. Nobody can deny the assistance of marvellous treatment procedures of Ayurveda which have been recognised at global level. Ayurveda not only includes ethno- medicine but it is considered as a complete medical system that takes care of all kinds of ailments that are related to physical, physiological as well as spiritual wellbeing of human. It strives to achieve consensus between nature, universe and science. These ubiquitous and comprehensive approaches make it an exclusive and noticeable medical system. Introduction 8

Ayurveda favours the maintenance of positive health with appropriate life style (Ravishankar and Shukla, 2007). In this system, some unique and specially designed diagnostic procedures are used which are still authentic due to their fundamental principles of Panchamahabhutha, i.e., combination of all five elements of nature, tridosha ( Vata, Pitta, and Kapha , i.e., three humours) and prakrithi which denotes individual constitution (Venkatasubramanian, 2007).

Ayurveda’s literature is available mainly in Sanskrit language. It covers all aspects of pharmacy, therapeutics and diseases (Dev, 1999). Ayurveda has been discovered from some Ancient treatises like the Vedas and the Samhitas which consist detailed treatment and medical procedures of many diseases, including surgery and a kind of massage on some vital energy points (Ebadi, 2007). In the Rig Veda and the Atharva Veda initial references of plants dating back to the second millennium B.C. were discovered. One more practice of Ayurveda named the Charaka Samhita consists a detailed review about therapeutics (Charaka Samhita, 1949; Sharma, 1981) but focuses mainly on digestion which is described internal fire or agni. The Susruta Samhita, is another classic review, that concentrates its attention on surgical methods (Majumdar, 1971; Krishnamurthy, 1991). The Astanga Hridayam (about 500 A.D.) was again a practice of Ayurveda which covers all the detailed principles like dosha and subdosha (Grade, 1954; Sharma, 1979). Another important breakthrough was the Madhava Nidana, written in about 800-900 A.D., is an excellent endeavour on diagnosis of various critical diseases. According to Ayurveda, all material, i.e., dravya, is a made up of five different elements with various proportion which consist of earth, air, water, space and fire. These materials can be categorised in to living material and non- living materials. On the basis of combination of these five elements of nature three doshas as vata, pitta and kapha have been identified. The body of a healthy human being consist all three doshas in normal proportion but when it is disrupted or unbalanced, the person is afflicted by diseases (Thomas, 1997).

THE ROLE OF MEDICINAL PLANT BOARDS India is a very versatile country with a range of topography and variations in climates that directly influence its natural vegetation as well as floristic composition. Introduction 9

These factors make India one of the biggest hubs of medicinal plants and it is regarded as one of the wealthiest countries at global level in terms of genetic reserve of medicinal plants. Agro- climatic situation also support to introduce and grow exotic plant species (Martins et al ., 2001). Approximately 10% of world’s biodiversity is present in India and it is also acknowledged as one of the 12 mega biodiversity cantres which is again divided in to 16 agro- climatic zones (Shiva, 1998). Till date about 20,000 species of medicinal plant have been reported (Dev, 1997), but only 800 medicinal plant species have been used by approximately 500 tribal communities to cure various diseases (Kamboj, 2000). In India, Ayurvedic medicines are prepared by following several stringent protocols so that that the quality of the product can be improved by the help of GMP (Good manufacturing practices) guidelines. The government has also established Medicinal Plant Boards not only at central level but at state level as well to motivate farmers and local people to grow more and more medicinal plants. By developing herbal gardens, Government is also trying to bag the attention of common man and acquaint them with the legacy of Indian medicinal plants. Many government organizations like National Botanical Research Institute (NBRI), National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER), Central Research Drug Institute (CDRI) and Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (CIMAP) are performing their decisive role in setting down the standards for formulations of Ayurvedic medicines (Singh, 2007).

With a perspective to reinforce the medicinal plants division throughout the country as well as to take care of the wild stock, Government of India has established an organization i.e., National Medicinal Plants Board (NMPB) in 2000. The principal aim of setting this organization is to coordinate all affairs related to the area of which includes formulation of strategies and policies related to in situ conservation, harvesting, cultivation, processing, marketing, drug designing and development (Kala and Sajwan, 2007).

THE CURRENT DEVELOPMENT OF NATURAL DRUGS It is estimated that around 122 components which have significant biological activity have been discovered from 94 plant species. It is estimated that about Introduction 10

2,50,000 flowering plants are present on earth. Out of these, only 6% flowering plants have been screened for biological activity and 15% phytochemically analysed. Consistent findings should be carried out to explore a probable affluence of plant extracts in these medicinal plants (Turker and Usta, 2008).

It has been observed that traditional drugs obtained through medicinal plants have been very much utilized to maintain and overcome the health related issues in almost all developing countries (UNESCO, 1996). Moreover, these medicinal plants as well as conventionally used herbal remedies are also used to develop various drugs and chemotherapeutic agents for the world at large due to their lesser side effects (UNESCO, 1998). Continuous development and research in the field of herbal medicine make it an interdisciplinary science which is the combination of various fields like Pharmacognosy, Toxicology, Biochemistry, Botany, Ayurveda, Phytochemistry and Ethnopharmacology (Padma, 2005).

The Pharmaceutical Research and Development Committee also emphasizes on the classical knowledge of Herbal medicines under Government of India (Mashelkar, 1999). There are many proven evidences available in science which shows the effectiveness of the plant based therapies. Some analytical as well as biological techniques are used with the combination of genomics and proteomics to support results of these therapies. Scientist in India and abroad are increasingly focusing on conventional plant based medicines and are trying to incorporate those with modern medicine to get a high quality end product (Patwardhan et al . 2003; Fabricant and Farnsworth, 2001). Both India and China, are rich in medicinal plants which provide ethanobotanical knowledge to many pharmaceutical industries to synthesize novel and unique drugs. These industries are contributing their bit in the health sector by expanding their knowledge in research and development (Krishnaraju et al ., 2005).

HIGHER PLANT BASED MODERN MEDICINE In the field of herbal medicine, many pioneers were identified even before 19 th century. Caventou and Pelletier were two French scientists who discovered quinine from Cinchona bark that brought about a revolution in the treatment of Introduction 11

Malaria. During Second World War many herbal drugs were isolated from higher plants for clinical usage and out of those many are used till today (Kong et al ., 2003).

There are few important medicines which are recognised as pharmaceutical keystones in the field of therapeutics. These are all natural products and a few examples of such natural drugs are Quinine, Penicillin G, Theophylline, Morphine, Digoxin, Paclitaxel, Vincristine, Cyclosporin, Doxorubicin etc. A majority of anticancer medicines are formulated either from plants or microorganisms. In fact, most of the anticancer drugs are derived from plants or microorganisms. Some of them are bleomycin, daunorubicin, doxorubicin, vincristine, mitomycin, vinblastine, streptozocin, and most currently used are paclitaxel, etoposide, ironotecan (a camptothecin derivative) and tenoposide (podophyllotoxin derivatives).

Serpentine is derived from Rauwolfia serpentina which can provide quick relief in hypertension and reduces blood pressure. Vinblastine extracted from Catharanthus rosesus helps to cure Hodgkins/ leukemia in children;non- hodgkins lymphomas, choriocarcinoma, testicular cancer, neck cancer, small cell lung cancer and lymphomas diseases are treated by Phophyllotoxin isolated from Phodophyllum emodi . Codein and morphine are two common drugs mostly used in headaches, arthritis and as sedatives and are derived from Papaver somniferum . Ephedrine gives aid in respiratory ailments and is procured from Ephedra sinica . Quinine extracted from Cinchona spp. plays a very crucial role in treatment of Malaria. Cephaelis spp. produces Emetine which is used as an antiemetic and to cure dysentery. A very popular medicine Digoxin obtained from Digitalis purpurea is used to treat cardiac ailments (Ebadi, 2007).

MARKET POTENTIAL OF PHYTOMEDICINE There is no requirement of a prescription to purchase herbal drugs since these medicines are freely available at all food and herbal stores in the market. These medicines are universally accepted and used and have little side effects. There is a very huge market of such herbal drugs that is growing exponentially. This industry is growing at a rate of 15% every year and out of 14,500 crores globally approx. Introduction 12

2300 crores, is coming only from Indian herbal medicinal industry (Krishnan, 1998). There are many pharmaceutical products exported in the recent years from India such as Opium alkaloids, Isabgol, Vinca extract, Ipecac root alkaloids, Solasodine, Menthol, Cinchona alkaloids, Gudmar herb, Papain, Agar wood oil, senna derivatives, Rauwolfia , Guar gum, diosgenine/16DPA, Jasmine oil, sandal wood oil etc. (Kokate et al ., 2005). At the Global level, herbal medicines are earning around $ 60 billions per annum and year after year the sale of these products in terms of growth rate is expected to increase by 6.4% annualy (Inamdar et al ., 2008).

In the market, herbal drugs are accessible in two major forms, first is classical forms viz., available in powder, medicated ghee, tablets, fermented products and medicated oil. Second is the modern drug presentation form which includes various creams, lotions, granules, capsules, ointment, syrups etc. In our country about 8500 herbal manufacturing companies are in existence (Jain, 2001).

BRIEF DESCRIPTION ABOUT OLEACEAE FAMILY Oleaceae family exists in the order Lamiales (Angiosperm Phylogeny Group, 2009) comprising 26 genera and 700 species, out of which one genus has recently been reported as extinct (Green, 2004). Cartrema is among the remaining 25 genera which was rejuvenated in 2012 (Nesom, 2012).

Plants related to this family are generally trees, shrubs and a very few lianas. Leaves are simple or pinnately compound, exstipulate and opposite. Flowers are actinomorphic and bisexual but in some cases unisexual flowers are also present. Calyx is small, gamosepalous and 4- lobed but in some cases multilobed conditions are also present. Corolla is actinomorphic, sometime deeply lobed, generally 4- merous but rarely up to 12- merous condition is also present and nearly gamopetalous. In androecium, two stamens are present on corolla tube or sometime in perigynous region which is alternatively present with the lobes. Gynoecium comprises of a single syncarpous pistil consisting of 2 carpels and single style or no style with a bilocular superior ovary along with two axile ovules. A nectary disc is also present once in a while around the base of the ovary. Fruits are variable. Distribution of the plants is sub- cosmopolitan starting from sub-arctic region to the Introduction 13 southern region of Australia, Africa and South America. There are many important plants in Oleaceae family which include Olives, Jasmines and several favoured ornamentals such as forsythia, privet, lilac and fringtrees (Huxley et al ., 1992).

Southeast Asia and Australia are the main centers of diversity for Oleaceae family but a noteworthy number of species are also present in China, North America and Africa (Chang et al. , 1996).

In tropical areas, the plants of this family are present in various habitats ranging from dry forests present in low lying areas to cloud forest present on mountains. Seed dispersal is by anemochory or zoochory. Some species of the plants are dispersed by birds in berry fruits. The fruits are dispersed by winds known as samaras.

This family has significant economic importance. Olea europaea (olive) is known for its fruits and Olive oil which is extracted from its fruit. Fraxinus (ashes) are popular for their hard wood. Many other members of this family are availed as ornamental plants for gardening as well as landscaping such as Jasmines, Privets, Forsythias, fringe trees, lilacs and Osmanthuses. Approximately, two jasmine species are used as a source of essential oil. The flowers of these two species are also frequently added in tea (Jasmine tea).

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION OF JASMINUM SPECIES The genus Jasminum (commonly Jasmines) belonging to Oleaceae (olive family) comprises of basically vines and shrubs. Approximately 200 species are found as inhabitants of tropical and warm temperate areas of Africa, Asia, Australia and Europe (Schmidt et al ., 2002). South Asia and Southeast Asia is the center of diversity (Panda, 2005).

Jasminum plant is mostly propagated in summer season through the softwood cutting, semi hard wood cutting and through simple layering. Some of Jasmines have unique flower colour like, white, pink or yellow and mild fragrance while few are unscented.1 It grows to a height of 8- 10 feet. Jasmine plants can be

1 www.ehow.com Introduction 14 either evergreen or deciduous, and can be spreading, climbing or erect shrubs and vines. Leaves are simple, pinnate or trifoliate and arranged in alternate and opposite manner. The flowers of jasmines are nearly round in shape and size is approximately 2.5 cm in diameter, white or yellow in colour but in some cases can be vaguely reddish. Flowers are cymose with minimum three flowers and can be solitary on the end of branchlets. Every flower has nine petals, ovules ranging from 1-4 and 2 locules. Two stamens are present with a very short filament. Bracts are linear or ovate. Bell- shaped calyx is present. During ripening, black colour fruits are present which are known as berries.

Most species of this genus are diploid, i.e., 2n= 26, which means that haploid chromosome number is 13. Despite of that, there are some naturally occurring polyploid species like, Jasminum sambac , Jasminum angustifolium , Jasminum primulinum and Jasminum flexile . Although Europe is not the native land but many species of jasmines are prominently found in Mediterranean Europe. For example, Jasminum grandiflorum was initially studied from western region of South Asia and Iran but is now known to occur naturally in Iberian peninsula (Singh, 2006). Jasmine is the National flower of many countries. They are- • Hawaii: In this country, “Pikake” is the eminently popular name of a flower which is also known as Jasminum sambac . It is used to decorate hair and in leis. Many folk songs are subjected on this flower. • Indonesia: In 1990, flower of Jasminum sambac is opted as a national flower. Earlier it was known as " Melati putih " and traditionally flowers are used in ritual ceremonies in indigenous Indonesia, exclusively in the island of Java. • Pakistan: The national flower of this country is Jasminum officinale also known as the " Chambeli " or " Yasmin ". • Philippines: Jasminum sambac is an extremely popular in Philippines as it was considered as the national flower in1935. Another common name of this flower is " Sampaguita ". It is used in garlands for religious purposes also.

Introduction 15

CLASSIFICATION On the basis of Hutchinson (1926; 1934) system of classification

Kingdom Plantae Division Phanerogamia Class Dicotyledonae Sub- class Gamopetalae Series Bicarpellatae Order Gentianales Family Oleaceae Genus Jasminum

APG II (Angiosperm Phylogeny Group, 2009) system of classification

Kingdom Plantae Unranked/clade Angiosperms Unranked/Clade Eudicots Unranked Core eudicots Unranked Asterids Unranked Euasterids I Order Lamiales Family Oleaceae Tribes Jasmineae Genus Jasminum

There are some more species of Jasminum believed to be present throughout the world along with India, such as-

Jasminum mesnyi Hance ( Jasminum primulinum Hemsley ) also commonly popular as “ Japanese Jasmine ” or “ Primrose Jasmin e” or “ Japani chameli ” distributed in tropical, sub-tropical and warm temperate regions of Asia (Chang et al ., 1996; Dickey, 1949; Sastri, 2003). Introduction 16

Jasminum angustifolium Linn. (Wild Jasmine, Banmallika) is one of the major species of Jasminum distributed throughout the south India on the lower elevation of hills; especially in Kerla and Karnataka (Bown, 1995).

Jasminum auriculatum Vahl commonly known as Juhi, Juyi , Needle flower jasmine, Yutika found roughly throughout the South India and on dry slopes of the Western Ghats (Vaidyaratnam, 2003).Flowers are white in colour with sweet scented fragrance and trifoliate with two lower broadly ovate leaflets, acuminate or rounded (Ghosh, 1984 ).

Jasminum arborescens Roxb. (Tree Jasmine) found in Bengal, Sub- Himalayan tract, Central and South India. In Ayurveda, this plant is known as Nava- mallikaa and Nagamalli in Siddha (Bhagath et al ., 2010).

Jasminum amplexicaule Buch. Ham., distributed in Khasia, Bhutan, Sikkim, South India to Hongkong 2.

Jasminum lanceolarium (also called as Jasminum lanceolaria, Jasminum lanceolarium Roxb.) is distributed in India, China, Taiwan, Myanmar.3

Jasminum nudiflorum (winter jasmine, hardy jasmine) distributed throughout in South England and China.4

Traditionally Jasminum species has been used to cure many diseases like, dysmenorrhoea a, ringworm infestation, amenorrhoea, skin diseases leprosy and also as an antidepressant, analgesic, anti-inflammatory, aphrodisiac, antiseptic, expectorant, sedative and diuretic among others. Therefore, an attempt has been made to evaluate some of Jasminum species for their medicinal value.

2 www.efloras.com 3 www.flickr.com. 4 www.floridata.com; http://nlbif.eti.uva.nl/bis/flora.php. Introduction 17

The two species of Jasminum which have been selected for the present study are Jasminum grandiflorum L. and Jasminum sambac L.

Jasminum grandiflorum Linn. (Common jasmine, Spanish jasmine, Jati, Chameli)

Figure: 1.1 Figure: 1.2 Jasminum grandiflorum L. Jasminum grandiflorum L. (Whole plant) (Flower)

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION Jasminum grandiflorum is a scrambling suberect twining evergreen shrub (Anonymous, 1987; 2004), native to Japan, India, Italy, France, China, Egypt and Morocco (Chopra et al ., 1956; Chopra et al ., 1958; Kirtikar et al ., 1991; Sharma et al., 2005). Leaves of this plant are generally ovate but sometimes look elliptical in shape and the apex is acuminate mucronate. The leaves are arranged in opposite manner. The flowers are axillary cymes and terminal with long and linear lobes of calyx (Cooke, 1903; Nadkarni, 1976).

ETHNOBOTANICAL USES Jasminum grandiflorum act as emmenagogue as well as diuretic. Corns are treated with freshly prepared leaf juices and mouth ulcers can also be treated when leaves are chewed because these leaves are rich in various compounds like salicylic acid, resins and specific alkaloids called as Jasminol. Roots are useful in cephalalgia, mental debility, flatulence, chronic constipation, strangury, dysmenorrhoea, sterility, amenorrhoea, leprosy, ringworm, giddiness and skin diseases. Leaves are also utilized in odontalgia, ulcerative stomatitis, fixing loose teeth, leprosy, dysmenorrhoea, Introduction 18 skin diseases, wound, ulcers and flowers are used stomatopathy, ophthalmopathy, cephalopathy, skin diseases, leprosy, pruritis, dysmenorrhoea, strangury, ulcers, as refrigerant, and vitiated conditions of pitta (Warrier et al., 2004). Flowers are also useful to prevent breast cancer and uterine bleeding in women when given as a tonic (Joshi, 2000).

Jasminum sambac Linn. (Arabian jasmine, Indian jasmine, Sampaguita, Mogra)

Figure: 1.3 Figure: 1.4 Jasminum sambac L. Jasminum sambac L. (Whole plant) (Flower)

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION Another important plant of Oleaceae family is Jasminum sambac , which is much popular in different countries and known by its various names, like, in Philippines it known as Sampaguit and it is national flower of the country as well. In India, it is popular as Gunda mallige, in China called as Moli, in Hawaii as Pikake and in the mainland USA, it is known as Arabian jasmine. This plant is commercially grown in Thailand, Philippines and India. Arabian jasmine probably native to India or Southeast Asia it is an evergreen shrub. On a support, it grows as a twining shrubby vine. Unsupported, it grows as a sprawling shrub. It is an evergreen broadleaf vine or shrub and its height reaching up to 1-3 m. The phyllotaxy of the leaves is opposite or in three whorls, ovate and dark green in colour. In green house, flowers can bloom through the entire year and are present in the form of clusters ranging from 3 -12. These flowers have strong aroma and open Introduction 19 at night. Jasmine plants can easily grow in hot and humid environment during day time and it require low temperature at night. These plants easily grow as indoor plants as in this way as they can escape damage from frost.

This plant can be grown when sun is at its extreme and form bushy shrubs whereas it can also be grown in shady areas and form a vine with darker and bigger leaves. These plants are splendid container plants. During planting, well- drained soil and even moisture is required with high organic matter, like, humus, peat moss, compost and leaf molds. Soggy conditions always act as a constraint for jasmines.

ETHNOBOTANICAL USES Traditionally, this plant used as an antidepressant, analgesic, sedative, anti- inflammatory, antiseptic, expectorant and aphrodisiac. Wounds and snake bites can be cured by the roots. The flowers and leaves have decongestant and antipyretic properties.5

Various diseases like conjunctivitis, diarrhoea, abdominal pain and dermatitis are treated with its flowers along with roots and leaves are also utilized for curing pain, diarrhoea and fever. It is also used for anaesthetic purposes (Kunming Institute of Botany, 1986; Jiangsu New Medical College, 1977).

The efficiency of jasmine flowers was compared with Bromocriptine by reduction in serum prolactin level when it was put on breasts to suppress purpureal lactation (Shrivastav et al ,, 1988). It has been reported that Jasminum sambac has antiulcer, antioxidant (Upaganlawar et al ., 2009), antibacterial (Rath et al. , 2008) and antiviral activities (Zhao et al ., 2008).

Jasminum sambac plant has many varieties which are cultivated worldwide. Some of the very popular varieties of this plant, include-

Grand Duke of Tuscany - This plant variety is also known as Butt Mograw and Rose Jasmine. This is native to Iran. A very specific feature of this variety which makes it unique is that it has the largest flower approx. 1.5’’ in size as well as it has double layer of corolla and therefore, looks like a miniature of rose. The flowers are

5 en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Jasminum_sambac. Introduction 20 used for religious ceremonies and making flavoured tea. There is another improved variety where flowers are much larger and leaves are more elongated, i.e., “Grand Duke Supreme”.

Figure: 1.5 Figure: 1.6 Grand Duke of Tuscany 6 Grand Duke Supreme 7

Belle of India - Another common name of this plant is Madhan Mograw. Its native place is India. The uniqueness of this flower is because of its double pure white color with sweet fragrance. The flower bud is oval in shape and after opening is very much admirable. Flower size is approximately 1” and it is an everbloomer plant that needs min. 60 0 F temperature.

Figure: 1.7 Belle of India 8

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Maid of Orleans - It has many common names like, Motiya, Bela, Tea Jasmine, Mograw, Mallipoo, Sampaguita and Mullige. This variety is the most popular variety among all throughout the world. This variety is specifically used in Hawaii for making Hawaiian flower leis. This is the easiest variety to grow.

Figure: 1.8 Maid of Orleans 9

Mysore Mulli - This variety is very much similar to Belle of India hence considered as a near relative of it. Its petals are slightly smaller than Belle. It grows all year round and requires warm climate with bright light.

Figure: 1.9 Mysore Mulli 10

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Arabian night (Arabian Knights) - It closely resembles Maid of Orleans but its flowers are Double like Grand duke although not as much large as Grand duke.

Figure: 1.10 Arabian night 11

Malichat (Mali Chat) - This variety is grown in Thailand and it is a rare hybrid variety. The flower has many whorls of petals but their size is about ½ inch. Fragrance of this flower is similar to other sambacs. In Thailand, it is a very popular variety due to the flower shape. It is very simple to make garland as well as flower leis.

Figure: 1.11 Malichat 12

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Objectives of study This research was based on identification and analyzing the phytoconstituents present in Jasminum spp., and evaluation of the biological properties of the plant with the following specific objectives: • Sampling of the plants (taken from different locations) and prepare their extracts in various reagents according to their polarity from non-polar to polar solvents. • To carry out qualitative and quantitative estimation of phytochemicals through Physico- chemical analysis. • To study the anti-bacterial effect of all the extract against selected bacterial strain (By Disc Diffusion method or MIC or Agar well Diffusion method) for biological evaluation. • Isolation, Purification and Identification of bioactive compounds through Thin layer Chromatography & Column Chromatography and individual characterization of each component through GC-MS.