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Energy Dependence of Multiplicity Fluctuations in Heavy Ion Collisions at the CERN SPS

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Energy Dependence of Multiplicity Fluctuations in Heavy Ion Collisions at the CERN SPS Energy Dependence of Multiplicity Fluctuations in Heavy Ion Collisions at the CERN SPS Dissertation zur Erlangung des Doktorgrades der Naturwissenschaften vorgelegt beim Fachbereich Physik der Johann Wolfgang Goethe - Universit¨at in Frankfurt am Main von Benjamin Lungwitz aus Frankfurt am Main Frankfurt, 2008 vom Fachbereich Physik der Johann Wolfgang Goethe - Universit¨at als Dissertation angenommen. Dekan: Prof. Dr. Dirk-Hermann Rischke Gutachter: Prof. Dr. Marek Gazdzicki, Prof. Dr. Herbert Str¨obele Datum der Disputation: 2 Zusammenfassung In dieser Arbeit wird die Energieabh¨angigkeit der Multiplizit¨atsfluktuationen in zentralen Schwerionenkollisionen mit dem NA49-Experiment am CERN SPS- Beschleuniger untersucht. Die Arbeit beginnt (Kapitel 1: Introduction) mit einer Einleitung in die Grundlagen der stark wechselwirkenden Materie. Im Standardmodell der Teilchenphysik sind die Nukleonen, die Bausteine der Atomkerne, aus Quarks aufgebaut und werden durch die starke Wechsel- wirkung, vermittelt uber¨ ihre Feldquanten, die Gluonen, zusammengehalten. Die Theorie der starken Wechselwirkung wird als Quantenchromodynamik (QCD) bezeichnet, die starke La- dung nennt man Farbladung. In der QCD gibt es drei elementare Ladungen, Quarks k¨onnen die Ladung Rot, Grun¨ oder Blau tragen, Antiquarks die entsprechenden Antifarben. Es sind derzeit 6 verschiedene Quarks bekannt, die in 3 Generationen mit aufsteigender Masse eingeordnet werden k¨onnen. Jede Generation besteht aus einem Quark mit der elektri- schen Ladung +2/3 und einem mit der Ladung −1/3. Zus¨atzlich zu den 6 Quarks gibt es noch 6 Anti-Quarks. Die Nukleonen, die Bausteine der Atomkerne, bestehen aus den Quarks der 1. Generation. Neben den 3 Quark-Generationen existieren 3 Generationen von Teilchen, die nicht an der starken Wechselwirkung teilnehmen, die Leptonen. Es gibt jeweils ein elektrisch geladenes Lepton und ein neutrales, genannt Neutrino, pro Generation. Die Austauschteilchen der Quantenchromodynamik, die Gluonen, tragen je eine Farbe und eine Antifarbe. Da die Gluonen, im Gegensatz z.B. zu den Feldquanten der Elektrodynamik, den Photonen, geladen sind, k¨onnen sie direkt miteinander wechselwirken. W¨ahrend das Po- tenzial der elektrischen Wechselwirkung zwischen zwei geladenen Teilchen mit der Distanz der beiden Ladungen abnimmt und asymptotisch gegen Null geht, sorgt die Wechselwirkung der Gluonen untereinander dafur,¨ dass das Potential der starken Wechselwirkung zwischen einem Quark und einem Anti-Quark mit zunehmender Entfernung beider ansteigt. Wenn die potentielle Energie in dem so genannten String aus Gluonen, welcher das Quark- Anti-Quark- Paar verbindet, groß genug wird, wird ein weiteres Quark- Anti-Quark- Paar erzeugt und der String bricht. Es ist daher nicht m¨oglich, einen freien farbgeladenen Zustand zu erzeu- gen. Gebundene, farbneutrale Zust¨ande der starken Wechselwirkung werden als Hadronen bezeichnet. Derzeit sind zwei Arten von Hadronen bekannt. Die Mesonen sind aus einem Quark- Anti-Quark- Paar aufgebaut, die (Anti-) Baryonen aus drei (Anti-) Quarks. Die Nu- kleonen (Protonen, Neutronen) geh¨oren zu den Baryonen. Es wird derzeit spekuliert, ob ein gebundener Zustand aus vier Quarks und einem Anti-Quark, ein sog. Pentaquark, existiert, die experimentellen Befunde sind jedoch widerspruchlich.¨ Heiße Kernmaterie bildet ein so genanntes Hadronengas, wo durch die hohe Energiedichte Hadronen laufend gebildet werden und miteinander wechselwirken. Bei sehr hohen Energie- dichten (ca. 1 GeV/fm3) erwartet man jedoch, dass die Quarks nicht l¨anger in Hadronen gebunden sind sondern sich frei im ganzen Volumen bewegen k¨onnen. Diesen Materiezustand bezeichnet man als Deconfinement oder Quark-Gluon-Plasma (QGP). Solche Energiedichten k¨onnen erreicht werden, wenn man Materie auf Temperaturen von ca. 1012 K (das entspricht 3 ca. 100.000 mal der Temperatur im Inneren der Sonne) erhitzt. Solche Temperaturen exi- stierten im Universum bis etwa 1 µs nach dem Urknall. Eine andere M¨oglichkeit, solche Energiedichten zu erreichen, ist stark komprimierte Kernmaterie, wie sie im Kern von Neu- tronensternen vermutet wird. Im Phasendiagramm der stark wechselwirkenden Materie erwartet man, dass die Hadronen- gas-Phase von der QGP-Phase bei h¨oheren Baryonendichten durch einen Phasenubergang¨ 1. Ordnung separiert ist. Bei kleineren Baryonendichten hingegen ist ein kontinuierlicher Uber-¨ gang vorhergesagt. Ein kritischer Punkt soll beide Bereiche trennen. Das Gebiet der relativistischen Schwerionenphysik besch¨aftigt sich mit der Frage, ob, und wenn ja, bei welchen Energien der Phasenubergang¨ von einem Hadronengas zu einem Quark- Gluon-Plasma auftritt und welche Eigenschaften das QGP besitzt. Im Labor k¨onnen derartige Energiedichten mit Schwerionenkollisionen erreicht werden. Am SPS- Beschleuniger des eu- rop¨aischen Kernforschungszentrums CERN bei Genf k¨onnen Blei- Ionen derart beschleunigt werden, dass bei ihren Kollisionen Energiedichten von mehr als 1 GeV/fm3 in einem kleinen Volumen (ca. 1000 fm3) fur¨ eine kurze Zeit (ca. 10−22 s) erreicht werden k¨onnen. Aufgrund des hohen Drucks expandiert dieser Feuerball sehr schnell, das eventuell vorhandene QGP zerf¨allt und bildet Hadronen, die mit Detektoren gemessen werden k¨onnen. Anhand verschie- dener Observablen dieses hadronischen Endzustandes versucht man, Informationen uber¨ die fruhe,¨ dichte Phase der Schwerionenkollision zu erhalten. Verschiedene Signaturen des Quark-Gluon-Plasmas werden diskutiert und weisen darauf hin, dass bei den h¨ochsten am SPS-Beschleuniger erreichbaren Energien tats¨achlich ein QGP erzeugt wurde. Weiterhin kann man die vorhandenen experimentellen Daten so interpretie- ren, dass bei mittleren SPS-Energien erstmalig QGP erzeugt wird (Onset of Deconfinement). Modelle sagen voraus, dass im Bereich des Onsets of Deconfinement verschiedene Observable, wie der Transversalimpuls, die Verh¨altnisse der Teilchenmultiplizit¨aten oder die Teilchenmul- tiplizit¨at selbst, stark von Kollision zu Kollision fluktuieren. Weiterhin werden erh¨ohte Fluk- tuationen erwartet, wenn der Feuerball einer Schwerionenkollision in der N¨ahe des kritischen Punkts hadronisiert. Der Bestimmung der Multiplizit¨atsfluktuationen liegt die entsprechende Multiplizit¨atsver- teilung zugrunde. Sie gibt die Wahrscheinlichkeit P (n) an, dass in einer Kollision n Teilchen produziert werden. Die in dieser Arbeit verwendete Observable der Multiplizit¨atsfluktuationen ist die Scaled Variance ω, definiert als das Verh¨altnis der Varianz der Multiplizit¨atsverteilung und ihres Mittelwerts (Kapitel 2: Multiplicity Fluctuations). Eine grundlegende Eigenschaft von ω ist, dass es im Rahmen eines Superpositionsmodells unabh¨angig von der Anzahl der Quellen der Teilchenproduktion ist. Wenn die Multiplizit¨at der Kollisionen einer Poisson- Verteilung folgt, ist ω = 1. Die Scaled Variance kann fur¨ positive (ω(h+)), negative (ω(h−)) und alle geladenen Hadronen (ω(h±)) bestimmt werden. Resonanz-Zerf¨alle erh¨ohen die Multiplizit¨atsfluktuationen, wenn alle Tochter-Teilchen ei- ner Resonanz fur¨ die Analyse verwendet werden. Wenn die Resonanzen in zwei detektierte Teilchen zerfallen, ist das gemessene ω doppelt so groß als das der Resonanzen selbst. In der Praxis zerfallen die meisten Resonanzen in zwei unterschiedlich geladene Tochterteilchen, man erwartet daher h¨ohere Multiplizit¨atsfluktuationen fur¨ ω(h±) als fur¨ ω(h+) und ω(h−). In mehreren Blasenkammer-Experimenten wurde die Energieabh¨angigkeit der Multipli- zit¨atsfluktuationen in inelastischen p+p Kollisionen im vollen Phasenraum studiert. Die Form der Multiplizit¨atsverteilung in p+p Kollisionen kann in einem großen Energiebereich durch eine universelle Funktion Ψ(z) beschrieben werden, wenn n und P (n) mit der mittleren Mul- tiplizit¨at skaliert werden: P (n) = Ψ(n/ hni)/ hni. Diesen Effekt nennt man KNO-Scaling. 4 Dadurch bedingt ist ω in p+p Kollisionen in einem großen Energiebereich eine lineare Funk- tion der mittleren Multiplizit¨at. In dieser Arbeit wird nun erstmals die Energieabh¨angigkeit der Multiplizit¨atsfluktuationen in zentralen Schwerionenkollisionen untersucht. Dazu werden Daten des NA49- Experiments verwendet, welches am CERN SPS steht (Kapitel 3: The NA49 Experiment). Der SPS- Be- schleuniger ist ein Synchrotron mit einem Durchmesser von ca. 7 km, wo Protonen auf eine Energie von bis zu 400 GeV und Bleiionen auf bis zu 158 GeV pro Nukleon beschleunigt werden k¨onnen. Fur¨ das Studium von Kollisionen kleinerer Systeme wird der Bleistrahl frag- mentiert und die gewunschten¨ Ionen (hier Kohlenstoff oder Silizium) werden mit Hilfe der Magneten in der Beam-Line und ladunsgsensitiven Detektoren selektiert. Das NA49- Experiment verfugt¨ uber¨ vier großvolumige Time-Projection-Chambers (TPCs), mit denen es m¨oglich ist, Spuren geladener Teilchen in drei Dimensionen zu detektieren. Zwei dieser TPCs, genannt Vertex-TPCs, befinden sich in jeweils einem supraleitenden Magneten. Zwei weitere TPCs, genannt Main-TPCs, befinden sich außerhalb des magnetischen Feldes. Die elektrisch geladenen Strahlteilchen ionisieren die Gasatome in den TPCs. Die dabei frei- werdenden Elektronen driften aufgrund eines homogenen elektrischen Feldes zur Ausleseebe- ne. Nach Passieren der Kathodendr¨ahte, die das homogene Feld abschließen, werden sie an den Verst¨arkungsdr¨ahten durch ein inhomogenes Feld stark beschleunigt, so dass sie weitere Elektronen aus dem Gas ausschlagen. Die Anzahl der Elektronen wird so um den Faktor 103 − 104 verst¨arkt. Die Elektronen fließen rasch uber¨ die Dr¨ahte ab. Die schwereren
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