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Westminsterresearch WestminsterResearch http://www.westminster.ac.uk/westminsterresearch The discursive construction of national identity by the newspapers in North Cyprus. Sanem Sahin School of Media, Arts and Design This is an electronic version of a PhD thesis awarded by the University of Westminster. © The Author, 2008. This is a scanned reproduction of the paper copy held by the University of Westminster library. The WestminsterResearch online digital archive at the University of Westminster aims to make the research output of the University available to a wider audience. Copyright and Moral Rights remain with the authors and/or copyright owners. Users are permitted to download and/or print one copy for non-commercial private study or research. Further distribution and any use of material from within this archive for profit-making enterprises or for commercial gain is strictly forbidden. Whilst further distribution of specific materials from within this archive is forbidden, you may freely distribute the URL of WestminsterResearch: (http://westminsterresearch.wmin.ac.uk/). In case of abuse or copyright appearing without permission e-mail [email protected] THE DISCURSIVE CONSTRUCTION OF NATIONAL IDENTITY BY THE NEWSPAPERS IN NORTH CYPRUS SANEM $AHIN A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the University of Westminster for the degreeof Doctor of Philosophy May 2008 ABSTRACT The researchinvestigates the discursive construction of a Turkish Cypriot national identity by the newspapersin North Cyprus. The aim is to discover the representation and reconstructionprocesses of national identity within the pressand examinethe various practicesemployed to mobilise readersaround certain national imaginings. Therefore, as well as examining the changing conceptsof Turkish Cypriot identity throughout history, it focuseson how theseconcepts have beenmoulded through the Turkish Cypriot media. Highlighting historical, political, economicand cultural factors, which contributed to shapingnational identities, the study locatesthe Turkish Cypriot media within theserelations to offer an understandingof the media environment in which the news texts are produced. Using Critical DiscourseAnalysis, in particular the discourse-historicalapproach, the researchanalyses ongoing transformationsin the definition of self and `other' and the linguistic construction and reproduction of national identity in the news discourses. Focusing on three significant eventsthat occupied the public and media agendawithin the last decade,the news discoursesare studied basedon their content, strategiesused in the production of national identity and the linguistic meansemployed in the process. With this, the nationalist tendenciesembedded in news discoursesas well as discriminatory and exclusive practices are sought out. Finally, the studydiscusses the findingssuch as the conceptualisationof Turkish Cypriot identity showedvariations in time, the newspapersdid not divergefrom the universeof official discourseand rarely challengedthe nationalistdiscourses. Yet, the newspapers had differencesmainly basedon their stanceto the Cyprusissue and their definition of nationalinterest and identity. The conclusionsthat arisefrom the research,one of which is a suggestionfor furtherresearch, are debated in the study. CONTENTS Acknowledgments vi PART ONE Introduction 2 Chapter 1- Nation, Identity and the Media 10 Nationalism 10 National Identity 17 Media and National Identity 24 Chapter 2- Evolving National Identities 32 Identity Definitions 32 Cyprus' Encounterwith Modernity and Nationalism 35 Developmentof Nationalism and National Identity in Cyprus 39 After the Division 51 Analysis of Turkish Cypriot Nationalism and National Identity 58 Chapter 3-Media and National Identity 63 a) Historical Background 63 The Developmentof the Turkish Cypriot Press 63 Turkish Cypriot Pressafter 1974 75 Turkish Cypriot Broadcastingin Cyprus 80 b) Journalismin North Cyprus 87 Political Factorsand the `National Cause' 88 News Sources 91 Economic Factors 93 ProfessionalCulture and the Productionof News 94 TechnologicalFactors 96 PART TWO 98 Chapter 4- Applying Critical Discourse Analysis 99 Social ConstructionistApproach 99 From Languageto Discourse 101 ResearchParadigm: Critical DiscourseAnalysis 103 The DiscourseHistorical Approach 108 Why study Media Discourse 111 Methodsand ResearchTools 113 ResearchLimitations 116 Chapter 5- Border Clashes in Cyprus in 1996 119 Introduction 119 The Setting - Brief Description of the Context within Which the Border Clashes Took Place 119 The Position of the Newspapers 121 Analysis of Journalistic Practices and the Structure of the News 122 Discourse Analysis 125 On the Understanding of Nation and National Consciousness 125 Positive Self and Negative `Other' Representation 137 The Construction of Collective History 150 Conclusion 153 Chapter 6- Opening the Border in 2003 157 Introduction 157 The Setting- Brief Description of the Context within Which the BordersOpened 157 The Position of the Newspapers 160 Analysis of JournalisticPractices and the Structureof the News 161 DiscourseAnalysis 162 On the Conceptof Nation 163 The Constructionof a Common Past 175 Identifying the `Other' 181 The Linguistic Constructionof CommonCulture 185 National Space 188 Conclusion 192 Chapter 7- Lokmaci Crisis in 2007 196 Introduction 196 Which The Setting - Brief Description of the Context within the Bridge Was Removed 196 The Position of the Newspapers 200 Analysis of JournalisticPractices and the Structureof the News 201 DiscourseAnalysis 204 On the Conceptof Nation 205 National Interestand the Categorisationof `Us' and `They' 216 Yenidüzen 218 Kibris 222 Halkin Sesi 224 Differencesin the Representationof the `Other' 225 The Linguistic Constructionof a CommonPast: Time beforethe Lokmaci Barricade 229 Future: Will the Wall be demolished? 231 Conclusion 232 PART THREE 237 Conclusion 238 Overview of the Findings 238 On Thematic Contents 238 Nation, National Identity and Differentiation 238 The CommonPast 246 The Constructionof a Political Future 247 On Turkish Cypriot Media 248 The Newspapersand National Identity 248 JournalisticPractices 250 On Strategiesand Linguistic Means 252 Conclusions 253 Bibliography 257 Appendix 271 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This project has beencompleted with the supportand contribution of many people. Without them, it would not havebeen possible to get throughthe work for this doctoral dissertation. First of all, I would like to thank my supervisor Dr. Roza Tsagarouisianou who has been supportive and very patient with me throughout my research. From the start, she has given me academic advice and guidance and has always been encouraging. I also thank Prof Steven Barnett, my associate supervisor, for his valuable suggestions to my thesis. It has been very useful in improving the text of my dissertation. I would also like to thank my family who supportedme and havebeen a sourceof encouragementthroughout my studies.To my mum I especiallythank for being patient, understandingand loving. I am also grateful to Sueand Arthur Frodsham,my parent-in laws, for their supportand encouragementwhen I neededit. I specially thank my friends Özlem Caykent,Ash Giray, Gill tnanc and Gita Farivarsadri who have beenwith me from the start and patiently listenedto me as I went through the difficult stagesof my dissertation.I owe specialthanks to Ash Giray for helping me with translations.I also want to expressmy gratitudeto JamieReid who painstakingly went through my dissertationand edited my language.To Guilia Brusco and Steph Baldini, thank you for putting me up wheneverI was in London and for being very understandingand supportive.I thank Hüseyin Güvenand Cenk Mutluyakah who provided me with valuable assistanceduring my research. The greatestthank I owe is to my husbandDan Frodshamwho has beenvery patient, supportiveand encouragingthroughout my study. I am grateful to him for being with me at every stageof my dissertation,editing my work and putting up with me during stressfultimes. I thank him for being there wheneverI neededhim. V1 PART ONE INTRODUCTION Five months after the border in Cyprus was openedto public crossingsin both directions, a protest took place at the main checkpoint in Nicosia. A donkey appeared at the Turkish Cypriot checkpoint with a fake passportthat identified it as `Mr Cyprus'. The Turkish Cypriot police arrestedthree people, two Greek Cypriots and a Turkish Cypriot in relation to the protest.Afrika, a Turkish Cypriot daily, reported the incident with the headline `2 Greeks, 1 Turk and 1 true Cypriot were arrested' (Afrika, 23 September2003, p. 1). By calling the donkey `the true Cypriot', Afrika did not insult Cypriots but mocked the nationalist idea that there were no Cypriots but only Turks and Greeks.The idea had found embodimentin the expressionof Rauf Denkta§,the TRNC president at the time, who it was claimed, assertedthat `there's only one living Cypriot in Cyprus and that is the Cypriot donkey' (caglar, 1995)1.The protest and its coverageby Afrika are good examplesof how problematic the self-identification of Turkish Cypriots has been.They indicate the ongoing struggle betweendifferent conceptsof national identity such as Turkish, Turkish Cypriot and Cypriot as well as revealing Turkish Cypriots' searchfor an identity. Pointing to this searchfor identity, Cenk Mutluyakali, a journalist, also suggestedthat despite owning different identity cardsthroughout the years that identified them as one or the other, Turkish Cypriots still suffered
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