4th Annual Soweto Conference, CSBD, UJ 2013
African leafy vegetable enterprises: What are the prospects for these enterprises to be entrepreneurial and socio-economically viable in peri-urban and rural South African conditions?
By:
V M Mmbengwa1,2*, C P Du Plooy1, W Jansen van Rensburg1, N Mavhungu1, L 1 1 2 Zulu , S Mulandana , and H D van Schalkwyk
1Agricultural Research Council (ARC-VOPI), Pretoria, Republic of South Africa
2North-West University (NWU), Potchefstroom Campus, Potchefstroom, Republic of South Africa
Paper presented at the UJ CSBD 4th Annual Soweto Conference 28th & 29th October 2013
Turning Tangible and Intangible Assets/Resources in Townships into
Business Opportunities
Centre for Small Business Development (CSBD) University of Johannesburg
Tel: +27 11 559 5649/5518 Potcheefstroom Road www.uj.ac.za Fax: +27 11 559 5696 Soweto [email protected]
4th Annual Soweto Conference, CSBD, UJ 2013
Table of Contents
Abstract ______2 Acknowledgements: ...... 2
1. Introduction ______3 2. Literature review ______4 2.1 Importance of the establishment of indigenous African vegetable enterprises in South Africa .... 4
2.2 Nutritional value of African leafy vegetables ...... 5
2.3 Production of and demand for African leafy vegetables across countries ...... 5
3. Methodology ______7 4. Results and discussion ______9 4.1 Descriptive analysis ...... 9
4.1.1 Selection of entrepreneurs in Kwazulu-Natal province ...... 9
4.1.2 Selection of entrepreneurs in North West Province ...... 10
4.1.3 Selection of farmers in Limpopo Province ...... 11
4.2 Assessment of farmers according to mean age ...... 13
4.3 Assessment of farmers according to educational achievement ...... 14
4.4 Assessment of farmers according to food processing capacity ...... 15
4.5 Assessment of available on-farm infrastructure, including water and electricity ...... 18
4.6 Assessment of market status ...... 18
5. Conclusions ______21 6. References ______22
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Abstract
The primary aim of this study was to identify entrepreneurial and socio-economic conditions of African leafy vegetable enterprises in both rural and peri-urban South African communities, with the secondary aim of using such information to empower these communities with skills, expertise, and business opportunities. The main objective was to solve the challenges of poverty, malnutrition, and under- nutrition in these poverty-stricken areas. In designing an appropriate sampling process for the study, a specific sampling frame was drawn. A non-probability sampling method was preferred, due to the nature (categorical) of the data collected. A purposive sampling procedure, where respondents (n=1093) from Kwazulu-Natal (n=96), North West (n=267), and Limpopo (n=730) provinces were interviewed, was used. The data collected were analysed using the IBM SPSS Exact Tests software. Descriptive and inferential analyses were conducted. The results show that, for these enterprises to make tangible contributions towards socio-economic conditions and alleviate the lack of entrepreneurship, serious attention should be given to low educational levels of entrepreneurs, infrastructural challenges, and strategic location of the enterprises. The study recommends strong support for these enterprises, as their potential for attracting younger entrepreneurs, despite their survivalist nature, has been proven. It appears that these enterprises have high potential to reduce youth unemployment and poverty.
Keywords: entrepreneurs, leafy, potential, poverty, malnutrition
Corresponding Author: VM Mmbengwa, Tel: +2712 841 9696, Fax: +2786 515-3308, E-mail: [email protected] or [email protected]
Acknowledgements:
The authors would like to thank the Department of Rural Development and Land Reform (DRDLR) and Agricultural Research Council Vegetable and Ornamental Institute (ARC-VOPI) for their valuable contributions in the study. However, the information provided is the opinion of the authors.
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1. Introduction African vegetables (often called ‘indigenous vegetables’) are well known in the rural and peri-urban areas as a reliable source of micronutrients for the poorest African societies. The role that African vegetables play in these societies has been reorganised without scientific and commercial value. Recently, scientific and commercial societies have shown renewed interest in either commercialising or propagating these commodities. It is reported that various organisations in Africa and abroad have done research on indigenous leafy, seed, and tuber plants that are used as vegetables and pot herbs, but this research is fragmented and not always well documented (Oelofse and Van Averbeke, 2012).
This interest manifested in the recognition of the role that these vegetables are playing in these societies, makes them to be more important in addressing the socio-economic challenges (socio-economic problems, such as the increase in the rural population, climate change, growing unemployment, food insecurity, economic slowdown, and malnutrition particularly prevalent in impoverished societies) through amongst others, the provision of reliable and available high value nutrients.
These challenges have prompted the whole world to opt for cost-effective and easily available sources of micronutrients, in order to avert malnutrition and nutrient deficiencies. It is an established fact that African vegetables are a reliable source of nutrients for vulnerable, poor societies across the globe (Jansen van Rensburg et al., 2007). Oelofse and Van Averbeke (2012) reported that indigenous (traditional African) vegetables are rich in micronutrients, and increase the bioavailability and absorption of micronutrients from staple foods. These authors further pointed out that the awareness of the nutritional benefits that can be derived from the consumption of these vegetables is part of indigenous knowledge.
For example, after giving birth, women in Uganda consume Cleome gynandra, which is rich in iron and other micronutrients (Chweya and Mnzava, 1997). Rural people grow up eating these vegetables, and most like their taste, which is not always the case with exotic vegetables (Oelofse and Van Averbeke, 2012). However, these authors argued that the contribution that indigenous (traditional) vegetables make to human nutrition depends heavily on the way in which they are prepared, and on the quantity and frequency of consumption. Generally, the leaves are a good source of calcium, magnesium, beta carotene, iron, and vitamin C, whereas the roots and seeds are rich in proteins (Oelofse and Van Averbeke, 2012).
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2. Literature review
2.1 Importance of the establishment of indigenous African vegetable enterprises in South Africa
The establishment of indigenous African vegetable enterprises is seen by many experts as not only critically important for the economy of rural, economically depressed areas, but also for the health of their inhabitants. Various authors have acknowledged the importance of indigenous vegetables, especially in the rural parts of South Africa (Jansen van Rensburg et al., 2007; Modi et al., 2006; Vorster et al., 2007; Vorster et al., 2008; Shackleton, 2003). Shei (2008) reported that many species of African traditional vegetables are not known, and are only used locally. However, they are extremely important for nutrition and farming income throughout Africa, often supplying most of the daily requirements of vitamins A, B complex, and C (ascorbic acid) for rural people.
The production and utilisation of vegetables can make a much-needed contribution to better nutrition and income in many African countries, but there is a serious threat that many species will fall into disuse in some areas if appropriate countermeasures are not taken (Shei, 2008). Knowing the nutritional, medicinal, and economic value of native West African vegetables could definitely add value to the cultivation, consumption, conservation, and regional/international commercialisation of indigenous African vegetables.
Such knowledge, if well exploited, could also serve as one of the main corridors for hunger and poverty alleviation in Africa. According to Mavengahama et al. (2013), some of the very poor families in South Africa are using indigenous vegetables as a substitute for some food crops, and the seasonality of these vegetables leaves many families without a food source out of season. These authors believe that indigenous vegetables have the potential to increase agro-biodiversity at the household level. In addition, these authors have revealed that the major threats to indigenous vegetable use include utilisation without cultivation, and their elimination from cultivated fields as weed species, which leads to the depletion of the natural population. These threats therefore reinforce the idea of establishing indigenous African vegetable enterprises, and also justify the creation of a value chain for these enterprises.
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2.2 Nutritional value of African leafy vegetables
African leafy vegetables offer good nutritional value in supplementing a diet consisting mainly of carbohydrates, with considerable potential as income-generating crops (Chadha and Oluoch, 2003). Shei
(2008) reported that the production and utilisation of vegetables can make a much-needed contribution to better nutrition and income in many African countries, but that there is a serious threat that many species will fall into disuse in some areas if appropriate counter measures are not taken (Ingrid, 1995). Wild vegetables play various roles in subsistence farming systems. They are a source of food, and are particularly rich in micronutrients. They are often consumed as a relish to accompany the main meal.
They are also credited with a contribution to dietary diversity and agro-biodiversity at the household level
(Mavengahama et al., 2013). Ojiewo et al. (2010) found that African indigenous vegetables have not been integrated into mainstream agriculture.
2.3 Production of and demand for African leafy vegetables across countries In many countries, African leafy vegetables have received little attention in terms of research and development. Their production is often on a small scale, with farmers being the primary custodians of the genetic material and production technologies; they produce for subsistence and sell the surplus.
Currently, there is an upsurge of interest in traditional vegetables, owing to increased awareness of their nutritional and nutraceutical benefits, coupled with improvements to traditional recipes.
This has raised the demand for high-quality seed and improved lines and cultivars. African eggplant growers showed significantly higher values in almost all parameters of commercialisation, including time spent by household members, income levels, and ownership by gender. With the African eggplant being ranked the number one cash crop, growers allocated more land (0.76 hectares) to food crops, and received higher estimated annual incomes (US$2 041), compared to growers of other crops (0.70 hectares, and US$1 692 respectively) (Genova et al., 2010). African nightshade has experienced a steady rise in demand, especially in urban areas, through supermarkets, groceries, retail markets, and 5 | P a g e
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hotels, due to promotional activities. Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) is another African indigenous vegetable that has experienced a rising demand, but supply is limited. Improving the performance of small seed companies will provide smallholder farmers with easier access to locally adapted, affordable seed, leading to increased productivity.
Currently, African vegetables are harvested without cultivation, a practice that may be regarded as exploitative and therefore unsustainable in view of increasing population density. It could lead to genetic erosion (see Flyman and Afolayan, 2006) and loss of biodiversity (Shackleton, 2003; Bharucha and
Pretty, 2010). A decline in the wild population of some indigenous vegetables has already been reported
(Shackleton, 2003). Further, utilisation is also unsustainable, in that the benefiting people have no control over availability, as they do not cultivate these vegetables. Thus, availability is unpredictable and variable. An alternative to this utilisation approach is the integration of indigenous vegetables into cropping systems.
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3. Methodology
The study was conducted in three provinces (Kwazulu-Natal, North West, and Limpopo) of the Republic of South Africa. The Republic of South Africa is located in Southern Africa, at the southern tip of the continent of Africa, comprising 1 219 912 km2. It has a population of approximately 52 million (Statistic South Africa, 2012), and has nine provinces. The primary aim of this study was to identify entrepreneurial and socio-economic conditions of African leafy vegetable enterprises in both rural and peri-urban South African communities, with the secondary aim of using such information to empower these communities with skills, expertise, and business opportunities. The main objective was to solve the challenges of poverty, malnutrition, and under-nutrition in these poverty-stricken areas. In order to achieve these aims, desktop analysis and qualitative research approaches were used.
During the planning phase of the project, desktop analysis was used, whilst qualitative methodology was used mainly in interpretation of the results of the investigation. Another method used was participatory rural appraisal (PRA) approaches. This was used interchangeably with the quantitative research methodologies. Both these methodologies were used during the actual implementation of the project. This was done in order to solicit accurate information, and also to quantify the variables under consideration. Desktop analysis was used to delineate the objectives of the project, whilst the qualitative method was used to source relevant information, and in the eventual conceptualisation of an appropriate project context. Both the desktop analysis and qualitative research methodologies gave rise to a well- designed study.
The PRA succeeded the desktop analysis. This method entailed a series of meetings, onsite inspections, and workshops with key informants and entrepreneurs. The objective of using the PRA method was to conceptualise the project based on a well-grounded observation, in order to facilitate the development of clearly defined implementation strategies aimed at establishing the project protocols, project institutional memory, and identification of appropriate project teams and stake-holders. This process yielded the project work break-down structure (WBS). In other words, the PRA was essential during the implementation phase.
During the participatory sessions, each stakeholder was consulted separately. In such consultations, participants were encouraged to participate freely. This process was mainly aimed at harnessing the understanding and cooperation of the main stakeholders. On the other hand, a quantitative method was used to quantify the variables and the factors under consideration. The latter used the questionnaire as measurement instrument. The questionnaire was developed through rigorous processes, where panels of critical experts were involved in critiquing the first and second draft questionnaires. The critiques were
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aimed at enhancing the precision, alignment, and accuracy of the questionnaire instrument to measure the set objectives outlined in the study parameters.
In addition, the scale and scope of the survey questionnaire were also interrogated, to ensure that they suited the level of the clients. This was done in order to ensure that any expert or researcher who wants to repeat this exercise may find similar results, thus making the investigation verifiable, repeatable, and justifiable. Upon the evaluation of the questionnaire instruments, the panellists were satisfied with the questionnaires. Subsequently, the questionnaire was used to assess the potential enterprises. The respondents’ population was entrepreneurs. A specific sampling frame was drawn by designing the roster during the sampling processes. A non-probability sampling method was preferred, due to the nature (categorical) of the data collected. A purposive sampling procedure, where respondents (n=1093) from Kwazulu-Natal (n=96), North West (n=267), and Limpopo (n=730) provinces were interviewed, was used. The data collected were analysed using the IBM SPSS Exact Tests software (Mehta and Patel, 2010). Descriptive and inferential analyses were conducted. During these analyses, a non-parametric test, Unordered R x C Contingency Tables with Pearson Chi-Square test and a multi-variant analysis, was used. According to Diamantopoulos and Schlegelmilch (2005), analysis of the data should be well planned in order to provide a relevant outcome. In order to conform to this directive, the choice of the analyses used in this research followed the following guidelines:
• Only relevant analyses should be undertaken;
• Analysis objectives should provide a check on the comprehensiveness of the analysis; and
• The analyses should objectively help to avoid redundancy.
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4. Results and discussion
This section presents the results of both the descriptive and the inferential analyses of the study. The former (descriptive analysis) is presented first and the latter (inferential) analysis last. This ensures a logical presentation of the results.
4.1 Descriptive analysis
4.1.1 Selection of entrepreneurs in Kwazulu-Natal province Table 1 and Figure 1 show the summary of the descriptive information for the African leafy vegetable entrepreneurs selected in four district municipalities of Kwazulu-Natal. As can be seen from the results, 96 farmers (with 154.32 hectares of land) were selected and assessed.
Table 1: Farmers selected in Kwazulu-Natal districts in first and second quarter (April-August 2013)
SCOM No. of Hectares No of SHF Com District farmers (n) commodities (n) (n) (n)
1. Umkhanyakude 25 46.12 7 8 0 0
2. Itheku 5 10.00 2 3 0 0
3. Umgungundlovu 35 79.57 6 7 0 0
4. Uthungulu 31 18.63 7 8 0 0
Total 96 154.32 22 96 0 0
Keys: SCOM=Semi-commercial, COM=Commercial, SHF=Small holder farmers
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Figure 1: Selected farmers in Kwazulu-Natal Province
90 80 70 60 50 Counts 40 Umkhanyakude 30 20 Itheku 10 0 Umgungundlovu Uthungulu
4.1.2 Selection of entrepreneurs in North West Province Table 2 and Figure 2 show the summary of the descriptive information for the entrepreneurs selected in four districts of the North West Province. A total of 267 farmers (with 379.19 hectares of land) were selected and assessed.
Table 2: Farmers selected in North West provincial districts in first and second quarter (April-August 2013)
SHF SCOM No. of No of COM District farmers Ha (n) commodities (n) (n) (n)
1. Kenneth Kaunda 43 166.00 6 14 13 16
2. Ruth Mompati 177 117.76 8 177
3. Bojanala 29 93.00 6 29
4. Ngaka Modiri Molema 18 2.43 9 18
Total 267 379.19 29 209 42 16
Keys: SCOM=Semi-commercial, COM=Commercial, SHF=Small holder farmers
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Figure 2: Selected farmers in North West province
200
150 Counts
100 Kenneth Kaunda
50 Ruth Mompati
0 Bojanala
Ngaka Modiri Molema
4.1.3 Selection of farmers in Limpopo Province For Limpopo Province, the selection of farmers during the first and second quarter was done in Vhembe district municipality. A total 730 farmers (with 13.7657 hectares) was selected and assessed. These farmers are farming as part the irrigation schemes, and, therefore, each has, on average, 1.2 hectares of land. At the time of this study, the detailed assessments were limited to the Khumbe, Dzindi, and
Tshipise irrigation schemes.
Table 3: Farmers selected in Limpopo provincial districts
Irrigation No. of Plot size Commodities Source of Types of Scheme farmers (ha) water irrigation
Khumbe 42 1.7262 Chinese spinach, Dam Short furrow African nightshade, irrigation cowpeas, & pumpkin
Dzindi 81 1.2 Chinese spinach, Dam Short furrow African nightshade, irrigation cowpeas, & pumpkin
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Irrigation No. of Plot size Commodities Source of Types of Scheme farmers (ha) water irrigation
Tshipise 23 1.2 Chinese spinach, Dam Short furrow African nightshade, irrigation cowpeas, & pumpkin
Rambuda 62 1.3397 Chinese spinach, Dam Short furrow African nightshade, irrigation cowpeas, & pumpkin
Folovhodwe 112 1.5402 Chinese spinach, Dam Short furrow African nightshade, irrigation cowpeas, & pumpkin
Matombotsuk 29 1.5793 Chinese spinach, Dam Short furrow a African nightshade, irrigation cowpeas, & pumpkin
Mutshenzhen 22 1.5455 Chinese spinach, Dam Short furrow i African nightshade, irrigation cowpeas, & pumpkin
Miyanzwi 46 1.2 Chinese spinach, Dam Short furrow African nightshade, irrigation cowpeas, & pumpkin
Matangari 264 1.2348 Chinese spinach, Dam Short furrow African nightshade, irrigation cowpeas, & pumpkin
Tshiombo 49 1.2 Chinese spinach, Dam Short furrow African nightshade, irrigation cowpeas, & pumpkin
TOTAL 730 13.7657
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4.2 Assessment of farmers according to mean age
Table 4: The descriptive analysis of the respondents’ age in Vhembe district municipality
N Mean Std. Std. error 95% Confidence interval minimum Maximum deviation forMean Lower Upper bound bound
Male 73 55.3836 16.89809 1.97777 51.4409 59.3262 22.00 87.00
Femal 73 58.9178 13.68774 1.60203 55.7242 62.1114 29.00 80.00 e
Total 146 57.1507 15.42606 1.27667 54.6274 59.6740 22.00 87.00
According to the results in Table 4, it appears that farmers in this district municipality have a minimum and maximum age of 22 and 87 years respectively. The mean age for men and women is 55 ± 16.90 and 59
± 13.67 respectively. For the men, this age falls within 51% to 59% of the 95% confidence interval. On the contrary, for the women, the age is between 56% to 62% of the 95% confidence interval. This result reveals that the mean age of the female farmers who participate in this type of farming is higher than that of their male counterparts. On the other hand, it can be seen that the male participants start farming at an earlier age (22 years). In contrast, women appear to start farming at 29 years of age. This difference could be explained by the difference in their muscularity. In addition, it appears that women are taking up farming a little bit later because of household food insecurity after marital commitment.
These results reflect that gender muscularity and food security seem to have a higher influence on entrepreneurial capacity than the economic activeness of both genders. Therefore the socio-economic viability of African leafy vegetables enterprises in this district is dependent on the age at which the entrepreneurs are affected by food insecurity and/or the age at which the entrepreneurs assume marital responsibilities. This observation may show that farmers in these enterprises fall within the category of 13 | P a g e
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survival entrepreneurship. The Levene statistic (F = 3.238, df1 = 1, df2 = 144, and P value (sig) = 0.074) in Table 5 shows that there is no difference between mean and standard deviation. This indicates that the test has fulfilled the assumption of homogeneity of the variances.
Table 5: Test of homogeneity variances
Levene statistic df1 df2 Sig.
3.238 1 144 0.074
According to Table 6, it appears that the mean square between and within groups is not significantly different at P≤0.05.
Table 6: Mean square between and within groups of respondents’ age
Sum of Df Mean F Sig. squares square
Between 455.918 1 455.918 1.928 0.167 groups
Within 34048.767 144 236.450 groups
Total 34504.685 145
4.3 Assessment of farmers according to educational achievement
Educational achievement is perceived to play both a social and an economic role in a developing society
(Fete, 2013). Therefore, it was essential to assess the educational achievement of the African leafy vegetable entrepreneurs. It was found that nearly 100% of the participating farmers in the Vhembe district municipality had achieved only Grade 12 or below. This indicates that these farmers have the
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lowest level of educational achievement and, therefore, it may be reasonably assumed that they have had little exposure to new farming technologies. The results may also indicate that, should there be any need for further technology transfer, the level of educational materials should be on National Qualification
Framework (NQF) level 1 to 4. This level is assumed to be compatible with the level of educational exposure of these farmers. In addition, it can be assumed that the learning materials for their training should be adapted to their local language, in order to ensure easy technology transfer. If the above is fulfilled, it may be reasonably assumed that these farmers’ entrepreneurial and socio-economic conditions will improve, based on capacity-building inputs.
4.4 Assessment of farmers according to food processing capacity
Food processing is regarded as the most important process in value addition and preservation. For the smallholder entrepreneurs, who lack sophisticated infrastructures, food processing is often done using natural resources and labour-intensive mechanisms inherited from traditional practices. The aim of the investigation was to find out what mechanisms smallholder farmers in irrigation schemes use in the processing and preservation of their vegetable products. The results of the findings are presented in
Table 7 and Figure 3. According to the results, the majority of farmers in these schemes use the sun- drying processing method, followed by those who do no processing at all.
These results reveal that there is the potential to introduce processing for these smallholder farmers. It may also be that some farmers find it difficult to process their vegetables. The limited processing could be as a result of the quantities that these farmers produce. However, it appears that the entrepreneurs are not able to exploit the food processing aspects of value addition to advance their socio-economic aspirations, due to a lack of infrastructure. In addition, the entrepreneurs, according to their opinions, appear to experience limitations in trading their processed produce, due to limited quantities. Hence,
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food processing is mainly done for household food security. The results presented were highly significantly different, at 95% confidence interval (P≤0.05).
Table 7a: Profile of processing in the irrigation schemes at Vhembe district municipality
Irrigation schemes Total
Khumbe Dzindi Tshipise
Count 28 22 15 65
Expected count 18.7 36.1 10.2 65.0 Sun dry % within irrigation scheme 66.7% 27.2% 65.2% 44.5%
% of total 19.2% 15.1% 10.3% 44.5%
Count 0 24 3 27
Method used for processing Expected Count 7.8 15.0 4.3 27.0 Wash chop indigenous vegetables % within irrigation scheme 0.0% 29.6% 13.0% 18.5%
% of total 0.0% 16.4% 2.1% 18.5%
Count 14 35 5 54
Expected count 15.5 30.0 8.5 54.0 None % within irrigation scheme 33.3% 43.2% 21.7% 37.0%
% of total 9.6% 24.0% 3.4% 37.0%
Count 42 81 23 146
Expected count 42.0 81.0 23.0 146.0 Total % within irrigation scheme 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
% of total 28.8% 55.5% 15.8% 100.0%
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Table 7b: Chi-square tests
Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-square 28.337a 4 0.000
Likelihood ratio 35.511 4 0.000
Linear-by-linear 0.129 1 0.719 association
N of valid cases 146 a. Cells (11.1%) have an expected count of less than 5.0 b. The minimum expected count is 4.25.
Figure 3: Illustration of status of processing for Vhembe irrigation schemes
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4.5 Assessment of available on-farm infrastructure, including water and electricity
The assessment of water and electricity was done in order to establish the availability of these important components of infrastructure in business functionality. This was done by interviewing farmers in the irrigation schemes, as well as individual farmers. It was found that farmers at the entrance of the irrigation schemes have more water available for their plots, compared to farmers at the periphery of the schemes. This has led to some farmers irrigating their plots at midnight (which may pose dangers for female farmers). The assessment of the availability of electricity showed that, although electricity is abundant in nearby households, electricity appears to be limited in the irrigation schemes.
4.6 Assessment of market status
The market is an essential consideration in the sustainability and economic viability of any enterprise. It is a well–established fact that smallholder farmers have good technical production knowledge with limited market access and linkages (Mmbengwa et al., 2010). This is further compounded by their limited knowledge of marketing products. This section presents a preliminary investigation of the status of
African leafy vegetable product markets, through interviewing farmers regarding their market status. The results of the marketing survey outlined above are presented in Table 8 (a, b, and c) and Figure 4.
According to the results, farmers in Khumbe irrigation scheme appear to have the best market linkage
(showing the good network capacities) for the propagation material, relative to other irrigation schemes.
On the other hand, it is revealed that Tshipise has the highest linkage to the market. The latter results appears to be counter intuitive, since Dzindi and Khumbe irrigation farmers are close to high-density markets such as Thohoyandou, universities, and hospitals. These results may be an indication of the demand for the commodities, not necessarily linkage.
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Table 8: Status of market linkages for Vhembe irrigation farmers
Irrigation scheme Total
Khumbe Dzindi Tshipise
Count 10 33 11 54
Expected count 15.5 30.0 8.5 54.0
Yes % within irrigation 23.8% 40.7% 47.8% 37.0% scheme
% of total 6.8% 22.6% 7.5% 37.0% Are you linked to the indigenous vegetables market? Count 32 48 12 92
Expected count 26.5 51.0 14.5 92.0
No % within irrigation 76.2% 59.3% 52.2% 63.0% scheme
% of total 21.9% 32.9% 8.2% 63.0%
Count 42 81 23 146
Expected count 42.0 81.0 23.0 146.0
Total % within irrigation 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% scheme
% of total 28.8% 55.5% 15.8% 100.0%
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Table 8b: Chi-square est
Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
Pearson chi-square 4.778a 2 0.092
Likelihood ratio 4.951 2 0.084
Linear-by-linear 4.392 1 0.036 association
N of valid cases 146 a. 0 cells (.0%) have expected count of less than 5. b. The minimum expected count is 8.51.
Figure 4: Illustration of market linkages for Vhembe irrigation farmers
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5. Conclusions
The primary aim of this study was to identify entrepreneurial and socio-economic conditions of African leafy vegetable famers in both rural and peri-urban South African communities, with the secondary aim of using such information to empower these communities with skills, expertise, and business opportunities. The main objective was to solve the challenges of poverty, malnutrition, and under-nutrition in these poverty-stricken areas. In this study, five entrepreneurial and socio-economic variables (age of the entrepreneurs, educational profiles, food processing capacity, on-farm infrastructure, and market status) were investigated.
Regarding the age of the entrepreneurs, the study concluded that the involvement of youth and both genders demonstrates the potential of this type of farming to contribute significantly to the socio-economic conditions of the areas under considerations. Regarding the educational profiles of the entrepreneurs, it can be concluded that, despite the involvement of the youth, the entrepreneurs’ level of education is below Grade 12. This appears to suggest that only youths with the lowest educational achievements see farming as a job opportunity. Regarding infrastructure, the study concluded that essential infrastructure is still limited, and, as long as the situation persists, the potential for the contribution to socio-economic conditions will not be realised.
Lastly, the status of the market linkages shows that those enterprises that are in close proximity to high- density markets have the best prospects of reducing the socio-economic challenges. It is therefore recommended that well-designed support mechanisms be provided in order to enhance the prospects of these entrepreneurs, with the objective of contributing to a reduction of the socio-economic challenges of the rural and peri-urban South African population.
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6. References
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Genova II, C., Kriesemer, S. K., Neave, S., Wang, J-F., and Weinberger, K. (2010). Market analysis of fresh vegetables in Solomon Islands, AVRDC – The World Vegetable Center Shanhua, Taiwan. Publishing team: Kathy Chen, Chen Ming-che, Vanna Liu, Lu Shiu-luan, AVRDC Publication: 10- 742 ISBN 92-9058-184-0
Chweya, J. A. and Mnzava, N. A. (1997). Promoting the conservation and use of underutilized and neglected crops. 11 Cat’s whiskers. IPGRI, Rome, Italy.
De Pee, S., West, C. E., Muhilal, S., Karyadi, D., and Hautvast, J. G. A. (1995). Lack of improvement in vitamin A status with increased consumption of dark-green leafy vegetables. Lancet, 46, 75-81.
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