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The London School of Economics and Political Science 1 The London School of Economics and Political Science Women and Citizenship Struggles: A Case of the Western Cape, South Africa 1980 - 2004 Gertrude M. N. Fester A thesis submitted to the Gender Institute of the London School of Economics for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, London, December 2007 UMI Number: U615267 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Dissertation Publishing UMI U615267 Published by ProQuest LLC 2014. Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. ProQuest LLC 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 TtteseS p »5£!ScflsSS# Declaration I certify that the thesis I have presented for examination for the MPhil/PhD degree of the London School of Economics and Political Science is solely my own work other than where I have clearly indicated that it is the work of others (in which case the extent of any work carried out jointly by me and any other person is clearly identified in it). The copyright of this thesis rests with the author. Quotation from it is permitted, provided that full acknowledgement is made. This thesis may not be reproduced without the prior written consent of the author. I warrant that this authorization does not, to the best of my belief, infringe the rights of any third party. 3 ABSTRACT This thesis examines grassroots women’s political activism in the Western Cape, South Africa (SA) during the 1980-1994 phase and their struggles to achieve citizenship. Through tracing the history of women’s political agency and the social and political forces that shaped women’s resistance, this dissertation asserts that women profoundly contributed to the New SA. Motherhood was the legitimate space granted to them by the liberation movement but women transformed it into an empowering public role, affirming their demands for citizenship. The shifting nature of women’s resistance, the dominant discourses that mobilised them, what forms they took and how they changed over time are explored. The thesis asserts that despite the obstacles of a patriarchal culture relegating women’s issues as secondary and a repressive state, women’s focussed struggles succeeded in uniting diverse women to make effective intervention. This culminated in participating in negotiations for a new SA. A secondary focus examines the transition from apartheid to a ‘women-friendly’ SA. This study argues that private carework of women should be inscribed as citizenship responsibilities. Presently the SA State strategy promoting women’s citizenship is through welfare. For women’s effective citizenship it is imperative that there is a balance between women as workers and welfare beneficiaries, and that women participate as decision-makers at all levels. By comparing the demands of The Women’s Charter for Effective Equality (1994) with the 1994-2004 reality of women and by analysing what women themselves state, I assess women’s citizenship. This thesis concludes that the achievement thus far of the feminist citizenship project is uneven. The impressive constitution contributes to the improvement of many women’s lives. However, the sporadic implementation of gender-sensitive policies, failure to address poverty, high levels of violence against women and the negative impact of culture and religion are some of the obstacles to women’s comprehensive citizenship. 4 Acknowledgements My thanks first go to the grassroots women in Cape Town who embraced me warmly when I first joined UWO in 1982. Working with them remains my most important political education. It has been both humbling and inspiring sharing the lives of especially my ‘political mentors’, Mamas Dorothy Zihlangu, Dorothy Mfacu and Mildred Lesia. Since her return from exile in 1990, Comrade Ray has been an invaluable source of support, generously sharing her time, ideas and political resources with me. For Lynne, long time friend and comrade, I thank her for support, encouragement and belief in my work. To the members of the organisations who so kindly shared with me their joys and celebrations, their fears and frustrations, I appreciate it and I hope I am to convey the intensity and passion with which they shared it. Thanks especially for ‘giving me the mandate’ to tell their stories and how they led the defiance in the Western Cape. With the generous financial support of the British Council, Canon Collins Educational Trust for Southern Africa, Africa Educational Trust and Feminist Review Trust I was able to spend quality time on my studies. I thank the Central Research Fund for their contribution towards my field work in the rural areas. The support from the Stichting de Zaaier (Netherlands) facilitated rewriting the thesis in 2007. To the staff and students of the Gender Institute (especially Carolyn Williams and Nattha Komolvadhin) for providing a supportive and stimulating environment I express my sincere gratitude. Dave Kelly from IT has also been an incredible support. Without Hazel Johnstone’s patient support, the challenges I experienced would have been more demanding. To my supervisor, Henrietta Moore, for her affirming critique and guidance, my heartfelt thanks. With her support and encouragement and the help of her staff, my tasks were facilitated. The generous support of Merle and Sam Mindel was the catalyst for my writing the bulk of the thesis. I sincerely thank them. Merle’s valuable critique and constant encouragement indeed inspired me. The support of Lindia Trout and Jacqui Canning during the rewriting of the thesis was invaluable. I thank my mother, the first feminist in my life and my sisters for contributing to whom I am today. Al die dank en eer aan my Skepper. 5 TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT.............................................................................................................................3 Acknowledgements .............................................................................................................. 4 Table of Contents ..................................................................................................................5 CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION.......................................................................8 REASONS FOR UNDERTAKING THIS STUDY .................................................10 CONTENT OF CHAPTERS...................................................................................... 13 CHAPTER TWO TOWARDS A COMPREHENSIVE CITIZENSHIP................. 16 HISTORY OF FEMINISM IN SOUTH AFRICA (SA)........................................... 18 Introduction:................................................................................................................. 18 Women’s and National Liberation in S A : ............................................................. 22 The Family: ..................................................................................................................24 Conclusions:................................................................................................................26 THEORIES OF CITIZENSHIP................................................................................. 27 Is Citizenship Gender-neutral? ...............................................................................28 Are Women a Specific Sort of Citizen? .................................................................31 POLITICAL AGENCY: TRACING THE LINKS BETWEEN MOTHERHOOD AND CITIZENSHIP..................................................................................................... 33 LEARNING LESSONS FROM ELSEWHERE, AND THE WAY FORWARD 45 CONCLUSIONS:.........................................................................................................53 CHAPTER THREE HISTORICAL, CONCEPTUAL AND METHODOLOGICAL FRAMEWORKS.................................................................................................. 57 INTRODUCTION:....................................................................................................... 57 GRASSROOTS WOMEN’S POLITICAL AGENCY AND THEIR STRUGGLES FOR CITIZENSHIP.....................................................................................................58 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK...............................................................................71 Motherhood/Motherism .............................................................................................72 Colluding with or Confronting Patriarchy...............................................................75 Women and Difference .............................................................................................78 METHODOLOGY....................................................................................................... 80 CONCLUSION............................................................................................................. 90 CHAPTER FOUR WOMEN’S WORDS.............................................................93 BACKGROUND TO THE INTERVIEWS.................................. 94 VOICES FROM BELOW............................................................................................98 What were the differences among women? .........................................................98
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