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Resilience and Shadow of Collective Trauma: the Mennonites' Great ABSTRACT RESILIENCE AND SHADOW OF COLLECTIVE TRAUMA: THE MENNONITES’ GREAT TRAUMATIC TREK TO CANADA Mennonites living in Russia at the start of the Bolshevik Revolution in 1917 entered into a climate of almost relentless violence. Mennonites are a Protestant group that formed during the 16th century Reformation. Long-term psychological implications of these events continue for remaining survivors and their offspring to this day. In this study, four memoirs of Mennonite survivors were analyzed to learn how traumatic experiences were narrated in their lifetime. A literature review explored features associated with individual and collective experiences of trauma. Placing each writer into their shared historical context was presented to understand both collective and unique features of their experiences. Common themes that emerged in the memoirs demonstrated both resilience and challenges in expressing emotions, facing physical challenges, processing transitions, and coping. Lastly, differing experiences with attachment were discovered for each writer and inferences were drawn to the intergenerational transmission of trauma. The findings of this study can speak to how social workers may contextualize trauma with biopsychosocial intakes that are broad in scope. Therapeutic interventions were presented that take collective features of trauma into consideration instead of solely individualizing trauma outcomes. Macro-level social work practice with geriatric populations, organizational transformation, and policy change were recommended. Jeanine Joy Yoder May 2019 RESILIENCE AND SHADOW OF COLLECTIVE TRAUMA: THE MENNONITES’ GREAT TRAUMATIC TREK TO CANADA by Jeanine Joy Yoder A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Social Work in the College of Health and Human Services California State University, Fresno May 2019 APPROVED For the Department of Social Work Education: We, the undersigned, certify that the thesis of the following student meets the required standards of scholarship, format, and style of the university and the student's graduate degree program for the awarding of the master's degree. Jeanine Joy Yoder Thesis Author Nancy Delich (Chair) Social Work Education Randy Nedegaard Social Work Education Kris Clarke Social Work Education For the University Graduate Committee: Dean, Division of Graduate Studies AUTHORIZATION FOR REPRODUCTION OF MASTER’S THESIS I grant permission for the reproduction of this thesis in part or in its entirety without further authorization from me, on the condition that the person or agency requesting reproduction absorbs the cost and provides proper acknowledgment of authorship. X Permission to reproduce this thesis in part or in its entirety must be obtained from me. Signature of thesis author: ACKNOWLEDGMENTS When I was 25, I ventured from Canada to the United States to embark on a journey to become a therapist. Fresno became a seedbed where I became an educator, wife, and mother…but not a therapist. The adage, Know thyself, became so important that detours in my quest were necessary. Now, half a lifetime later, I am becoming a therapist. Knowing my own story plays a critical role in my effectiveness to help contain the suffering of others. Therefore, this thesis represents my earnest pursuit to do that. I am grateful for the dedicated faculty and outside professionals who gave insightful voice to my research. Dr. Nancy Delich, my chair, was supportive and thorough in her feedback, calling me to high standards and helping me find my voice. Dr. Kris Clarke helped me birth this project and helped me launch when I became stuck at different junctions. Both humorous and challenging, Dr. Randy Nedegaard encouraged me to push out deeper. Dr. Dvera Saxton shone a light on ways each narrator is more than just Mennonite. Elizabeth Krahn’s work inspired my research and she met with me to reflect on my findings. Richard Thiessen, a Mennonite historian, took a day to help me better understand the historical context of Mennonites. I am also grateful for the Research Fellowship I received from the Graduate Net Initiative. Towards the end of my thesis sojourn, Luke (10) looked up at me with hopefulness in his eyes, “Mom, do you think you’ll finish your thesis today?” In contrast, Grant (12) said, “Mom, do you think you could stay at school all day today to write so that I can stay home alone?” Morgan (14), was fascinated by stories surrounding Nazi Germany, especially about the guns. I’m thankful for their support. Greg, my husband, was one of my rocks during this journey. He was a consistent soundboard and support and cheered me on in my exploration. I am so grateful. I am also thankful for the little voice deep inside me that called me to embark on this journey of discovery. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................ vii CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................... 1 Historical Context of Mennonites: Journey to Russia, Nazi Germany, and Beyond ............................................................................................................ 2 Theoretical Literature .................................................................................................. 8 Empirical Literature .................................................................................................... 9 Method ...................................................................................................................... 11 Conceptual Definitions ............................................................................................. 11 Ethical Issues ............................................................................................................ 16 Summary ................................................................................................................... 16 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW .......................................................................... 18 Theoretical Literature ................................................................................................ 18 Impact of Trauma ...................................................................................................... 32 Gaps in the Literature ................................................................................................ 39 CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY .................................................................................... 42 Research Question .................................................................................................... 42 Target Population and Sampling Plan ....................................................................... 43 Data Collection and Analysis .................................................................................... 43 Trustworthiness ......................................................................................................... 45 Community Vulnerability and Research ................................................................... 47 Limitations ................................................................................................................ 48 Summary ................................................................................................................... 49 CHAPTER 4: FINDINGS................................................................................................. 50 Chronological Placement of Memoirs ...................................................................... 52 vi vi Page Traumatic Themes Experienced................................................................................ 58 Intergenerational Attachment Themes ...................................................................... 86 Summary ................................................................................................................... 92 CHAPTER 5: ANALYSIS, INTERPRETATION, AND DISCUSSION ........................ 93 Chronology – Why it Matters ................................................................................... 93 Narrative and Ethnographic Discussion .................................................................... 96 Discussion of Trauma Themes .................................................................................. 99 Intergenerational Attachment Themes .................................................................... 116 Implications for Social Work Practice .................................................................... 117 Limitations .............................................................................................................. 127 Implications for Research ....................................................................................... 127 Conclusions ............................................................................................................. 128 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................... 130 LIST OF TABLES Page Table 1 Descriptive Details of Each Author .................................................................... 51 Table 2 Trauma Themes from Four Memoirs .................................................................. 59 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION Mennonites living in Russia at the start of the Bolshevik Revolution in 1917 entered into an almost relentless climate of violence (Krahn, 2011, 2013;
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