Keywords: J.J.P. Oud, Aldo vanEyck,HermanHertzberger,Dutch and discontinuitiesbetweenthem. demonstrate bothcontinuities andwill social agenda, a progressive in advancing the Dutchgovernment issues sociopolitical poverty,addressed thefollowingissues: thehousingshortages fromthepre-World War IIperiod,the growth, and white-collar labor white-collar growth, and Faculty of Architecture, Chulalongkorn Pat Seeumpornroj 1940s tothe1960s Relation toSocialIssuesfromthe Re-reading Dutch Architecture in AbStRAct [email protected] to different issues.Giventhisdistinctcharacteristic, each otherorrelating discourses, eitheropposing Generations of architects proposed different or and movements more evolutions of architecture. three postwar decades, there have alwaysbeentwo the of each in identified is characteristic distinct a From looking at the history of Dutch Modernism, critique ofpre-warfunctionalism. issues, andthe social and life,the local architecture related tothe‘quality’means buildings Rebellion of prosperity. economic new the reflecting or culture reconstruction and projects influenced by American buildings relatedtothe‘quantity’ ofthe post-war architecture discourses. Mainstream refers to in rebellion and mainstream its both writings, movements werewidelydiscussedinEnglish to catchworldattention, anditsarchitectural began In theaftermathofWorldWar II, Dutch Modernism Int Volume 14,June2018 Nakhara: JournalofEnvironmentalDesignandPlanning T r Dutch protagonists to the dominant socialissuesthatoccurredfromthe1940sto the1960s. Dutch protagoniststothedominant They J.J.P. of work the connect to seeks paper his Oud, Hertzberger, Herman Eyck,and van Aldo three the o d uct i on in thecollec in thepost-WorldWar II period. by played the role examine will The author tive expression of the public, rapid economy recovery,economy rapid of thepublic, tive expression population large Re-reading Dutch Architecture inRelationtoSocialIssuesfromthe1940s1960s University, Thailand life, and of working environment respectively.life, andofworkingenvironment the ‘quality’ ofarchitectural expression, ofeveryday the issuesof Hertzberger areselectedtoillustrate byHerman in Apeldoorn Building Office Beheer in by Aldo vanEyck, and the Centraal Jacobus JohannesPieterOud, theChildren’s Home II period. by Hague the in (I.B.M.)Building Shell The growth, and white-collar labor in the post-World War the public, rapid economy recovery, large population of expression in collective issues the sociopolitical shortage ofhousingfromthepre-World War IIperiod, 1960s. issues include;poverty,These recurring the to social issues that occurred from the 1940s to the rebellion and their representative projects in relation study, the focusisonarchitecturaldiscoursesof culture inarchitecture. rebellious Therefore, inthis history,the learned youngarchitectsunconsciously Via countries. other in than younger generations the the wasmoreopento the fresh ideasof in community say thatthearchitectural could one modernism, architectureculture

Nakhara 133 Nakhara 134 districtofRotterdam(1919-21). housing blockIIIattheSpaarndammerplantsoen in Amsterdam (1917-21) andJJP Oud’s housingblockVIIIinthe 2 1 more thanthesocialwelfare. the mainstreamthatseemedtoservecapitalism century setrebelliouspoliciesinarchitectureagainst government itself during most of the twentieth especially againstagovernment,buttheDutch meansresistance to authority,in general rebellion enough, to thesocialsituationoftime.Ironically it representative making and architecture directing government subsidywasaverypowerfultoolfor for public housing(Casciato, 1996, p.20-26). The government funds to non-profit housing associations to pay municipalities subsidies,” allowed “Municipal section, seventh the Inaddition, atleast. years an extensionplanthat had to be revisedeveryten to draft growth ofpopulation, or withrapid people, with morethan10,000 required themunicipalities housing. The sixth section, “Growth of towns,” for the qualityofnew regulations code containing to createabuilding forced themunicipalcouncils “Standards concerningthequalityofdwellings,” focusing onhousingandcity. The first section, of twomandatorysections,numberoneandsix, Housing whichconsisted in 1902, Act, established workers. for housing better provide to the to led This and shortage the housing task wastosolve Its main Party, in1984, the biggest socialist party of the time. later becamethe SDAP, SocialDemocratic Workers 1888. in Parliament to theDutch member The SDB socialist first the sent and election the won first architecture. The SDB,SocialDemocraticBond, social democraticgovernmentanditsinterestin it is important to mentions the rise of the Dutch relationship to national and municipal politics, so Dutch architectureisdistinguishedbyitsclose It T Pat Seeumpornroj

he DutchGove s See Wit(1983)foradiscussion about thedif See Gaillard(1983)formorehistorical contextofpublichousingpolicyintheNetherlandsbetween1850 and1925. Inte r e s t i n A r r nment ch i tectu a n r d ference betweenindividualityand universalityinMichel de Klerk’s e

p.92). (Ibelings, 1992, gradually economy woulddevelop industry sothatthe restrict thescaleofbuilding to on theotherhand, to easetheshortage; possible projects as asmanynewhousing one hand,tobuild a doublepolicy:onthe the governmentestablished afterWorldshortage a veryserioushousing War I, projects. In 1918, dueto in government-subsidized of Dutcharchitecturehavebeenlargelyinvolved figures key countries, other unlike welfare, social in architectureanduseditasameanstoimprove role a major has had the Dutchgovernment Since P of the Shell T about agradualeconomicdevelopment. apparently responding to the government policy low-rise schemes of these housing projects were (1924-27), andKiefhoek(1925-29)(Figure1-4). The Oud-Mathenesse (1922-24),HoekvanHolland (1919-20), such asSpangen districts in blocks intoeffecthousing of monumental inmany His positiongave him the to opportunity put his idea p.52). 1997, (Polano, blocks” building and building spacewith“mass bydetermining can beachieved by streetsandsquares,acivicmonumentality the image of a city can generally be determined and joinedtheFunctionalists.Heproposedthat 1917. Bythistime,OudhadlefttheDeStijlgroup 1993, p.103),anarticlepublishedinDeStijl,October wrote “TheMonumental Townscape” (Ockman, municipal architect in Rotterdamthe year after he a as working government the with profession his the architecturediscoursesoftime.Oudbegan of governmentpolicyand illustrate theinterrelation workers’ projectsofthe1920s.His housing The he i ete first prominent architect is J.J.P. Oud and his and J.J.P. Oud is architect prominent first Ja 1 H r cobu ou

O si u d n B s g u

J P i oh l r di oject a n nne g (1938-1942) s s

a 2 n d cca.qc.ca/img- collection. 1922-1924 Oud-Mathenessemunicipal housingscheme.Retrievedfromhttps://www. J.J.P. Oud’s designofworkershousingprojectsthe1920s.Thisfigure illustrates Figure 2: 1919-20 Spangenmunicipalhousingscheme.Retrievedfromhttps://i.pinimg.com. J.J.P. Oud’s designofworkershousingprojects ofthe1920s.Thisfigureillustrates Figure 1: Re-reading Dutch Architecture inRelationtoSocialIssuesfromthe1940s1960s

Nakhara 135 Nakhara 136 Pat Seeumpornroj municipal housingscheme.Retrieved fromhttps://www.architecture.com/image- library. J.J.P. Oud’s design of workers housing projects of the 1920s. This figure illustrates 1925-1930 Kiefhoek Figure 4: van Hollandmunicipalhousingscheme.Retrievedfromhttps://i.pinimg.com. Hoek 1924-1927 illustrates figure This 1920s. the of projects housing workers of J.J.P. design Oud’s Figure 3: known as Groep’32 in 1932. Van Ravesteyn Vanjoined Ravesteyn,andtogethertheybecame architecture. fellows other young Arthur Staaland more about the emotional andartistic aspects of straight lineofFunctionalism and beconcerned Sybold vanRavesteyn,whostartedtorejectthe was alsoadomesticmovementledbyanarchitect practice intheNetherlands,butthere architectural During the1930s, Functionalist buildingstookover Shell Building. later bytheunexpectedshiftinhisdesignof exhibition. However, he quicklylost status ten years within the International movement from this anevengreaterinternationalreputation and gained Exhibition,” Oudwaswidelyknownbefore1932 the “International Style Architecture Since1922 and MiesvanderRohetorepresentEuropein in 1932, selected Oud, Le Corbusier, Gropius, schemes. Johnson,togetherwithH.R. Hitchcock, Art inNew York, byOud’s wasimpressed housing of Modern at theMuseum curator Johnson, Philip credited for improving qualitiesinthe social estates. examples of Functionalism, and he should be Oud’s designs canbemarkedas excellent housing J.J.P. Oud’s monumental design. This figure illustrates 1938-1942 The Shell Buidling in the Hague. the Retrieved fromhttps://www.cca.qc.ca/img-collection. in Buidling Shell The 1938-1942 illustrates figure This design. monumental J.J.P.Oud’s Figure 5: Re-reading Dutch Architecture inRelationtoSocialIssuesfromthe1940s1960s needed to be protected from turning into a“purely to beprotectedfromturning needed architecture, andfeltit inModern He sawadanger allowing himtoexpressdifferences and feelings. atrapforhim,not of formhadbecome cleanliness and nature utilitarian strictly the that tohim clear Philip Johnson’s mother in 1931. It had become in his thinking after he designed the house for which he stated that there was a turning point and Writings ofJ.J.P. Oud,”1963,p.308-309)in essay for the Dutch “Jahrbuch 1957” (“The Work combination of all these. He wrotea retrospective about his early work, or it might have been the Oud’sfor artisticexpression, desire doubt personal of the war, thedepression German occupation, the Netherlands, theWorld ExpositioninParis,the of ShellBuilding;theinternalmovementin reasons forOud’s unexpectedshiftinhisdesign It is difficult to determine what are the exact Shell Buildingin The Hague(1938-42)(Figure5). in Amsterdam (1937-38),andstartedtodesignthe forthetownhall with strongmonumentalimpulses a design about thesametimethatOudproposed reintroduced ornament into hisarchitecture. This was designed Tiel-Utretch and (1936), Utretch in

Nakhara 137 Nakhara 138 of government-subsidized projects expanded to needed nomoreeconomicrestrictions. The scope a solidgrowthandprosperity bythe1950sand economic development,theNetherlands achieved Through the government’s regulation of a gradual Am C Al the 1950s. the post-World War II period. This continued into social consciencefromthepost-World War Iinto of of theissue to seetherenewal helpful It isalso considerations. political and byeconomic extensively made theeffort not to letarchitecturebemolded the society.within hold that architectureshould He to theplace ofthetimeinrelation the culturalvalues it canbeseenthathekeptexploring Shell Building, From juxtaposing Oud’s early socialworkwiththe the architect’s roleinmodernsociety. a science,andemotioninthearchitecturerelatesto and craft a as architecture formpresents symmetrical symbolism refers to the social status of Shell, the consistent in all of Oud’s arguments: the architectural three principlesunderlyingtheShellBuilding,thatare apprehension” (Taverne, 2001, p.414). There are substance for universal that havesomeunderlying be goodbearersoffeeling: forms psychological in itresourcesthatthroughageshaveprovedto find will you consequence a As soul. the of matter is aneffort tostrive againafterarchitectureasa architecture. Heindicatedthat, “The Shell Building Style International toward attitude his defining as in The ShellBuilding cametobeseen The Hague dining roomwalls(Stamm,1978). on the hall, andtheverticalelements dining circular traditional, such as the glass staircases, the refined theInternationalStyleinto hand, heintegrated the sidewalls,andonroofterrace.Onother of ornamental detailsabovethe main entrance,on imposing monumentalityof the façade,addition like thesymmetricalplan, language, traditional decorations, forhisarchitecture.Hereintroduced ornamentstocreateunique he transformedclassical (Taverne,technocratic discipline” 2001). Therefore, Pat Seeumpornroj h d i s l o v te dr rda a en’ n E s m (1955-1960) yck

H ome a n i d n the (1955-60) brought him international fame. Itwas fame. international him brought (1955-60) playgrounds, hischildren’s homein Amsterdam from the this thinking Continuing design. or urban taken intoaccountinarchitecture had rarelybeen of children within the social conscience. Children failure ofModerntownplanning,butalsotheneglect Van Eyck’s outthe pointed notonly playgrounds ones ofpostwarreconstruction(Figure7). ‘humanistic’ architecture against the ‘mechanistic’ therefore, committedthemselvestocreatinga Charter of urbanism. Van Eyck and the Team Ten, of that CIAM andthe favored theguidelines Athens being carriedout inthe nameof Modern architecture projects for mass-produced reconstruction postwar and theworkof the Team Ten criticized CIAM and for children (Figure into playgrounds 6). His work He turnedvacantspacesinthecity playgrounds. life’ and ‘situation-based’ designs into designing put hisideasconcerningarchitectureof‘everyday he 1947, in Bridgewater at meeting CIAM first his designing public works in Amsterdam. After attending Van careerin1946by hisprofessional Eyckbegan formed themselvesintoagroupcalled“Team Ten.” Eyck and the youngers later in the first half of 1950s International CongressofModern Architecture. Van Congrès Internationauxd’ArchitectureModerne,or became identified as one of “the youngers” of CIAM, familiar with the international avant-garde and Hochschule (ETH) inZurich. There hebecame architecture attheEidgenossische Technische Eyck, like his predecessor Berlage, had studied more humanisticdiscourseonarchitecture.Van et al.,1999) Aldo vanEyckwasproposinga shopping centers, the “humanist rebel” (Lefaivre factory buildings,commercialand and internationalization, as evident in various architecture was leaning towards modernization p.6). Whilethepost-World War IItrendofDutch any decent-sized shopping center)” (Ibelings, 1997, in (available underpants Klein Calvin the ubiquitous business-speak (headhunting,downsizing),and “to youth culture (MTV, Nike, McDonald’s), of life penetrated the Netherlands, in particular, building industry. Additonally the American way War II. As aresult,therewasrapidgrowthinthe support the Dutch economic recovery afterWorld States, inaddition,initiatedtheMarshallPlanto support projects other than housing. The United at CIAM’59congress,7-15September 1959,Otterlo,theNetherlands. in design,connectingtheclassical, modern,andvernaculartraditionsinarchitecture. The OtterloCircleswas presented the design. the design. the classical, This approachconnected complex, Van Eyckchosea“syncretist”approachfor by Van Eyck. In to organize the diverse facilities. appropriate recognized were needs These and each ageandsexhaditsownneeds because The children neededto bedivided into groups of younger childrenandfourgroups older children. of groups: fourmixedgroups into eight divided were between a few months to twenty years. The children a homeforapproximately125childrenofages the illustrates figure This design. ‘situation-based’before andafterphotosof1954Dijkstraatplayground, Amsterdam (Lefaivreetal.,1999). and life’ ‘everyday of architecture the on ideas Eyck’s van Aldo Figure 6: 3 See Risselada&Heuvel(2005,p.63) forV an Eyck’s OtterloCircles,adiagramvisualizinghis“syncretist”approach Re-reading Dutch Architecture inRelationtoSocialIssuesfromthe1940s1960s modern, and vernacular traditions in architecture, traditions vernacular and modern, in L’Architecture Vivante (1925). and VanDoesburg Eesteren’sdiagram composition canon inDe Architectura (1521),andwithVan (1942-1944), withCesareCesariano’s classical side withPietMondrian’s Victory Boogie-Woogie put thegroundplanofchildren’s homesideby of theclassicalcanonandDeStijl. Thus Van Eyck canons referred to twinphenomena the combination and proposedtheideaof“twinphenomena”. The 3

Nakhara 139 Nakhara 140 - - included: Van Eyck’s children’s the underlying ideas home Children’s Home.Retrievedfromhttps://www.researchgate.net/profile/Francis_Strauven/publication. Aldo vanEyck’s ‘humanistic’ architecture.Thisfigureillustrates thegroundfloorplanof1955-1960 Amsterdam Figure 7: Pat Seeumpornroj etc. diversity, many-few, part-whole,large-small, and .Kahn’s Community Center, Trenton. I. the primitive structure that can be related to Louis t the architectural“reciprocity”of he ideaof “other spaces,” the present utopia, and twin sets: unity- - - - nested interbetween,interweaving ofpositive- interwoven centers, the ideaof“inbetweening,” “served” spacesforhumancommunity. and back “servant”spacesforbetter functioning V “universal the ideaof“path-baseddesign,”asopposedto Hall. an Eyck also referred to Kahn’s ideato give space” ofMiesvanderRohe’s Crown construction. Netherlands. and the1970sleadingtoStructuralismin halfofthe1960s the second unitsin identical and for theuseofprimitiveforms,heavyconstruction, children’sin home a prototype became Amsterdam His environments. their and people between all, Van Eyck tried to solve theissueof alienation functionality, humanity, andenvironment. Above of activity andtobringaboutacloserrelationship nature ofwork,play,event, andindividual collective Aldo van Eyck’s ideas were an attempt to redefine the - - - The increaseinthe number of constructions, (1968-1972) B the H 4 in thecenterofcity,there the moreexpansion were generated more andnewdevelopments accommodated an increase in automobile traffic. As to thesuburbs. which werethenrelocated The city replaced old residential districts and factory buildings In thecitycenter, newcommercialbuildings the newapproachofcityplanningin the Netherlands. to that led prosperity the economic and population features weretheresultsofalargegrowthin distinguish the 1960s from other decades. These the sculpturalformsarecharacteristicsthat oftechnology, expression the scale, large and u e “dwelling.” children’s activities. on can beshiftedfromtimetodepending “time-centered” each ageandsexgroup. “ri and “performance.” negative space,andinterweavingof“competence” the ideaof r “Large” i ght-size,” customized space, individuality of individuality space, customized ght-size,” l m C di a ent n n number of construction has to do with meeting needs of expanding population as well as quantity of g everyday life,humancommunity, and H

raa i e n A r and “polycentered” that the center and “polycentered” that the center tzbe p l el B ehee d rg oo e r r r n

O a n ff d i

ce Re-reading Dutch Architecture inRelationtoSocialIssuesfromthe1940s1960s 4 the hierarchical order(Figure9). of thegridprovidedspatialequalityratherthana nor outside. inside neither were units The identical People conflated. was relationship external and grid wheretheinternal created athree-dimensional cell. Intermsoftheoverallspaceconcept,he an inside window with natural light for every working space, he created a sky-lighted atrium that provided code of the requirednaturallight for every working freely everywhere(Figure8).Duetothebuilding or interlocked interlinked, be inserted,juxtaposed, units to it, allowing repeated the universalunitand from started he thinking, Structuralist by Influenced City Hall (1967), and Centraal Beheer (1968-72). the Valkenswaard Town (1966), Hall Amsterdam stimulate mutualcontact between peopleincluding of of repeated autonomousunitsto an assemblage surroundings. Hehaddevelopedadesignseries and peoplewouldnotfeelalienatedfromtheir “dwelling” in whicheveryonewouldfeel at home idea of his and Eyck Van by influenced strongly his workfromtheendof1950swasmore theme.However,Amsterdam withitsgallery-street was Corbusian,suchashisstudenthousingin earlywork,therefore, teach there.Hertzberger’s to coming before Corbusier Le with worked had F. Marius Professor with Delft TU who Duintjer Herman Hertzberger studied architecture at project architect. to bethe Hertzberger Herman commissioned and decided tomovefrom Amsterdam to Apeldoorn Centraal Beheer, company, a largeinsurance thus for thepeopleinothersuburbs(Mellor, 1974,p.109). move outofthecityandtoincreasejobopportunities existing staffsin ordertoencourage environment to supporting the building of the very best working suburbs, to out moved that projects building office account. The governmentprovidedsubsidiesfor social issue that the Dutch government took into the workers became increase inwhite-collar large projects. As a resultof growth, the the population moresupportforsuburban subsidiesgave municipal was insuburbs(Ibelings,1995,p.110). Therefore,

Nakhara 141 Nakhara 142 balance that improved contacts amongemployees balance a at thesametimetobeprivate.Hedidachieve but people to stimulatecontactsbetween opened awareness of others. The working cellshadto be balance betweenpersonalidentity andacontrolled a achieve to tried He people. 1,000 for a house as building office the saw Hertzberger home, at To create anenvironment where everyone felt (1968-72) Beheer Centraal of (Bergeijk, 1997,p.54). perspective in section illustrates figure This spaces. conflating Hertzberger’s Herman Figure 9: Valkenswaard Town Hall (1966), Amsterdam City Hall (1967), and Centraal Beheer (1968-72) (Hertzberger, 2002, p.85). Herman Hertzberger’s universal unit in design influenced by Structuralist thinking. This figure illustrates, from left to right, Figure 8: Pat Seeumpornroj building. alienation intopracticeinthemulti-storyoffice for humanisticarchitectureandagainsthuman Centraal BeheersuccessfullyputVan Eyck’s call Hertzberger’s pots. flower with station work their putting theirownpostersonwallsanddecorating by personalize and define to started they which and gave them sense of belonging to the space, MA: MIT Press. Modern architecture and historical change. Cambridge, Colquhoun, A. (1995).Essaysinarchitectural criticism: 2(5), 48-[55]. Colquhoun, A. (1974). CentraalBeheer. Architecture Plus, (1996). The Amsterdam School. Rotterdam: 010 Publishers. 1880-1990. Rotterdam: NAi Publishers. Casciato, M. Buch, J. (1998). A century of architecture in the Netherlands, Basel: Birkhauser. Be Refe tool tosolvesocialproblems. potential ofarchitectureandtouseitasanimportant torealizethis far- sightedoftheDutchgovernment culture values in society at different times. It is how powerfullyarchitecturecanshapeanddirect Hertzberger,Herman their work,itcanbeseen and Dutch architects: J.J.P. Oud, Aldo van Eyck, and at theselectedthreeprominent addition, bylooking community willcontinuallylearnfrom them aswell.In the restofworld. The non-Dutcharchitectural Dutch architecture from discourses, distinguishing and movements rebellious developing continue will believes that the architecture in the Netherlands welfare andquality of life continued. Thus the author social for improving ofarchitecture ideas original people grow, ideaschange, groupsungroup, but the party.group similartoapolitical Situations change, discuss, exchangedtheiropinionsandformeda themselves with those whohadthe same ideasto architects. them socialist to call wrong They allied concerned with social welfare. It would not be always were which works, public and projects for thegovernmentongovernment-subsidized government. architects thusworked The rebellious democratic social the by influenced largely were to socialissuesfromthe1940s1960s The discourses of Dutch architecture in relation C onclu rgeijk, H., &Hertzberger, H., rgeijk, Hertzberger. Herman (1997). H. r ence s si on Re-reading Dutch Architecture inRelationtoSocialIssuesfromthe1940s1960s NAi Publishers. functionalist: Rotterdam: The completeworks,1890-1963. Nederlands J.J.P. (2001). Architectuurinstituut. Oud,poetic Taverne, E., Broekhuizen, D., Vletter, M., Wagenaar, C., & Building designandreception.Rotterdam:NAiUitgevers. van J. P. Oud: Ontwerpenreceptie =J. J. P. Oud’s Shell Taverne, E.,Broekhuizen,D.(1995).HetShell-gebouw monument. Rotterdam:NAiPublishers. F.Strauven, (1999). Aldo Van Eyck’s orphanage: A modern of Florida. 1978. 4-25, May Florida, Tallahassee, Press University FL: State University Florida Holland. Art Gallery, Tallahassee, from the archives of Mrs. J.M.A. Oud-Dinaux, Wassenaar, 1963: ofdrawings,plansandphotographs An exhibition Stamm, G. (1978). The architecture of J.J.P. Oud 1906- publishers. of a Utopia of the present 1953-81. Rotterdam: NAi Risselada, M., & Heuvel, D. V. (2005). Team 10:In search International, (16),42-54. = Notes on Oud: re-reading the documents. Lotus Polano, S. (1977). Note su Oud: rilettura deidocumenti & Hudson. The experience of architecture. New York, NY: Thames pioneers. Tokyo:Co. Plummer, a+uPublishing H. (2016). H. (2003). Masters of light: First volume: Twentieth-Century documentary anthology. New York, NY: Rizzoli. Plummer, J.(1993). Ockman, 1943-1968: culture Architecture A complex, Appeldorn. Architectural Design,44(2),108-117. Mellor, D. (1974). Hertzberger: the Centraal Beheer office Rotterdam: 010Publishers. inapost-warworld. Eyck, humanist rebel:Inbetweening Lefaivre, L., Eyck, A., & Tzonis, A. (1999). Aldo van the transatlanticmodel.Rotterdam:NAiUitgevers. en het transatlantische voorbeeld=Dutch architecture and Ibelings, H. (1997). Americanism: Nederlandse architectuur Netherlands. Rotterdam:NAiPublishers. Ibelings, H. (1995). 20th century architecture in the (2002). HermanHertzberger: Articulations. Munich: Prestel. architecture. Rotterdam: nai010Publishers.Hertzberger, H. Hertzberger, H. (2016 [1991]). Lessons for students in York: Cooper-HewittMuseum. New (pp. 145-160). architecture, 1915-1930 expressionist and 1925. In W. Wit (Ed.), The Amsterdam School:Dutch housing: housingpolicyintheNetherlandsbetween1850 Gaillard, K. (1983). The Amsterdam Schoolandpublic

Nakhara 143 Nakhara 144 York: Cooper-HewittMuseum. expressionist architecture, 1915-1930(pp. 29-66). New InW.delineation. (Ed.), Wit The Amsterdam School:Dutch and definition School: Amsterdam The (1983). W. Wit, design, 33,308-[309]. The workandwritingsofJ.J.P. Oud. (1963). Architectural Pat Seeumpornroj