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Home , Black sand, Ilmenite, Iron ore, Libethenite

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A R T E S SCIENT'i

A V R I TAS

A Suwiry of the Literature

Presented as a Thesis in

by

Charles D. Campbell

)*15 Qm---- i9 3 4- TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction ... O...... O.."....1.

Purpose of the Paper

Chemical Properties of Titanium

Nine ral1ogy and Petrography ...... 3.

Origin O...... O..OS...... 5. ~...... oo. 4.

Distribution

Domestic ...... 5. Foreign

NothAmerica ...... 0ee~.. .. 5..13

Central America *..."o."..."."""""""."14.

South America ... "...000...... """"... 15.

Asia *..O..O...... :...... 15.

Af'rica ...... SSSO 17.

Oceania """"""""""""".""""""S""""""..".S18.

Europe """""..""".""."""19.

and Concentration ".""""""""""""""."""""" .20.

Uses of Titaniam S...... OOOO.....22.

Bibliograpy...... SS@ ...... 25. Introduction

There has been, of late years, a growing demand for titanium in various forms for use in the paint , in making, in dyeing, pottery manufacture, and as an incandescent medium. For this reason, the problems of its occurrence in nature, its mining, and its preparation for use, have received some attention in the form of numerous articles and monographs. In this paper, I wish to give a summary of the more prominent of these writings, with spe- cial emphasis on the geologic phases of them. Titanium is generally classed with the rare elem- ents, although it is the ninth element in abundance on the lithosphere. In analyses of 800 igneous rocks, carried out in the laboratories of the Geological Survey, all but sixteen contained titanium. Because it was found in the dust of the Mt. Pelee explosion, it is assumed to be pre- sent at depth in the . From the soil, titanium makes its way into certain plants, and its traces are present in peat and some . The spectra of the sun and other stars show titanium lines. The chemical relations of titanium with other elem- ents of Group IV of the periodic table is shown below:

Group IV.

0 12.000

Si. 28.06

Ti 48.1

Go 72.60 Sr 91. - Sn 118.70

178.6

Pb 207.20

Th 232.15 2

The pure element is difficult to make. It is iso- morphous in crystal form with silicon and , and is a brittle and very hard gray metal. If heated in air over 1200 0., titanium oombines with and nitrogen to form and nitride. It burns in oxygen at 6100, and in nitrogen at 8000. In blast furnaoes, the troublesome red compound of uncertain composition, titanium oyanonitride, is formed by a reaction between Ti02 , carbon, and nitrogen.

Titanium also burns in chlorine at 350°0., and with bromine and iodine at higher temperatures, forming halides of the TiXi type. Its silicide (TiSi) and boride (TiB) are nearly as hard as . The reactions with acids are variable. Hot dilute hydrochloric or sulphuric acids yield hydrogen and trivalent salt, while titanic acid and metatitanic acid are the respective products of reaction with dilute and concentrated nitric acid. Titanium forms alloys with many , but the most valuale are with , , , , and . 3

Mineralogy and petrology.

W. K. Thornton lists fifty titanium and ten minerals which may contain titanium in varying amounts, but of these only (Tio 2), ilmenite (FeTiO 3), and titaniferous iron are commercially important. In the case of titaniferous , microscopic examination may or may not show ilmenite intergrown with mag- netite. Where such intergrowth shows, the ilmenite lies along the directions of octahedral in the magnetite. Where such is not evident, Singewald says that the ilmenite is in solid homogeneous solution with the magnetite. However, F. F. Osborne takes exception to this view, and suggests that the intergrowth is too fine to be observed. According to him, the titaniferous magnetite of the Adirondacks and was at high temperatures a homogeneous solution, but that falling of temperature caused a supersaturation of the ilmenite so that it separated out well above 5004 C. In localities where is the Inter- grown with ilmenite the former occurs as discs parallel to the basal parting of the ilmenite. The occurrence of hematite rather than magnetite is attributed to the exhaustion df FeO in forming ilmenite and the associated ortho--and metasilioates. The rarity of rutile (the pure titanium oxide) seems to show that here at least it has a strong affinity for ferrous oxide. Ilmenite is also found in pegmatites, evidently a late segregation . In and Southern , rutile and , or ilmenite and apatite occur together in dikes cutting less basic igneous . Such ultrabasic dike rocks are called "nelsonites", from Nelson County, Virginia, where they occur. Ilmenite and rutile are found in contact and reg- gional metamorphic rocks. The ilmenite of the great Travancore beach in is derived from gneisses. These minerals also occur as microscopic constituents in many igneous and meta- morphic rocks. Rutile needles occur in and the rock-

forming .

River or beach sands containing rutile, ilmenite, or titaniferous iron ore are worked in many places, notably on the India beach and on the northeast coast of Florida.

For the properties of the various minerals mentioned, reference to any text on can be made.

Origin. Black beach sands,of course, owe their presence to the mechanical disintegration of titanium and magnetite-bearing rocks. A gravity sorting by rivers and waves results in concen- tration of ilmenite, etc., along with other heavy, minerals like , , , and others. Sometimes and gold are associated. The accepted theory of origin of concentrations of titanium ore in the usual igneous rocks has long been that such 5 deposits were early magmatic segregations. These segregations may either have remained in place or may have been re-fused and

injected into the cooled residual rock. In the latter instance,

the re-fused iron-titanium ore or rutile-apatite ore would be found as dikes cutting the parent rock, or as stratiform masses

in a gneissoid . Perhaps the re-fusion is due to a concentration of mineralizers in the mass of first-formed crystals after the rei-- idual has been drawn off. The attendant release of pres- sure would have the effect of keeping them solid, but the miner- alizers oppose this tendency to an unknown degree. At any rate, there is a possibility for this origin of the segregations.

For the t itaniferous iron of New York, , and , Osborne has indicated a different origin, based on the following facts: 1. The contacts between ore and the surrounding anor-

thosite are everywhere sharp. 2. Central segregations of ore do not exist. 3. There are no marginal segregations. 4. exhibits a reversal of crystallization order in all places, according to Vogt. Pyroxene is intersti- tial in previously-formed labradorite.

Osborne claims that the ores were the last minerals to crystallize out, the order of crystallization being: plagio- clase, augite, ore. All gradations in the perfection of this separation have been observed. A pressing-out of the residual

Fe-Ti rich liquid, was probably due to earth movements, as the anorthosite shows evidence of it. The temperature of the ore 6

formation was probably 8000 to 10000 d. The presence of concordant, or sill-like, bodies of ilmenite and olivine in is not definitely explained.

The olivine may be a reaction product, but probably is a first-

formed crystal product. The reversal of the order of crystallization in a mag- ma is not an unusual exception to Rosenbusch' law that the order

is from basic to acid; i.e., iron ores first. Bowen, Teall, and Vogt, have observed it. Rogers and Tolman have concludedthat mineralizers are responsible, especially in the case of sulphides. In pegmatites, the presence of ilmenite shows conclusively that mineralizers were important.

Distribution

A. Domestic distribution: 1. . Rutile was reported in Chilton County by the state geological survey in 1874. It is associated with peg- matite dikes in a pre-Cambrian schist. 2. Arkansas. Rutile, octahedrite, and (all forms of ) occur at Cove associated with . 3. California. A black in Santa Cruz County, on the shore of Monterey Bay contains 16% of T10 2 as ilmenite, together with magnetite and martite. The richest deposits form irregular ores- cents 100 to 200 feet long and as much as 50 feet wide, ad may be 5 to 6 inches thick. These beds overlie one another, and are separated by beds of lean sand several feet thick. 7

Los Angeles County has two sources of titanium: in the San Gabriel Mts., south of Soledad Canyon, and along the Pacific beach from Redondo to Palos Verdes.

At the former locality, magnetite and ilmenite form segregations in an anorthosite (pure labradorite). The beach sands at Clifton, south of Redondo, contain a lenticular black sand body which extends 24 miles, and varies from 14 inches to 9 feet thick, with an overburden of gray and sand. The black sand contains zircon. This deposit is supposedly a delta formed by an old outlet of the Los Angeles River. Before closing down at the end of 1928, the Burdick Mineral Corporation concentrated this sand by wet tabling and dry magnetic separation into clean magnetite and ilmenite. Previous shipments of ilmenite averaged over 7,600 tone per year, with a TiO 2 content of from 15 to 52 percent. In San Bernardino County, an ore oarying about 35% rutile was reported, and could be concentrated to 90%.

4. Colorado. Three localities are known. In Boulder County, at Caribous Hill, magnetite stringers from an igneous dike contain some ilmenite. The country rock is a pre-Cambrian schist. In Fremont 0ounty, at Iron Mt., basic dikes out the schist and a gabbro, and contain close-packed grains of magnetite and ilmenite together with minerals the same as the min- erals of the gabbro. The fineness of grain prevents a magnetic separation of the ilmanite. The ore runs about 13% T 2.- At Cebolla Creek, Gunnison County, titaniferous mag- netite is found as segregations in a basic rock, as pockets in contact-metamorphic limestone, and as replacements in limestone. The deposits are of limited extent and too far from the railroad to have commercial value. 5. Florida. Several beach sands of minor importance are found, as at Amelia Island in the extreme northeast, at Venice, Santa Rosa Island, and others. But the important sand is on the east coast between the

St. Johns and North Rivers. There is a strip seventy feet wide and nine feet thick with eight feet of lower grade but workable sand. The minerals composing the sand include quartz, ilmenite, monazite, zircon, and many others including an unidentified brown mineral yielding 11 ounces of per ton of minera4.

It is separated as the lightest of a second gravity separation, after a magnetic separation. 33 There is an estimated total of ee million tons of work- able material of uniformly fine grain. The or igin of the sand is unknown, but seems to be adelta from an ancient river coming out of mountains to the north. The sand is dredged by suction, and taken to the con- centrating plant at Mineral City. Here a wet tabling makes a specific gravity separation with a concentrate containing 52%

TiO2 . Then the sand is dried, and 15-ampere Ding magnetic sep- arators isolate the ilmenite. The rest : sent back for a second tabling. 6. . Graves Mt., 40 miles northwest of Augusta, is a monadnock of hard quartzite out by a cyanite-hematite rock con- taining large perfect crystals of red or black rutile. 9

A rich black sand containing 35% TiO2 is exposed at low tide on St. Simon Island northeast of Brunswick. Sapelo Island, near Darien, has a beach Band contdning ilmenite, monatite, and zircon. There is a similar inland sand in Charlton County, three miles west of St. George. 7. , Near Annapolis is a poor ilmenite sand on the shore. S. . In Lake and Oook Counties, outcrops of titaniferous iron ore contain from three to twenty percent TiO2 . They are embedded in a dark ferromagnesian gangue rock, and form bodies generally smaller than 100 by 10 feet, although in the Rainy River region of Ontario, the same type of outcrop reaches 150 by 30 feet.

These deposits are State-owned, and leased to private companies for iron ore. A recovery of titanium is being consid- ered.

9. Missouri. An extensive ilmenite deposit is reported eight miles west of Fredericktown, on the site of the old Einstein mine.

10. Montana. The Blackfeet Indian Reservation contains an extensive magnetite bed at the top of the Horsethief sandstone of Upper Oretaceous age. It is similar to the Pacific 0oast sands, and contains up to 12% TiO 2. 11. . Minor quantities of rutile and titani- ferous iron ore are reported by T. L. Watson and fill Baughman. 12. New York. Sanford Hill contains the largest amount of titaniferous iron ore in this country,. There are seven million tons of ore ranging from 10 to 20 percent Ti0 2 . The ore is bluish 10

in color, and coarsely crystalline. It occurs in the anortho- site of Essex County, and forms a body of several hundred feet in depth and half a mile in width.

Other ores of minor extent occur in pre-Cambrian gab- bro of Essex and Franklin Oounties. 13. North Carolina. Small quantities of rutile are found in twenty counties, but only commercially in Rutherford and Cherokee Counties. Monazite sands contain rutile along some stream beds. Rutile of gem quality is found to a greater

extent in North Carolina than in all the rest of the states com- bined.

14. Oklahoma. In the Wichita Mts. 26 miles northwest of Lawton, a black sand is reported to the Bureau of Mines to carry 15% of TiO2.

15. . The weathering of early Paleozoic quartzite and limestone in the central part of Chester County

has resulted in the concentration of large well-twinned rutile crystals in the soil. These are good museum pieces, but have also been sold for use in coloring artificial teeth.

16. Rhode Island. At Cumberland, the titaniferous magnetite hill whose rocks form so clear a boulder train to the south, contains material capable of a magnetic concentration to

22% TiO2 and 54% metallic iron. Over S0 rare metal mineral species are found in Rhode Island, and indicate strong pneumat- olytic and metasomatic action.

17. South Carolina. A small amount of rutile is found in the monazite sands of Cherokee. and Newberry Counties.

18. South Dakota. Minute red crystals of rutile are 11 present in an dike near Ouster.

19. Texas. Baringer Hill is an erosion remnant of a peg- matite dike about 100 miles northwest of Austin, at the westedge of the Burnet quadrangle. In addition to being perhaps the.great- est producer of rare-earth-metal minerals of the world, excluding monazite localities, the dike contains sheafs of ilmenite blades up to 1/4 inch thick, radiating in thick clusters. The clusters often lie close together.

20. Virginia. This state is an important producer of titanium, and has two dhief localities: A. A band extending from Amherst to Nelson County, in west central Virginia, on the margin between the Piedmont and Blue Ridge Provinoes. A belt of differentiated rocks extends in a northeast direction about sixteen miles, and is not over tio and a half miles wide. The relief in this belt is low as com- pared with the surrounding regions.

The rocks are of six general types: 1. A quartz monzonite gneiss and schist which forms the country rook. 2. Syenite containing andesine, and of coarse to schistose texture. This is the most important rutile rock. Near Roseland, the American Rutile Co. is working an almost pegmatitic rock composed of a piedmontite interior with a rutile-bearing tonalite border. 3. A uralitized and schistose gabbro id found in irregular masses between the gneiss and the syenite. It contains graphite and some rutile and ilmenite. 4. Intermediate gabbro-neleonite dike rook. 12

5. Nelsonite dikes (titanium- rook) are in- cluded in the syenite or run along its border. Nelsonite is dark and even-grained, with apatite and rutile or ilmenite in varying. amounts (rutile-nelsonite, ilmenite-nelsonite). There are vert- ical and lateral gradations in one rock body between these var- ieties. Nelsonite dikes are presumably differentitates of a basic magma subjected to stress in such a way as to squeeze out the nelsonite into fissures.

6. The youngest intrusives are dikes of or . The rutile in the .syenite is the only type of deposit worked since 1909, and is present to the extent of four or five percent of the syenite. Gravity -table separation followed by Wetherill magnetic separation produces a concentrate of rutile containing 96% of T10 2 , or of ilmenite cont&ining 54% of Ti 2. B. Goochland-Hanover Counties. These deposits are lo- cated about twenty miles northwest of Richmond, on the east edge of the Piedmont province. The area is one of decayed gran-

itic gneiss cut by pegmatites and basic igneous rocks. The r1it- ile is found in the pegmatites as grains and large masses. Where weathering is deep, the rutile is found in the soil. It is brighter and redder than that found in Nelson County. 0.A quartz-rutile-ilmenite vein is found in Roanoke County about 15 miles southeast of Roanoke, where it cuts across the Pied- mont schis ts.

21. Washington. Black sands containing 11% of T 02 were worked for iron in 1920 at Sedro-Wolley.

22. Wisconsin. Rutile ocoure in a coarse pegmatite northwest of waustii, in association with rare-element minerals. 23. Wyoming. The titaniferous iron ore of Iron Mt., in east central Albany County, occurs as a dike 1 1/4 miles long by

175 feet wide in anorthosite. Content of T102 runs from 14 to 24 percent. This deposit is the second largest of the United States.

B. Foreign deposits. North America

1. Canada. (a) St. Urbain, Quebec. The locality is about 60 miles east of Quebec on the River Gouffre ten miles north of Baie St. Paul. Ilmenite and rutile occur in dike-like masses which parallel the gneissic structure of the surrounding anor- thosite. The contacts between dike and wall rock are marked by narrow bands of dark mica. Ilmenite bodies are free of rutile, and contain as much as 5 to 6 percent of gangue(andesine, , spinel). The ilmenite is in lamellar intergrowth with hematite, as etching and tests for ferrous iron show. The attitude of these masses is about vertical, and vertical inclusions of anorthosite are present. The trend is east and west, and the dimensions of the largest deposit are 300 feet by 50 feet. In the middle of the rutile-free vein is a two- inch wide rutile' which widens to the west. The mineral

sapphirine is found as an a ssooiate of the ilmnpite and anorthosite, and this is a new association and occurrence, the other localities 14

where it is found being India and Fiskernas, Greenland.

The rock is considered a-differentiate in anorthosite, and an excess of MgO and A2O 3 accounts for the sapphirine. Warrer has named this extremely ultrabasic rock "urbainite".

An English company mined a few thousand tons in the seventies, and in 1910 the General Electric shipped rutile to Schen- ectady, but no other mining has been done. (b) St. Ivry, in Terrebonne County, is 67 miles north of Montreal. Here is a quarry face of medium to coarse grained ilmen- ite associated with feldspar and in anorthosite. The con- tent of metallic titanium is 18 to 25 percent. A down-hill grade to a railroad siding two miles away makes this locality better than the St. Urbain one.

2. Newfoundland. In the western part there are large de- posits of titaniferous magnetite containing from 4 to 16 percent

T10 2. 3. Mexico. Titanium is reported in the following states: Ilmenite in Jalisco. Rutile in Baja California, Oaxaca, San Luis Potos(, and Sinaloa. in Morelos.

Central America

Guatemala. Abundant rutile and ilmenite are not being exploited. 15

South America

1. Argentina. Beach sands cont&ining ilmenite and mag- netite of low grade are found at Mar del Plata, Mar del Sur, and Miramar, and Necochea. However, extensive dune sands of low T102 content could be worked if portable concentrating plants were used in order to save excessive transportation costs to a central con- centrator. Such dunes are found along the Patagonian coast, in Uruguay, and on both, sides of the Andes. 2. . High grade ilmenite sands capable of mag- netic concentration &e found on the coasts of the states of Rio

de Janeiro, Espirito Santo, and Bahia. In Espirito Santo, the il- menite is saved as a by-product of monazite concentration, and shipments are made to Germany at 63 a ton, freight included. The harbor of Piuma is too shallow to admit ocean-going vessels, but if Victoria were used the land shipping charge could be offset by saving in loading the boats, so that a larger production could be taken care of. Plans ±or shipment of 14, 000 tons of ilmenite sands per year are under way, and 6000 tons are to go to Germany, while 8000 -tons go to the United States.

3. British Guiana. Rutile concentrates of the Berbicea district show 95% TiO2. No development is being carried on.

Asia

1. Oeylon. Rich ilmenite and rutile sands are found in the bed and flats of the We Ganga. Ilmenite is predominant to mag- netite at the deltas of the Kelani Ganga and the Maha Oya. In north- 16 eastern Ceylon, a two-million ton reserve of titaniferous magnetite

suitable for pigment purposes is reported. 2. French Indo-. The coast of Annam contains num- merous ilmenite deposits.

3. India (a) Travancore State (Madras Presidency).

Ilmenite-monazite beach sands which the

sea renews every year are the source of great quantities of ore

whose concentrates run 50% in T10 2. Travancore is the world's leading producer since its rapid advance in 1926. The sands were

once mined for monazite by the Travancore Minerals, Inc. The ilmen- ite is derived from masses in the gneisses inland. (b) Bihar and Orissa province. Massive ilmenite occurs with -quartz veins. Locally large rutile crystals are found weathered out of a kyanite dike outcrop. (c) Madras presidency. In the Ttichinopoly dis- triot there is a deposit of rutile which is probably non-commercial. (d) Mysore state. Long lenticular outcrops of magetite and hematite containing 12% T102 are associated with ultra- basic rocks intruded into the Dharwar schists. The ore is probably the result of differentiation in the basic magma. (e) Punjab province. Massive rutile was discovered

in the Narnaul district. (f) Minor quantities of rutile occur in the Raj- putana agency, and ilmenite is found in veins near Kishangarh. I1- menite sands are known in the United Provinces, in south Mirzapur.

4. . Atlthe town of Kuji, on the east coast of the

main island, beach sands conatin 5% of recoverable TiO2 - There Is an estimated minimum of two hundred million tons of ore. 17

5. Java. Titaniferousmagnetite sands of the south coast contain up to 10% of TiO2. 6. Malay Peninsula. Hard rock ilmenite ore aereported along the boundary between Johore and states, at the head of the EndaA River. The TiO2 content is 46%.

Africa

1. . This country is Africa's only producer, and ships out all it mines. This amounted to 7,126 tons of ilmenite in 1929. The ilmenite occurs in sands on the beach at Rufisgue, 15 miles across the bay from Dakar, and at Joal, 100 km. south of Dakar. The dormer locality is a 15 kilometer beach whose sands must be gathered at high tide to prevent its being washed out again. The Joal beach is 20 km. long, and the sand collects behind a low ridge paralleling the shore which keeps the ebb tide from washing it out. However, a shallow shore forbids close anchorage, and loading is made more difficult. Trained engineers run the concentrators which include shakers, and electrostatic machines. Sands are also being worked along 12 kilometers of beach at Diogue, and new equipment has increased production since 1926.

The product sold is quaranteed 50% of T10 2 , and its cost of trans- portation to the United States is taken care of by its use as bal- last in. Italian ships which ply from Dakar to Norfolk, Virginia. The return trip, is brought to Dakar. 2. French Congo. Rutile is observed by Brustier in quart- zite out by aplite and in alluvial deposits.

3. . Deposits which could be profitable with ilmenite at $17 to $20 per ton, and rutile at 15 to 18 oente a pound are found as veins and segragations in morite, and as river sands.

The latter often contain alluvial platinum. 4. Other African localities are: Gambia, the Gold Coast, Katanga, Nigeria, the Ivory Coast, Nyassaland, Southern Rhodesia,

Swaziland, the Union of , and . Madagascar has 3} million-ton deposit of ilmenite con-

taining 40% of Ti02.

Oceania.

1. Queensland. Rutile is found in the mines of Her-

berton. Also, promising deposits of beach sand are known at Flat Rock Creek. 2. South . At Olary, 25 miles northeast of Adel- laide, is , where kaolinized dikes which were probably

once pegiatite are found to contain deep red rutile crystals with ilmenite crystals. There is also a high content in the dikes. The workingsare 150 yards long, 10 to 12 feet wide, and 3

to 30 feet deep, and have a bulk average of 1 1/4 % of Ti02 . The Radium and Rare Treatment Co. is seeking-a use for the titan- ium as "dead-white" pigment. 3. . On King Island, northwest of Tasmania, are important reserves of sand containing ilmenite, oassiterite, gold, monazite, and , but the tin and titanium are the most important. Magnetic concentrates run less than 45% of T1020 4. Victoria. Forty miles from Melbourne is an ilmenite deposit assaying 46% of T102.

5. New South Wales. Rutile, cassiterite, and quarts occur together in the Tingha . Bedded titaniferous magnetite 19 of Carboniferous age occurs northwest of Port Stephens near the Williams River. The ore is a tuffaceous sandstone rich in magnetite of varying thickness. 6. . Rutile needles in the rocks at

Barjar Hill result in a content of 5.95% of T10 2 in one specimen. 7. New Zealand. Titaniferous iron sands occur on the west sides of both North and South Islands, but are looked upon as a pos- sible source of ffItn rather than titanium. 9. Tubuai Islands (French Oceania, 900 km. southwest of Tahiti). Rapa Island, 1400 km. south of Tahiti, contains ilmenite deposits.

Europe

1. Norway (a) Kragero. On the southeast coast, rutile occurs in aplite veins which followed a gabbro intrusion. It is found as grains j to 2' mm. in diameter scattered in the aplite, and as schlie- ren, chiefly in the middle of the dikes. The associate minerals are scapolite, chlorapatite, ilmenite, titanite, pyrite, and a little tourmaline. The rook has been called "Uragerite", by Brbgger. High and vanadium content lend It greater importance. The dbposit is large enough to furnish a world's supply of titanium for a long time. (b) Between Ekersund and Soggendal are some ilmenite ore bodies 1. Ladalejelterne contains 250,000 tons of ilmenite carrying 35% TiO2 - 2. Blaafjeld contains 100,000 tons of 40% Ti02. 3. Storgang contains 3,000,000 tons of 25 to 40% T102. 20

The last two furnish the ore for the Norse Titan Co. (now controlled by the National Co., an American firm). () Titaniferous magnetite deposits occur at Rodsand and on the other side of Tingvold-fjord at Meisingset, associated with intrusions of gabbro into . The ore is used for iron, as only a little over one percent of TiO2 remains in the concen- trates. 2. Portugal. The mine Monte das Borregas, in the dis- trict of Castel Branco produces tin, titanium, and . Pro- duction of ilmeni te in 1928 was over e tons, shipped by the Em- preza Minero Metalurgica, Lda. 3. Small deposits are found in Czechoslovakia, Serbia,

Sweden, and Switzerland., , , Franc, Italy, and .

Mining and Concentration

Hard rock ore, such as that found in Virginia, is mined by open cut methods, and the blasted rock roughly sorted on the quarry floor before being sent to the concentrators. Underground methods have generally been found not to pay. Beach and dune sands are very easily shoveled up with steam shovels, and require no milling. At Redondo, it so happens that the ilmenite and magnetite are chiefly concentrated as fine sand, so that screening with 30-mesh seives is the first process of concentration. The coarser sand is dumped into the ocean which is nearby. 21

Usually a gravity separation is the first concentrating process, and is applied directly to beach sands, or to the ground up hard ore. Deister tables are usually used for this process. Following the gravity separation, the ilmenite and mag- netite are dried and put through magnetic separators. The Dings magnetic separator is the more expensive but more thorough process, as the moving sand layer passes through two fields. If another magnetic wheel is added to the Dings system, four fields insure a thorough separation.

Wetherill separators are used in Virginia. In this pro- cess, stationary magnets pick magnetite off a moving belt, and the magnetite is conveyed off by another belt. In the Dings machines, rotating wheels with segmented magnetic rims pick the magnetite (or more weakly magnetic material if desired) off a shaking incline, and deposit it at the side, out of the magnetic field. Unfortunately, ilmenite and magnetite are so intimately intergrown at times that expensive fine grinding is necessary to insure their reasonably complete separation. Some ores with a oon siderable titanium content must therefore be abandoned except maybe for titanium-iron purposes. Powerful electrostatic machines are used to separate other minerals in beach sands. Rutile is separated from zircon in this . By varying the intensities of magnetic fields, a quite complete separation of various minerals can be effected. Pure titanium oxide is produced by crushed il- menite ore with coal and ground to the same fineness as the ore. In the rotary kiln, at from 9900 to 10500 0., the sponge iron and TiO2 separate completely from the rest, and are picked out by electromagnets. The iron is dissolved with stlphuric acid, 22 and can be recovered from the ferrous sulphate solution by electrol- ysis.

Separation from iron is also effectedby treatment with chlorine and a reducing agent such as 0 or 0. The ferrous chloride produced is led off, and pure titanium dioxide remains.

Uses of Titanium.

Titanium is used in alloys with iron, copper, manganese,

cobalt, and nickel, and as opaque white paint instead of white lead. Also used as a remover of dyes (in the form of the chloride or sulphate), a mordant (as titanium and potassium oxalate), a

yellow glaze for pottery and artificial teeth, in arc electrodes and filaments.

Alloys.

The commercially useful alloys are f erro-titanium, ferr&. oavoarbontitanium, cuprotitanium, and manganotitanium. The first two are used as -final cleansers in manu- facture (ferromanganese and spiegeleiaen are used in the ladle), because of their affinity for nitrogen and oxygen which cause blow- holes. Only from one to thirteen pounds of alloy per ton of steel is used, and practically no titanium appears in the finished product. In sheet steel, the use of these alloys improves the surface and reduces pin-holes in the coating. They are used as scavengers for

impurities in cast iron and high-grade structural . Ferrocarbontitanium is made in an electric furnace having a central electrode and the graphite hearth and lower wall as the 23

0 other. iron, titanium ore, and coke are heated to 350 F., and the ailloy tapped from the bottom in runs of 600 to 1000 pounds. Ferrotitanium (carbon-free) is produced by burning powdered ilmenite and aluminum, dust in the presence of a rapid oxidizer ( peroxide). The alloy contains 5% aluminum, and costs 9d. per pound. Cuprotitanium (10% Ti) and manganotitanium (30% Ti) are

made by the Metal and Thermit Corporation, and are us ed as deox- idizers of brass and bronze castings.

"Konel" is an alloy of ferrotitanium, cobalt, and nickel, and is tough at high temperatures. In radio tube filaments, it

operates at 175 0 colder than platinum filaments, and is less expen- sive.

Pigments. Since the first use of titanium ores as natural pigments,

the value of Ti0 2 in paints and lacquers has been recognized, and

the lead industry is being severely handicapped by its use. The

National Lead Company of this country acquired controlling inter- est of the Norse Titan Co. in 1929. The Titanium Pigment Co. (affiliated with the Titanium Alloy Co.) organized in 1916, and the Commercial Pigments Co. in 192.

The properties of T10 2 which make it so desirable are: 1. It is chemidally inert. 2. It is opaque in thin coats. 3. Its subdivision can be controlled. 4. Its paints do not crack. 5. It is resistant to the acids of city air, and tb salt water and sea air. 6. It has a greater hiding power, weight for weight, than white lead, oxide, or lithopone. 7. It is of lower specific gravity than white lead. g. It has a high tinting strength. 9. It is non-toxic, even when swallowed.

10. It withstands high temperatures'

"Titanox" is 25% TiO2 and 75% BaS04 , and has twice the hiding power of White lead.

8 Titanium-calcium pigment is 30% T10 2 and 70% C 04.

Lithopone-titanium is 15% T10 2 and g5% lithopone. Color pigments added to a T102 base give light-fast non- peeling coats which resist the action of sulphuric and hydrosulphuric acids. 25

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