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The Ancient Sailing Season Mnemosyne Supplements History and Archaeology of Classical Antiquity Edited by Susan E. Alcock, Brown University Thomas Harrison, Liverpool Willem M. Jongman, Groningen VOLUME 351 The titles published in this series are listed at brill.com/mns-haca The Ancient Sailing Season By James Beresford LEIDEN • BOSTON 2013 Cover illustration: ‘The Home Run’, by Daniel Beresford, with background chart generated by the National Geophysical Center (NGDC). Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Beresford, James, 1972- The ancient sailing season / by James Beresford. p. cm. – (Mnemosyne, supplements ; 351) (History and archaeology of classical antiquity) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-90-04-22352-3 (hbk. : alk. paper) – ISBN 978-90-04-24194-7 (e-book : alk. paper) 1. Navigation–History–To 1500. 2. Sailing–History–To 1500. 3. Naval history, Ancient. I. Title. VK16.B47 2013 387.2'10938–dc23 2012037608 This publication has been typeset in the multilingual “Brill” typeface. With over 5,100 characters covering Latin, IPA, Greek, and Cyrillic, this typeface is especially suitable for use in the humanities. For more information, please see www.brill.com/brill-typeface. ISSN 0169-8958 ISBN 978-90-04-22352-3 (hardback) ISBN 978-90-04-24194-7 (e-book) Copyright 2013 by Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands. Koninklijke Brill NV incorporates the imprints Brill, Global Oriental, Hotei Publishing, IDC Publishers and Martinus Nijhof Publishers. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, translated, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission from the publisher. Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use is granted by Koninklijke Brill NV provided that the appropriate fees are paid directly to The Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Suite 910, Danvers, MA 01923, USA. Fees are subject to change. This book is printed on acid-free paper. He that will not sail till all dangers are over must never put to sea. Traditional English Proverb. To my parents, for their constant support CONTENTS Acknowledgements . ix List of Journal Abbreviations . xi List of Illustrations . xiii Introduction . 1 1 The Textual Evidence . 9 2 The Mediterranean Climatic Regime . 53 3 Ships and Sails . 107 4 Navigation . 173 5 The Sailing Season of the Indian Ocean. 213 6 Ancient Pirates and Fishermen . 237 Conclusion . 265 Bibliography . 277 Illustration Section . 297 Index ................................................................... 351 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This book, and the doctoral thesis that provides the framework on which it is based, would not have been possible without the assistance and fre- quent advice of a great many people. I am particularly indebted to the help initially provided by Nicholas Purcell and Amanda Claridge, both of whom acted as academic supervisors following the premature death of John Lloyd, whose lectures and tutorials prepared the ground onto which were sowed the seeds of this study. It is, however, to Andrew Wilson that I express the warmest thanks for contributing immeasurably to every chapter of the orig- inal dissertation on which this book is closely based, providing an array of literary, historical and archaeological material that opened up new avenues of research and brought added depth to my initial arguments. Without his patience and unstinting assistance, the research and writing would never have reached completion. I also owe a debt of thanks to all those who played their part in assisting with a variety of aspects of the research: Bob Cowan, Anthi Papagiannaki, Lina Christopoulou, David Gwynne, Paul Parish, Matthew McDonnell, Suj Sivadsan, Bill Carver, Jon Ball, James Southern and Robin Owen. My friends on the editorial staf of Minerva also contributed enormously over recent years. Special mention must go to Elinda Labropoulou who provided new insights into the culture and history of Greece, and proved a wonderful com- panion with whom to explore the fascinating archaeology of her beautiful country. The research for this book would not have been possible without a grant from the Arts and Humanities Research Board, as well as travel bursaries generously provided by Keble College, Oxford. LIST OF JOURNAL ABBREVIATIONS AHR American Historical Review AJA American Journal of Archaeology AJAH American Journal of Ancient History Am. Meteorol. Soc. American Meteorology Society Am. Neptune American Neptune Anal. Chem. Analytical Chemistry Bibl. Arch. Biblical Archaeologist CQ Classical Quarterly DOP Dumbarton Oaks Papers ExT Expository Times G&R Greece and Rome Geogr. J. Geographical Journal GRBS Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies HTR Harvard Theological Review IJNA International Journal of Nautical Archaeology IM Imago Mundi. Journal for the History of Cartography Isr. J. Earth Sci. Israel Journal of Earth Sciences JAOS Journal of the American Oriental Society JAS Journal of Archaeological Science JHS Journal of Hellenic Studies JMA Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology J. Navig. Journal of Navigation JRA Journal of Roman Archaeology JRS Journal of Roman Studies J. Sav Journal des Savants JTS Journal of Theological Studies JWH Journal of World History Lib. Stud. Libyan Studies MHR Mediterranean Historical Review MM Mariner’s Mirror Nat. Geog. National Geographic OJA Oxford Journal of Archaeology REA Revue des études anciennes REL Revue des études latines TAPA Transactions of the American Philological Association LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 1.1. Olive oil shipments to Carthage in ad373...................... 299 2.1a. Mediterranean pressure systems: July . 300 2.1b. Mediterranean pressure systems: January . 300 2.2. Depression systems in the Mediterranean . 301 2.3a. Wind roses for the Mediterranean: April . 302 2.3b. Wind roses for the Mediterranean: July . 302 2.3c. Wind roses for the Mediterranean: October . 303 2.3d. Wind roses for the Mediterranean: January . 303 2.4. Regional winds in the Mediterranean . 304 2.5a. Strong and gale force winds across the Mediterranean: winter.......................................................... 305 2.5b. Strong and gale force winds across the Mediterranean: summer ........................................................ 306 2.6a. Strong and gale force winds across the North Sea and north-east Atlantic: January . 307 2.6b. Strong and gale force winds across the North Sea and north-east Atlantic: July . 308 2.7a. Wind roses for the Aegean: April . 309 2.7b. Wind roses for the Aegean: July . 310 2.7c. Wind roses for the Aegean: October. 311 2.7d. Wind roses for the Aegean: January . 312 2.8a. Sea currents in the Aegean: spring . 313 2.8b. Sea currents in the Aegean: summer . 314 2.8c. Sea currents in the Aegean: autumn . 315 2.8d. Sea currents in the Aegean: winter . 316 2.9a. Sea currents in the eastern basin of the Mediterranean: summer ........................................................ 317 2.9b. Sea currents in the eastern basin of the Mediterranean: winter.......................................................... 317 2.10. The Beaufort scale . 318 2.11a. Waves of 8 feet or greater, expected with a frequency of 3% or greater over at least 2 quarters of the year . 319 2.11b. Waves of 8 feet or greater, expected with a frequency of 7% or greater over at least 2 quarters of the year . 319 xiv list of illustrations 2.11c. Waves of 12 feet or greater, expected with a frequency of 3% or greater over at least 2 quarters of the year . 320 2.11d. Waves of 14 feet or greater, expected with a frequency of 3% or greater over at least 2 quarters of the year . 320 2.12. Number of hours of daylight: sunrise to sunset. 321 2.13. Number of hours of daylight: dawn to dusk . 322 2.14. Variation in the number of hours of daylight from mid-summer to mid-winter . 323 2.15a. Sea currents in the Mediterranean: January . 324 2.15b. Sea currents in the Mediterranean: July . 324 3.1. Skeleton- rst vessel under construction . 325 3.2. Shell- rst ship construction process . 326 3.3. Shell- rst ship construction process . 327 3.4. Diagram of the shell- rst construction process . 327 3.5. Wreck of the Kyrenia merchantman . 328 3.6. Transition of the shell- rst ship construction process throughout antiquity . 328 3.7. Sailing replica of the Kyrenia wreck . 329 3.8. Roman war-galleys on Trajan’s Column . 330 3.9. The replicated trireme Olympias ............................... 330 3.10. Roman square-sailed merchantman . 331 3.11. Sailors going aloft in a vessel entering port. 332 3.12. Modern lateen-rigged shing vessel . 333 3.13. The di culty of ‘wearing-round’ a lateen-rigged vessel . 334 3.14. Ancient lateen-rigged vessel . 335 3.15. Sailor working on an ancient sprit-rigged vessel . 336 3.16. Sailors operating sprit-rigged Roman vessel as it enters port . 337 3.17. Thames barge carrying a sprit rig . 338 3.18. Pindle-and-gudgeon stern rudder . 339 3.19. Original pindle-and-gudgeon rudder. 340 4.1. Tower of the Winds, Roman Forum, Athens . 341 4.2. Intervisibility in the Mediterranean . 341 4.3. Lead sounding weights with cavities in the base . 342 5.1. Ancient shipping routes across the Arabian Sea . 343 5.2. Wind roses of the northern Indian Ocean during January . 344 5.3a. Wind-speeds and directions across the Arabian Sea: December . 345 5.3b. Wind-speeds and directions across the Arabian Sea: January . 345 5.4a. Wind-speeds and directions across the Arabian Sea: July . 346 5.4b. Wind-speeds and directions across the Arabian Sea: August . 346 list of illustrations xv 5.4c. Wind-speeds and directions across the Arabian Sea: September. 347 5.4d. Wind-speeds and directions across the Arabian Sea: October 347 5.5. Typical end dates of the south-west monsoon . 348 5.6a. Strong and gale force winds across the Arabian Sea: July. 349 5.6b. Strong and gale force winds across the Arabian Sea: August . 349 5.7. Limited visibility on the Arabian Sea during August .
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